Ybl Miklos Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Budapest

ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CYCLE THEORY

Budapest
2014

Student
Radu-Ioan Moisescu

Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Rudolf Klein

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Study's objective and theme's motivation

Chapter 2. Object of study's definitions and methods used

2.1 Analyzed terms
2.11 Social cycle theory
2.12 Civilization
2.13 Culture
2.14 Architecture
2.15 Spirit
2.2 Philosophy of history

Chapter 3. Listing of analyzed civilizations

3.1 Geographical and historical development
3.2 Architectural development

Chapter 4. Recurring phenomenons

Chapter 5. Conclusions

Bibliography

ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CYCLE THEORY

- abstract-

The following thesis reconsiders a recurring theme among historians preoccupations, both national and
international, from the social cycle point of view. It aims to observe how in the course of history of
civilizations architecture plays a fundamental part in what we regard today as human development,
architecture thus being the manifestation of human spirit as G.W.F. Hegel states it, culminating with the
role of an indicator of spiritual values and aesthetic trends, molded throughout history.
The paper is organized in five chapters: The first chapter addresses the typical introductory matter for
the thesis and observes how several scholars have theorized the matter of civilizations and cultural
patterns with the aim of better understanding the time line of human development. The second chapter
is composed of a list of terms to be defined before understanding the identity of how today's
civilization emerged and the methods by which several philosophers deduce it. The third chapter
covers fundamental notions referring to geographical and historical coordinates specific to the
mentioned civilizations, with the purpose of schematically tracing the development of architecture
through the sociocultural point of view. The fourth chapter compiles all the data, reviewing recurring
themes throughout history that are ultimately visible in the way people perceive their reality and
translate it into architecture. The final chapter concludes the paper's objective of understanding how
and why historical development emerged and achieved its current state, leaving room for future
research in social cycle theory and ultimately human progress.

Chapter 1. Introduction
The mother art is architecture. Without an architecture of our own we have no soul of our own
civilization.
Frank Lloyd Wright

Humanity is in a perpetual conciliation with its existence and strives on achieving immortality.
Standing the test of time, architecture represents the means by which we demonstrate the struggle of
materializing our social and civic values in its reflections of culture. To the question of what is the
purpose of architecture, there lies a simple yet complex answer.
Simply put, architecture exists to create the environment in which people live. Digging deeper we ask
ourselves what makes a built environment, what types of criteria should it fulfill, does it relate to wider
culture and is it influenced by the political, economical and zeitgeist.
In the past century there has been an intense preoccupation on behalf of the western civilization as to
where are we on the time line of human history and towards where are we heading. Writers, historians
and philosophers debating and contributing to the concept of human development had a major theme
that keenly arose, the social theory of cyclic history, in which the interpretation of history as we
perceive it today is bound to be subjected to repeating itself, with possible social progress. The other
pertinent question that lies before is whether we are ready in this process of continuous repetition of
putting to good use the technology with which civilization bestows us without repeating or simply
reacting to forms of the past.
1.1 Study's objective and theme's motivation

The study's main objective is the brief analysis of the civilizations that contributed to giving birth to the
West today, in comparison to other historically notable ones, with the outcome of observing the role of
architecture throughout human development. The analysis has a static part, a description of
geographical and historical structures and their relations, as well as a dynamic one, the evolution in
time in the given conditions and the crystallization of character in an age and its reverberations.
The motivation for choosing this theme is both subjective and objective, wishing to offer a support for
a more complex approach of the concerned context for future architecture projects from the historic
point of view, the paper is addressed both to the large public and to the specialized one.

Chapter 2. Object of study's definitions and methods used

Despite the objectiveness with which a definition comes, it must not be removed from its
historical context, the characteristic flavor of the generation it was brought up in. The use of the
following terms will be a recollection of how it was regarded by previous scholars with the endeavor of
bringing it up to date, conveying its present status of how we understand it today. That is why for
example the use of todays word for civilization may be regarded in a different light if we go back to
Spenglers Kultur or how the act of creation and perception of reality may emerge from Hegels
Spirit or Mircea Eliades idea of truth, all valid and having overlapping aspects.
2.1 Analyzed terms

2.11 Social cycle theory

Among one of the earliest social theories in sociology and a branch of sociocultural evolution,
social cycle theory admits that events and stages of society and history are generally repeating
themselves in cycles1,but unlike the theory of social evolutionism where human progress is
compulsory, this not necessarily implies the presence of social progress, although in the course of
world history mutations have made the world advance to something better, in cycles. The term gives a
better delimitation of the phenomenon of patterns in a civilization, with a basic logic which the model
follows.
Interpretations of history in repeating cycles was also a common belief among ancient cultures, and the
branch of the 19th century's historiosophy carved the path towards the classical theories of Nikolai
Danilewski, G. W. Friedrich Hegel, Oswald Spengler and later Arnold Toynbee's work on the rise and
fall of civilizations. Today modern social scientist use mathematical models in an attempt to study the
interaction between cyclical and trend components of historical dynamics that lead to the prediction of
civilization collapses during its life-cycle. In addition to its content, cyclic history completes the
definition of how major forces as religion, politics and science that motivate human actions return in a
cycle, periods of prosperity compensating with moments of tension.2
1
2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cycle_theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_history

2.12 Civilization
The English word civilization has its roots in the 16th century French form civilis based on
the Latin civilis, related to civis (citizen) and civitas (city)3. The word meets an extraordinary destiny
in the English, French and German world during the 18th and 19th century which concept was to denote
the act of urbanizing a settlement, so as to make a clear delimitation between different types of
societies which encompassed various traditions and beliefs. Thus emerges the conviction that certain
populations, living in certain parts of the world are in a struggle with bringing closer to them marginal
inhabitants (centralization), subduing them to their influence, imposing a certain lifestyle. To this
conviction the idea of continuous human progress arises and its backlash is the phenomenon of
contending states that shifts the center of gravity as we will observe in various geographical spots.
The term evolves and becomes more concrete from the form of a superior culture as marquis de
Mirabeaux states it, to that of culture assigned with specific traditions, language, beliefs, institutions
and technology as indicated by Wilhelm von Humboldt. Still, late up until the 19th century civilization
and culture remained synonymous nouns. Arnold Toynbee's A Study of History makes the clear
distinction noticing that civilizations represent big assemblies with common features characterized by a
common dynamic and will throughout human history's time line. Recently Neagu Djuvara, Romanian
historian and philosopher, agrees on synthesizing three core aspects that constitute a civilization:
1. A civilization must have covered a relatively large plot of land for its age, embracing multiple
ethnic groups or forms of state.
2. A civilization must have realized the idea of unity in terms of technology, arts, beliefs.
3. A civilization must have evolved for an average lifespan of 2000 years and has passed through
an algorithmic phase of social-political evolution.
Today civilization represents any complex society characterized by urban development with social
stratification that is perceived as a separation from the natural environment and is intimately associated
with social-politic-economic characteristics.
Following MacIver we make a clear distinction between the terms culture and civilization, which
in day-to-day talk have become interchangeable. The following points must be noted:

Civilization is bigger than culture because it is a complex aggregate of the society that dwells
within a certain area, along with its forms of government, norms, and even culture.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization

Civilization is always advancing, but not culture.

