CHAPTER

5
D E S I G N OF M A C H I N E E L E M E N T S
FOR S T R E N G T H
SYMBOLS
A
b
B
Csz
esT
!
CsT-

E
F

F;
G
h

Ksz
K~
K~

Ky,
Mb
M;m
M,
M;m
n
na
nd

q
qy
t"
t
XO
Ymax

Zb
Zt
0

5,6
area of cross-section, m 2 (in 2)
a shape factor (b > 0)
a constant
size coefficient
surface coefficient in case of tension and bending
surface coefficient in case of torsion
Young's modulus, GPa (Mpsi)
normal load (also with suffixes and primes), kN (lbf)
static equivalent of cyclic load, kN (lbf)
modulus of rigidity, GPa (Mpsi)
thickness, m (in)
size factor
surface factor
theoretical normal stress-concentration factor
theoretical shear stress-concentration factor
fatigue normal stress-concentration factor
fatigue shear stress-concentration factor
bending moment (also with suffixes and primes), N m (lbf in)
static equivalent of cyclic bending moment, N m (lbf in)
twisting moment (also with suffixes and primes), N m (lbf in)
static equivalent of cyclic twisting moment, N m (lbf in)
safety factor
a constant
actual safety factor (also with suffixes)
design safety factor (also with suffixes)
index of sensitivity
index of notch sensitivity for alternating stresses
notch radius, mm (in)
time, h
the guaranteed value of x (x0 >_ 0)
maximum deflection
flexural section modulus, m 3 or cm 3 (in)3
.~
polar section modulus, m 3 or cm 3 (in)
characteristic or scale value (0 _> x0)
5.1

5.2

CHAPTER

FIVE

u0

normal stress (also with suffixes and primes), MPa (psi)

initial stress, MPa (psi)
ultimate strength, MPa (psi)
elastic limit for standard specimen for 12.5 mm (in), MPa (psi)
design stress (also with suffixes), MPa (psi)
normal stress in x direction, MPa (psi)
yield stress, MPa (psi)
normal stress in y direction, MPa (psi)
nominal normal stress, MPa (psi)
maximum normal stress, MPa (psi)
elastic limit for any thickness h between 12.5 mm (in) and
75 mm (3 in), MPa (psi)
elastic limit for 75 mm (3 in) specimen, MPa (psi)
endurance limit in bending, MPa (psi)
shear stress (also with suffixes and primes), MPa (psi)
elastic limit in shear, MPa (psi)
yield strength in shear, MPa (psi)
shear stress in xy plane, MPa (psi)
nominal shear stress, MPa (psi)
endurance limit in torsion, MPa (psi)
engineering or average strain, lam/m (lain/in)
true strain, lam/m (lain/in)
total creep, after a time t, lam/m (lain/in)
initial creep, lam/m (lain/in)
creep rate (la/m)/h [(lain/in)/h]
a constant

Suffixes

for

s
u

static strength (a, or ay)

ultimate strength
yield strength
elastic limit
amplitude
bending
mean
tension
maximum
minimum
endurance limit (also used for reversed cycle)
endurance limit repeated cycle

Primes

for

'(single)
" (double)

static equivalent
combined stress

O"

o-0
O'su

~e
O"d
O"x

ey
O'no m
O'ma x
I

O"e
//
O"e
T

"re
7-xy
7-no m

~y
c
c

ct
CO

y
6'
a

b
m
t
max
min

DESIGN OF M A C H I N E ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

Particular

STATIC

5.3

Formula

LOADS

Influence of size
1200

300

looo

25O
SAH 3240 ... OH

" E

200

\ --,-~---..~ ~0.. o/.,

13.
D

800

re

o E ~; 600

t E

1)

LU -~

.E_

-'

.o

400 ~

'~

SAE 1045

200
r~n

==

100

FIGURE 5-2

20

40

60
80
100
Size of section, mm

e-

--"

SAE 1015 BESSEMER

BE

..~ ~ = ---

7~

Size of section, mm

FIGURE 5-1 Change of elastic limit

with size of section.

