20-03-2015

Velocity Measurement

a) Pitot Tube

b) Pitot static Tube

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Streamlines for flow past a Pitot tube

Nose & Stem Effects

x/d

-2

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Comparison of the performance of the cylindrical and wedgeshaped probe

Variation of total pressure (indicated) with angle of attack and size of

the hole

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Variation of total pressure indicated with angle of attack and

geometry of Pitot tube

Coefficients

2, 4

K c1
K c3

5-hole spherical probe

P PS
P PS
P PS
= 1
, K c5 = m
= 0
1 V 2
1 V 2
1 V 2
2
2
2
P3 PS
P2 PS
=
, K c2 = K c4 =
1 V 2
1 V 2
2
2
K c1 K c 3
P1 P3
=
=
K c5 K c2
Pm P2

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5-hole hemispherical probe

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Non-nulling calibration of 5 hole probe

Calibration is done for both yaw and pitch

angles. (-30 to + 30 )
For each yaw angle, pitch angle is varied
At each position all five pressures are
recorded.
1, 3: pitch hole positions
2,4: yaw hole positions

P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
, D = Pm Pav
4
P P
P P4
C p , pitch = 1 3 , C p , yaw = 2
D
D
P P
P Pstatic , actual
C p ,total = m total , actual , C p , static = av
D
D
Pav =

P0=Ptotal,actual , and,
PS=Pstatic,actual

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p , pitch =

P1 P3
,
D

p , yaw =

P2 P4
D

p ,total =

Pm Ptotal , actual
D

Cp,total

Pitch angle

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p , static =

Pav Pstatic , actual

D

Cp,static

Pitch angle

Steps to evaluate velocity

A polynomial curve-fit is carried out for Cp,yaw vs Cp,pitch For each
value of pitch angle.
During experimental run, Cp,yaw is calculated from the measured
data and corresponding Cp,pitch is obtained, yielding the Cp,pitch vs
pitch angle variation.
Another polynomial was fitted for this data.
From the known pitch-Cp,pitch, pitch angle can be now
determined.
Then, with the knowledge of Cp,yaw, Cp,pitch and pitch angle, yaw
angle can be obtained.
Then for given pitch and yaw angles, Cp,static and Cp,total are
obtained.

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P0 = Pm C p ,total ( Pm Pav )
PS = Pav C p , static ( Pm Pav )

V=

2 ( P0 PS )

Hot Wire Anemometer and Laser

Doppler Anemometer

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Spatial and temporal resolution in

measurement
b) Decaying, traveling wave

a) Propagating wave
Uc

Envelop ~ exp(-t/)

Probe

Requirements
Probe size << /2

Requirements

Response time << /Uc

Probe size << /2

Response time << Min{ /Uc, )

Ideal instrument requirements

Have high frequency response to accurately follow
transients
Thermal anemometers: several hundred kilohertz (kHz)
Laser velocimeters: upto 30kHz measured (higher frequencies
feasible)

Be small in size for essentially point measurement

Thermal anemometers: around 5 m dia X 2 mm long
Laser velocimeters: measuring volume around 50 m X 0.25 mm

Measure a wide velocity range

Both techniques measures a wide range. Laser velocimetry is free from errors
due to natural convection at low velocity

Measure only velocity, and work in a wide range of

temperature, density and concentration
Thermal anemometers: measure heat transfer. Max. temperature limited by
burnout temperature of sensor

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Ideal instrument requirements

Laser velocimeters: measures only velocities of scattering
centres (particles). Limited to flow which allow light to pass
through.

Measure velocity components and detects flow reversal

Thermal anemometers: can resolve all three components (three sensors) but
cannot detect flow reversal
Laser velocimeters: resolve components and detects flow reversals (with
frequency shifter)

Create minimal flow disturbance

Laser velocimetery is non-intrusive technique

Be less expensive and easy to use

Thermal anemometers: comparatively less expensive. But, fragile sensors,
gets dirty and calibration shifts easily
Laser velocimeters: More expensive, easy to use once set up.

