Running head: WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

World Religions Paper

Susan Kay Purnell
Webster University

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

2
Introduction

There are many religions in our world from which to choose. However, most of us, at least in
the early stages of our lives, do not choose religion but have one conferred upon us. Religions can be
examined in a variety of ways. Christianity, and it's basic tenets, is familiar to most of us in the United
States having been ingrained into our culture as the religion of the majority population (dominant
culture). Following is an examination of various world religions that are not as familiar to us. These
can be explored by looking at these religions in terms of their history, basic belief system and the
people who practice them.
Hinduism
Prior to writing this paper, the only real knowledge I had about Hinduism was that it originated
in India and was the source for my own religion, Buddhism. Hinduism is possibly the oldest and most
complex of all the religions of the world (Hopfe, 1991). It is probably the most tolerant of all
religions (Hopfe, 1991, p. 86). Unlike most of the other major religions of the world, Hinduism has
no identifiable founder (Hopfe, 1991, p. 86). Hinduism is an extremely difficult religion to try to
define for a few reasons. Being one of the oldest religions practiced by so many people throughout
time and also the potential for certain key terms and concepts to get lost in translation makes the
attempt to define it destined to be an oversimplification, at best. However, for the purposes of this
paper, an attempt to outline the basics will be made. There are many texts that make up Hindu
scripture, but the most influential is the Bhagavad-Gita (Velasquez, 1991). The Bhagavad-Gita
contains the basic principals and concepts of Hinduism (Velasquez, 1991).
One concept common to all expressions of Hinduism is the oneness of reality. This
oneness is the absolute, or Brahman, which the mind can never fully grasp or words
express. Only Brahman is real; everything else is an illusory manifestation of it. A
correlative belief is the concept of atman, or no self. What we commonly call I or the

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

self is an illusion, for each true self is one with Brahman. When we realize this unity
with the absolute, we realize our true destiny. (Velasquez, 1991, p. 164)
There are four primary values that are common to Hindu thought (Velasquez, 1991). They are
wealth, pleasure, duty and enlightenment. Wealth and pleasure are self-explanatory and in Hinduism,
viewed as worldly values that when kept in check, are good. Duty is described as a spiritual value
similar to virtues such as patience, sincerity, fairness, love and honesty. Having grown up Buddhist, I
am familiar with the concept of enlightenment. Enlightenment is the attainment of the highest spiritual
realm where one is no longer subjected to the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. I say subjected because
this cycle is viewed as worldly suffering. Karma is the law of sowing and reaping, also familiar to me
because of my Buddhist upbringing. Basically karma is the concept that if you do bad things, bad
things will happen and you are reborn into a existence of suffering. Whereas, if you do good things,
good things will happen and you will be reborn into a better life and work towards achieving
enlightenment.
Hindus can devote themselves to one or more of the three major gods: Brahma, the creator;
Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Hindus can also devote themselves to the so-called
way of knowledge (Jnana Marga) (Hopfe, 1991, p. 115). These are made of of the Samkhya System,
the Yoga System, the Mimansa System, the Vaisheshika System, the Nyaya System, and the Vedanta
System. Hinduism is most popular in India, where it orginated.
Islam
Islam is the youngest of the world's major religions, as well as one of the largest. It is also the
dominant religion of many of the so-called Third World nations in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia
(Hopfe, 1991, p. 400). Islam is monotheistic, with Allah, the one and only G-d. In Islam, Allah made
himself known to the prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe there is only one life and how that life is
lived will determine how believers will spend eternity.

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

The founder of Islam, Muhammad, was prone to religious revelations that came in the form of
seizures and fits in his sleep. Muhammad memorized the contents of these divine messages and
eventually they were committed to writing, to become the scriptures of Islam, called the Quran
(Hopfe, 1991, p. 404). An interesting difference between the monotheistic religions such as Judaism
and Christianity to that of Islam is the literal interpretation of the scripture, or rather the lack of
interpretation. Jews and Christians subject their scriptures to scrutiny and they are considered an
interpretation of the word of G-d, whereby the Quran is regarded by Muslims as the actual word of Gd, with Muhammad having just transcribed it all.
The Mosque is the place of worship for Muslims, although they are free to worship anywhere.
The worship day for Muslims is Friday. There are five requirements to be a good Muslim. These are
referred to as the five pillars of Islam (Hopfe, 1991).
1. Repetition of the Creed. The most common religious act of the Muslim is the frequent
repetition of the creed of Islam...
2. Daily Prayer. In addition to the recitation of the creed, the Muslim is expected to pray
daily...
3. Almsgiving. Proper Muslims are expected to share their possessions with the poor of
the community...
4. Fasting. Islam requires the longest and most stringent fast of all. Each year during the
entire month of Ramadan, Muslims are expected to abstain from all food, drink,
smoking, and sexual relations during the daylight hours.
5. Pilgrimage. It has become a requirement for every Muslim who can afford the trip to
make the pilgrimage to Mecca and venerate the sacred shrines of Islam. The pilgrimage
takes place during a special month in the Muslim calendar called the dhul-Hijah (Hopfe,
1991, pp. 413-416).