C
OH

M~'AL

UJ
9~

150 N - o

~ . _

(Y"e

19 ~

g_e
go~-

~-,v

t-

"Z,
t-

120

- 5o

0
140

Influence of size on elastic limits.

The size coefficient (Fig. 5-1, Fig. 5-2, and T a b l e 5-1)

e~z=l-0.016

1-

(h-12.5)

(5-1

o-e
where o-e = elastic limit for 12.5 m m (0.5 in)
t!
ae = elastic limit for 75 mm (3.0 in)

T A B L E 5-1
Strength ratios of various materials for use in Eqs. (5-1) and (5-2)
Values of

Material

Natural state

Aluminum, strong, wrought

Tobin bronze
Monel metal, forged
Ductile iron
Low-carbon steel, C < 0.20%
Medium-carbon steel, 0.30 to 0.50% C
Nickel steel, SAE 2340
Cr-Ni steel, SAE 3140
Cast iron, Class no. 20
Cast iron, Class no. 25
Cast iron, Class no. 35
Wrought iron

0.93
0.90
0.80
0.80
0.84

Annealed

Drawn at
650C

Drawn at
535C

Drawn at
425C

0.98
0.85
0.86
0.86

0.55
0.73
0.60
0.55

O'e"/ Ore

0.72
0.80
0.75

0.59
0.74
0.70

0.53
0.65

5.4

CHAPTER FIVE

Formula

Particular

250

The size factor

KSZ --"

(5'2)

l!
O"e

300 - 4h + - - (4h - 50)

Oe

The relation between size coefficient and size factor

(5-3)

esz -- ks--7

The elastic limit for any thickness h between 12.5 m m

and 75 m m can be determined from the relation (Fig.

!l
(7-e - -

(0" e - - o ' ~ ) ( h
(7-e

12.5)

( 7 5 - 12.5)

5-])

(5-4)

INDEX OF SENSITIVITY
g~a

The index of sensitivity

q= ~ ~ - 1

The actual or real stress-concentration factor

gaa--1

-t- q(K,~ - 1)

(5-5)
(5-6)

SURFACE CONDITION (Fig. 5-3)

1

The surface factor for the case of tension and bending

ST - - - - -

(5-7)

eST

es~- = 0.425 + 0.575e~.,-

The surface coefficient in case of torsion

1.o
2 0"9

o8
~

,'b

1.o

~' ~'

POLISHED
~-'w~--~...~.._zG ROUND
C

~-.2%.

o.9o

~Oo

"1~Oo~:~

0"95

~I

<%J
0-4

o.8o
0.75

-0.70

o 0-3

6o

~ 0"2

"~~Oimm

0.1

(]URVE -i d

{e4) ~-

'"~~%~-~
] ~"~

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Ultimate tensile strength, static, %u, MPa

FIGURE 5-3

-~

0.65

0.60
0"55

Reciprocals of stress-concentration factors caused by surface conditions.

(5-8)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

Formula

Particular

SAFETY

FACTOR

The general equation for design safety factor (Table

5-2)

5.5

(5-9)

n = klk2k3k4...kmn a
where kl
k2
k3
k4

=
=
=
=

Ksz = size factor

Ks,- = surface factor
KI = load factor (Table 14-3)
material factor

na = actual safety factor (Table 5-2).

T A B L E 5-2
Actual safety factor a

Circumstance

Actual factor of safety

or reliability factor, n.

Strength properties of material well known, load accurately predictable, parts produced with close
dimensional control and brought to close tolerance specifications, and low-weight criteria

Load accurately predictable and low-weight and low-cost criteria

1.1-1.5

Load accurately predictable and low-cost criteria (low-weight-no criteria)

1.5-2

Overloads expected, materials ordinary but reliability important

2-3

Strength properties not well defined, loading uncertain, human life at stake if failure occurred,
high maintenance and shutdown cost

>3

"1'1,, . . . . . .

1,,~

...
va,1 .uc~
are r e c o m m e n d e d for use in design, in the absence o f specific reliability d a t a .