Civilization is easily passed without much effort to the next generation, but not culture.

Civilization may be borrowed without making any change, but not culture.

Civilization may be similar in variable cultural areas. Variability of cultures may not be
accompanied by variability of civilization at different places. For instance, there is a great
difference between American and Indian cultures but there are many similarities in their
equipment.

Civilization and culture are interdependent.

The object of civilization acquire after some time a cultural aspect.

We may conclude that civilization denotes the utilitarian things used as an apparatus, the mere
instruments, the means by which a specific culture may reach its goals to controlling the conditions of
his life.

2.13 Culture

In the words of British anthropologist E.B. Tylor, culture may represent that complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society4.The term's first usage can be traced back to Cicero's oratorios
with the metaphor of human development, followed by Immanuel Kant's concept of bildungand
Toynbee's definition of culture as an ensemble of techniques, beliefs and spiritual creations of a specific
ethnic group, that may as well apply to a larger culture (Hochkultur) such as the French, German or
English culture.
The structure of a culture consists of material and non-material substances, all cultures having similar
basic organization, although cultures developed by societies vary from one another.
Components of a culture are the following:
1. Cultural traits: Small units which when put together constitute a whole shaking hands, taking
one's hat off, shaving one's face etc.
2. Culture complex: A culture pattern is formed when traits and complexes become related to each
other in functional roles. Each culture complex has a role to play in society. It has got definite
4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture

place within it. The culture pattern of a society consists of a number of culture complexes.
These are:
1. Speech and Language
2. Material traits
Food habits, shelter, transport, dress, tools, weapons, occupations
3. Art
4. Mythology and Scientific knowledge
5. Religious Practices
6. Family and Social Systems
7. Property
8. Government
9. War

The evolution of culture is built solely by man. Because man simultaneously inhabits past, present, and
future, he possesses the capacity to vocalize, to respond, to represent, articulate and to learn from the
stimulus-response relationship. These peculiar elements in the makeup of man provided a background
against which culture arose. The rudiments of culture developed by one generation serve as foundation
stone to the next generation which makes its own addition. Man is born in the stream of culture and
must continually swim in it if he is to live as a member of society. We may define culture as an
acquired behavior of the group, a distinctive trait of a nation, a group of a period in history with infinite
variability. The functions of culture serve both the individual and the group, providing solutions for
given situations, traditional interpretations to certain situations, keeping social relationships intact and
creating new needs.In short, we may note some of the important characteristics which a culture
embodies as being the following:

Culture is a social phenomenon, dealing with human needs.

Culture can exist in itself whereas civilization cannot be called a civilization if it does not
possess a certain culture.

Culture has no value in itself but it is a measurement by which we can value other articles of
civilization.

Culture relates to the inner qualities of society like religion, customs, conventions, while
civilization relates to the outer form of society such as technology

Culture is an end (values and goals) in itself while civilization is a means (tools and techniques)
to an end.

Culture is more stable than civilizationcultural change takes place in years or in centuries but
civilization changes very rapidly.

We may now observe how the difference between the two expressions leaves room for contextual
reading, nevertheless, in this close relationship architecture plays a key role in understanding how
society changes throughout history both in culture and civilization.

2.14 Architecture
Defined as the art and science of designing and erecting buildings5, architecture works in the
material form of buildings is often perceived as a cultural symbol and work of art, civilizations often
being identified in the surviving architectural achievements. Architecture requires the creative
manipulation and coordination of materials and technology and of light and shadow.The practice also
encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost
estimation and construction administration6.
In his works Mircea Eliade notes that the importance of sacred experience as being paramount. For the
archaic man, reality is a function of imitating a celestial archetype. Man extracts certain parts from
reality and constructs his own, going from sacred to profane. Architecture thus goes from natural to
constructed and gains the role of an indicator on the time-line of human development whilst playing a
major role in the manifestation of human spirit. As Hegel states it, the process of civilizations is the
attainment of rational freedom and with this in mind we may enter the field of how spirit plays a key
role in attaining this development.

2.15 Spirit

A definition of spirit may be considered the force or principle believed to animate living beings7.The
notion of spirit and soul often overlap, both in the sense of contrasting with the body and understood as
5
6
7

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/architecture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/spirit

the consciousness or personality.

In Hegel's acceptation, spirit is the realization of an ideal being by which, paradoxically, trying to
reach, it alienates itself from it. Spirit begins as a gem of infinite possibility, advancing from imperfect
to perfection, attaining full realization of itself. In this metaphysical context spirit equates to essence,
with the objective of finding a (new) purpose. The highest point, as stated by the author, in
development of a peoples is gaining a conception of life and morality to a level of science. With this
comes the conception of life, time and ultimately death, spirit replacing reality with its own conception
of the universe and creating a new form to its inherent principles.
The spirit of a culture is both an intrinsic and extrinsic element, the inward needs emerging from lusts
that are powered by external factors, such as the natural environment (the Homeric sky) or social
movements.

2.2 Philosophy of History

Considered as one of the most accessible works of Friedrich Hegel, the mains goal of the course
sets on observing the realization of human spirit, which is embodied in freedom, that he considers
henceforth the State, mind objectified. The claim of the world's spirit rises above all special claims and
each member of the state contributes to this principle of development. This marks the Stages of History
as the author states them. Thus, the widest view of history reveals three most important stages of
development:

Oriental imperial - the stage of oneness, of suppression of freedom.

Greek social democracy - the stage of expansion, in which freedom was lost in
unstable demagogy.

Christian constitutional monarchy - which represents the reintegration of freedom

in constitutional government.

The phases of the classification of historic data have to do with the pursue for freedom as stated earlier
and are regarded as different stages in the search for this ideal. These phases represent a continuous
process and are split into distinct 4 distinct parts resembling human life :
1. History's childhood: characterized by a paternal government, non-crystallized, governed by a
form of despotism as described in his chapter of the Oriental world.

2.

Boyhood of history: where more turbulent events happen. This is represented by the
adolescence of the Greek world, where the concept of morality is at its peak.

