Ethics, Success, and Job

Satisfaction: A Test of Dissonance

Aashiek cheriyan

Theory in Coimbatore, India

Muthu Vignesh Balaji

ABSTRACT. A survey of middle level

Two factors affect the strength of the

managers in Coimbatore (n = 50) showed

dissonance: the number of dissonant

that when respondents perceived that

beliefs, and the importance attached to

successful managers in their organization

each belief. There are three ways to

behaved unethically their levels of job

eliminate dissonance: (1) reduce the

satisfaction were reduced. Reduction in

importance of the dissonant beliefs, (2)

satisfaction with the facet of supervision

add more consonant beliefs that outweigh

was

pronounced

the dissonant beliefs, or (3) change the

(than with pay or promotion or co-worker

dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer

or work). Results are interpreted within the

inconsistent.

the

most

framework of cognitive dissonance theory.

Implications for ethics training programs
(behavioural and cognitive) as well as

Dissonance occurs most often in situations

where an individual must choose between
two incompatible beliefs or actions. The

international management are discussed.

greatest dissonance is created when the

two alternatives are equally attractive.

Introduction

Furthermore, attitude change is more likely

According to cognitive dissonance theory,

there is a tendency for individuals to seek
consistency among their cognitions (i.e.,
beliefs, opinions). When there is an
inconsistency

between

attitudes

or

behaviors (dissonance), something must

change to eliminate the dissonance. In the
case of a discrepancy between attitudes

in the direction of less incentive since this

results in lower dissonance. In this respect,
dissonance theory is contradictory to most
behavioral theories which would predict
greater attitude change with increased
incentive (i.e., reinforcement).

Review of literature

and behaviour, it is most likely that the

Reviews of literature on business ethics

attitude will change to accommodate the

have noticed a surge in research on ethical

behaviour.

behaviour.

The research was empirically tested a

dissonance and rationalization is mooted,

relationship between the perceived support

and some recent theories which question

of

ethical

traditional dissonance models, including

behaviours and the job satisfaction of

the free choice paradigm (FCP), are

employees. Based on the theories of

considered. The writer concludes that in

organizational justices, individuals who

the light of the above mentioned critical

perceive the top management in their

theories, it may be assumed that the levels

organization to be supportive of ethical

of moral dissonance, and the extent of

behaviours will be more satisfied with

rationalization/self-justification

their jobs. The correlation supported by the

managers,

top management for ethical behaviour was

personality and situational factors than

with the supervisory satisfaction. Since the

previously assumed. (Lowell, 2012)

the

top

management

for

are

more

amongst

function

of

research was done in India the concept of

ethical decision was a new concept.

The relationship between organisational

(Chockalingam Viswesvaran, 1998)

ethics and organisational outcomes was

examined based on the justice theory and

The implications of moral dissonance for

managers and how dissonance induced
self-justification can create an amplifying
feedback loop and downward spiral of
immoral behaviour is discussed. After
addressing the nature of moral dissonance,
including the difference between moral
and hedonistic dissonance, the writer then
focuses on dissonance reduction strategies
available

to

rationalization,

managers

such

self-affirmation,

as
self-

justification, etc. It is noted that there is a

considerable literature which views the
organization as a potentially corrupting
institution and a source of acute levels of
moral dissonance. A simplified process
model

linking

immoral

behaviour,

cognitive dissonance theory. The sample

data were derived from a questionnaire
survey of 237 managers in Singapore.
Results obtained from decision trees
indicate significant and positive links
between ethical culture constructs (i.e. top
management support for ethical behaviour
and

the

association

between

ethical

behaviour and career success within the

organisation) and job satisfaction. Further,
there is a significant and positive link
between job satisfaction and organisational
commitment. Also, for different levels of
job satisfaction, particular aspects of
organisational ethics are associated with
organisational commitment. The results
suggest that organisational leaders can use
organisational ethics as a means to

generate

favourable

organisational

outcomes. (Koh & Boo, 2004)

creativity to influence both job satisfaction

and turnover intention. Using a self-report
questionnaire, information was collected

Business ethics has been emphasized

from 781 healthcare and administrative

throughout

and

employees working at a multi-campus

organizations are aware of the influence it

education-based healthcare organization.

has on the organization's performance. As

Additional survey data was collected from

a result, ethical leadership is important as

a comparative convenience sample of 127

it influences the employees profoundly.

sales and marketing employees working

This study aims to address this issue and

for a variety of firms operating in the

explore the influence ethical leadership has

south-central United States. The results

on

indicated

the

employees

past

by

decade

examining

job

that

group

creativity

and

satisfaction, subjective well-being at work,

corporate ethical values were positively

and life satisfaction. Two groups of

related, and that both variables were

independent data were collected and a

associated with increased job satisfaction.

multi-group analysis was conducted before

Conversely, corporate ethical values and

pooling together for a two-step structural

job satisfaction were associated with

equation

decreased

modelling

test.