The design safety factor based on ultimate strength

rlud -- KszKo-anua

(5-10)

Tension

0.45Crsy <_ Oa <_ 0.60Crsy

(5-11)

Shear

"r~ = 0.40o'~y

(5-12)

Bearing

O'a = 0.90O'sy

(5-13)

Bending

0.60Crsy <_ O'a <_ 0.75O'~y

(5-14)

The expression for forces or loads used to find stresses

in machine members or structures as per AISC Code.

F=~md+Eml+ZKFl+Fw+EFme

The relationships between allowable stress and specified m i n i m u m yield strength using the AISC Code are
given here:

(5-15)
where ~ Wd = sum of dead loads
WI = sum of all stationary or static live
loads
Fl = impact or dynamic live load
Fw = wind load on the structure
Free = load which accounts for
earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.
K = service factor obtained from Table 5-3.
The value of design normal stress

cra ~

O"a

(5-16)

5.6

CHAPTER FIVE

Formula

Particular
TABLE 5-3
AISC service factor K for use in Eq. (5-15)

Particular
2

For support of elevators

For cab-operated traveling-crane support girders and their connections

1.25

For pendant-operated traveling-crane support girders and their connections

1.10

For support of light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven

>
m 1.20

For supports of reciprocating machinery or power-driven units

For hangers supporting floors and balconies

1.33

> 1.50

The value of design shear stress

7-d < %

The design safety factor

nd = ~

(5-16a)

strength
stress

(5-17)

= nsn L

where n~ = safety factor to take into account the

uncertainty of strength
nL -- safety factor to take into account the
uncertainty of load.
The equation for design safety factor

strength in force units

n d = applied force or load

(5-18)

The realized safety factor

n r - - -as

(5-19)

or

?'/r - -

rs

o"

The design safety factor based on elastic limit

ned--

gszgaanea

(5-20)

The design safety factor based on yield strength

nyd - -

K~z g a a n y a

(5-21

The design safety factor based on endurance limit on

bending

nfd = K~zK~TKldnfa

Design stress based on elastic limit

O'ed - - ~
ned

Design stress based on ultimate strength

O'ud --~

Design stress based on yield strength

CrYd = Osy

(5-22)

where K t d = load factor

O"e

(5-23)
(5-24)

Osu
?tud

(5-25)

nyd

Design stress based on yield strength in shear

(5-26)

"ryd = " %
nyd

Static design stress

O'su

cr~d = ~

nud

or

O'sy

rlyd

as the case may be

(5-27)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

Particular

5.7

Formula

Design stress based on endurance limit

crfd = Crsf

The corrected fatigue strength or design fatigue

strength

O'sf = K s r K s z K l d K R K T K m e o ' t s f

(5-28a)

The corrected endurance limit or design endurance

limit

O'se -- k s r k s z k l d k R k r k m e o ' t s e

(5-28b)

(5-28)

njd

where ~r~e= endurance limit of test specimen

a~f = fatigue strength of test specimen
Ks,. = surface factor
K~z = size factor
Kid = load factor
KR = reliability factor
K r = temperature factor
Kme = miscellaneous-effect factor also
known as fatigue strength reduction
factor ~ 1/K~,u
(5-28c)

The size facto ksz for bending or torsion of round bars

made of ductile materials according to Juvinall

K~z

d < 10 mm (0.4 in)

0.9

10mm (0.4 in) < d < 50mm (2 in)

0.8

50 mm (2 in) < d < 100 mm (4 in)

0.7

100mm (4in) < d < 150ram (5in)

(5-28d)

The size factor for axial force

K~z = 0.7 to 0.9

The size factor as suggested by the ASME national

standard on "Design of Transmission Shafting"

Ksz =

The surface factor

I d 0"19

Ks'. =

(5-28e)
2 < d < 10in

1.85d -19

50 < d < 2 5 0 m m

1.00

for longitudinal hand polish

0.90

for hand burnish

0.87

for smooth mill cut

0.79

for rough mill cut

(5-28f)

(5-28g)