3. Manhood of history: represented by the history of the Roman state. Here the individual
perishes as a notion, he may realize his own private objectives, but in so doing it is for the
general aim of the State, universality subduing the individuals.
4. Old age of History: Here spirit is in perfect maturity and strength, its outcomes being religion
and state are situated on the same level, spiritual becoming reunited with the secular and
freedom finding its ideal.

The analysis of the whole development afterward is divided in the aforementioned 4 parts, showing
how the essence of spirit which is freedom finds its course. Here architecture comes as a support in the
argument, which will be regarded in light of the reviewed civilizations.

Chapter 3. Listing of analyzed civilizations

Before listing the main civilizations subjected the review it is worth mentioning a series of
common traits that all have had in common in its phases of evolution:

The first civilizations appear along river valley, as prime economical agricultural centers for
the lifestyle.

All these civilizations require the existence of an urban lifestyle.

The unifying groups is constituted usually by a minority located in the vicinity of the to be
civilized area, afterwords gradually becoming a center for the empire.

In the development of a civilization Neagu Djuvara observes the following main phases:

The first phase (larval stage), in which a latent energy pushes tribes, groups of people or
cultures to move towards a direction. This period is usually followed by violent clashes against
other cultures which they overwhelm and may integrate in their own. By this time there is no
crystallized concept of a civilization and no promises for one to ever appear. There is solely the
united spirit of a group.

The second phase (organization stage), where in a given space a common style arises
subsequently to internal battles, the whole ensemble being animated by a great lust for

expansion, this giving birth to what he coins as the heroic phase.

The third phase (the blossoming stage), a style emerges in urban centers and starts to organize
public life, this can be seen in clear architectural programs that acknowledges the needs of the
civilization. At this point in time, expansionism is at its peak.

The fourth phase (the contending states) is marked by a period of inner struggles, where the
main lands of struggle for hegemony.

The fifth phase (imperial stage), a winner emerges and peace is restored for a while, followed
by a period of prosperity, stability and uniformity in arts. This period closes the cycle and is
followed by a thickening of the repeated principles that have led to the rise of a civilization,
ultimately followed by a downfall.

In an attempt to give a brief overview of the development of architecture throughout the historical
patterns of civilizations we shall only mention the most major common ones which can be found in
both the works of Hegel, Toynbee and Djuvara, showing how they developed through the mentioned
phases and how architecture also took shape in this process.
The following civilizations are:

Babylonian civilization

Byzantine civilization

Indian civilization

Western civilization

Chinese civilization

Hellenistic civilization

Babylonian civilization

The birthplace of this civilization is in Lower Mesopotamia. During its greatest moments, under
the reign of the Achaemenids, it covers the whole Middle East, Asia Minor and the steppes of western
Asia. Sumerian cities already constituted in small rivaling states appear at the end of the 3rd Millennium
B.C. Babylonian civilization ends abruptly with the conquering of the Persian Empire by Alexander the
Great.

Indian civilization

Born in the northern Indian subcontinent, it succeeds the Indus civilization, being thus
considered a second generation, a symbiosis of Indo-European settlers and with the existent local
population. The beginning of the Aryan invasion dates back to 1600 B.C. Under Muslim fate it will
face a slow regress only to be reunited in the last 200 years under British authority.

Chinese civilization

Covers China along with neighboring territories as the Mongols, Korea, Japan and parts of
Indochina. The first writing appear in the 9th century B.C. during the Zhou dynasty, at that moment in
time having all the characteristics of a medieval society a we may consider it today. The division of the
empire in 220 A.D represents an important moment in its phase and similar to the Egyptian empire it
will be reborn many times.

Hellenistic civilization

Blossoms in Greece and on the ruins of the Cretan civilization, spreading to its peak under the
Roman Empire which will gravitate around the Mediterranean sea from Brittany to Mesopotamia. It
begins with the Achaean infiltration in Greece and end with the definite installation of Germanic
barbarians in Western Europe between the IVth and Vth century. On its ruins two others will emerge, in
the east the Byzantine and on the other side the Western world.

Byzantine civilization

Born similar as the Hellenic and Babylonian civilization through the contact of new barbarian
settlers with the existing population it lacks the period of a larval stage. With the establishment of the
Eastern Roman Empire at Constantinople oriental arts, religion and institutions will flourish under a
roman emblem. The considerable intake of Slavic barbarians shift it to orthodox Christianity, later to
succumb under the pressure of the Ottoman empire. The process of westernization begins during the
18th century in Russia and slowly extends to the other states.

Western civilization

Emerging as mentioned between the clashes between Germanic population and Hellenistic
civilization, we are witnessing its development on a global scale.

3.1 Geographical and historical development

Babylonian civilization

Standing at the crossroads of the middle east, The Babylonian civilization remains unmatched in
terms of number of cultures, diversity and riches, probably to be equaled by the western one in the near
future.
Tracing back to the Vth millennium prosperous settlements are inhabited in Mesopotamia by
Sumerians, Indo-Europeans, Semites and Asians. The birth time of the heroic phase takes place in 3400
B.C. and is described in the Epic of Gilgamesh with vague knowledge of real social-political structures.
From 2600 B.C. onwards in Lower Mesopotamia are found citadels that exhibit striking similarities
with those of Italy's middle ages or ancient Greece. Governed by kings, priests and sovereigns it has a
pyramidal structure, closely resembling to ancient Greece. Toward the end of the XXIVth century B.C.
a unification of the Mesopotamian culture takes place with the taking over of the kingdoms of Ur and
Uruk by Lugal Zaggisi of Umma, only to be abruptly interrupted by the Sumerian kingdom of Akkad,
which introduces Persian monarchy. Lasting more than one century, the Akkadian empire will be
continuously open to invading peoples and migrations which will throw its development back to a
dark age up until the XXth century B.C where the emergence of yet another great civilization may be
mentioned, the Egyptians. The following three centuries, considered as the period of contending states,
will be signaling the arrival of Indo-European and Indo-Aryan population. The exodus of barbarian
peoples following in the next millennium will continue the clash between different kingdoms such as
the Assyrians, Hattians and Aleppos only to conclude in a violent struggle between three remaining
major powers, the Assyrian, Egyptian and Elam kingdom. The heroic phase of Sumer inspires and
brings up the Epic of Gilgamesh where courage is the paramount of that time. In the VIIth century the
kingdom of Babylon achieves sovereignty, only to be topped by the peripheral Persian empire, which
will unite the middle east and influence the three neighboring cultures of Egypt, India and Greece.