The

results

turnover

intention.

Sales

revealed that ethical leadership has a

managers should create work cultures that

negative direct effect on employee well-

precipitate increased ethical values and

being which offers significant findings for

group creativity, and suggestions about

the meaning of ethical leadership in the

how they may institutionalize these factors

Chinese

are provided. (Sean Valentine, 2011)

culture.

Useful

managerial

implications are provided for managers

and supervisors at the end of this study.

Perceived behavioural integrity involves

(Yang, 2014)

the

employees

perception

of

the

alignment of the managers words and

A corporate culture strengthened by ethical

deeds. This meta-analysis examined the

values

relationship

and

other

positive

business

between

perceived

practices likely yields more favourable

behavioural integrity of managers and the

employee work responses. Thus, the

employee attitudes of job satisfaction,

purpose of this study was to assess the

organizational commitment, satisfaction

degree to which perceived corporate

with the leader and affect toward the

ethical values work in concert with group

organization. Results indicate a strong

positive

relationship

overall

(average r = 0.48, p<0.01). With only 12

studies

included,

exploration

of

moderators was limited, but preliminary

to behavioural outcomes as well as

attitudinal ones. (Rothstein, 2006).

Hypothesis

analysis suggested that the gender of the

H1: job satisfaction ( with pay, promotion,

employees and the number of levels

co-workers,

between the employee and the manager are

overall) and perception of the ethicality of

potential moderators of the relationship. In

behaviours of managers perceived to be

the current sample of studies, country

successful will be positively correlated.

where the research was conducted did not

seem to have any moderating effects. In
addition to suggesting further investigation
of potential moderators, we call for
research that examines the relationship
between

behavioural

integrity

H2:

The

supervision,

relationship

work,

between

and

job

satisfaction and ethicality of managers

perceived to be successful will be strongest
for

the

facet

of

satisfaction

with

supervision.

and

outcomes that include individual behaviour

Method

and organizational performance. (Anne L.

Subjects

Davis, 2006)
The database consisted of responses from
The meta analysis reveals a strong

middle level managers (n=50) employed in

relationship

three

between

the

perceived

different

organizations

in

behavioural integrity of managers and the

Coimbatore,

attitudes of their employees. When the

organizations was in the Coimbatore

managers demonstrate greater behavioural

corporation area whereas the other two

integrity, employees are more satisfied

were outside the corporation limits. 93%

with their job, with the organizations

of the respondents were male, and most of

leadership and are more committed to the

our respondents had a graduate degree.

organizations leadership, and are more

The mean age of the respondents was

committed to the organization.

Job

35.02 years ( SD = 8.07 years). The mean

satisfaction has also been linked to

experience level was 11.87 years (SD =

behavioural outcomes such as lower

7.89 years).

absenteeism and turnover. It is possible to

expect that behavioural integrity is related

Procedures

India.

One

of

the

A questionnaire survey was administered

TABLE I

to the managers. Anonymity of responses

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

was promised and only aggregated data

were presented to the organizations. Since
English is a commonly used language in

Variable

Mean

SD

India, the survey was in English. No

Perceived ethics

2.52

0.54

translation was attempted. The survey

Satisfaction

with 2.53

0.58

included

pay

measures

of

demographic

information, perceived ethical behaviour

Promotion

2.39

0.48

of successful managers ( the construct of

Co-workers

2.93

0.42

ethical optimism; Hunt et al., 1984), and

Supervision

2.77

0.52

job

Work

2.87

0.43

Overall

3.34

0.42

satisfaction.

Measures

of

job

satisfaction employed a Likert scale with

(1) indicating less satisfaction and (4)
indicating greater satisfaction. Perceived
ethical behaviour was also measured in a

TABLE II

four point scale with (1) indicating

agreement

with

the

statement

that

Bivariate correlations

successful managers are more likely to

engage in unethical behaviour and (4)
indicating less likelihood of unethical
behaviour by successful managers.

Facet of satisfaction
correlated
Correlation
With perceived ethics
of Successful managers

Results
Pay

0.36**

Promotion

0.49**

reported in table 1. The correlations

Co-workers

0.41**

between the perceived ethical behaviour of

Supervision

0.53**

Work

0.26**

Overall

0.53**

The means and standard deviations of the

variables analysed in this paper are

successful managers and the measures of

job satisfaction are summarized in table II.
As seen in table II, all correlations were
significant at the 0.01 level (two tailed).

