Diversity and Host Preference of Leaf Endophytic Fungi in The Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana

Diversity and host preference of leaf endophytic fungi in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana -- Cannon and Simmons
94 (2): 210 -- Mycologia
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Mycologia 94(2), 2002, pp. 210-220

2002 by The Mycological Society of America
Diversity and host preference of leaf

endophytic fungi in the Iwokrama Forest
Reserve, Guyana
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Coralie M. Simmons
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ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
LITERATURE CITED
Endophytic fungi were isolated from living symptomless leaves of

12 tree species from two locations in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve,
Guyana. Sixty-four fungal morphotaxa were characterized from
2492 cultures, which were derived from a total of 2520 sample
units. Species of Colletotrichum, Nodulisporium, Pestalotiopsis and
Phomopsis were most frequently isolated. Colonization was greater
in samples from the midrib than in those from laminar tissue, and slightly greater at the tip of the lamina
compared with the base of the leaf. In contrast to studies in temperate ecosystems, no distinct fungal
communities were identified for individual plant species, suggesting that the degree of host preference is
low. The implications for estimation of fungal diversity in tropical systems are explored.
http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/content/full/94/2/210 (1 of 15)26/09/2007 01:13:50 p.m.
Diversity and host preference of leaf endophytic fungi in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana -- Cannon and Simmons 94 (2): 210 -- Mycologia
Key words: fungal diversity, host preference, leaf endophytes, neotropical mycology
INTRODUCTION
TOP
Fungi appear to be more or less ubiquitous as endophytic,

ABSTRACT
symptomless colonists of plant tissues (Bills 1996 ). Numbers of
INTRODUCTION
species recovered from culture of surface-sterilized plant fragments
may be substantial, and they have received much attention over the
RESULTS
last ten years as potential sources of biologically active chemicals
DISCUSSION
(e.g., Monaghan et al 1995 ). Most studies have focused on
LITERATURE CITED
endophytes of temperate plants, although the number of tropical
studies is now increasing (Rodrigues and Petrini 1997 ). In a few cases (e.g., the grass endophytes
belonging to the Clavicipitaceae) fungi grow actively within host tissues in apparently mutualistic
relationships (Lane et al 2000 ). In other instances, fungal propagules appear to infect plant tissues
laterally by transmission via air or water-splash from surrounding saprobic colonies (Wilson 2000 ), and
then become dormant. Active growth within the plant tissue is initiated only on its senescence, allowing
the endophytes to become primary colonizers of the dead material.
Most research to date has investigated the endophytes of single plant species. Specificity of at least some
fungus/plant interactions has been widely assumed at least at the genetic level, and it has been claimed that
endophyte communities (or at least community profiles) are usually specific at the host species level
(Petrini 1996 , Petrini and Fisher 1988, 1990 ). However, most analyses have been carried out in
temperate ecosystems where patterns of plant and probably also fungal communities differ from those
observed in tropical ecosystems. Recent studies in the tropics (Arnold et al 2001 ) have identified distinct
host-related communities in tropical tree leaves, but on a quantitative rather than qualitative basis. Thus,
few endophytic fungi were found to be entirely restricted to particular plant species, but significant
differences were found in the frequency of infection of individual morphotaxa. This phenomenon has been
termed host preference, following similar observations of decomposer fungal communities by Lodge
(1997) . Assumed host specificity at least of a proportion of tropical endophytes, coupled with the further
assumption that fungi are significantly more diverse in tropical regions than in temperate systems, has
provided one of the arguments supporting hypotheses of megadiversity in the fungal kingdom (Arnold et al
2000 , Dreyfuss 1986 , Dreyfuss and Chapela 1994 , Hawksworth 1991 ).
The current study was designed to test the hypothesis that endophytic communities in the tropics are
specific to their host plants. The research was carried out as a component of a combined fungal
bioinventory and bioprospecting programme.