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

Two main factions within Islam are the Sunnis and the Shi'ites. The Sunnis are the orthodox
branch of Islam and follow the religion in the most literal and observant fashion. The Shi'ites
represents a basic rupture in the body of this religion (Hopfe, 1991, p. 423). The discourse began
with a disagreement of leadership, then progressed to a dispute of theology.
Islam is a universal religion. Though it arose in the Arab world, it recognizes no national
barriers and knows no distinction among races. All people are the children of Allah and all are
accepted as Muslims (Hopfe, 1991, p. 420).
Taoism
Taoism can be defined as a philosophy of nature and system of magical practices, as well as a
religion. The name, Taoism, comes from the book Tao Te Ching. A loose translation is, the way or
the way of nature (Hopfe, 1991). In modern China Taoism is mainly associated with charms,
exorcisms, and magical attempts to prolong life (Hopfe, 1991, p. 211). The founder of Taoism is
believed to be Lao-tzu who lived in China in the sixth century. Lao-tzu was a the keeper of royal
archives during the Chou Dynasty. He became dissatisfied with his position and life and retired. Laotzu traveled west and when he came to a pass in the mountains at the northwest boundary of China, he
attempted to leave the country. A guard recognized him and would not allow him to leave before first
writing the sum of his wisdom (Hopfe, 1991, p. 212). This became the Tao Te Ching and became the
most influential book in Chinese literature, except for the Analects of Confucius (Hopfe, 1991, p.
212). The above story has been the subject of much debate. The general consensus is that the book
evolved over time. The theme of the Tao Te Ching is that all human achievements are folly, especially
elaborate government (Hopfe, 1991, p. 212). In the fourth century, a disciple of Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu
tried to convince the Chinese to accept Lao-tzu over Confucius as their teacher and put together a book
comprised of his writings of the practice of Taoism.
The teachings of early Taoism as found in these books center around the following

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

themes:
1. The basic unity behind the universe is a mysterious and undefinable force called the Tao.
Usually the word Tao is defined as the way, and it may be best understood in terms of the
way of the universe or perhaps nature's way. Yet the true Tao is impossible to define...
2. Life is the greatest of all possessions. Because of their belief in the Tao as the source of all
life and their belief in the folly of achievement, the early Taoist philosophers taught that life
itself was the greatest of possessions; all others were doomed to decay. Fame, wealth, power,
and education were mere flitting, transient illusions. If people are not interested in the
acquisition of goods, power, or education, then they can give their full attention to the
enrichment of their own lives. This led the Taoists to search for a way to lengthen life, and
eventually they employed various magical practices in an attempt to prolong and enrich life.
3. Life is to be lived simply. Believing that all life originated from the Tao, which would
ultimately destroy peoples' achievements, the early Taoists turned their backs upon civilization
with all its ills and benefits and sought to live as simply as possible. The Taoist philosophers
may have carried this dream to its greatest extreme. They considered that education, wealth,
power, and family ties were all worthless and in fact impediments to living...
4. Pomp and glory are to be despised. Because the Taoists were concerned with living
according to the path of nature (i.e., as simply as possible), they despised the fame, pomp, and
glory that most people seek. They saw such things as the cause of strife and discord in society.
If each person were only content to live as the Tao intended, without seeking to rise above other
people, then life would be as it was intended. This attitude also contained a condemnation of
pride. It was a Chinese teaching, perhaps older than Taoism, that pride invited destruction, that
the tree that stood taller than its neighbors would be the first felled by the woodsman.
Therefore, it is better to be humble, small, or imperfect than to stand out from all the rest

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

(Hopfe, 1991, pp. 213-216).