It is worth mentioning that differing from the western civilization in which barbarian invasions result in
the emergence of a new culture, the numerous tribes that have set foot in the middle east are steadily
assimilated and will not change the spirit of that civilization.
In Arts, the Sumerian is not fully unfamiliar to the later Assyrian one, as it would be the case of the
statuary art forms between roman and Gothic within the Western civilization. Findings show a
continuity in the conventions and process of representation and colors. In terms of architecture the
appearance of enamel as a technique and the porch will be latter carried by the Hellenistic culture to a
more improved form. Land of thousands of gods, religious unity manifests itself at its fullest under the
Islamic spirit. Although it oughtnt be considered a determinant element, just as language, religion
overlaps with the development of a civilization, surpassing it and being encompassed in what Hegel
may call it human spirit. The accessories of civilization such as astrology and pseudo-sciences play
an important role in the development of Mesopotamian temples, giving it it's name of a magic culture
as Spengler defines it.
To the distinct Sumerian, Babylonian, Hittite and Syrian cultures Phoenician and Hebrew may be
constituent parts (as Toynbee states) of the Babylonian civilization that will immediately influence the
Hellenic and later the Western culture.

Indian civilization

Indian civilization proves hard to unravel in light of the contrast between a mystic past and its
violent clash with the western civilization in the last two hundred years, manifesting thus a desire to
refuse the passage of time with a chronological development, as required by the western lifestyle.
Towards the end of the second millennium India exhibits all the traits of a larval stage for a civilization.
In the absence of complex Dravidian literature, research and conclusion are solely based on archeology.
After the Aryan invasion there is a steady conquest of the Indus Valley and the Ganges river. Following
the migration of Aryans in the Indus valley towards the end of the IInd century BC, old local order
suffers reformation, bringing with the Iranian related pantheon and a Indo-European related language
that will dilute with the existing culture as stated in Rig-Veda and later works. Tripartite social
hierarchy does not differ to initial Indo-European cultures of the Celts and Latins, with the sole
difference that as European hierarchy develops taking different leaner forms,while the Indian one
stagnates or worsens.

Up until the end of the VIIth century BC the larval stage exhibits a type of Medieval society according
to the Epic of Bharata which reports the conflicts between Aryan clans. Spiritual evolution drifts away
from the settled Aryan majority population so as to take an autonomous form in the Ist millennium. The
doctrine of Buddha appears as a reaction against traditional formalism of the Brahmas. India will firstly
be reunited by the Mauryan dynasty in the IIIrd century B.C. and a second and third time in the IVth and
VIIth century by the Gupta and Harsa dynasty. Following the long reign of Asoka (262-226 B.C.) the
Mauryan Empire crumbles under the invasion of several peoples from the north north-west such as
Greeks from Bactria, Parthians and Scythians. At the beginning of the IVth century, the Gupta empire
resembles the peak of cultural civilization artistically and political-wise. Literature evolves and
language develops a sense of place with different dialects like Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati. The concept of
Rajput emerges as a clear indicator of Middle Ages in which again characteristics such as honor and
individual courage are the highlights of heroic deeds in poems. Epic poems also emerge in peripheral
centers of the civilization as Bengal, Assam and Casmir. Feudalization of India continues until the
arrival of Muslims in the VIIth century. Refusing Indian identity, Muslims will occupy the whole
meridian region until the XVth century.
The slow permeation of Aryan culture gave India its sense of continuity during the migration of peoples
and contending states and under that mantle literature, philosophy and religion will also flourish.
Covering a diversity of cultures, from its geographic region Indian civilization released works of
literature such as Rig-Veda, Mahabharata and the Upanishads, schools of philosophy such as Yogasaras
and Buddha, all with a strong spiritual sense, if not the highest any culture has witnessed. Following the
epic poems, during the Vth century in the period of lyric writer Kalidasa, architecture, music and
painting flourishes, soon to be followed by a baroque stage with which western culture today relates
when hearing of Indian civilization. In architecture Persian influences may still be perceived and even
with the passing of time one can still understand the preoccupation for the close contact of man and
nature, the profound floral decoration, a sense of the monumental. Sacred sculptures of Buddha are
qualitatively similar in their representation as the ones in the peak of the Hellenistic age. In the late
period of its development repetition of form arises with an exuberance for flamboyance that will lead to
monotonicity. This is just a clear indicator of Indian civilization blooming towards its Imperial age.
In the following rivalry between French and English colonization, with the endeavor of applying a
western model, Indian culture still finds itself deeply rooted in its beliefs and careful in engaging fully
open in integrating itself to the western lifestyle.

Chinese civilization

With fewer archeological artifacts to analyze than in the case of Indian civilization, Chinese
chronicles are abundant of tales of heroic deeds and descriptions regarding its golden age of royalty.
China's center first appears in the writings in Luoyang under the rule of the Shang and later Zhou
dynasty around the XVIth century B.C. The Zhou empire is stated to be in a cultural decline in light of
the barbaric invasions which will move the center from their original birthplace of Shanxi to Henan
during the VIIIth century, thus leaving a considerable part of the empire free for grabs in an era of
contending states. The common characteristics of this intermediary period is rendered by the
weakening of central power, territorial grind and overall regress in economic, artistic and spiritual
development.
Determining cultural landmarks are the teachings of Confucius and Lao Zi during the Vth century and
Taoist doctrines of the IVth century told by Lie Zi and Zhuang Zi, which develop at the same time with
the Hellenic teaching of ancient scholars Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. In social terms the passing of
power is similar to the one within the roman empire, shifting from a feudal epoch to one of monarchic
absolutism, along with the spiritual mutations that follow.
The empire of Qin Shi Huangdi can be considered the prototype of a unitary state or universal empire
with all its inherent characteristics of inner peace and lack of squabbles, big utilitarian works, a peak in
geographical extension, the existence of a lingua franca and lastly monumental architecture.
Differing from other civilizations in geography, China only suffered casualties at the north-western
borders, casualties which were quickly overwhelmed by the Chinese element. Upon reabsorbing the
barbaric influence, China reconstitutes its unity under the Sui dynasty and later expands under the Tang
dynasty only to be exposed to yet another wave of threats, this time from within marking another
intermediary period. This was marked by social and economic crisis due to the development of
landowning system which resulted in civil riots in 753 and 763, the emergence of hereditary feudalism
and loss of external lands. The second reunification will be made by the Song dynasty in the Xth
century and after three centuries the mongol hordes will contribute to a rebuilding of the empire and a
rediscovering of traditions and style. Restoration will fully bloom under the famous Ming dynasty
between 1368-1644 followed by the Qing dynasty until 1911.China's openness to the west came shortly
after the revolution of Song Zhongshan in October 1911.
Differing from Toynbee's belief of the existence of two distinct cultures before and after the acceptance