TOP
Endophytic fungi were isolated and characterized from 17 samples

ABSTRACT
of healthy mature living symptomless leaves from saplings and
INTRODUCTION
young trees of a total of 12 plant species and nine plant families.
Samples were collected from two experimental plots, Four Mile
RESULTS
Camp (4.629 N, 58.718 W) and Eight Mile Camp (4.586 N,
DISCUSSION
58.745 W), about four miles apart in the Iwokrama Forest
LITERATURE CITED
Reserve, central Guyana (Table I ). The leaf samples were stored in
a cool box above ice, transported to the UK, and processed within ten days. Five leaves from each sample
were used (except for material of Cecropia sciadophylla for which only four leaves were studied). From
each leaf lamina, two pieces approx 10 x 5 mm were excised, one from near the tip and the other from near
the base of the leaf. Each of these pieces was then divided into 10 subsamples approximately 2 x 2.5 mm
in size. Samples approx 10 x 5 mm were also taken from the midrib of each leaf and the long axis parallel
to the midrib, and divided laterally into 5 subsamples approx 5 x 2 mm in size.
View this table: TABLE I. Sample

[in this window] details
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To kill fungal propagules adhering to the cuticle, the subsamples were then surface-sterilized, following
the protocol described in Lodge et al (1996), by immersion in sequence in 75% alcohol for 1 min, sodium
hypochlorite (35% available chlorine) for 3 min and 75% alcohol for 30 s, before being rinsed in sterile
distilled water. Each set of subsamples was placed onto a half-strength PDA petri plate and examined at
regular intervals for fungal colonies growing from the leaf fragments. Our aim for the bioprospecting
programme which was carried out in conjunction with this study was to maximize the morphological
diversity of samples to be screened, and avoid repeated analysis of cultures which were probably
genetically identical and at least in some cases actually derived from the same colony. Due to the very
large number of colonies generated and the need to generate rapid results for the bioprospecting
programme, it was not possible to grow up every one for identification. Strains were therefore selected for
subculture from each primary inoculation plate (containing 10 lamina fragments or 5 midrib fragments) on
the basis of recognizably distinct morphology. At least one culture was characterized from each petri dish,
and attempts were not made to equate colony morphologies from different plates. The selected colonies
were then subcultured onto PCA plates to grow up for identification, incubated under a 12 h/12 h natural
light/near UV light regime to stimulate sporulation.
UPGMA cluster analysis was performed on the species profile results using the Gower General Similarity
Coefficient with the computer package MVSP for Windows (Kovach Computing, Anglesey, UK), and
Sorensen's indices were computed using Colwell's program EstimateS version 6 (program and information
on calculating the index available at http://viceroy.eeb.uconn.edu/estimates).
RESULTS
TOP
Colonization A total of 2492 cultures were obtained from the

ABSTRACT
2520 fragments (subsamples) of the various leaf parts studied, with
INTRODUCTION
between 9 and 23% of each type of fragment not containing
culturable endophytes and between 12 and 22% of fragments
RESULTS
containing more than one morphotype (Fig. 1 ). The extent of
DISCUSSION
colonization (Table II ) varied widely, ranging from 27100% for
LITERATURE CITED
the lamina subsamples and 50100% for the midrib subsamples,
with overall average colonization for all subsamples 78.8% for the lamina and 88.5% for the midrib. In
many cases the variation in endophyte colonization between individual leaf subsamples was considerable,
making comparison between plant samples difficult, and variation in colonization of plant collections was
also extensive. Variation in endophyte colonization between plant samples of the same species was not less
than that between species. Colonization of the midrib was significantly greater overall than that of the
lamina (Fig. 2 ). Colonization of the leaf tip region was slightly more extensive than that of the basal part
for the lamina samples, but the midrib base and tip were approximately equally colonized.
FIG. 1. Multiple colonization of leaf fragments: number of

colony morphotypes for individual leaf fragments
expressed as a percentage of the total for each leaf part
(840 for lamina parts, 420 for midrib parts)
View larger version (41K):

[in this window]
[in a new window]
View this table: TABLE II. Number of cultures obtained from lamina and midrib
[in this window] samples
[in a new window]
FIG. 2. Number of colonies formed from different leaf

parts. Data are derived from Table 2.