Also refer to Fig. 5-3 for surface coefficient

1

es'.-Ks r
For a rectangular cross-section in bending

or

Ksr=--esr

d -- 0.81x/A

(5-28h)

where A -- area of the cross section

0.370D

The effective diameter of round-section corresponding to a nonrotating solid or hollow round-section

de

The effective diameter of a rectangular section of

dimensions h x b which has A0.95cr -- 0.05bh

d e --- 0 . 8 0 8 ( h b ) l / 2

(5-28i)

where D -- diameter

(5-esj)

5.8

CHAPTER FIVE

Particular

The equivalent diameter rotating-beam specimen for

any cross-section according to Shigley and Mitchell

The load factor according to Shigley

Formula

deq =

A9,.

(5-28j)
V0.0766
where A95 is the portion of the cross sectional
area of the nonround part that is stressed
between 95% and 100% of the maximum
stress.
~/

0.923 axial loading as,,, <_ 1520 MPa (220 kpsi)

1
axial loading asut _> 1520 MPa (220 kpsi)
1
bending

km=

0.577 torsion and shear

(5-28k)
The fatigue stress concentration factor which is used
here as the fatigue strength reduction factor at endurance limit 106 cycles

K~,f= 1 + q ( k o , - 1)

The fatigue strength reduction factor for lives less

than N = 106 cycles is K~f and is given by

K~f = aN b

(5-281)

where K~f, K~t and q have the same meaning as

given in Chapter 4.
(5-28m)

w h e r e a = ( ~ 1 ) a n d b = - s l o 1g

(5_28n)

K'U = 1 at 103 cycles.

For reliability factor KR

Refer to Table 5-3A.

T A B L E 5-3A
Reliability correction factor based on a standard
deviation equal to 8% or the mean fatigue limit.

The temperature factor as suggested by Shigley and

Mitchell

Reliability, %

KR

50
90
99
99.9
99.999

1.000
0.897
0.814
0.743
0.659

KT =

1
for T < 450C (840F)
1 -0.0058 ( T - 450) for 450C < T < 550C
1 -0.0032 ( T - 840) for 840F < T < 1020F
(5-28p)

These equations are applicable to steel. These cannot

be used for A1, Mg, and Cu alloys.
For typical fracture surfaces for laboratory test
specimens subjected to range of different loading
conditions

Refer to Fig. 5-3A.

High Nominal
_

No Steress _
Concentration

Stress

_ Mild Stress _
Concentration

Low Nominal
_ Sever Stress _
Concentration

Tension-Tension

Undimctiona!

i'ilil

ilii?:~.

No Stress _
Concentration

Stress

_ Mild Stress _
Concentration

_ Severe Stress _
Concentration

or Tension-Compression

NiN NiN

..........

Bending

Reversed

Bending

Rotational

Bending

NiN NiB

NiN NiN

Torison
r-]

Stress Concentration

F I G U R E 5.3A Typical fracture surfaces for laboratory test specimens subjected to a range of different loading conditions.
Courtesy: Reproduced from Metals Handbook, Vol. 10, 8th edition, p. 102, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1975.

5.9

5.10

CHAPTER FIVE

Particular

Formula

T H E O R I E S OF F A I L U R E
The maximum normal stress theory or Rankine's
theory

cre : 1 [(crx .ql_Cry)+ V/(O~;_ cry)2 ._t_ 4TZyI

(5-29)

The maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory

Cre-- V/(crx- cry) 2 -+-47"2

(5-30)

The shear-energy theory or constant

distortion or Hencky-von Mises theory

O"e --- V/(crX- O'y)2 --1-37-x2y

(5-31)

energy-of-

The maximum strain theory or Saint Venant's theory

ere -- [(1 - u)(crx + Cry)

+(1-at-/./)g/(crx- cry)2+ 4-r2y]

(5-32)

The bearing stress which causes failure for no friction

at the surface of contact

crb -- 1.81 cre

(5-33)

The bearing stress which causes failure for the friction

at the surface of contact

crb = 2cre

(5-34)

CYCLIC L O A D S (Figs. 5-4 and 5-5)

The fatigue stress-concentration factor for normal
stress

Kf~, = q f ( K ~

1) + 1

(5-35)

The fatigue stress-concentration factor for shear stress

Kf~_ = qf(K~_ -

1) + 1

(5-36)

The empirical formula for notch sensitivity for alternating stress of steel

qf=

Notch sensitivity curves for steel and aluminum alloys

Refer to Fig. 5-6.

