Classifications of Pumps

Selecting between Centrifugal Pumps and Positive Displacement Pumps

Pumps are in general classified as Centrifugal Pumps or Positive Displacement Pumps.

Centrifugal Pumps

The centrifugal pump produce a head and a flow by increasing the velocity of the liquid through the machine with the
help of a rotating vane impeller.

The centrifugal pump can be classified as:

• End suction pump

• In-line pump
• Double suction pump
• Vertical multistage pump
• Horizontal multistage pump
• Submersible pumps
• Self-priming pumps
• Axial-flow pumps
• Regenerative pumps

Positive Displacement Pumps

The positive displacement pump operates by alternating of filling a cavity and then displacing a given volume of liquid.
The positive displacement pump delivers a constant volume of liquid against varying discharge pressure or head.

The positive displacement pump can be classified as:

• Reciprocating pumps
• Power pumps
• Steam pumps
• Rotary pumps

Selecting between Centrifugal or Positive Displacement Pumps

Selecting between a Centrifugal Pump or a Positive Displacement Pump is not always straight forward.

Flow Rate and Pressure Head

The two types of pumps behave very differently regarding pressure head and flow rate:

• The Centrifugal Pump has varying flow depending on the system pressure or head
• The Positive Displacement Pump has more or less a constant flow regardless of the system pressure or head.
Positive Displacement pumps generally gives more pressure than Centrifugal Pump's.

Capacity and Viscosity

Another major difference between the pump types is the effect of viscosity on the capacity:

• In the Centrifugal Pump the flow is reduced when the viscosity is increased
• In the Positive Displacement Pump the flow is increased when viscosity is increased
Liquids with high viscosity fills the clearances of a Positive Displacement Pump causing a higher volumetric efficiency
and a Positive Displacement Pump is better suited for high viscosity applications. A Centrifugal Pump becomes very
inefficient at even modest viscosity.

Mechanical Efficiency

The pumps behaves different considering mechanical efficiency as well.

• Changing the system pressure or head has little or no effect on the flow rate in the Positive Displacement Pump
• Changing the system pressure or head has a dramatic effect on the flow rate in the Centrifugal Pump

Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH

Another consideration is the Net Positive Suction Head NPSH.

• In a Centrifugal Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by pressure

• In a Positive Displacement Pump, NPSH varies as a function of flow determined by speed. Reducing the speed
of the Positive Displacement Pump pump, reduces the NPSH

Centrifugal Pumps

An introduction tutorial to Centrifugal Pumps.

A centrifugal pump converts the input power to kinetic energy in the liquid by accelerating the liquid by a revolving
device - an impeller.

The energy created by the pump is kinetic energy according the Bernoulli Equation. The energy transferred to the
liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger
the impeller is, the higher will the velocity of the liquid energy transferred to the liquid be. This is described by the
Affinity Laws.

Pressure and Head

If the discharge of a centrifugal pump is pointed straight up into the air the fluid will pumped to a certain height - or
head - called the shut off head. This maximum head is mainly determined by the outside diameter of the pump's
impeller and the speed of the rotating shaft. The head will change as the capacity of the pump is altered.

The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is obstructed by creating a resistance in the flow. The first
resistance is created by the pump casing which catches the liquid and slows it down. When the liquid slows down the
kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy.

• It is the resistance to the pump's flow that is read on a pressure gauge attached to the discharge line.

A pump does not create pressure, it only creates flow. Pressure is a measurement of the resistance to flow.

In Newtonian fluids (non-viscous liquids like water or gasoline) the term head is used to measure the kinetic energy
which a pump creates. Head is a measurement of the height of the liquid column the pump creates from the kinetic
energy the pump gives to the liquid.

• The main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's energy is that the pressure
from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of the liquid changes, but the head will not.

The pump's performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the term head.

Different Types of Pump Head

 • Total Static Head - Total head when the pump is not running
• Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) - Total head when the pump is running
• Static Suction Head - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is higher than the pump impeller
• Static Suction Lift - Head on the suction side, with pump off, if the head is lower than the pump impeller
• Static Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with the pump off
• Dynamic Suction Head/Lift - Head on suction side of pump with pump on
• Dynamic Discharge Head - Head on discharge side of pump with pump on

The head is measured in either feet or meters and can be converted to common units for pressure as psi or bar.