N=50. **p<0.01; Two-tailed

Thus, hypothesis 1 was supported. The

determinants of ethical behaviour have

correlation of perceived ethical behaviour

been

of successful managers was highest with

evidence for the hypothesized relationships

the facet of supervisor satisfaction. In fact,

has

the correlation between perceived ethical

examining individual consequences when

behaviour of successful managers and

there is a conflict between individual and

satisfaction with the facet of work

situational variables postulated to affect

conditions (0.53 vs 0.26). This provides

ethical behaviour is almost non-existent.

support for our second hypothesis.

Finally, given the increasing globalization

correlations between each facet of job

satisfaction with the perceived ethical
behaviour of successful managers. The
for

the

perceived

ethical

behaviour of successful managers was

scored such that high scores indicated that
successful managers in their organisations
ethically.

Job

satisfaction

measures were scored such that higher

scores indicated greater satisfaction. Thus,
positive correlations indicate support for
our hypothesis: that as the perceived
ethicality

scarce.

Further

empirical

research

collect empirical data on ethical decision

The analysis involved computing bivariate

behaved

been

although

of businesses, there is an urgent need to

Analysis

measure

postulated

of

successful

managers

increases, job satisfaction also increases.

making by managers in foreign countries.

This paper reported the results of an
empirical analysis (n = 50 middle level
managers

in

Coimbatore)

of

the

relationship between the perceived ethical

behaviour of managers perceived by the
respondents to be successful in their
organizations and the job satisfaction of
the individual. Based on the theory of
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger,1942),
the

hypothesis

that

individuals

who

perceive successful managers in their

organizations
behaviours

engage
will

be

in

unethical

dissatisfied

was

postulated. Empirical results confirmed the

relationship between perceived ethical
behaviour of successful managers and job

Implications

satisfaction. Finally, this paper provided

Ethical decision making by individuals in

information on Coimbatore; a rapidly

organizations become the focus of study in

developing city about which very little

recent years (Ford and Richardson,1994).

empirical data exists to guide management

Several

decision making.

individual

and

situation

unethical behaviours lead to loss for the

Discussion

perpetrators
An argument could be advanced that the
need for ethical behaviour and the need for
success in one's career are independent
cognitions,

and

inconsistency

thus

between

there

is

perceptions

no
of

success and unethical behaviour. That is,

in the terminology of Aronson (1968), if a
respondent is told that person X is
successful and the respondent is asked

inconsistency

thus

resulting

(based

on

in

an

experience)

between success and lack of ethical

behaviour. Perhaps the best answer to this
criticism lies in our own empirical results:
respondents who perceived successful
managers in their organizations to be
unethical were dissatisfied and their
dissatisfaction was highest with the aspect
of supervision.

what his or her expectation is about person

X*s ethical behaviour, most respondents

The research was limited to middle level

will shrug: there will be no strong

managers and only to three organizations.

expectations.

of

Given the diversity across the regions of

inconsistency,

India in culture and languages spoken,

cultural mores, inconsistency between one

more empirical research is needed to make

cognition and a more encompassing

any generalizations. Further, the survey

cognition, past experience) studied by

nature of our data precludes any causal

Festinger (1942), inconsistency between

statements. While it is correct to state that

ethical behaviour and success is not a

individuals' perceptions of the ethics of

logical consistency. But, we would argue

successful managers and job satisfaction

that such an inconsistency between ethical

are related, one cannot infer that if an

behaviour and success violates the cultural

individual perceives successful managers

more that have emerged in the recent years

in their organizations to be ethical they

in many surveys stressing the need for

will be satisfied. Instead of perceptions

social and ethical responsibility (e.g.,

causing satisfaction, it is equally possible

Cyriac and Dharmaraj, 1994). Further,

that satisfaction influences perceptions.

there is an inconsistency between being

That is, satisfied respondents reported that

successful and having a "good" self-

successful managers in their organizations

concept

were

inconsistencies

Of

the

(logical

(inconsistency

four

kinds

between

one

ethical.

More
were

importantly,
asked

about

the

cognition and a more encompassing

respondents

the

cognition). Finally, the recent events

"perceived" ethical behaviour of managers

should have brought home the fact that

"perceived" to be successful in their

organizations. Future research is needed to

overcome the confounding effects of
potential mono-method bias that could
have influenced the findings reported in
this paper (see also Robertson [1993] for
an

elaboration

methodological

of

this

pluralism

call
in

for
ethics

research).

Scope for Future Research

Another fruitful avenue for future research
is to examine individual consequences
other than job satisfaction. For example,
empirical

research

examining

the

relationship between stress and dissonance

(perceived ethical behaviour of managers
perceived

to

be

successful

in

the

respondent's organization) is needed. Other

individual

consequences

organizational

such

commitment,

as
job

performance, and health need to be

explored. Also useful would be research
that

facilitates

cognitive

and

programs

that

the

development

behavioural
will

enhance

of

training
ethical

behaviour or individuals in organizations.

Potential interface with the literature on
whistle blowing (e.g., Dozier and Miceli,
1985) also needs to be explored.

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