The empirical formula for notch sensitivity for

alternating stress for high-strength aluminum alloys
having cru = 415 to 550 MPa (60 to 80 kpsi)
Endurance strength for finite life

rcr2
1-exp [-

qf = 1 - exp

0.904 x 106

(-r)

t
(106) 0"09
~s=~y Wwhere N = required life in cycles.

The empirical relation between ultimate strength and

endurance limits for various materials

Refer to Tables 5-4 and 5-5.

(5-37)

(5-38)

(5-39)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

t
O'r

k_q

~0

lYl

Wn,

5.11

Gmin

=0

13.

0
o

(a) REVERSED STRESS

,; ; :

(b) REPEATED STRESS

mtJ

/ % .....

I-" ~/~~~a - - - ~

'~,~axi

(C) ALTERNATIVE STRESS

FIGURE 5-4

(d) FLUCTUATING STRESS

Types of fatigue stress variations.

+
(~u

//

. //,

O'max

'3.~0~(,

~t ~

~o.6

+o,

.
(Ymin

......

"~

E~'~

C~m

'

Mean stress,

o'y

(~m

/~.-"

0-4

/
STEELS

0"2

ALUMINUM

O
-- O'f

FIGURE 5-5

/o,

a::

//

0.5

1-0

1-5
2-0
2,5
Notch radius r, mm

ALLOY
I
I

30

3"5

4.0

1 kgf/mm 2 = 9.8066 N/mm 2

Modified Goodman diagram.

FIGURE 5-6

Notch-sensitivity curves for steel and aluminum alloys.

5.12

CHAPTER

FIVE

TABLE 5-4
Empirical relationship between ultimate strength and endurance limits for various materials (approximate)
Tension, compression, and bending
(reversed or repeated cycle) a

Torsion
(reversed or repeated cycle) a

G r a y cast iron

oft = 0.6Crib to 0.7afb

orb = 1.2afb to 1.5afb

z = 0.75afb to 0.9afb
z = 1.2rf to 1.3TU

C a r b o n steels

aotaob =
oft -Oft =

"7-0= 1.8TU to 2Zf

Material

Steels (general)

Alloy steels

A l u m i n u m alloys

1.6alb
1.5afb

0.7afb to 0.8afb
0.36a~; Oot = 0.5au
afb = 0.46a~; aob = 0.6a~

Tf -- 0.55afb to 0.58afb
Yf = 0.22au

oft = 0.95afb
aot-- 1.5crft to 1.6aft
aob = 1.6a~,
aot -- 0.7afb
aob = 1.8afb

% -- 1.8Tf to 2rf

% = 0.3au

rf = 0.55~-fb to 0.58~-fb
% = 1.4rf to 2Tf
-if = 0.58a~

C o p p e r alloys

To = 1.4~-f t 2rf

o.t
( 1 0 6 ) 0.09
f = af

Endurance strength for finite life

af---ensurance limit (also for reversed cycle); o--endurance for repeated cycle; t--tension; b--bending; u--ultimate; N--number of cycles

TABLE 5-5
The empirical relation for endurance limit
Endurance limit, af
Material

Bending

Axial

Torsion

F o r steel and other ferrous materials [for or. < 1374 M P a (199.5 kpsi)]
F o r nonferrous materials

1/2-5/8au
1/4-1/3au

7/20-5/8au
7/40-1/3au

7/80-5/32Cru
7/160-1/12o~

STRESS-STRESS AND STRESS-LOAD

RELATIONS
Axial load
max

The maximum

stress

O'max

The minimum

stress

Fmin
O'min --- A

(5-40)

(5-41)