The early Taoists also seem to have had little concern for life after death (Hopfe, 217). There
is a story about Chuang-tzu after his wife died. His disciples admonished him for not properly grieving
her death. He was in fact acting in a celebratory fashion. Chuang-tzu went on to explain that upon
reflecting on her existence prior to her birth, her life, and her death and likened the process to the
changing of the seasons. He went on to say that to mourn with crying would display that he was
ignorant to that natural process. In general, the Taoists were concerned about the quality of life as it is
lived on a day-to-day basis, without much interest in the heavens, the gods, rituals, or life after death
(Hopfe, 1991, p. 217).
Confucianism
Even though Confucius was not an atheist or anti-religious, no evidence suggests that he was
interested in starting a religion. Rather, he developed a system of ethics, a theory of government, and a
set of personal and social goals that has deeply influenced the Chinese for almost twenty-five
centuries (Hopfe, 1991, p. 224-225). The earliest and most authentic material about Confucius is the
Analects of Confucius, a collection of his teachings compiled about seventy years after his death
(Hopfe, 1991, p. 223).
There were central themes to the teaching of Confucius. One is the concept of li. This can be
described as propriety, rites, ceremonies, or courtesy (Hopfe, 1991). The main current
throughout his teachings is the idea of social order.
According to Confucius, there were five basic relationships in life. If li were present in
these relationships throughout society, the social order would be ideal. These five relationships
are as follows:
1. Father to son. There should be kindness in the father and filial piety in the son.
2. Elder brother to younger brother. There should be gentility in the elder brother and

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

humility in the younger.

3. Husband to wife. There should be righteous behavior in the husband and obedience in
the wife.
4. Elder to junior. There should be consideration among the elders and deference among
the juniors.
5. Ruler to subject. There should be benevolence among the rulers and loyalty among the
subjects (Hopfe, 1991, pp. 225-226).
The inward expression of Confucian ideals was called jen. Jen is frequently translated love,
goodness, or human-heartedness (Hopfe, 1991, p. 226). Confucius taught that society was best
served when people acted toward each other with reciprocity (shu)...If the principles of li and jen were
present and operative in a person, the end product would be the Confucian goal, the superior human
being (Hopfe, 1991, p. 226).
Both Taoism and Confucianism are religions that have fallen out of favor in modern China.
They are generally regarded more as religions of the past that have current value for their history and
also as philosophies that greatly influenced life in China and helped shape that culture.
Buddhism
Buddhism began in India in the sixth century B.C. as another interpretation of the Hindu
religious system (Hopfe, 1991, p. 152). The missionary aspect of Buddhism made it different and
unusual for any type of Hinduism. While Buddhism originated in India, it hardly exists there now and
instead became popular in Asian countries as a result of its missionary efforts.
Siddhartha Gautama is the founder of Buddhism. Siddhartha was born into a privileged family
and his father attempted to shelter him from unpleasantness. However, despite his father's efforts, he
saw the suffering in the world around him. Siddhartha became disenchanted with his life of leisure and
decided to leave and lead a life of asceticism. This life of deprivation and discomfort did not lead to

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

the enlightenment that Siddhartha was seeking. After collapsing into a stream as a result of his
starvation, Siddhartha came to the conclusion his ascetic ways were not leading to enlightenment, he
ate a meal. Once finished, he sat under a fig or bo tree and there became enlightened with the
knowledge of the cycle of birth and death and how earthly desires cause karma. Once free of desire,
Siddhartha was able to attain enlightenment. One of his first sermons preached that either extreme,
indulgence or deprivation, was the correct way of life. He preached that one should live in the middle
way (Hopfe, 1991, p. 154).
A major tenet of Buddhism are the Four Noble Truths:
First, from birth to death every aspect of our lives that is tied to our individuality inevitably
involves suffering (although it may be temporarily avoided with youth, health, and riches).
Second, we suffer because we desire or crave things: Pleasure, life, power. Our desires keep us
returning to this transient world through successive rebirths. The more we try to satisfy our
cravings, the worse they become, making us suffer even more. Third, release from suffering
can only be gained by putting an end to our craving. Finally, craving can only be ended by
following the Noble Eightfold Path (Velasquez, 1991, p. 92).
An early teaching of Buddhism setting forth the principles to be observed in order to attain
emancipation. They are: (1) right views, (2) right thinking, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right
way of life, (6) right endeavor, (7) right mindfulness and (8) right meditation (NSIC, 1983, p. 78).
There are many sects of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism is a conservative sect practiced
mostly in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Hopfe, 1991). Mahayana Buddhism became popular in the
Asian nations such as China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia and Tibet as it appealed to those not interested in
such an orthodox interpretation and observance of Buddhism. Because of this, it became one of the
world's most successful missionary religions (Hopfe, 1991, p. 163). Within Mahayana Buddhism are
more sects: the Pure Land Sect (Ching-t'u, Jodo); the Intuitive Sects (Ch'an, Zen); the Rationalist Sect