• It is important to understand that the pump will pump all fluids to the same height if the shaft is turning at the
same rpm.

The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes to get the shaft to the proper rpm. The higher the
specific gravity of the fluid the more power is required.

• Centrifugal Pumps are "constant head machines".

Note that the latter is not a constant pressure machine, since pressure is a function of head and density. The head is
constant, even if the density (and therefore pressure) changes.

The head of a pump in metric units can be expressed as:

h = (p2 - p1) / (ρ g) + v22 / (2 g) (1)

where

h = total head developed ( m) (metric units)

p2 = pressure at outlet (N/m2)
p1 = pressure at inlet (N/m2)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81) m/s2)
v2 = velocity at outlet (m/s)

Described in simple terms:

• a pump's vertical discharge "pressure-head" is the vertical lift in height - usually measured in feet or m of water
- at which a pump can no longer exert enough pressure to move water. At this point, the pump may be said to
have reached its "shut-off" head pressure. In the flow curve chart for a pump the "shut-off head" is the point on
the graph where the flow rate is zero.

Positive Displacement Pumps

An introduction tutorial to the basic operating principles of positive displacement pumps

The Positive Displacement Pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge
side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as
the cavity collapses.

This principle applies to all types of positive displacement pumps whether the pump is a

• rotary lobe
• progressing cavity
• rotary gear
 • piston
• diaphragm
• screw
• etc.

A Positive Displacement Pump, unlike a Centrifugal Pump, will produce the same flow at a given speed, RPM, no
matter the discharge pressure.

• Positive Displacement Pumps are "constant flow machines".

A Positive Displacement Pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump because
it has no shut-off head like Centrifugal Pumps. A Positive Displacement Pump operating against a closed discharge
valve, will continue to produce flow until the pressure in the discharge line are increased until the line bursts or the
pump is severely damaged - or both.

A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the Positive Displacement Pump is therefore absolute necessary. The
relief valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer has normally the option to supply internal relief or
safety valves. The internal valve should in general only be used as a safety precaution, an external relief valve installed
in the discharge line with a return line back to the suction line or supply tank is recommended.

Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids

Static pressure and pressure head in fluids

The pressure indicates the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a given plane. Since there is no shearing
stresses present in a fluid at rest - the pressure in a fluid is independent of direction.

For fluids - liquids or gases - at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical direction depends only on the specific weight
of the fluid.

How pressure chages with elevation can be expressed as:

dp = - γ dz (1)

where

dp = change in pressure

dz = change in height

γ = specific weight

The pressure gradient in vertical direction is negative - the pressure decrease upwards.

Specific Weight

Specific Weight can be expressed as:

γ=ρg (2)

where

γ = specific weight
 g = acceleration of gravity

In general the specific weight - γ - is constant for fluids. For gases the specific weight - γ - varies with the elevation.

Static Pressure in a Fluid

For a incompressible fluid - as a liquid - the pressure difference between two elevations can be expressed as:

p2 - p1 = - γ (z2 - z1) (3)

where

p2 = pressure at level 2

p1 = pressure at level 1

z2 = level 2

z1 = level 1

(3) can be transformed to:

p1 - p2 = γ (z2 - z1) (4)

or

p1 - p2 = γ h (5)

where

h = z2 - z1 difference in elevation - the dept down from location z2.

or

p1 = γ h + p2 (6)

The Pressure Head

(6) can be transformed to:

h = (p2 - p1) / γ (6)

h express the pressure head - the height of a column of fluid of specific weight - γ - required to give a pressure
difference of (p2 - p1).