of Buddhism, China's steady development should be considered as having a more profound mark on
the masses by the Taoist religion while keeping in mind that the coexistence of three different religions
(Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism) throughout two millenniums is a rare event in the development
of a civilization.
In terms of architecture articulation and bilateral symmetry are the means by which a composition
achieves balance. Enclosed spaces with courtyards or Sky wells have similarities with the traditional
Greek atrium. Gabled sweeping roofs were reserved for temples and palaces.
Apart from Indian influence, Japan is worth mentioning as having a more violent contact in the
development of Chinese culture with the highlight of the Meiji eve. At the beginning of the VIIth
century along with the momentum of Buddhism, Japan manages to skip the phase of an intermediary
period that China stumbles upon, separating completely in the IXth century, gaining individuality and
having a more open relationship with the western culture during the conquistadors, closing within itself
only to reopen its borders later in the XIXth century to make up for a lack of cultural exchange for over
more than a century. The process of acquiring western techniques made Japan share two coexisting
distinct worlds for two generations, only to fully immerse in assimilating the western civilization after
the second World War.

Hellenistic civilization

The rise of Greek civilization overlaps with the last phase of Cretan civilization. First
migrations date back to the end of the IInd millennium B.C. and conclude with the conquest of
Achaeans in Peloponnese and the Aegean Sea. At that time the Mycenaean period exhibits social and
political structures similar to those of a Western Medieval Age the existence of castes and aristocrats
and a whole ensemble of life as described by Homeric poems. Greece art at that time is closely related
to the Middle East, art being the best indicator in this matter if we judge by the polychromatic
sculptures and architecture.
Following the end of the larval stage, with the settling of Dorians, Ionians and Eolians in the islands of
the Aegean Sea, maritime commerce flourishes, colonization spreading as far as Sicily. Social and
political structures change, oligarchic governments replace monarchic ones, epic poems are followed
by the lyric poems of Hesiod. In the Vth century B.C. Greeks have completely split relationships with
the Orient and are witnessing their cultural peak in architecture, arts, medicine and war. Fractionation

comes from within in a period of contending states as a backlash of the high level every civilization
reaches. Clash of clans and dynasties become a war for hegemony and a desire for a united civilization.
Alexander the Great's incursions in the Egyptian and Babylonian civilization greatly modify the
downfall of the aforementioned ones, with reverberations as far as the Indian and Chinese civilizations,
only to gain hegemony for a short period of time and leave behind an empire which will dissolute in the
sordid disputes of his generals shortly after his passing. The vast lands that covered this empire seem
premature for an era of contending states in which it developed hastily with sole military development.
At the outskirts of the Hellenic nucleus another civilization will emerge with its center in Rome.
At the beginning of the IIIrd century B.C. Rome and Carthage confront outside of the Hellenic borders
only to have a common ground in Sicily. Following the diplomatic treaties between Carthage and
Macedonia, Rome intensifies its diplomatic relations with Greece as a protector and peacekeeper
stabilizing its position in the Mediterranean. After the conquer of Carthage, Macedonia and Corinth we
may speak about the existence of a universal empire starting between 168 B.C. with the episode of
Popilius Laenas and 61 B.C. with the triumph of Pompeius. Enjoying a period of exceptional length, if
we take into account its fragile border systems after half a millennium in 476 A.D.,with the
dethronement of Romulus Augustulus by Odoacer, the death of Theodosius in 395 and the barbarian
invasion of the goths, the empire splits in two distinct parts, Western and Eastern Roman Empire. The
west tumbles under the weight of German invasions as the east takes the form of Byzantine civilization.
The Greco-Roman world was still experiencing the manifestations of an inner spirit from its Middle
Eastern origin. From the conquests of Alexander the Great who takes up the Persian suit and manners
to the moment Constantine moved the capital to Byzantium bringing the Roman empire closer to Asia,
oriental influence manifests itself in political institutions, views regarding the monarchy and lifestyle of
Hellenistic courts. Rome is also outnumbered by the influx of foreign merchants, slaves, soldiers,
religious priest and high men. Towards the end of the IInd century A.D. Rome reaches its geographical
peak, hosting a vast number of colonies with various religions and cults out of which Christianity
becomes the official religion in the IVth century.
In arts, oriental influence is not so strong. Architecture based on Etruscan technique starts widely using
the dome as a construction method for public purposes along with the use of hydraulics for the
construction of arches, all based on the use of roman concrete as a major discovery that allowed fast
building and longeval use. At this stage, architectural programs are at a peak, describing their role in an
empire with inclination towards expansion under one sign. Amphitheaters, lighthouses, basilicas,

circuses, forums, thermal baths, temples, theaters, villas, aqueducts, bridges, triumphal arches and
columns testify the complexity and preoccupation towards of military and civil engineering.

Byzantine civilization

Gobineau and Danielvski reject the idea of the Byzantine world being a separate civilization and
Spengler only includes it in the Arab civilizations. Relating more to the way Toynbee grouped
civilizations, even he may err if Byzantines are a separate chapter only due to the Ottoman empire's
unitary state.
In regards to its strong bonds with the Arab culture, Byzantine civilization develops a divergent
thinking in terms of religion, art and architecture, thus drifting away from the Muslim world. Today
ottoman history 's contribution to a former christian state may prove hard to read the subtle difference
of Byzantium as a separate civilization. The Ottoman empire should be considered, in its political
aspect, a final stage of a mature multinational society and not intertwine with that civilization itself.
The larval stage takes place in 395 A.D. with the separation of the empire between Arcadius and
Honorius. Just as the frontiers of western civilization coincide with those of early Catholicism so those
of the Byzantine with Christian Orthodoxism also do, under the rule of the patriarch of Constantinople.
The borders between Rome and Constantinople were permeable at the break of Hellenistic civilization.
Romes influence stretched as far as Croatia, Poland, Bohemia and Hungary whilst Constantinople
covered most of the Slavic territories and certain parts of the Mediterranean. Once the borders were
outlined, the clear rupture was made during the schism of 1054, where the battle was taking place
between the Byzantine and the Carolingian Empire.
Between the two emergent groups of the Roman empire the process of acculturation developed
noticeably different. Firstly western civilization led by France and Italy at that time developed
institutions and art forms during the Xth century, by which time the Byzantine one had already detached
itself for more than four centuries from the Roman empire, already possessing institutions. Germanic
migrations also follow centuries later than the Slavic contact with Byzantium. The period of contending
states develops during the Xth century between the Byzantines and the Bulgars, whilst in the west its
peak reaches the XVIth century. Even in its earliest stages, the Byzantine civilization lacks a proper
barbarian invasion, resulting in a less fertilized civilization in terms of variety. This can be clearly seen
in architecture where the detail and the attention spent on the effect that the interior has, may be

