Professional Documents
Culture Documents
13. What is the name of the blood vessel that carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation?
Pulmonary arteries.
14. What is the name of the largest artery?
Aorta.
15. Which part of the heart sends oxygenated blood through the aorta?
Left ventricle.
16. What is the function of SA node and AV node?
The SA node sends out a stimulus (black arrows), which causes the atria to contract. When this stimulus reaches the AV node, it signals the
ventricles to contract. The electrical signal passes down the two branches of the atrioventricular bundle to the Purkinje fibers. Thereafter, the
ventricles contract
17. What do you mean by systolic pressure and diastolic pressure? What happens during systole and diastole?
Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of the blood vessel. A sphygmomanometer (blood pressure instrument) can be used to
measure blood pressure, usually in the brachial artery of the arm. The highest arterial pressure, called the systolic pressure, is reached during
ejection of blood from the heart. The lowest arterial pressure, called the diastolic pressure, occurs while the heart ventricles are relaxing. Normal
resting blood pressure for a young adult should be slightly lower than 120 mm Hg over 80 mm Hg, or 120/80, but these values can vary
somewhat and still be within the range of normal blood pressure. Therefore, during systole, the atria contract together followed by the ventricles
contracting together. This is followed by diastole, a rest phase, when the chambers relax.
18. What are the structural and functional differences between an artery and a vein?
Arteries: The arteries are more muscular than veins to withstand the higher pressure exerted on them; Vessels carry body from the heart to
various body parts; arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart except pulmonary artery; arteries have thick elastic muscular walls;
valves are absent; blood flows under high pressure.
Vein: Vessels carry blood from various body parts to the heart; Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the various body parts except pulmonary
vein; veins have thin non elastic muscular walls (thinner wall and a larger center to contain blood); valves are present to prevent the
backward flow of blood; blood flows under low pressure.
19. What is an electrocardiogram (ECG)? Know about the P, QRS and T waves.
Is a recording of the electrical changes that occur in myocardium during a cardiac cycle. Body fluids contain ions that conduct electric currents.
Therefore, the electrical changes in myocardium can be detected on the skins surface. A normal ECG indicates that the heart is functioning
properly. The P wave occurs just prior to atrial contraction; the QRS complex occurs just prior to ventricular contraction; and the T wave occurs
when the ventricles are recovering from contraction.
A
20. What are the cardiovascular pathways?
Pulmonary circuit: In the pulmonary circuit, blood travels to and from the lungs. Blood from all regions of the body fi rst collects in the right
atrium and then passes into the right ventricle, which pumps it into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk divides into the
right and left pulmonary arteries, which branch as they approach the lungs. The arterioles take blood to the pulmonary
capillaries, where carbon dioxide is given off and oxygen is picked up. Blood then passes through the pulmonary venules,
which lead to the four pulmonary veins that enter the left atrium. Blood in the pulmonary arteries is oxygen-poor but blood in
the pulmonary veins is oxygen rich, so it is not correct to say that all arteries carry blood high in oxygen and all veins carry
blood low in oxygen (as people tend to believe). Just the reverse is true in the pulmonary circuit.
Systemic circuit: In the systemic circuit, the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the bodys organs and cells. The aorta, receives blood
from the heart, and the largest veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae, return blood to the heart. The superior vena cava
collects blood from the head, the chest, and the arms, and the inferior vena cava collects blood from the lower body regions.
Both enter the right atrium
Antigen
Antibody
II
IAIA/ IAi
IBIB/ IBi
AB
IAIB
ii
OBS: In a transplant, they want the antigen (red blood cells); AB is a universal recipient and O a universal donor.
9. What do you mean by Rh + and Rh - ? When is the Rh factor important?
The designation of blood type usually also includes whether the person has or does not have the Rh factor on the red blood cell. The Rh individuals normally do not have antibodies to the Rh factor but they make them when exposed to the Rh factor (It is important in the relation
mother x baby when she is pregnant).
Chapter 8: Digestive System
1. What are the main steps in the digestive process?
Ingestion: Intake of food via the mouth.
Digestion: Mechanically or chemically breaking down foods into their subunits.
Movement: Food must be moved along the GI tract in order to fulfill all functions.