Example - Pressure Head

A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to

5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 62.4 (lb/ft3) = 11.6 ft of water

5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 847 (lb/ft3) = 0.85 ft of mercury

when specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).
Heads at different velocities can be taken from the table below:

Velocity Head Water

(ft/sec) (ft)
0.5 0.004
1.0 0.016
1.5 0035
2.0 0.062
2.5 0.097
3.0 0.140
3.5 0.190
4.0 0.248
4.5 0.314
5.0 0.389
5.5 0.470
6.0 0.560
6.5 0.657
7.0 0.762
7.5 0.875
8.0 0.995
8.5 1.123
9.0 1.259
9.5 1.403
10.0 1.555
11.0 1.881
12.0 2.239
13.0 2.627
14.0 3.047
15.0 3.498
16.0 3.980
17.0 4.493
18.0 5.037
19.0 5.613
20.0 6.219
21.0 6.856
22.0 7.525

• 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd

NPSH - Net Positive Suction Head

A definition and an introduction to Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH

Low pressure at the suction side of a pump can encounter the fluid to start boiling with
 • reduced efficiency
• cavitation
• damage

of the pump as a result. Boiling starts when the pressure in the liquid is reduced to the vapor pressure of the fluid at the
actual temperature.

To characterize the potential for boiling and cavitation, the difference between the total head on the suction side of the
pump - close to the impeller, and the liquid vapor pressure at the actual temperature may be used.

Suction Head

Based on the Energy Equation - the suction head in the fluid close to the impeller can be expressed as the sum of the
static and the velocity head:

hs = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g (1)

where

hs = suction head close to the impeller

ps = static pressure in the fluid close to the impeller

γ = specific weight of the fluid

vs = velocity of fluid

g = acceleration of gravity

Liquids Vapor Head

The liquids vapor head at the actual temperature can be expressed as:

hv = pv / γ (2)

where

hv = vapor head

pv = vapor pressure

Note! The vapor pressure in a fluid depends on temperature. Water, our most common fluid, starts boiling at 20 oC if
the absolute pressure in the fluid is 2,3 kN/m2. For a temperature of 80 oC the boiling starts at absolute pressure 47,5
N/m2, and of course at 101.3 kN/m2 (normal atmosphere) boiling starts at 100 oC.

Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH

The Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH - can be expressed as the difference between the Suction Head and the Liquids
Vapor Head:

NPSH = hs - hv (3)

or
 NPSH = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g - pv / γ (3b)

Required NPSH - NPSHr

The required NPSH - NPSHr - is the NPSH that must be exceeded to avoid vaporization and cavitation in the impellers
eye. The NPSHr is always higher than the theoretical NPSH due to head loss in the suction pipe and the pump casing,
and local velocity acceleration and pressure decrease on the impeller surface.

NPSHr is in general determined experimentally by the pump manufacturer and a part of the pump performance curves
documentation.

The required NPSHr increases with the square of increased capacity.

Available NPSH - NPSHa

The available NPSH - HPSHa - is the NPSH available for a particular system and must be determined during design and
construction of the system, or determined experimentally on the actual physical system.

The available NPSHa can be calculated with the Energy Equation. For a common application - where the pump lifts a
fluid from an open tank at one level to an other, the energy or head at the surface of the tank is the same as the energy
or head before the pump impeller and can be expressed as:

h0 = hs + hl (4)

where

h0 = head at surface

hs = head before the impeller

hl = head loss from the surface to impeller - major and minor loss in the suction pipe

In an open tank the head at surface can be expressed as:

h0 = p0 / γ = patm / γ (4b)

For a closed pressurized tank the absolute static pressure inside the tank must be used.

The head before the impeller can be expressed as:

 hs = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g + he (4c)

where

he = elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the pump is below
the tank

Transforming (4) with (4b) and (4c):

patm / γ = ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g + he + hl (4d)

The head available before the impeller can be expressed as:

ps / γ + vs2 / 2 g = patm / γ - he - hl (4e)

or as the available NPSHa:

NPSHa = patm / γ - he - hl - pv / γ (4f)

Available NPSHa - the Pump is above the Tank

If the pump is positioned above the tank, the elevation - he - is positive and the NPSHa decreases when the elevation of
the pump increases.

At some level the NPSHa will be reduced to zero and the fluid starts to evaporate.

Available NPSHa - the Pump is below the Tank

If the pump is positioned below the tank, the elevation - he - is negative and the NPSHa increases when the elevation of
the pump decreases (lowering the pump).

It's always possible to increase the NPSHa by lowering the pump (as long as the major and minor head loss due to a
longer pipe don't increase it more). This is important and it is common to lower the pump when pumping fluids close to
evaporation temperature.

Example - Pumping Water from an Open Tank

When increasing the the elevation for a pump located above a tank, the fluid will start to evaporate at a maximum level
for the actual temperature.