[in this window]
[in a new window]
Identification and specificity A total of 64 fungal morphotaxa were identified as endophytes of the
samples analyzed, with species richness varying from 7 to 25 per sample (see Table III ). Identifications at
least to genus level were possible for 53 of the total species number, the remaining being sterile but distinct
mycelial forms. A further 52 isolates were obtained which generated sterile mycelium without sufficiently
distinctive characteristics for recognition even to morphospecies. The species profile was dominated by
five groups: species of Colletotrichum, Nodulisporium (probably mostly anamorphs of Xylaria species),
Pestalotiopsis, Phomopsis, and a group with distinctive radiating sterile mycelium with probable
basidiomycetous affinities.Where a simple identification to species was not possible, individual
morphotypes were designated with Roman numerals. Cultural and micromorphological features were
recorded and photographs of key features were obtained, allowing clear definition of morphotaxa.
View this table: TABLE III. Species composition of endophytic fungi derived from plant
[in this window] samples
[in a new window]
View this table: TABLE

[in this window] III. Continued
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Twenty-nine morphotaxa were recovered from one plant sample only. In only seven cases were multiple
isolations made of these morphotaxa, and several of these were identified as widespread and plurivorous
species (e.g., Botryodiplodia theobromae, Clonostachys rosea, and Haematonectria haematococca). There
is therefore little or no firm indication of plant specificity, as can be seen from UPGMA cluster analysis of
results (Fig. 3 ). No fungal morphotaxon was recorded exclusively from both collections of an individual
plant species where multiple samples were examined. Comparing these multiple samples, the proportion of
fungal morphotaxa common to both collections was generally small: the figures for Carapa guineensis are
3/13 (23%), Chlorocardium rodiei 7/10 (70%), Goupia glabra 9/26 (35%), Jacaranda sp. 3/19 (16%), and
Mora excelsa 10/30 (33%).
FIG. 3. UPGMA Cluster analysis of endophyte

community profiles.

[in this window]
[in a new window]
Sampling methods did not allow use of some similarity measures such as the Morisita-Horn index
(Magurran 1988 ), because not all cultures obtained from the leaf fragments were identified. However,
Sorensen indices of similarity were calculated for all possible combinations of samples (Table IV ). The
average for the subset of samples where two were analyzed from the same plant species (n = 10, = 0.496,
= 0.206) was rather larger than the averages for all samples from each of the two collecting sites (n = 10,
0.315, = 0.114 for the 8 Mile site, and n = 7, = 0.342, = 0.133 for the 4 Mile site), but the data are
insufficient to draw unequivocal conclusions. All plant species were present in both sites.
View this table: TABLE IV. Sorensen indices of fungal species recovered for all possible
[in this window] combinations of leaf samples
[in a new window]
DISCUSSION
TOP
Colonization Endophytic fungal colonies in tropical plant leaves

