2015

Construction
Technology CE3221
Road Construction
This assignment is work related to construction which includes equipment
costing, equipment selection and use, earthwork planning, earthwork
compaction and road construction

A.M.Mohamed Mafas EN13529550

M.M.Raahim EN13527402
B.Asadhullah EN13518738

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Construction Technology CE3221

Contents
Page

Introduction

03

Equipment Costing

05

Earthwork Planning

10

Earthwork Compaction

13

Road Construction

15

References

17

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List of figures
Figure 1 - Equipment with scale
Figure 2 - Net volume (Bank cubic yards, Loose cubic yards and Compacted cubic yards)
Figure 3 Mass diagram
Figure 4 - D7H dozer
Figure 5 - Moisture content vs Dry density
Figure 6 - While road constructing

List of tables
Table 1 Cut and fill chart

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1.0 Introduction
Roads are an integral part of the transport system. A countrys road network should be
efficient in order to maximize economic and social benefits. They play a significant role in
achieving national development and contributing to overall performance and social function of
the community. It is acknowledge that roads enhance mobility and taking people out of isolation.
Prior to commencement of any road construction project involving site formation work, site
investigation is carried out to establish the geological profile along the road alignment. Very
often, samples are taken by borehole drilling for tests including, particle size distribution,
moisture content and triaxial tests etc. The results are useful for engineering design.
The engineering properties of most soils can be improved by compaction. Compaction is the
art of mechanically densifying materials. The base layer of a road lays the foundation for the
upper pavement structure. It must offer excellent bearing capacity, be capable of withstanding a
broad range of different climatic conditions, and remain functional over several decades. If the
moisture content of a soil is below its optimum moisture range, add water to the soil before
compaction. The project officer must consider following,

The amount of water required

The rate of water application,

The method of application

The effects of the weather.

Compaction equipment ranges from handheld vibratory tampers (suitable for small or
confined areas) to large, self-propelled rollers and high speed compactors (ideally suited for
large, horizontal construction projects). When selecting compaction equipment type and
properties of the soil, density desired, placement lift thickness, size of the job and availability of
compactions equipments are should be considered. Since the use of several types of compaction
equipment overlaps, it is good to use a test strip to make the final determination of the most
efficient compactor and compaction procedures. Locate a test strip adjacent to the project site.
The test strip provides an evaluation/validation of the proposed construction procedures.
Information obtained from a test strip includes,

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Most effective type of compaction equipment,

Optimum depth of lift,

Optimum compactor speed,

Number of passes required,

Amount of ballast required and vibration frequency required.

The term sub grade describes the in-place soil on which a road, an airfield, or a heliport is
built. Sub grade includes the soil to the depth that may affect the structural design of the project
or the depth at which the climate affects the soil. Depths up to 10 feet may be considered sub
grade for pavements carrying heavy loads. The quality and natural density of this material dictate
what action(s) to take to prepare the sub grade. For example, a highly organic sub grade material
may have to be totally removed and replaced with a higher quality, select material. In most
situations this is not the case. Often the in-place material is suitable, but requires some degree of
compactive effort to achieve the required density.
After preparing the sub grade, bring in fill material to form the sub base and base courses for
the project. When placing fill, it is important to spread the material in uniform layers and to
maintain a reasonably even surface. The thickness of the layers is dependent on the desired
compacted lift thickness. The thickness of the uncompacted lift is normally 1 1/2 to 2 times the
final compacted lift. For example, place fill in 9- to 12-inch lifts to achieve a compacted lift
thickness of 6 inches. Place the fill material with a scraper or a dump truck and spread it with a
dozer or grader. When spreading material on a prepared sub grade, spreading the material from
the source to the nearest or vice versa. The advantages of spreading fill from the farthest point to
the nearest are as follows:

The hauling equipment will further compact the sub grade.

Previously undetected weaknesses in the sub grade will become apparent.

Hauling will not hinder spreading or compacting operations.

The first person in the paving team, however, is the truck driver who fills the asphalt into the
paver's hopper. Two mutually independent conveyors transport the material through the machine
to the rear, where it is uniformly distributed between paver and screed by two individually
controlled rotating screw conveyors. When paving a standard mix, the temperature should
always remain above 110 C in order to ensure sufficient time for compaction.