At the maximum elevation NPSHa is zero. The maximum elevation can therefore be expressed by (4f):

NPSHa = patm / γ - he - hl - pv / γ = 0

For optimal theoretical conditions we neglect the major and minor head loss. The elevation head can then be expressed
as:

he = patm / γ - pv / γ (5)

The maximum elevation or suction head for an open tank depends on the atmospheric pressure - which in general can
be regarded as constant, and the vapor pressure of the fluid - which in general vary with temperature, especially for
water.
The absolute vapor pressure of water at temperature 20 oC is 2.3 kN/m2. The maximum theoretical elevation height is
therefore:

he = (101.33 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3) - (2.3 kN/m2) / (9.80 kN/m3)

= 10.1 m

Due to the head loss in the suction pipe and the local conditions inside the pump - the theoretical maximum elevation is
significantly decreased.

The maximum theoretical elevation of a pump above an open water tank at different temperatures can be found from
the table below:

Temperature Vapor Pressure Max. elevation

(oC) (kN/m2) (m)
0 0.6 10.3
5 0.9 10.2
10 1.2 10.2
15 1.7 10.2
20 2.3 10.1
25 3.2 10.0
30 4.3 9.9
35 5.6 9.8
40 7.7 9.5
45 9.6 9.4
50 12.5 9.1
55 15.7 8.7
60 20 8.3
65 25 7.8
70 32.1 7.1
75 38.6 6.4
80 47.5 5.5
85 57.8 4.4
90 70 3.2
95 84.5 1.7
100 101.33 0.0

Bernoulli Equation

A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for solving problems involving fluids. For a
non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure, potential and kinetic
energies per unit volume is constant at any point

A special form of the Euler’s equation derived along a fluid flow streamline is often called the Bernoulli Equation:
For steady state incompressible flow the Euler equation becomes (1). If we integrate (1) along the streamline it
becomes (2). (2) can further be modified to (3) by dividing by gravity.

Head of Flow

Equation (3) is often referred to the head because all elements has the unit of length.

Dynamic Pressure

(2) and (3) are two forms of the Bernoulli Equation for steady state incompressible flow. If we assume that the
gravitational body force is negligible, (3) can be written as (4). Both elements in the equation have the unit of pressure
and it's common to refer the flow velocity component as the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow (5).

Since energy is conserved along the streamline, (4) can be expressed as (6). Using the equation we see that increasing
the velocity of the flow will reduce the pressure, decreasing the velocity will increase the pressure.

This phenomena can be observed in a venturi meter where the pressure is reduced in the constriction area and
regained after. It can also be observed in a pitot tube where the stagnation pressure is measured. The stagnation
pressure is where the velocity component is zero.
Example - Bernoulli Equation and Flow from a Tank through a small Orifice

Liquid flows from a tank through a orifice close to the bottom. The Bernoulli equation can be adapted to a streamline
from the surface (1) to the orifice (2) as (e1):

Since (1) and (2)'s heights from a common reference is related as (e2), and the equation of continuity can be expressed
as (e3), it's possible to transform (e1) to (e4).

Vented tank

A special case of interest for equation (e4) is when the orifice area is much lesser than the surface area and when the
pressure inside and outside the tank is the same - when the tank has an open surface or "vented" to the atmosphere. At
this situation the (e4) can be transformed to (e5).

"The velocity out from the tank is equal to speed of a freely body falling the distance h." - also known as Torricelli's
Theorem.

Example - outlet velocity from a vented tank

h = 10 m

V2 = [2 x 9.81 x 10]1/2 = 14 m/s

Pressurized Tank

If the tanks is pressurized so that product of gravity and height (g h) is much lesser than the pressure difference divided
by the density, (e4) can be transformed to (e6).

The velocity out from the tank depends mostly on the pressure difference.
Example - outlet velocity from a pressurized tank

h = 10 m/s, p1 = 0.2 MN/m2, p2 = 0.1 MN/m2 A2/A1 = 0.01, h = 10 m

V2 = [(2/(1-(0.01)2) ( (0.2 - 0.1)x106 /1x103 + 9.81 x 10)]1/2 = 19.9 m/s

Coefficient of Discharge - Friction Coefficient

Due to friction the real velocity will be somewhat lower than this theoretic examples. If we introduce a friction
coefficient c (coefficient of discharge), (e5) can be expressed as (e5b).

The coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally. For a sharp edged opening it may be as low as 0.6. For
smooth orifices it may bee between 0.95 and 1.

• Fluid Flowmeters
• Common Misspellings: Bernouli?s Law, Bernulli?s Law, Bernolli?s Law, Bernoulis Law, Bernullis Law,
Bernollis Law

Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

An introduction and definition of density, specific weight and specific gravity. Formulas with
examples.

Density

The density is defined as a mediums mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.

• Mass and Weight - the Difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the difference
between weight and mass.

Mass can be expressed as:

ρ=m/V (1)

where

ρ = density

m = mass

V = volume

The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people often use pounds per
cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really a measure of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct
measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by 32.2 for a rough value in pounds.

• Unit converter for other units

The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density is a physical
property constant at a given temperature and density can help to identify a substance.

• Densities and material properties for common materials

Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:

An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18,5 g and occupies a volume of 23,4 ml. (milliliter)

The density can be calculated as:

ρ = [18.5 (g) / 1000 (g/kg)] / [23.4 (ml) / 1000 (ml/l) 1000 (l/m3) ]

= 18.5 10-3 (kg) / 23.4 10-6 (m3)

= 790 kg/m3

If we look up densities of some common substances, we find that ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, has a density of 790 kg/m3.
Our unknown liquid may likely be ethyl alcohol!

Example - Use Density to Calculate Mass of a Volume

The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3 . Calculate the mass of 0,17 m3 titanium!

m = 0.17 (m3) 4507 (kg/m3) = 766.2 kg

Specific Weight

Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.

• Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the difference between
weight and mass.

Specific Weight can be expressed as:

γ=ρg (2)

where

γ = specific weight

g = acceleration of gravity

The SI-units of specific weight are kN/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3.

The local acceleration g is under normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.

Example - Specific Weight Water

Specific weight for water at 60 oF is 62.4 lb/ft3 in imperial units and 9.80 kN/m3 in SI-units.

Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials

Specific Weight - γ
Product Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
 Water 62.4 9.80

• Material Properties

Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity is dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the material to the density of water at a
specified temperature. Specific Gravity can be expressed as:

SG = = ρ / ρH2O (3)

where

SG = specific gravity

ρ = density of fluid

ρH2O = density of water

It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39? F) as reference - at this point the density of water is at the highest.

• Thermal Properties of Water Density, Freezing temperature, Boiling temperature, Latent heat of melting, Latent
heat of evaporation, Critical temperature ...

Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the metric SI system as in the imperial English system
(BG).

At the reference point specific gravity has same numerically value as density.

Example - Specific Gravity

If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic millimeter, 7.85 kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per
cubic meter - the specific gravity of iron is:

SG = 7850 kg/m3/ 1000 kg/m3 = 7.85

where the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity

An introduction to dynamic, absolute and kinematic viscosity and how to convert between
CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler

The viscosity of a fluid is a very important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid motion near a solid
boundary.

The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to shear or flow and is a measure of the fluids adhesive/cohesive or frictional
properties. The resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to slide by an
other.

The knowledge of viscosity is often necessary for proper design of required temperatures for storage, pumping or
injection of fluids.

Common used units for viscosity:

 CentiPoises (cp)
SSU1
Degree Engler1 * 7.45
Seconds Redwood1 - 4.05
= CentiStokes (cSt) x Density
= Centistokes (cSt) * 4.55
= Centistokes (cSt)
= Centistokes (cSt)
1
Where centistokes are greater than 50

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity which are known as dynamic (absolute) and kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity

is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when
maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.

The shearing stress between the layers of non turbulent fluid moving in straight parallel lines can be defined for a
Newtonian fluid as:

Equation (1) is known as the Newtons Law of Friction.