ABSTRACT
are extremely frequent. Figures similar to ours have been obtained
INTRODUCTION
for endophyte colonization in other studies of tropical plants, for
example 9598% of leaf fragments of Guarea guidonia in Puerto
RESULTS
Rico were found to be colonized by endophytes (Gamboa and
DISCUSSION
Bayman in press) but only 2130% of samples of Euterpe oleracea
LITERATURE CITED
in Brazil yielded culturable endophytes (Rodrigues 1994 ).
Comparison between studies is problematic because of differences in protocols, most obviously in the size
of plant fragments employed.
There were no obvious patterns in the extent of colonization, with wide variety within individual samples,
and no clear correlation between multiple samples of the same plant species. These results suggest that the
pattern of endophyte colonization is chaotic, and that the sample size was too small to identify host-related
differences in colonization if these exist.
The greater colonization of the midrib compared with that of laminar tissues presumably at least partially
reflects the slightly larger size of the leaf fragments, but perhaps also the more complex anatomical
structure. The somewhat (but not usually statistically significant) greater colonization of the leaf tip region
compared with the leaf base could possibly be explained by the leaf tip being more prone to infection, as
rainwater draining off at the apex would tend to wash unestablished fungal propagules on the leaf surface
towards the leaf tip (Wilson and Carroll 1994 ).
Multiple colonization of individual leaf fragments may have been underestimated in this and other studies.
Rapidly growing strains are likely to overgrow more slowly growing forms and reducing the number of
colonies observed, so it is possible that morphologically similar young colonies will not be separated at the
subculture stage. However, competitive interactions often result in sectoring, and therefore in different
appearances. The high figures obtained for multiple colony growth from individual fragments underline the
importance of culturing from minute leaf fragments (Lodge et al 1996a ). Our surface sterilization
method (which took place after the leaves were cut into small fragments) might have reduced further the
effective size of the plant subsamples due to penetration of the sterilant into the cut edges, but as both
overall and multiple colonization measurements are comparable with those obtained elsewhere, we do not
believe that significant undersampling occurred.
Identification and specificity Species concepts are currently uncertain on a worldwide basis for all of the
dominant taxa isolated (Brasier 1977 , Cannon et al 2000 , Rehner and Uecker 1994 ), and indeed for
many of the remaining morphotaxa. Bearing in mind the current rudimentary state of knowledge of the
Guyanese mycota (Nishida 1989 ), difficulties in identification might be expected. At least one of the
species detected (referred to as Ascomycota I) is sufficiently distinctive to be recognized provisionally as
belonging to an undescribed genus, and will be described if appropriate after further studies to establish its
relationships.
The number of fungal species recovered is probably a significant underestimate of the species richness
actually present, although it has frequently been observed that a relatively small guild of species make up a
dominant component of endophyte taxa in both temperate and tropical ecosystems (Bills 1996 ). The
recovery of between 7 and 25 fungal morphotaxa from sets of 150 leaf subsamples is comparable with
results from other tropical studies. For example, Lodge et al (1996a) found 22 species from 630
subsamples of Manilkara bidentata, and Rodrigues (1994) found 57 fungal species from 13 320 samples
of Euterpe oleracea, but only 13 species were recovered from 1512 leaf and rachis samples of Spondias
mombin from Brazil (Rodrigues and Samuels 1999 ). Rather higher figures have been obtained, e.g., 242
morphospecies derived from 984 samples of Heisteria concinna and 259 from 1008 samples of Ouratea
lucens leaves (Arnold et al 2000 ). In these cases, however, identifications were not attempted and
morphospecies were defined using cultural characteristics alone. This may have resulted in significant
overestimation of species numbers. Preliminary studies described in that paper comparing cultural
morphology with ITS sequence variation suggested that the true species number was around 350 rather
than the 418 cultural morphotaxa recovered from the two plant species, but within-species ITS sequence
variation is frequently 34% and may be more than 11% (Cannon et al 2000 ). Therefore, ITS sequences
in isolation are not necessarily effective means of distinguishing species, although they have great potential
as identification aids for non-sporing cultures (Guo et al 2000 ).
These figures emphasize the extreme effort required to obtain anywhere near a complete survey of
culturable endophytes from plant tissue. In our study, endophyte species diversity could not be estimated
accurately due to the methods used: only a proportion of the cultures generated were grown up and
identified due to the need to provide as wide a range of samples as possible for the bioprospecting
programme. However, as the species richness results are comparable to those in studies where all cultures
obtained were assessed, this suggests that the strategy of partial analysis did not result in the overlooking
of a significant number of species.
The fungal species obtained as Manilkara bidentata endophytes from Iwokrama were contrasted with
those reported from the same plant species in Puerto Rico by Lodge et al (1996a) . The results are not
exactly comparable, but we identified Colletotrichum (sexual morph Glomerella), Nodulisporium
(probably asexual morphs of Xylaria spp.) and Pestalotiopsis species as frequent colonizers in common
with the study from Puerto Rico. We also found Phomopsis species (single isolations of four different
taxa), while Lodge et al found only a single "rarely isolated" Phomopsis species which they identified as P.
manilkarae. The Phyllosticta species they isolated commonly was not recovered from the Iwokrama
samples. The two data sets suggest that the endophyte communities of Manilkara bidentata in Guyana and
Puerto Rico are not closely similar, suggesting that geographical rather than plant-linked factors may be
more important in determining their composition.
Extensive research on endophytes of diverse plants in temperate regions has identified distinct