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2.0 Equipment Costing

Logging companies invest literally millions of dollars in processors, skidders, and other
types of equipment to run their operations. From an economic standpoint, making an investment
in such capital equipment only makes sense if the revenue generated by the equipment exceeds
the cost. All too often, loggers face the specter of bankruptcy as a consequence of failing to
measure their costs correctly.
Calculating your equipment cost is not only important for measuring your profitability, it is
also important because many mills spend a great deal of time estimating equipment costs in order
to set logging rates. Specifically, they estimate the costs per productive machine hour that a
contractor should be able to achieve for each machine involved in harvesting a cut block. They
then convert the hourly cost to a cost per output based on an estimated production per hour ratio.
The fact is that few contractors know their true equipment costs and even fewer know how
to allocate those costs correctly. A well-designed equipment costing system charges projects for
the full cost of the equipment each uses. Proper equipment costing leads to better selection of
projects and to a profitably managed equipment fleet. Adoption of the techniques shared below
will reduce your costs of construction by bringing to light wasteful equipment management
practices.

Figure 1 Equipment with scale

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Example 01
A 260-fwhp diesel powered wheel loader will be used to load shot rock (blasted rock). This
loader was purchased for Rs.33,000,000 + STD. The estimated salvage value at the end of 4
years is Rs.8,500,000+STD/10 (you may ignore 0.10 value). The companys cost of capital is
8.7%. A set of tires costs Rs.3,200,000+STD/5. The work efficiency will be equal to a 45-min
hour. The engine will work at full throttle while loading the bucket (33% of the time) and at
three-quarter throttle to travel and dump. The crack case capacity is 45 litres and the company
has policy to change oil every 100hr on this job. The annual cost of repairs equals to 70% of the
straight-line machine depreciation. Fuel cost is Rs107/litre, and oil is Rs.800/litre. The cost
other lubricants and filters is Rs.45/hr. Tire repair is 17% of tire depreciation. The tires should
give 3,000 hr of service. The loader will work 1,500hr/year. In this usage estimated life for
bucket teeth is 120hr. The local price for set of teeth is Rs. 64,000/=. What is the operating cost
for the loader in this application?
Answer
First member index number EN13529550
Therefore, STD = 9550
Given data

Purchase cost = Rs.33,000,000 + STD = 33,000,000 + 9550 = Rs.33,009,550

Estimated salvage value(end of 4 years) = Rs.8,500,000 + STD/10 = Rs.8,500,955
Companys cost of capital = 8.7%
A set of tire cost = Rs.3,200,000 + STD/5 = 3,200,000 + 1910 = Rs.3,201,910
Full throttle 33% of time and travel dump at three-quarter of throttle
The Work efficiency = 45-min.hour
The crack case capacity = 45 litres
Company policy to oil change = every 100 hour
Annual cost of repair = 70%
Fuel cost = Rs.107/litre
Oil cost = Rs.800/litre
The cost of lubricant and filters = Rs.45/hour
Tire repair is 17% of tire depreciation
Tire service = 3000 hours
Work ability = 1500 hour/year

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Fuel Cost
Assume 1 gal = 4 litre
Estimating the fuel cost = 0.04 gal = 0.04 x 4 = 0.16 litres
Load factors,
Loading the bucket = 1.00 x 0.33 = 0.33
Travel and dump

= 0.75 x 0.67 = 0.5025

Therefore total load factor = 0.33 + 0.5025 = 0.8325

Work efficiency factor = 45 / 60 = 0.75
Therefore combined factor = 0.8325 x 0.75 = 0.6244
Total fuel consumption = 0.6244 x 0.16 litre/fwhp.hr x 260 fwhp = 25.975 litre/hr
Total cost of fuel = 25.975 litre/hr x Rs.107/litre = Rs.2,779.33/hr

Lubricant cost
Total oil consumed = (260 fwhp x 0.6244 x 0.006 lb/hp.hr) / 1.85 lb/litre + 0.45litre/hr
= 0.5265 + 0.45 = 0.9765 litre/hr
Oil cost = 0.9765 litre/hr x Rs.800/litre = Rs.781.21/hr
Total oil cost = Rs.781.21/hr + Rs.45/hr = Rs.826.21/hr