In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa s or kg/m s where

1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/m s

The dynamic viscosity is often expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system as g/cm.s, dyne.s/cm2 or
poise (p) where

1 poise = dyne s/cm2 = g/cm s = 1/10 Pa s

For practical use the Poise is to large and it's usual divided by 100 into the smaller unit called the centiPoise (cP)
where
 1 p = 100 cP

Water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) has an absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

• A Viscosity Converting Chart - A table converting between Centiposes, milliPascal, CentiStokes and SSU.
• Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity of Water - Absolute or dynamic viscosity of water depends on the temperature.
• A Dynamic Viscosity Converting Chart - Convert between Poiseuille- Poise - centiPoise - kg/m.h- kgf.s/m2 -
lbf.s/inch2 lbf.s/ft2 - lbf.h/ft2 - lb/ft.s - lb/ft.h.

Kinematic Viscosity

is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to the density, a quantity in which no force is involved.

For the SI system the theoretical unit is m2/s or common used Stoke (St) where St = 10-4 m2/s. Since also Stoke is an
unpractical large unit, it is usual divided by 100 to give the unit called Centistokes (cSt) where 1 St = 100 cSt.

1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s

Since the specific gravity of water at 68.4?F (20.2?C) is almost one it follows that the kinematic viscosity of water at
68.4?F is for all practical purposes 1.0 cSt.

Viscosity and Reference Temperature

Viscosity is highly temperature dependent and for either dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful a reference
temperature must be quoted. In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for residual fluids is 100oC, whilst for distillate
fluids it is 40oC.

For liquids the kinematic viscosity decreases with higher temperatures. For gases the kinematic viscosity increases with
higher temperature.

• Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water in Imperial and SI Units - Viscosity of water at temperatures
between 0 - 100oC or 32 - 212oF

Other Viscosity Units

Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS), a unit of measure used to indicate viscosity. The efflux time in Saybolt
Universal Seconds (SUS) required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product to flow through the calibrated orifice of a
Saybolt Universal viscometer, under carefully controlled temperature, as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. This
method has largely been supplanted by the kinematic viscosity method. (This is also called the SSU number (Seconds
Saybolt Universal) or SSF number (Saybolt Seconds Furol)).

Degree Engler is used in Great Britain, as a scale used as a conventional measure of kinematic viscosity. Unlike the
Saybolt and Redwood scales, the Engler scale is based on comparing a flow of the substance being tested to the flow of
another substance, namely water. Viscosity in Engler degrees is the ratio of the time of flow of 200 cubic centimetres of
the fluid whose viscosity is being measured to the time of flow of 200 cubic centimeters of water at the same
temperature (usually 20?C but sometimes 50?C or 100?C) in a standardized Engler viscosity meter.

• Viscosity of Common Materials Viscosity of fluids as motor oil, diesel fuel, peanut oil and many more.
• Online Dynamic Viscosity Calculator Calculate dynamic viscosity between centipoise, reyn and more.
• Online Kinematic Viscosity Calculator Convert between different kinematic viscosity units - centistokes, poise,
lentor and more
• Online Dynamic Viscosity Converter for Oil and Water Convert between dynamic viscosity units for oil and
water

Newtonian Fluids

Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain are designated as Newtonian
Fluids.

Newtonian materials are referred to as true liquids since their viscosity or consistency is not affected by shear such as
agitation or pumping at a constant temperature. Fortunately most common fluids, both liquids and gases, are
Newtonian. Water and oils are examples of Newtonian liquids.

Thixotropic Fluids

Shear Thinning Fluids or Thixotropic Fluids reduce their viscosity as agitation or pressure is increased at a constant
temperature. Ketchup and mayonnaise are examples of thixotropic materials. They appear thick or viscous but are
possible to pump quite easily.

Dilatant Fluids

Shear Thickening Fluids or Dilatant Fluids increase their viscosity with agitation. Some of these liquids can become
almost solid within a pump or pipe line. With agitation, cream becomes butter and Candy compounds, clay slurries and
similar heavily filled liquids do the same thing.

Bingham Plastic Fluids

Bingham Plastic Fluids have a yield value which must be exceeded before flow will start flow like a fluid. From that
point on the viscosity will decrease with an increase in agitation. Toothpaste, mayonnaise and tomato catsup are
examples of such products.

Example - Converting between Kinetic and Absolute Viscosity for Air

Kinematic viscosity of air at 1 bar and 40oC is 16.97 cSt (16.97 10-6 m2/s).