Fma x -- Fmi n
The load amplitude

Fa--

The mean load

Fm=

2
Fma x q- Fmi n

(5-42)

(5-43)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

5.13

Formula

Particular

The stress amplitude (Figs. 5-4 and 5-5)

Fa

(5-44)

Fm

(5-45)

O-__2_a= Fa

(5-46)

O'a-- A

The mean stress

O-m =

The ratio of amplitude stress to mean stress

O-m

Fm

The static equivalent of cyclic load Fm + Fa

F'm = Fm + O-ja Fa
O-fd

(5-47)

The static equivalent of mean stress O-mi o"a

'
F~m
O'm-- A

(5-48)

O-a

The Gerber parabolic relation (Fig. 5-7)

( )2
O-m

O'fd

A._.....

o"
"o

(5-49)

--<co

"<(e

= 1

O-ud

,~, " ~ O o

"<~e.

~,e

"<..

O'a

\ N

(Ym

._~

Oy

(Yut

n2
Mean stress, Om
FIGURE 5-7 Graphical representation of steady and variable stresses.

The G o o d m a n relation (Figs. 5-5, 5-7, and 5-9)

O-a
O-f d

The Soderberg relation (Figs. 5-7 and 5-8)

Bending

O-a

O-m

(5-50)

+--=1
O-ud

O-m

---t-

crfd

ayd

-- 1

(5-51)

loads

The maximum stress

O'max =

The minimum stress

O-min =---

The bending moment amplitude

Mb(max)
Zb
Mb(min)

Zb
Mb(max) -- Mb(min)

Mba -~-

(5-52)

(5-53)
(5-54)

5.14

CHAPTER FIVE

Particular

Formula

~f
o'f
"a

--ff-

Q.

~ P
Kfo

(om,Kfa,Ca~~

or)

Gm

Mean stress, Gm
FIGURE 5-8

Gy
n

Oy

Representation of safe limit of mean stress and stress amplitude by Soderberg criterion.

The mean bending moment

The bending stress amplitude
The mean bending stress
The ratio of stress amplitude to mean stress

Mb(max)+ Mb(min)

mbm

Mba

bm

O'ba

(5-57)

Zb
Mba

O'bm

The static equivalent of cyclic bending moment

(5-56)

O-ba -- Zb

O'bm

(5-58)

Mbm

Mtbm -- Mbm + O's----~

d Mb a

aya

Mb m Mb a

The static equivalent of cyclic stress

The Gerber parabolic relation (Fig. 5-7)

(5-59)

(5-60)

Zb
O'ba

(5-55)

0"2m

~+-S-f- = 1

(5-61)

The Goodman straight-line relation (Figs. 5-5, 5-7,

and 5-9)

Crba -~- O'bm =

Ofd O'ud

(5-62)

The Soderberg straight-line relation (Figs. 5-7 and 5-8)

~-~-

O'ba

O'bm

oyd

Crya

O'fd

grud

=1

(5-63)

Torsional moments
The maximum shear stress

Mt(max)
7"ma x -.~

Zt

(5-64)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

Particular

5.15

Formula

(~f

~0/,%.

6
"o
Of

a.

"-fi-

KfdOa
O0

O'm

~y

O'u

(Yu

O'y

n
M e a n stress, 0 m

FIGURE 5-9 Representation of safe limit of mean stress and stress amplitude by Goodman criterion.

The minimum shear stress

Trnin --

The load amplitude

M t a --

The mean load

mtm --

The shear stress amplitude

The mean shear stress

The ratio of stress amplitude to mean stress

Mt(min)

(5-65)

Zt

Mt(max) - Mt(min)
Mt(max) + Mt(min)

mta

mtm

(5-69)

7"m= Zt
Ta

Mta
Mtm

(5-70)

The static equivalent of cyclic twisting moment

Mtm i Mta

M~m = Mtm -+- Tsd Mtd

The static equivalent of cyclic stress

7m=

zfd

The Gerber parabolic relation (Fig. 5-7)

The Goodman straight-line relation (Figs. 5-5, 5-7,
and 5-9)
The Soderberg straight-line relation (Figs. 5-7 and 5-8)

rud

Ta +_ T m = l

rfd

(5-73)