Repair cost
Initial cost

= Rs.33,009,550

Salvage value = Rs.8,500,955

Total cost = Rs.33,009,550 - Rs.8,500,955 = Rs.24,508,595
Therefore,
Rs.24,508,595 / (4yr x 1500hr/yr) = Rs.4,084.77/hr
Repair cost = Rs.4084.77/hr x 0.7 = Rs.2,859.34/hr
Tire cost = Rs.3,201,910 x 0.17 / 3000 hr = Rs.181.44/hr
Total repair cost = Rs.2,859.34/hr + Rs.181.44/hr = Rs.3,040.78/hr
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High wear item cost
Teeth = 120 hr / 0.33 = 363.64 hr
Therefore,
Rs.64,000 / 363.64hr = Rs.175.998/hr = Rs.176/hr

Total operating cost = Fuel cost + Lubricant (oil) cost + Repair cost + High wear item cost
= Rs.2,779.33/hr + Rs.826.21/hr + Rs.3,040.78/hr + Rs.176/hr
= Rs.6,822.32/hr

Example 02
A CAT d7H (power -shift) dozer is used in a pushing operation. The dozer is equipped with a
straight blade. The material (dry and noncohesive) weighs 106pcf in the bank state. It is
estimated that the material will swell 7% , from bank to loose state. Estimate centre-of-mascenter-of-mass pushing distance for 2-1 above and assume 3% grade. The operators have
average skill and job will be performed in dusty conditions. Job efficiency can be assumed to be
equivalent to a 45 min hour. Calculate the direct cost of the proposed earthmoving operation in
Rs. per bcy. The company normal O&O cost for these machine is Rs7,000 per hour and the
operators wage is Rs.200 per hour plus 41% for fringes, insurance, workers compensation, and
so on.
Answer
Given data

Straight Blade Type

Material weight = 106 pcf (dry and non-cohesive)
Swell % = 07 %
Grade = +3%
Efficiency = 45 min-hour
O&O cost for the machine = Rs.7,000 per hour
Operators wage = Rs.200 per hour + 41%

Ideal maximum production,

Estimated pushing distance = 300 ft (Assumption)
Ideal production = 170 lcy/hr
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Material weight correction factor
Bank weight of this project material = 106 lb/cf 27 cf/cy = 2,862 lb/bcy
Swell is 7%. So the loose weight of material = 2862 lb/bcy / 1.07 = 2,674.76 lb/lcy
Standard condition is 2,300 lb/lcy
Material weight correction = 2,300lb/lcy / 2,674.76 lb/lcy = 0.86
Operation correction factor = 0.75
(Average skill, job perform in dusty condition)
Material Type correction factor = 0.8
(dry and non-cohesive)
Visibility correction factor = 0.8
(Assumed as tractor type)
Efficiency Factor = 45 / 60 = 0.75
Machine transmission factor = 1.0
( D7H Power-shift Dozer)
Blade Adjustment factor = 1.00
Grade correction factor = 0.94
(3% grade)
Product of Correction factor = 0.94 1 1 0.75 0.8 0.8 0.75 0.86 = 0.29
Dozer production = 170 0.29 = 49.3lcy/hr
Material conversion = 49.3 / 1.07 = 46.07bcy/hr
Total cost to operate the Dozer = 7000 + 200 1.41 = Rs.7281/hr

Direct Unit Product Cost = Rs.7281/hr / 46.07bcy/hr = Rs.158.04 per bcy

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3.0 Earthwork Planning

Every construction project is a unique undertaking. Therefore, planning is undertaken to
understand the problems and to develop courses of action. While planning earthwork
construction review the contract documents, study the plans, plan the work, perform quantity
take-off and determine costs should be done. A site visit is strongly recommended to relate the
physical site characteristics to the work details. After the site visit is completed, the planner
determines the quantity of materials that will have to be furnish or move. Plan view, profile view
and cross section view are presented in the contract documents to show earthwork construction
features. In average end area method volume calculates from following equation
Volume [net cy] =(A1+A2)/2 * L/27
Earthmoving is basically an operation where material is removed from high spots and
deposited in low spots with the making up of any deficit with borrow or the wasting of excess
cut material. The mass diagram is an excellent method of analyzing linear earthmoving
operations. It is a graphical means for measuring haul distance (stations) in terms of earthwork
volume (cubic yards). An earthwork volume sheet, can easily be constructed using a spreadsheet
program. It permits a systematic recording of information and completing the necessary
earthwork calculations.