communities for each plant species (Petrini 1996 ), usually with a small number of dominant fungi which
may be evident as saprobes following death of the host tissues. Host specificity is often studied at the
morphological level, but has also been demonstrated in a few studies at a molecular level using RAPD
markers and other electrophoretic techniques (Hmmerli et al 1992 , Leuchtmann et al 1992 ). In this
study, the morphotaxa were tightly defined using micromorphological characteristics and cultural
appearance, and probably at least in some cases reflect infraspecific rather than specific variation.
In contrast to endophyte population profiles evident in temperate plants, this study has not identified
distinct patterns of specificity or colonization preference. We found that 35 of the 64 fungal morphotaxa
distinguished were recorded from more than one plant species, and 28 of these were isolated from at least
three plant taxa. Although 29 morphotaxa were isolated only from one leaf sample, in most cases these
involved single isolation events which could merely indicate rarity rather than host specificity. In the few
cases where multiple isolations of taxa restricted to one collection did occur, the species involved were
mostly recognized as widespread and plurivorous (e.g., Botryodiplodia theobromae, Clonostachys rosea,
Fusarium decemcellulare, and Haematonectria haematococca). In only one case was a potentially hostspecific species isolated on more than one occasion from the same plant collection, a possibly undescribed
species tentatively assigned to Coniella, but even here the two isolates were derived from tip and base
respectively of the same host leaf.
The statistical comparison of species profiles using the Gower General Similarity Coefficient (see Fig. 3 )
did not provide any clear evidence of host preference/specificity, but comparison of within-host and withinsite Sorensen's indices (Table IV ) did suggest that the plant species plays a somewhat more significant
role in defining endophyte communities than does the locality. However, the range of Sorensen indices for
the paired plant samples is very large (0.270.82), and the most divergent pair of samples is actually the
two Jacaranda species which were both made at the 8 Mile site, only a few yards from each other. These
data do not therefore provide reliable evidence of host preference. There was no evidence that host identity
is correlated with endophyte profile at family level.
Though it was not possible to identify distinct endophyte assemblages for the plants studied, specific
fungal groups may be absent from particular plant species. For example, Colletotrichum species do not
seem to be harbored by Jacaranda sp. and Cecropia sciadophylla leaves, and were rarely isolated from
Carapa guianensis. The apparent absence of both Nodulisporium and Pestalotiopsis as endophytes of
Chlorocardium rodiei leaves is of note, and largely explains the similarity of the two samples from this
plant species as indicated using cluster analysis of the fungal species profiles (Fig. 3 ). It is possible that
these apparent absences are due to undersampling; Xylaria stromata have been observed to develop from
fallen Chlorocardium rodiei fruits in the Iwokrama Forest (Cannon unpubl), which are known to be
sexually reproducing morphs of Nodulisporium species. There is no obvious correlation between physical
structure of the leaf (which might affect both colonization and survival of the surface-sterilization process)
either with endophyte diversity or the presence of individual morphotaxa.
The frequent isolation of apparently identical endophytic strains from plant tissues of unrelated species
suggests that the extent of host preference/specificity in tropical leaf endophytes is small, and molecular
research is being conducted on two key groups (Pestalotiopsis and Colletotrichum) in order to investigate
these issues in more detail. The overall patterns of endophyte colonization observed in the samples from
Iwokrama suggest that endophytic fungus/plant interactions may not be as strictly defined as those in
temperate ecosystems. This may possibly be related to the more complex patterns of plant diversity
encountered in tropical forests in comparison with those of temperate regions, where hectare plots
sometimes contain hundreds of tree species in contrast with the temperate pattern of one or a few dominant
taxa (Gentry 1988 , Valencia et al 1994 ), although the forests of Guyana are notably less tree speciesrich than the hyperdiverse ecosystems of Amazonian Ecuador (Lindeman and Mori 1989 , Polak 1992
). High tree species diversity in tropical forests has been suggested by Janzen (1970) and Connell
(1971) to be associated with escape from natural enemies which cause disproportionately high mortality
close to adult trees (Lodge et al 1996b ). Assuming that pathogenesis is linked to host specificity, one
might predict that pathogen diversity would be low in such ecosystems. The observed lack of host
specificity among the leaf endophytes studied here, many of which belong to well-known pathogen groups,
provides tentative support for this hypothesis. Indications of extreme fungal diversity in the tropics have
been discussed in a number of recent papers (e.g., Lodge et al 1995 , Hyde and Hawksworth 1997 )
following a well-publicized global estimate of fungal diversity based largely on fungus/plant species ratios
in temperate ecosystems (Hawksworth 1991 ). Such estimates have been challenged, citing patterns of
plant distribution as reason for caution (May 1991, 1994 ), and it is debatable whether fungal diversity
estimates can be extrapolated realistically to the tropics using these techniques. Tropical fungal diversity
may not be so extensive as has been assumed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research described here was sponsored through a grant from the European Union to the Iwokrama
Center for Rainforest Conservation and Development, as a component of a combined bioinventory and
bioprospecting program. David Hammond and the Iwokrama staff are thanked for advice, facilitation and
assistance in sample collection. At CABI Bioscience, technical aspects of the research were ably supported
by Ann Ansell, Thelma Caine, Teresa Clayton and Astrid Webster. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the
helpful comments made by Betsy Arnold (University of Arizona), who also kindly made available an
unpublished manuscript. Access to the free ecological statistics software package EstimateS 6, written by
Robert Colwell (University of Connecticut) is also gratefully acknowledged.