The density of air may be estimated by the Ideal Gas Law:

density = 105 / 287 313 = 1.113 kg/m3

absolute viscosity = 1.113 16.97 10-6 = 1.88 10-5 kg/ms (Ns/m2) (P)

Viscosity Values and Specific Gravity of some Typical Liquids

centiPoise 1) centiStokes Saybolt Second

Typical liquid Specific Gravity
(cP) (cSt) Universal (SSU)
1 1 31 Water 1.0
3.2 4 40 Milk -
 12.6 15.7 80 No. 4 fuel oil 0.82 - 0.95
16.5 20.6 100 Cream -
34.6 43.2 200 Vegetable oil 0.91 - 0.95
88 110 500 SAE 10 oil 0.88 - 0.94
176 220 1000 Tomato Juice -
352 440 2000 SAE 30 oil 0.88 - 0.94
820 650 5000 Glycerine 1.26
1561 1735 8000 SAE 50 oil 0.88 - 0.94
1760 2200 10,000 Honey -
5000 6250 28,000 Mayonnaise -
15,200 19,000 86,000 Sour cream -
17,640 19,600 90,000 SAE 70 oil 0.88 - 0.94
- - - Ink-Printers 1.0 - 1.38
- - - Sulfuric Acid 1.83

1)
centiPoise = centiStokes x specific gravity - where specific gravity is assumed to be 0.8 (except for water).

The exact Centipoise of can be calculated:

centiPoises (cp) = centiStokes (cSt) x Density

Cavitation - an Introduction

Cavitation occurs in a fluid flow system when the local static pressure is below the vapor pressure.

Cavitation - a common problem in pumps and control valves - causing serious wear and tear and damage. Under the
wrong condition, cavitation will reduce the components life time dramatically.

What is Cavitation?

Cavitation may occur when the local static pressure in a fluid reach a level below the vapor pressure of the liquid at the
actual temperature.

According to the Bernoulli Equation this may happen when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or around a pump
impeller.

The vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the damage happens when the vapor almost immediately collapses
after evaporation when the velocity is decreased and pressure increased.

Avoiding Cavitation

Cavitation can in general be avoided by

• increasing the distance between the actual local static pressure in the fluid - and the vapor pressure of the fluid
at the actual temperature

This can be done by:

• reengineering components initiating high speed velocities and low static pressures
• increasing the total or local static pressure in the system
• reducing the temperature of the fluid

Reengineering of Components Initiating High Speed Velocity and Low Static Pressure

Cavitation and damage can be avoided by using special components designed for the actual rough conditions.

• Conditions as huge pressure drops can - with limitations - be handled by Multi Stage Control Valves
• Difficult pumping conditions - with fluid temperatures close to the vaporization temperature - can be handled
with a special pump - working after an other principle than the centrifugal pump.

Increasing the Total or Local Pressure in the System

By increasing the total or local pressure in the system, the distance between the static pressure and the vaporization
pressure is increased and vaporization and cavitation may be avoided.

The ratio between static pressure and the vaporization pressure, an indication of the possibility of vaporization, is often
expressed by the Cavitation Number.

Unfortunately it may not always be possible to increase the total static pressure due to system classifications or other
limitations. Local static pressure in the component may then be increased by lowering the component in the system.
Control valves and pumps should in general be positioned in the lowest part of the systems to maximize the static
head.

This is common for boiler feeding pumps receiving hot condensate (water close to 100 oC) from a condensate receiver.

Reducing the Temperature of the Fluid

The vaporization pressure is highly dependable of the fluid temperature. Water, our most common fluid, is an example:

Temperature Vapor Pressure

(oC) (kN/m2)
0 0.6
5 0.9
10 1.2
15 1.7
20 2.3
25 3.2
30 4.3
35 5.6
40 7.7
45 9.6
50 12.5
55 15.7
60 20
65 25
70 32.1
75 38.6
80 47.5
85 57.8
90 70
95 84.5
100 101.33

As we can see - the possibility of evaporation and cavitation increases dramatically with the water temperature.

Cavitation can be avoided by locating the components in the coldest part of the system. By example it is common to
locate the pumps in heating systems at the "cold" return lines.

The same is the situation for control valves. Where it is possible they should be located on the cold side of heat
exchangers.