Thermal Anemometry: Principles of operation

Consider a thin wire mounted to supports and exposed to a velocity U.
When a current is passed through wire, heat is generated (I2Rw). In
equilibrium, this must be balanced by heat loss (primarily convective) to the
surroundings.

If velocity changes,
convective heat
transfer coefficient
will change, wire
temperature will
change and
eventually reach a
new equilibrium.

Current I

Sensor dimensions:
length ~1 mm
diameter ~5 micrometer

Wire supports
(St.St. needles)

Velocity U
Sensor (thin wire)

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Heat transfer from fine wires

dE
=W H
dt

Governing Equation:

E = thermal energy stored in wire

W = power generated by Joule heating
W = I2 Rw

Rw = R [1 + (Tw T ) ]
T is reference temperature.

H = heat transferred to surroundings

Heat transfer from fine wires

Heat transferred to surroundings

H
Convection

( convection to fluid
= + conduction to supports
+ radiation to surroundings)
Qc = hA (Tw Ta )
Nu =

hd
= f ( Re,Pr, M , Gr , )
kf

Re =

Vd

Conduction

f(Tw , lw , kw, Tsupports)

Radiation

f(Tw4 - Tf4)

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Equilibrium condition
For equilibrium conditions the heat storage is zero:

dE
= O W = H
dt
Assumptions
-Radiation losses small
-Conduction to wire supports small

-Tw uniform over length of sensor

-Velocity impinges normally on wire and is uniform over its entire length, and
also small compared to sonic speed.
-Fluid temperature and density constant
Effect of conduction in the support, losses due to radiation and natural convection
can be taken care of in calibration

Equilibrium condition
For steady state operation:
W =H
h
A
d
kf
Nu

=
=
=
=
=

I2Rw = hA(Tw -T )

I2Rw = (Nukf/d)A(Tw -T)

film coefficient of heat transfer

heat transfer area=dL
wire diameter
heat conductivity of fluid
dimensionless heat transfer coefficient

Forced convection regime, i.e. Re >Gr1/3 (0.02 in air) and Re<140

Nu = A1 + B1 Ren = A2+ B2 Un
I2Rw = (Tw -T )(A + B Un)

Tw Ta =

Rw R
R

Kings law

I 2 Rw R
A + B U =
Rw R
n

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Important considerations for the probe

Probe dimensions << eddy size for good spatial resolution

Aspect ratio (l/d) should be high (to minimize effects of end losses)
Wire should resist oxidation until high temperatures
Temperature coefficient of resistance should be high (for high sensitivity,
signal to noise ratio and frequency response)

Wires should be such that less than 5 m diameter can be drawn with high
reliability
For optimal frequency response, the probe should have as small a thermal
inertia as possible.

Selection of sensor length and diameter

(conflicting criteria)
Length (L)
More length: minimize conduction to support, support interference
and assure uniform temperature distribution
Less length: maximize spatial resolution and minimize aerodynamic
stresses
Diameter (d)
Large diameter: good strength and reduce contamination effects
Less diameter: maximize spatial resolution, better time response (lower
thermal inertia)

Typical values as used

in research
d2.5-5 m and
L/d 100-600

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Materials for hot wire sensors

Tungsten
High temperature coefficient of resistance and high strength and also
available in small diameter (~ 2.5 m)
Oxidize easily at temperature > 300OC

Platinum
available in small diameter (0.5 m), has high temperature coefficient of
resistance and does not oxidize
Low mechanical strength at high temperature (aerodynamic drag causes
failure at high temperature)

Platinum-Iridium
does not oxidize and has better strength than platinum. But temperature
coefficient of resistance is lower.
Used when wire temperature is too high for tungsten and where platinum
is too weak

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Modes of anemometer operation

Constant Current (CCA)

Constant Temperature (CTA)

Principle:

Principle:

Current through sensor is kept

constant
Advantages:
-High frequency response
Disadvantages:
-Output decreases with velocity
-Risk of probe burnout

Sensor resistance is kept constant

by servo amplifier
Advantages:
-High frequency response
-Quick dynamic response
-Accepted standard
Disadvantages:
-More complex circuit

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