Tud

_%_ + r m =
Tfd

(5-71)

(5-72)

Zt

Ta +L-T- = 1
7-fd

(5-67)
(5-68)

7"a= Zt

7"m

(5-66)

ryd

(5-74)
(5-75)

5.16

CHAPTER FIVE

Particular

Formula

THE C O M B I N E D STRESSES
Method 1
The static equivalent of O"m "nt- O"a

t
Om =

Osd
O"m - I - ~

(5-76)

Oa

crfa

The static equivalent of 7_mi %

,
rsa
7-m=7-m+m%
7-Ja

(5-77)

The maximum normal stress theory or Rankine's

theory

ere= 1 [o" + V/d2 + 4r~

(5-78)

The maximum shear theory or Coulomb's or Tresca

criteria or Guest's theory

7_,, = (O-'m2+ 4T~

(5-79)

The distortion energy theory or Hencky-von Mises

theory

a , , = ~//Oam2+ 3r'm2

(5-80)

The maximum strain theory or Saint Venant's theory

...-~ [~1--,-'m + ~' +., ; < + 4"m']

(s-81)

[ 2+4.2]

(5-82)

2l

(5-83)

Method 2

..

The combined maximum normal stress

O.ma x __ 1 O.ma x _~

The combined minimum normal stress

O.mi
.. n

O'min -Jr-

O.ma x

min -I-4~nin

The combined maximum shear stress

tt
2
+ 4 7 _ 2max
7"max
- i v / O'max

(5-84)

The combined minimum shear stress

7_min _ /

(5-85)

The combined maximum normal stress according to

strain theory

O'~ax---l[(1--L

,,

9 n
-I- 47"mi

V/ O'mi n

//)'max +

(1 + u)V/crZax +

47-ma x

(5-86)
The combined minimum normal stress according to
strain theory

O.mi n _ /

"

[(1 -

//)O'mi n + ( 1

+ u)

;-

many + 4rmin 2

(5-87)

The combined maximum octahedral shear stress

Tmax - 1

The combined minimum octahedral shear stress

~m,n"__

The combined mean stress

O-m ---

"

2
max
-I- 3T2ax

(5-88a)

2
2
O'mi n -+- 37-mi n

(5-88b)

V/a

[~/

II

tt

I!

O'max ~ O'min

(s-88c)

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

Particular

The combined stress amplitude

The Gerber parabolic relation (Fig. 5-7)
The Goodman straight-line relation (Figs. 5-5, 5-7,
and 5-9)
The Soderberg straight-line relation (Figs. 5-7 and 5-8)

5.17

Formula

tt ~--

(7"a

,,
O-a
~+

l/
II
O'max -- O'min

(5-S8d)

2
( O-m,,)2
~

O'fd
O'ud
l!
l!
~O"-a~ - ~O"m = 1
Orfd O'ud
II
II
(7"a O"m
~-~-~= 1
O'fd Oyd

(5-88e)

=1

(s-88f)
(5-88g)

C O M B I N E D S T R E S S E S IN T E R M S OF
LOADS
Method 1
Maximum shear stress theory

'e-~lMtbmYtml

The shear energy theory

(M;m) 2

- ~ b --~---~ + 4

Fled--

(5-89a)

-~t

O'e ~(M1bm Fm) 2

fM;m) 2
- ~ b +--~ - + 3 \ Zt
ned =

(5-S9b)

where
7rd3

zb =-~-

Maximum shear stress theory

7rd3
16

~-d2
4
for solid shafts
A

Method 2

Zt -

and

Mb(max)
Fmax
-

Zb

Mt(max)

Zt

1+

Tfa Ta

"-~-[~(Mb(min)-~-~-~12-'~-4(gt(min))2
Zt
x ---+--

Tfd Td

=2

(5-90a)

The shear energy theory

[~(Mb(max)-+-~-~)2-~-3(gt(max))2]
Zt

I~fdlJ

+[~/(Mb(min)-k-~)2+B(Mt(min))2
Zt
1

- - ~ + ~

~fa

= 2

(5-90b)

5.18

CHAPTER FIVE

Formula

Particular
CREEP
Creep in tension
W h e n the curve for total creep el is approximated as a
straight line its equation is

et = eo + e t

(5-91a)

The creep rate ~ can be approximated by the equation

--- Oo "n

(5-91b)

Refer to Table 5-6 for creep constants B and n.