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

10

(T'ien-t'ai, Tendai); and the Sociopolitical Sect (Nichiren) (Hopfe, 1991). Nichiren Buddhism is the
sect of Buddhism into which I was born and raised. The Lotus Sutra is the scripture and the main goal
is to achieve enlightenment and to promote world peace. Tibetan Buddhism is also a sect in and of
itself practiced with its own distinct features in Tibet.
Baha'i
Baha'i grew out of a Shi'ite sect of Islam. Baha'i believes that all religions come from one
origin, that all the prophets received a message from G-d and that religion must be in balance with
science and education to bring about peace. Baha'i also believes in the equality of races and sexes.
The Shi-ites believed that there were twelve descendants of Ali, the son-in-law and successor to
Muhammad (Hopfe, 1991). In 1844, a Shi'ite Muslim named Ali Muhammad declared that he was the
promised twelfth imam and called himself Bab-ub-Din (the gate of faith) (Hopfe, p. 442). The Bab
was executed in 1850 as a result of religious and political pressure in Persia. Bab's followers, his
disciple, Husayn Ali who assumed the name Bahaullah, and those Babis (followers of Bab) who
accepted him and his teachings became the Baha'is (Hopfe, 1991). The Baha'is were persecuted for
their beliefs and were forced from city to city and then imprisoned in Palestine, in the Turkish city of
Acca. The leadership of Baha'is passed to the son of Bahaullah, then to that son's grandson. By 1957,
the Baha'i came to be led by an elected body of Baha'is from around the world. The Baha'i do not hold
the Quran as the doctrine that must be adhered to as do the Shi'ite. The core belief is that all religions
have the same source (Hopfe, 1991). All of humankind, all races, all sexes, and all religious truths,
are the work of the one G-d (Hopfe, 1991, p. 444). An abridged version of their doctrines follows.
1. The oneness of the entire human race is the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine
of the faith. This principal is essential to Baha'i. It is the basis for most of its teachings
and practices.
2. There must be an independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition.

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

11

Anyone who wishes to be a Baha'i must be willing to search out the truth of G-d without
relying on the prophets and the traditions of the past...
3. There is a basic unity of all religions...
4. All forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class, or national, are condemned...
5. Harmony must exist between religion and science...
6. There is equality of men and women...
7. Compulsory education must prevail...Bahaullah and Abdul Baha preached that universal
education was a necessary condition for world peace and stability...
8. Baha'i teaches that there should be a universal language...Abdul Baha advocated the
adoption of Esperanto as the universal language.
9. Extremes of wealth and poverty should be abolished...
10. A world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes among nations should be instituted...
11. Work performed in the spirit of service should be exalted to the rank of worship...a good
society is one in which everyone works at some task. There are no loafers or idlers.
12. Justice should be glorified as the ruling principle in human society and religion, for the
protection of all peoples and nations.
13. Finally, as a capstone to all the teachings of Baha'i, the establishment of a permanent
and universal peace should be the supreme goal of humankind9 (Hopfe, 1991, pp. 444447).
The Baha'i believe heaven and hell are not places but conditions of the soul (Hopfe, 1991, p.
447). They also believe that there is not a Satan figure as G-d is everything and that evil is only the
absence of good (Hopfe, 1991, p. 447).
The Baha'i are required to pray daily and to fast for one in nineteen months in their religious
calendar. They also participate in celebratory feasts. Monogamy is the rule of marriage for Baha'is and