regarded as detrimental to its external form. Drifting away from Greco-Roman sculptures as an art
form, byzantine iconography emerges at the beginning of the Xth century A.D. as a paramount means of
expression, with inclination towards a frontal view of the characters, the existence of a certain
hierarchy, reverted perspective and an absence of space. Affiliation to the Hebrew culture is also
present in religious music, christian music resulting as a reformed ritual which continued under the
Gregorian style.
Having its center moved from Rome into the Greek environment, Latin influence slowly shapes
throughout generations. From Constantine's dynasty to Theodosius and to Iustinianus where it already
becomes a foreign language of the empire. Overcoming its larval stage, we may speak of a Byzantine
Medieval period. During the Vth century, being under the same pressure that the west was devastated
by, the barbarian invasions of Attila and Theodoric, the east starts to fragment. Under the rule of
Iustinianus a revival of the empire begins, but not under roman reminiscence, more likely it gives birth
to a new phase of civilization. Between the IXth and XIth century it exhibits its peak, extending as far as
Armenia, Georgia, and Syria, exercising sovereignty over the Bulgars and converting the Russians
under the reign of Vladimir of Kiev in 989. Its whereabouts between two continents confer its status of
a highly important trade route thus increasing the economy and offering stability within the borders for
a period for time.
Later under pressure from three sides, western struggle for sovereignty, Arab settlements in the
Anatolian plains and inner conflicts, it starts to shatter. With the fall of the Byzantine nucleus in the
XVth century, orthodox culture returns to a medieval eve which will be picked up by the fresh and
dynamic western civilization. Italy with Venice and Padua represent the protective shield for high
Byzantine noblemen at that time, where during the Renaissance cultural exchange with Italy is present.
Along with the mongol invasion on the limes of the roman border new kingdoms develop. Russia will
pick up and even outmatch the Byzantines in artistic fields with works of art of the XVth century by
Andrei Rubliov and emblematic onion domes seen in religious architecture programs, that have a form
of Asian influence during the XVIth century, similar to Mughal architecture and Finish influences.
Under the rule of Peter the Great, Russia will be reborn with a new capital and an imposed monumental
neoclassical style of french influence. Later Russia will fully start the process of westernization with
pioneers such as Aleksei Mihailovici during the XVIIth century, whilst manifesting an orthodox
resistance. Following the alliance of 1756 with Austria and France against Prussia, Russia becomes a
contending state in the battle for hegemony, thus closing the chapter of the Byzantine civilization.

Western civilization

Western regions that were at the limes of both Byzantine and Roman empire in Europe,
gradually formed distinct groups of peoples throughout centuries and emerged as constituent members
of what we now know today as the western civilization.First direct and continuous contact with the
Germanic tribes date back to the IVth century A.D. when the majority of the roman empire's army will
be made up of barbarian mercenaries which will later accede to higher social ranks within the roman
world. At the end of the Vth century Franks, Visigoths, Burundians, Heruli and Vandals will be dividing
the resources of the former western roman empire. From the decline of the Western Roman empire
dating back to the Vth century up until the XIth century we are witnessing a dark age. Roman art and
law is revised through Carolingian canon, economy and commerce are reduced to as far as citadels and
strongholds within various lands, scientific developments along with philosophy are at their lowest.
Architecture contains itself with a shy repetition of Romanesque forms. The end of the larval stage is
documented by the Oaths of Strasbourg in 842. Beginning with the XIth century, Saxon invasions have
finally ended, Christian kingdoms of Spain begin The Reconquista and Western barons begin the
Crusades in the hearth of the Muslim world.
Here art and especially architecture serve as a beacon for the emergence of western civilization. Just as
Byzantine civilization flourishes close to the Greco-Roman world, so does western civilization flourish
on the Rhine valley where contact was optimal with the Roman Empire and subsequently spread in
Germany, Spain and England. In architecture, zoomorphic motifs as well as the ogival arch and the use
of mosaics remain an Oriental influence, only to be adapted and make way for a new style which will
be the highlight of the west, Gothic style. Gothic architecture breaks its bonds with Mediterranean
remembrance, firstly by the skeletal structure it embodies and ground floor plan changes that announce
an accelerated and chronological view towards the elevated and well lit altar. The use of stained glass
and rose of a church amplify as structural developments enhance the bearing capacity of buttresses and
rib vaults, Gothic architecture stating itself as a construction that prizes the use of light and ascension.
The tumultuous development that France evidences will drain its energy and shift the cultural center of
gravity towards Italy. Having exhausted the funds of the crusades and witnessing a demographical fall
due to the hundred years' war along with plagues and natural calamities, northern Italy becomes the
center of civilization. At the eve of the XIVth century, Tuscany is the pioneer of a new style of painting
represented by Giotto, Cimbaue and Simone Martini of Siena, which will pave the way towards a

rediscovering of the Greco-Roman arts and influence the development of Renaissance. The notion of
perspective will shape the way painting, sculpture and architecture will change.
Subscribing to Toynbee and Spengler's opinion on the heavy influence of antiquity which is reborn in
the Renaissance, its sufficient to state that architecture emerges from antiquity and will last under the
neoclassical style as an international indicator of inclination towards western civilization and a pawl for
more flamboyant manifestations.
The center of civilization once more shifts in the XVIth century to Spain, climaxing with the discovery
of new lands were the Anglo-Saxon culture will continue its development. Painting appears to take the
place of sculpture and tragedy as a literary gender has unmatched success under the writings of
Shakespeare and Racine. The discovery of polyphony exhibits success in western music and reaches its
peak in the XVIIIth century in German countries. During the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries France
becomes once again a nucleus of civilization and culture, displaying one of the most diversified
countries for its time and becoming a diplomatic official language, aside from Latin. At the eve of the
XIXth century the Britains manifest a strong process of acculturation and develop the institutions to
becoming a colonial power, surpassing France. Germany also estranges France of its political and
cultural valence. This is based on the fact that power gradually shifts from Latin catholic countries to
Anglo-Saxon protestant ones. Thus in the struggle between Rome and Byzantium, a third party arises,
that of protestantism. Roman Catholicism wins in the western Latin speaking countries, while
protestantism spreads in Great Britain, Holland , Northern Germany and Scandinavia, separating the
religious from the rational, the state from the church, with an inclination towards fighting for your
rights, announcing the Faustian man as Spengler states it.Max Weber also bases the birth of
capitalism and scientific spirit on protestantism in an industrial era in which modern society is
developing, drifting away from the Renaissance ideal of Christianity.
In brief, opening at the beginning of the XVth century, a duel between what was supposed to be France
and Spain in an era of contending states had been adding more and more participants.Nonetheless Paris
remained one of the most relevant cultural center during the XIXth century and onwards only to be
matched by New York later on, when at the eve of the XXth century a cultural explosion developed, too
dense to be sketched in the limits of the present paper.The discovery of steel and concrete steel will
shape the way architecture is conceived with emblematic constructions by Louis Sullivan, Otto Wagner,
Adolf Loos, Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe, F.L. Wright, The Bauhaus school and so on in a
fast paced era of industrialization.