Control Valves and Cavitation

Control valves and cavitation, application ratio and multi stage control valves

When a fluid passes a valve the fluid velocity will increase and the pressure will drop according the Bernoulli equation.

Cavitation
If the speed over the valve is high enough, the pressure in the liquid drop to a level where the fluid may start bubble or
flash. The pressure recovers sufficiently and the bubbles collapse upon themselves.

Cavitation may be noisy but is usually of low intensity and low frequency.

This situation is extremely destructive and may wear out the trim and body parts of the valve in short time.

• The Cavitation Number An introduction to and a definition of the Cavitation Number.

• Cavitation - an Introduction

Application Ratio

A common way to characterize potential cavitation conditions, is to use the

AR = pi - po / (pi - pv) (1)

where

AR = Application Ratio

pi = inlet pressure, absolute

po = outlet pressure, absolute

pv = vapor pressure of the fluid, absolute

For application ratios above 1 - the fluid flashes. This is not the same as cavitation, but the closer the ratio is to 1, the
higher is the potential for cavitation.

Note! With an increasing fluid temperature the danger for cavitation increases.

Example - Flashing Water

If we know the boiling point and the absolute pressure of a fluid ("Steam Table" with saturated steam properties),
the minimum outlet pressure from a valve to avoid flashing can be calculated.
For an application ratio of 1 formula (1) can expressed:

1 = pi - po / (pi - pv)

po = pv

Using "Steam Table" with saturated steam properties:

• For a water temperature of 17.51 ?C, absolute inlet pressure of 1 bar - minimum outlet pressure is 0.02 bar to
avoid flashing
• For a water temperature of 81.35 ?C, absolute inlet pressure of 1 bar - minimum outlet pressure is 0.5 bar to
avoid flashing.
• For a water temperature of 99.63 ?C, absolute inlet pressure of 1 bar - minimum outlet pressure is 1 bar to avoid
flashing.

Note! Flashing is not the same as cavitation. Due to local conditions in the valves cavitation starts on much higher
outlet pressures.

Multi Stage Control Valves

Cavitation can be avoided by using more than one control valve or more convenient a multistage control valve.

The "vena contracta" is much lower for a single stage valve than a multi stage valve. Depending on the pressure drop
and the temperature of the fluid its possible to avoid cavitation conditions using more than one stage.

Cavitation Number

An introduction to and a definition of the Cavitation Number.

The Cavitation Number is a "special edition" of the dimensionless Euler Number.

• The Euler Number An introduction to and a definition of the Euler Number

The Cavitation Number is useful for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems where cavitation may occur.

The Cavitation Number can be expressed as:

Euler Number

An introduction to and a definition of the Euler Number

The Euler Number is a dimensionless value common used for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems where the
pressure difference between two point is an important variable.

The Euler Number can be expressed as:

The Euler Number can be interpreted as a measure of the ratio of pressure forces to inertial forces. The pressure
difference as shown in (2) is often used.

The combination shown as (3) is often called the pressure coefficient.

A special version of the Euler Number is in general referred to as the Cavitation Number.

• The Cavitation Number An introduction to and a definition of the Cavitation Number

Feeding Pumps - the Suction Lift in Steam Systems

The danger of impeller cavitations increases with water temperature

To avoid cavitations in a feeding pump the suction lift and pressure head should not exceed the limits below:
 Temperature of Feeding Water Max Suction Lift Minimum Pressure Head
(oC) (oF) (m) (ft) (m) (ft)
55 130 3 10
65 150 2 7
77 170 0.6 2
80 175 0 0 0 0
87 190 1.5 5
95 200 3.5 10
99 210 4.5 15
100 212 5 17

For water with temperature above 80oC (175oF) its necessary with a positive pressure head - and the pump is located in
an elevation below the water or condensate receiver.

In steam distribution systems its common with open vented condensate receivers with temperatures close to 100oC
(212oF). This is true especially in systems where most of the steam consumed is returned as hot condensate, but also in
systems where the make up water is heated to reduce the amount of air dissolved in the water.

• Recommended Suction Flow Velocity for Boiling Fluids - Recommended flow velocity for the pump suction
side.
• Recommended Delivery Flow Velocity for Boiling Liquids - Flow velocity normally required on the delivery
side of the pump in systems with boiling liquids.