Figure 2 Net volume (Bank cubic yards, Loose cubic yards and Compacted cubic yards)

Example
Complete the earthwork calculation sheet here and plot the resulting mass diagram. Divide ccc
by 0.88 to convert to bcy. Calculate the area under the mass diagram curve. What quantity of
material must be hauled along the length of the project? What is the average haul distance, in
situation, for this material?
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Answer
Student No

Station

0 + 00
1 + 00

2 + 00

3 + 00

4 + 00

5 + 00

6 + 00

7 + 00

8 + 00

9 + 00

10 + 00

11 + 00

12 + 00

EN 13529550

9550

Endarea
cut
(m2)
0.00

End
area
fill
(m2)
0.00

Vol of
cut
(bcy)

Vol of
fill
(ccy)

0.00

0.00

Stripping
cut
(bcy)
0.00

0.00

95.96

0.00

1912.69

0.00

285.96

0.00

3.96

270.96

6.96

Algebraic
sum
(bcy)
0.00

Stripping fill
(ccy)

Total
cut
(bcy)

Total
fill
(ccy)

Adj. Fill
(bcy)

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

1912.69

2173.51

2173.51

2173.51

7612.68

0.00

0.00

0.00

7612.68

8650.77

8650.77

10824.2
8

78.84

11100.98

0.00

0.00

78.84

11100.9
8

12614.7
5

12535.9
1

23360.1
9

220.96

217.47

9805.32

0.00

0.00

217.47

9805.32

11142.41

10924.9
4

34285.1
3

12.96

180.96

396.87

8011.34

30.96

0.00

427.82

8011.34

9103.79

8675.97

42961.1
0

50.96

42.96

1273.93

4463.24

86.96

211.91

1360.88

4675.15

5312.67

3951.78

46912.8
9

120.96

0.00

3426.71

856.23

150.96

438.91

3577.67

1295.14

1471.75

2105.92

44806.9
7

250.96

0.00

7413.34

0.00

250.96

801.91

7664.30

801.91

911.26

6753.04

38053.9
3

290.96

0.00

10801.98

0.00

380.96

1168.91

11182.94

1168.91

1328.31

9854.63

28199.3
0

310.96

0.00

11997.97

0.00

340.96

1334.91

12338.93

1334.91

1516.94

10821.9
8

17377.3
2

200.96

0.00

10203.99

0.00

33.96

692.91

10237.94

692.91

787.40

9450.55

7926.77

0.00

0.00

4005.67

0.00

0.00

11.91

4005.67

11.91

13.53

3992.14

3934.64

Table 1 Cut and fill chart

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Maximum

Massordinat
e
0.00

46912.
89

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Construction Technology CE3221

Mass Diagram
50000.00
40000.00
30000.00
Mass Diagram

20000.00
10000.00
0.00
0

10

11

12

13

Figure 3 Mass diagram

Area of Curve = (1086.8 + 6498.9 + 17092.2 + 28822.7 + 38623.1 + 44937 + 45859.9

41430.5 + 33126.6 + 22788.3 + 12652.0 + 5930.7) 100
= . Sta

Quantity of material is wanted to hauled along the length of the project = 3934.64bcy
Average haul distance = (298848.7 100) / 46912.89 = 6.37 1 00 = 6+37 Sta

Figure 4 - D7H dozer

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4.0 Earthwork Compaction

The engineering properties of most soils can be improved by compaction. Compaction is the
art of mechanically densifying materials. By compaction engineering properties improve such as
load bearing capacity, control of shrinkage and swelling and reduced permeability. Soil
gradation, moisture content and compactive effort are influencing soil density. The amount of
water present in a soil mass affects the compaction operations and achievable soil density.

Figure 5 Moisture content vs Dry density

Normally, it is good practice to adjust water content to OMC = 2%. But this depends on
wind, temperature, and soil type. Lift is a layer of soil placed on top of soil previously placed in
an embankment. The term can be used in reference to material as spread or as compacted.
Temping foot compactor, sheeps foot roller, impactor, pneumatic roller etc are using for the
compaction purposes. The formula to determine compactor production in CCY per hour is,
Production (CCY per hour) = (16.3 W S L E ) / N
16.3 = constant for converting the factors in feet, mph, and inches to CCY
W = compacted width per pass, in feet
S = compactor speed, in mph
L = compacted lift thickness, in inches
E = efficiency
N = number of passes required

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Example
Estimate the production in compacted m3 per hour for a roller if its average speed will be 12kmh
and it will cover 2.5m in one pass. The job specifications limit the compacted lift thickness to
150mm and require seven passes per lift. The company usually figures production based on a
50-min.hour.