Absorption: Movement of nutrients across the GI tract wall to be delivered to cells via the blood.
Elimination: Removal of indigestible molecules.
2. What are the functions of the digestive system?
Turning food into the energy (hydrolyze macromolecules to subunit molecules as monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol) you
need to survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal. The food also contains water, salts, vitamins, and minerals that help the body
function normally.
3. What are the main layers of the GI track?
Mucosa: Innermost layer that produces mucus to protect the lining and also produces digestive enzymes.
Submucosa: Second layer of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
Muscularis: Third layer made of two layers of smooth muscle that move food along the GI tract.
Serosa: outer lining that is part of the peritoneum.
2. What are the components of the respiratory system and what their function?
The Upper Respiratory Tract
Nose/Nasal cavities: filters and warms the air
Pharynx: the opening into parallel air and food passageways. Blocks enter of food in the lower respiratory track.
Glottis: Is the small opening between the vocal cords.
Larynx: the voice box that houses the vocal cords.
The Lower Respiratory Tract
Trachea (windpipe): is lined with goblet cells and ciliated cells and is a passage of air to bronchi. The rings prevent a trachea to collapsing.
Bronchus: along with the pulmonary arteries and veins, enter the lungs and branch into smaller bronchioles; is a passage of air to lungs
Bronchioles: passage of air to alveoli.
Lungs: consist of the alveoli, air sacs surrounded by a capillary network; they carries out gas exchange.
Diaphragm: skeletal muscle; functions in ventilation.
3. What is ventilation?
Ventilation is another term for breathing that includes both inspiration and expiration.
4. What the Boyles Law say?
At a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
5. What happens during inspiration and expiration?
Inspiration: An active process of inhalation that brings air into the lungs; The diaphragm (lowers) and intercostal muscles (breathing) contract;
The diaphragm flattens and the rib cage moves upward and outward.(contract too); Volume of the thoracic cavity and lungs increase;
The air pressure within the lungs decreases; Air flows into the lungs.
Expiration: A typically passive process of exhalation that expels air from the lungs; The diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax; The diaphragm
moves upward and becomes dome-shaped. The rib cage moves downward and inward (relaxes too); Volume of the thoracic cavity
and lungs decreases; The air pressure within the lungs increases; Air flows out of the lungs.
6. How the breathing is controlled?
Breathing is controlled by two ways: nervous control and chemical control.
Nervous control: Respiratory control center in the brain (medulla oblongata) sends out nerve impulses to contract muscle for inspiration. Sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS) is thought to occur when this center stops sending out nerve signals.
Chemical control: Two sets of chemoreceptors sense the drop in pH: one set is in the brain and the other in the circulatory system. Both are
sensitive to carbon dioxide levels that change blood pH due to metabolism.
7. What are external and internal respiration?
The internal and external respiration are types of respiration that depends on diffusion. Hemoglobin activity is essential to the transport of gases
and, therefore, to external and internal respiration. In both respiration oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged and will diffuse from the area of
higher to the area of lower partial pressure. Note that partial pressure is the amount of pressure each gas exerts (P CO2 or PO2).
External Respiration (gas exchange with atmosphere): Exchange of gases between the lung alveoli and the blood capillaries. P CO2 is higher in
the lung capillaries than in the atmospheric air, thus CO 2 diffuses out of the plasma into
the lungs. The partial pressure pattern for O 2 is just the opposite, so O2 diffuses from the
red blood cells to the lungs. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase speeds the breakdown of
carbonic acid (H2CO3) in red blood cells.
Internal Respiration (gas exchange with body tissues): The exchange of gases between the blood in the capillaries outside of the lungs and the
tissue fluid. PO2 is higher in the capillaries than in the tissue fluid, thus O 2 diffuses out of
the blood into the tissues.
8. What do you mean by tidal volume, vital capacity, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume?
They are ways to measure respiratory volumes:
Tidal volume: the small amount of air that normally enters and exits with each breath.
Vital capacity: the amount of air that moves in plus the amount that moves out with maximum effort.
Inspiratory reserve volume and the expiratory reserve volume: the difference between normal amounts and the maximum effort amounts of air
moved.
Residual volume: the amount of air that stays in the lungs when we breathe.