Accepted for publication August 1, 2001.
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TOP
ABSTRACT
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RESULTS
DISCUSSION
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A. E. Arnold and E. A. Herre

Canopy cover and leaf age affect colonization by tropical fungal
endophytes: Ecological pattern and process in Theobroma cacao
(Malvaceae)
Mycologia, May 1, 2003; 95(3): 388 - 398.
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Diversity and Host Preference of Leaf Endophytic Fungi in The Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana

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Diversity and Host Preference of Leaf Endophytic Fungi in The Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana

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Diversity and host preference of leaf endophytic fungi in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana -- Cannon and Simmons

94 (2): 210 -- Mycologia

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Mycologia 94(2), 2002, pp. 210-220

Diversity and host preference of leaf

CABI Bioscience, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY,

Endophytic fungi were isolated from living symptomless leaves of

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Fungi appear to be more or less ubiquitous as endophytic,

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

Endophytic fungi were isolated and characterized from 17 samples

View this table: TABLE I. Sample

Colonization A total of 2492 cultures were obtained from the

FIG. 1. Multiple colonization of leaf fragments: number of

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FIG. 2. Number of colonies formed from different leaf

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View this table: TABLE

FIG. 3. UPGMA Cluster analysis of endophyte

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Colonization Endophytic fungal colonies in tropical plant leaves

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Robert Colwell (University of Connecticut) is also gratefully acknowledged.

morphology and rDNA sequences New Phytologist 147:617-630

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May RM., 1991 A fondness for fungi Nature 352:475-476

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A. E. Arnold and E. A. Herre

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