3.2 Architectural development

If architecture follows the spirit of time throughout history, grouping these civilizations in the four
mentioned categories of the historical age as Hegel states them will provide us with the basis needed to
understand its development.
Part I The Eastern World

The oriental world had been using morality as a law enhancement. By the Chinese use of
theocratic despotism freedom was hindered from its development, resulting in the absence of spirit and
art. The glory of the Oriental conception is the one individual as the substantial being to which all
belongs, so that no other individual has a separate existence, or mirrors himself in his subjective
freedom. All the riches of imagination and nature are appropriated to that dominant existence in which
subjective freedom is essentially merged. The use of the five sacred materials play a key role in
understating the close relationship with nature under the use of moral laws.
Differing from the Chinese, the existence of Indian social hierarchy resemble somehow the theocratic
aristocracy of the Greek states. History passes at this point and only outwardly, that is, without
connection with the previous phase to Central Asia. To carry on the comparison with the individual
man, this would be the boyhood of history, no longer manifesting the repose and trustfulness of the
child, but boisterous and turbulent. The existence of castes shapes the political existence and gives a
glimpse of the possibility of diversity. The spirit set in a dream state still unites both the limited and
unlimited making a clear delimitation hard to define.
Part II Greece, Rome and Christianity

The Greek world marks the place of the beginning of spirit from the natural environment. By
observing nature they form surmises for their existence. Thus the natural is the beginning of the divine,
natural observation being the starting point and the process of thinking and adapting to it in a subjective
way, leading to the consolidation of morality and human will in a plastic form. By this subjective work
of art, subduing natural elements, man becomes a universe of itself and makes nature both gravitate

around him and destroy him. The Doric, Ionic and Corinthian have the natural as a departure point and
by the use of human spirit it takes the individual forms of Divinities that manage to restore order by
specializing in natural elements. In this sense the myth of overthrowing the titans should be read as the
beginning of subduing natural elements to human desire, Divinities resembling abstractions that
become individuality, as Friedrich Schiller states While the Gods remained more human, the men
were more divine. Still, Greek preoccupation for beauty by reference to natural elements denies a lack
of subjectivity. The introduction of subjectivity along with the Sophists Man is the measure of all
things marks the decline of the Greek freedom, as Thucydides states it. If Greek democratic
constitution highlighted the freedom of the individual, several points from the Greek republic had to be
abolished. The Consultation of Oracles and sacrifices evaporated with the rise of democracy, as well as
slavery. Greek freedom is also lost in the battle of 168 B.C. by King Perseus against the rising Roman
Empire. The fall of the Greek spirit thus culminates with the idea that the kingdom is consequently true
harmony, a world of the most charming but perishable, or quickly passing, bloom. The individual will
of the subject adopted without reflection the conduct and habit prescribed by justice and the laws and
the individual is, therefore, in unconscious unity with the idea - the social weal, but not free from
nature.
The third phase is the realm of abstract universality, in which the social aim absorbs all individual aims,
it is the Roman state, the severe labors of the manhood of history. For true manhood acts neither in
accordance with the caprice of a despot nor in obedience to a graceful caprice of its own. It works for a
general aim, one in which the individual disappears and realizes his own private object only in that
general aim. The state begins to have an abstract existence and to develop itself for a definite object, in
accomplishing which its members have indeed a share, but not a complete and concrete one, calling
their whole being into play. Free individuals are sacrificed to the severe demands of the national ends,
to which they must surrender themselves in this service of abstract generalization. The Roman state is
not a repetition of such a state of individuals as was the Athenian polis. The geniality and joy of soul
that existed there have given place to harsh and rigorous toil. The interest of history is detached from
individuals.
General elements of Roman spirit are embodied in the myth of Romulus and Remus where there is no
sense of belonging to a family. The basis of Rome's formation lacks good family relations, the wife
being a property of the husband, while he himself must split his activities between being a servant of
the empire and a dominant figure for the family.

In contrast with the free spirit of the Greeks, Romans unite under the principle of abstract universality,
securing the freedom of spirit by freedom of law. Romans define and complete the separation of right
where consciousness gives itself to subjectivity. Roman civilization extracts and incorporates at first
pantheons from other places under the reason of seasonal activities, need of social cohesion and later
expansion. Ritualism remains an independent activity for purely external aims, this also indicating a
lack of concept of unity within the city as the Greek democracy would have had it.
But when, subsequently, in the historical development, individuality gains the ascendant, and the
breaking up of the community into its component atoms can be restrained only by external compulsion,
then the subjective might of individual despotism comes forward to play its part. The individual is led
to seek consolation for the loss of his freedom in exercising and developing his private rights. In the
next place, the pain inflicted by despotism begins to be felt, and spirit, driven back into its utmost
depths, leaves the godless world, seeks for a harmony in itself and begins an inner life, a complete
concrete subjectivity, which at the same time possesses a substantial that is not grounded in mere
external existence. Within the soul, therefore, arises the spiritual solution of the struggle, in the fact that
the individual personality, instead of following its own capricious choice, is purified and elevated into
universality, a subjectivity that of its own free will adopts principles tending to the good of all, reaches,
in fact, a divine personality. To the worldly empire this spiritual one wears a predominant aspect of
opposition, as the empire of subjectivity that has attained the knowledge of itself its essential nature,
the empire of spirit in its full sense. In architectural programs this division can be clearly observed on
how Romans were mere spectators in events as public games, again differing from the manifestation of
Greek spirit of defeating nature by sports.
Under Roman rule, the idea of unity paves the road to Christianity. The Christian community found
itself in the Roman world, but as it was secluded from this state and did not hold the emperor for its
absolute sovereign, it was the object of persecution. Then it manifested its inward liberty in the
steadfastness with which sufferings were borne. As regards its relation to the spirit, the fathers of the
Church built up the dogma, but a chief element was furnished by the previous development of
philosophy. Here the church takes its most explicit form, that of a concrete constituent representative of
the spirit. The idea of man having a closer relationship to spirit after death find its proximal existence
in the church. And to attain spirituality man must first be absolute self-conspicuous.
The first abstract principles are won by the instrumentality of the Christian religion for the secular
state. First, under Christianity slavery is impossible; for man as man, in the abstract essence of his