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

12

they must obtain the consent of both sets of parents. Divorce is allowed under special circumstances,
but there is a one-year waiting period. If the couple has children, the best possible education is
required to be provided. The Baha'is are not allowed to partake in alcohol and drugs. The Baha'i
worship simply in the homes of members and without ritual. There is no sermon and no offering.
There are three levels of organization. The local community spiritual assembly, the national assembly
and the Universal House of Justice, a nine-member body elected by members of the national spiritual
assemblies throughout the world (Hopfe, 1991, p. 450). Baha'i is practiced around the world, but is a
relatively small religion with less than five million followers as of 1991.
Judaism
Judaism, as with all the religions in this paper, cannot be justly defined in the scope of this
paper. However, there are some basic pillars that make up the structure of the religion. The patriarchs
are important in that Judaism and its beliefs and practices are described historically. Abraham
communicated with and entered a covenant with G-d. Abraham was promised that he would become
the father of a great nation, would possess a land, and would become a blessing to all people if he
would be faithful to his part of the covenant (Hopfe, 1991, p. 297).
The Exodus is an important event in Judaism. The Jews were bound in slavery in Egypt and Gd acted on their behalf and directed Moses to deliver them to freedom. Following this, G-d spoke to
Moses and gave him ten laws (the Ten Commandments).
They may be summarized as follows:
1. I am the Lord your God, who has brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house
of bondage. You shall have no other gods before me.
2. You shall not make any graven image.
3. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain.
4. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy.

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

13

5. Honor your father and your mother.

6. You shall not kill.
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal.
9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
10. You shall not covet your neighbor's property.6 (Hopfe, 1991, p. 301)
Some practices of note that separate Jews from other religion are dietary restrictions and
circumcision. Observation of the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday) by not
participating in work is also a distinction.
The Torah is the main religious text (known also as the Old Testament as it relates to the
Christian bible). Also important are the Mishnah and the Talmud. An interesting facet of Judaism is
mysticism. The concern for angels, demons, magical incantations, charms, witches, ghouls,
interpretation of dreams, the date of the coming of the Messiah, numerology, and the name of God have
been lumped together under the heading Cabala (tradition) (Hopfe, 1991, p. 313). The Zohar is a
compilation of cabalistic material (Hopfe, 1991, p. 313). The Zohar, with it's mystical theme, was an
important book for Jews experiencing hardships such as persecution and exile in the fifteenth century.
There are three main groups within Judaism. These are Orthodox, Conservative and Reform
and can be described simplistically as going from the strictest observance to the most lenient,
respectively.
Zionism refers to the desire of Jews and the movement towards establishing an independent
Jewish state. Israel was established in Palestine, much to the dissatisfaction and protest of the native
populations. These populations worked towards restricting immigration and setting quotas limiting
said immigration. The quota was in place at the worst possible time, the Nazi Holocaust. The
Holocaust is an important part of Jewish history, but will not be covered due to the limitations of space

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

14

in this paper and also because it is a commonly known part of history. An important fact to note,
however, was that the holocaust reduced the world population of Jews by as much as one-third
(Hopfe, 1991, p. 321).
Conclusion
My own personal experiences are with Buddhism and Judaism, although as someone who grew
up in the United States, there was incidental and at times, overt exposure to Christianity as the religion
of the dominant culture. I feel fortunate to have grown up as a Buddhist. It was a religion of tolerance,
simple and easy understand concepts (cause and effect, karma). As an adult, I converted to Judaism,
although I did not renounce Buddhism. This was an easy transition as in the Western sense, Buddhism
is closer to the practice of a philosophy than that of a religion. There was no conflict for me to be able
to accept G-d as a universal being capable of putting into universal forces into motion. As a reform
Jew, I am able to have this interpretation of the Torah and accept it's stories as just that, stories based
loosely on some facts. My personal concerns with Judaism before my conversion was the role of
women. My own Rabbi put me in touch with a female Rabbi that had explanations and interpretations
that answered my questions and concerns. This paper has afforded me the opportunity to learn about
other religions in more specific detail and during a time of intense introspection as is urged of us in our
counseling program. As a result, I have learned new information regarding the religion of others, and
most importantly, that which could pertain to future clients.

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER

15
References

Hopfe, L. M. (1991, 1987, 1983, 1979, 1976). Religions of the World. New York, New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company.
Nichiren Shoshu International Center (1983). A Dictionary of Buddhist Terms and Concepts.
Sendagaya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, Japan: Komiyama Printing Co., Ltd.
Velasquez, M. (1991, 1988, 1983, 1980). Philosophy, a text with readings. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.