Answer
Production = (W x S x L x E) / N
= (2.5 x 12 x 150 x 50/60) / 7
= 535.71 m3/hr

Figure 6 While road constructing

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5.0 Road Construction

Modern road construction involves the removal of geographic obstacles, and the use of new
construction materials that are far more improved and durable. Rock and earth is removed by
explosion or digging. Embankments, tunnels, and bridges are constructed, and then vegetation is
removed by deforestation, if necessary. Finally, the pavement material is laid by using a range of
road construction equipment.
Roadways are basically designed and constructed for use by vehicles and pedestrians. Storm
drainage and ecological considerations should be considered seriously. Sediments and erosion
are controlled to avoid damaging effects. Drainage systems are constructed so that they should
be able to carry waste water to a waterway, stream, river, or the sea.
With ever increasing traffic and exponentially increasing vehicular load, construction
management techniques have become the need of the hour. Managing maximum traffic in
optimal space is what the world needs today. Safe designing of roads, highway space
management and proper drainage of water are major aspects that the site engineers have to take
care of. Construction management includes putting all the pieces of puzzle together, defining
project objectives, dividing the project into modules and optimizing the available resources.
Time, money and resource management are important aspects. Time saved is money earned, and
that is where construction management techniques are helpful.

Example
An asphalt plant will produce 180 tph for the above highway project. The mat will be 12ft wide
and 1.5inch thick, and will have a density of 115lb/sy-in. A vibratory roller with a 66-in wide
drum will be used for compaction. Assume a 50-min hour efficiency factor for the roller. The
overlap between adjacent laps and over edges will be 6-in. minimum. It is estimated that nonproductive travel will add about 15% to total travel. From a test mat, it was found that three
passes with the roller are required to achieve the density. To account for acceleration and
deceleration when changing directions, add 10% to the average roller speed to calculate a
running speed. If it is desired to keep the following speed under 3 mph, how many rollers are
required for the project.
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Given data

Produce of asphalt plant = 180 tph

Mat wide, thickness and density = 12ft, 1.5-in and 115lb/sy-in
Vibrator roller drum wide = 66-in
Efficiency factor = 50-min hour
The overlap between adjacent laps and over edges = 6-in. minimum

Average plant production = 180tph / 60min/hour = 3 ton/min

Paving length = (12ft x 1.5-in x 115lb/sy-in) / (9sf/sy x 2000lb/ton) = 0.115 ton/ft
Average paving speed = 3 ton/min / 0.115 ton/ft = 26.09 ft/min = 26 ft/min
Rolling width = 12ft x 12in/ft + 2 x 6-in (each edge) = 156-in
Effective roller width = 66-in 6-in (overlap) = 60-in
No. of laps,
First laps 66-in; 156 66 = 90-in
Remaining additional laps = 90-in / 60-in = 1.5
Therefore 3 laps will be necessary to cover the 12ft placement width.
Total number of roller passes = 3 laps x 3 passes per lap = 9 passes
Each pass must cover,
26ft/min, rolling + 26ft/min, return + maneuver distance
Total roller distance required to match paver speed,
9 x 52ft/min x 1.15(non production) x 60min/hr = 32,292 ft/hr
Average roller speed = 32,292ft/hr / 50min/hr = 645.84 = 646ft/min or 7.34mph
Running speed = 7.34 x 1.1 = 8.074 mph
Number of roller required with 3mph = 8.074mph / 3mph = 2.69
Therefore 3 rollers required to keep the speed under 3mph

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6.0 References

http://www.brighthubengineering.com/structural-engineering/59665-road-constructionhistory-and-procedure/ (accessed 01.11.2015)

http://www.caribousoftware.com/News_EquipmentCosting.asp (accessed 01.11.2015)

https://books.google.lk/books?id=ICwaJKGeFWcC&pg=PA216&lpg=PA216&dq=calcul
ated+the+direct+cost+of+the+proposed+earthmoving&source=bl&ots=JweqmsjShZ&sig
=vGdpFYWzxLqeTUpAoYHxh5G3ZD0&hl=si&sa=X&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAmoVChMI
pKjp-uDsyAIVwiWmCh2TfA0m#v=onepage&q=vibratory%20roller&f=false (accessed
01.11.2015)

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