nature, is contemplated in God; each unit of mankind is an object of the grace of God and of the divine
purpose. Utterly excluding all specialty, therefore, man, in and for himself , in his simple quality of
man, has infinite value and by that very fact this infinite value abolishes all particularity attaching to
birth or country. The other, the second principle, regards the subjectivity of man in its bearing on
chance. Humanity has this sphere of free spirituality in and for itself, and everything else must proceed
from it. The place appropriated to the abode and presence of the Divine Spirit, the sphere in question, is
spiritual subjectivity, and is constituted the place in which all contingency is amenable. It follows,
thence, that what we observe among the Greeks as a form of customary morality cannot maintain its
position in the Christian world. For that morality is spontaneous, unreflected wont, while the Christian
principle is independent subjectivity. This transition also overlaps with the period of migrations during
the dark ages and leaves little room for architectural development apart from a repetition of the
Romanesque style. It is after the migrations that we may speak about a spirit that gives birth to a new
architecture that breaks the patterns of the past.
Part III The Germanic World

The Greeks and Romans had reached maturity within and they directed their energies outwards.
The Germans, on the contrary, began with self-diffusion, deluging the world, and breaking down in
their course the hollow political fabrics of the civilized nations. Only then did their development begin,
kindled by a foreign culture, a foreign religion, civil order, and legislation. The process of culture they
underwent consisted in taking up foreign elements into their own national life. The German world took
up the Roman culture and religion in their completed form. The Christian religion which it adopted had
received from councils and fathers of the Church, who possessed the whole culture, and in particular
the philosophy of the Greek and Roman world, a perfected dogmatic system. The Church, too, had a
completely developed hierarchy. To the native tongue of the Germans the Church likewise opposed one
perfectly developed, the Latin. In art and philosophy a similar alien influence predominated. The same
principle holds good in regard to the form of the secular sovereignty. Gothic and other chiefs gave
themselves the name of Roman patricians. Thus, superficially, the German world appears to be a
continuation of the Roman. But there dwelt in it an entirely new spirit, the free spirit which reposes on
itself. Roman Christianity continued under Frankish Kingdom, but it's during the Middle Ages where
the foundation of schools is promoted, military architecture and civic programs as manor houses, town

halls and almshouses. The rupture of church with the secular resulted in a lack of layman to directly
applying the divine being, saints, and thus church takes the place of conscience, a role of the mediator
between man and deity. Castles, churches and monasteries are built as centers of protection with main
elements like the tower bell for meetings, municipal government for taxing, walls for defense and
guilds. Following the events of the crusades, church reaches concrete authority and with the end of
monastic orders and orders of knighthood science begins the development of thought. In this transition
from Feudalism to Monarchy the notion of the state and a king reassesses its position and human spirit
may now stand on its own basis, with self consciousness and no revolt to the divine, art thus
transcending church. This third epoch may be compared to the Roman world. The authority of national
aim is acknowledged, and privileges melt away before the common object of the state.
Part IV Modern Times

Spirit at last perceives that nature, the world, as an embodiment of reason. An interest in the
contemplation and comprehension of the present world became universal. Thus experimental science
became the science of the world; for experimental science involves, on the one hand, the observation of
phenomena and on the other hand, also the discovery of the law, the essential being, the hidden force.
Intellectual consciousness was first extricated by Descartes from that sophistry of thought which
unsettles everything. As it was the purely German nations among whom the principle of spirit first
manifested itself, so it was by the Romanic nations that the abstract idea was first comprehended.
Experimental science, therefore, very soon made its way among them, in common with the Protestant
English. The human eye became clear, perception quick, thought active and interpretative. The
discovery of the laws of nature enabled men to contend against the monstrous superstition of the time.
The concept of free spirit flourishes along with the free will and here Catholic spirit falls behind the
spirit of the age, as the reformation trend emphasizes that man in his nature is destined to be free,
destroying the dichotomy of religion and life. The rational is in no contradiction with religion. Spirit is
now freedom and is represented in the secular form, that of architecture, as an embodiment of the truth.
Here industry emerges as a recognized value and help the development of society making the last 200
years an extremely seething period with a story of its own in the pursuit of the idea of freedom.

Chapter 4. Recurring phenomenons

In light of the discussed chapters, historical patterns may be observed as main events
that have happened in every civilization and formed an algorithm on which we may also understand
architectural development.

With a lifespan of around 2000 years, the first civilizations that emerge are on river
banks in close relationship to the essential resource of water.

Civilizations that emerge out of the compilation of a former one with new settlers
usually lead to a regress in term of Architecture, as the lack of ornamentation in the dark
ages.

Any civilization has the vocation of unity under a different name.

In terms of internal dynamics of civilization changes, at first, of foreign culture is done

by the noble classes and then gradually to the masses and the incubation period last
for more than one generation.

Material features like clothes and instruments change slower than cultural aspects as
language, religion, traditions and are urged by architectural achievements.

A lingua franca of architecture develops in a civilizations peak, followed by a

repetition of forms.

Geography may prove independent of the success of a civilization.

In every civilization the ascension of the peripherals are followed by a retirement of the
ones forming the center, resulting in a shift of the centers of gravity and the redrawing of
the map.

With each generation, civilizations spread out covering more and more terrain.

The phases through which a civilization pass are irreversible.

The collaboration of cultures under one ideal enhances spreading, however their
unification reduces their chances of individual progress.

A civilization is infinitely improvable.

Chapter 5. Conclusions

Over the past centuries designing proved to be manipulating how we should live within a
civilization. Today, the west being in search of a new model is orienting itself to neighboring cultures.
The approach that more than one answer is possible in terms of architecture responds more to how
shaping the environment can improve our needs in different situations rather than just forcing to align
to only one solution. Listening becomes the paradigm of architecture in an age of international
collaboration.
One of the biggest feats is maybe understanding and achieving a cultural identity within the given
civilization. Intertwining aspects like infrastructure with the urban landscape, rather than just building
signature emblems, may prove to meet real social needs. Repeating the same form within an era is the
harbinger of a bygone era. If world history is the development of human freedom, the question we may
ask ourselves is not where are we on the time-line of civilization, but rather where our spirit will lead
us and how will that be manifested in architecture.

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