Creep rate ~, when extrapolated into the region
of lower stresses, can be determined with greater
accuracy by the hyperbolic sine term

osin

(5-91c)

(5-91d)

e' = ln(1 + e)

True strain

Creep life of a l u m i n u m

g cr -- -~

Time for the stress to decrease from an initial value of

a0 to a value of a

t=

(5-92)
1

EB(n -

a0
1)4 -l

- 1

(5-93)

(7"

Creep in bending
C

The m a x i m u m stress at the extreme fibers in case of

bending of beam is given by the relation

or=

The m a x i m u m deflection of a cantilever beam loaded

at free end by a load F

Ymax =

)1/n

(5-94)

Mb
t F n In + 2

(5-95)

D(n + 2)

l(2b)"

h)2n+ 1

where D = B

(2+n

l).

Creep constants B and n are taken from Table 5-6.

TABLE 5-6
Creep constants for various steels for use in Eqs. (5-91b) to (5-95)
Steel

Temperature C

0.39% C
0.30% C
0.45% C
2% Ni, 0.8% Cr, 0.4% Mo
2% Ni, 0.3% C, 1.4% Mn
12% Cr, 3% W, 0.4% Mn
Ni-Cr-Mo
Ni-Cr-Mo
12% Cr

400
400
475
450
450
550
500
500
455

14 x
44

10 -36
10 -30

10 x 10 -19
21 10 -22
24 10 -14
12 x 10 -16
16 x 10-12
12 x 10-22

8.6
6.9
6.5
3.2
4.7
1.9
2.7
1.3
4.4

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

Particular

5.19

Formula

RELIABILITY

The probability function or frequency function

p =f(x)

The cumulative probability function

F(xj)--

(5-96)

(5-97)

Z
f(xi)
xi <xj

where f ( x ) is the probability density

The sample mean or arithmetic mean of a sample

t";-O~a~

Xl + X2 -~- X3 + X4 -~- " " " q- Xn

.-

n
=-

1~-~

n i=1

(5-98b)

xi

where xi is the ith value of the quantity

n is the total number of measurements or
elements
The population mean of a population consisting of n
elements

# =

X 1 + X 2 -~ X 3 -+- X 4 Jr-'''-4- X n

= -

n i=1,

The sample variance

(5-99b)

xi

(X 1 __ .~)2 _+. (X2 __ ~)2 __]_.....qt_ (X n

Sx-=

(5-99a)

n1

n-1

~"~ X2

A suitable equation for variance for use in a calculator

Sx ---

The sample standard deviation (the symbol used for

true standard deviation is ~)

Sx = I ~ ~ 1

A suitable equation for standard deviation for use in a

calculator

ZX

(x i --

__ .~)2

(5-100a)

2) 2

(5-100b)

i=1
.~2

(5-101)

11

Sx =

~i=, (Xi --

~)2 1/2

(5-102)

( . ~ X)2 } !/2
n-1

The coefficient of variation

cu = ( S x / ~ ) l O 0

The normal, or Gaussian, distribution (Fig. 5-10)

f (x) = # ~ e1

The normal distribution as defined by parameters, the

mean # and standard deviation ~ according to the
relation for the relative frequency f ( t ) , which is
the ordinate at t

f(t)

(5-103)

(5-104)

_ (x_/~)2/28.2

1
_(t2/2)
= V/~27r) e

- oo < x < oo

(5-105)

(5-106)

where t - - ( x - # ) / &
Refer to Table 5-7 for ordinatef(t) [i.e. y = f ( t ) ] for
various values of t.

5.20

CHAPTER FIVE

Particular

Formula

G1

x
>,,
to
(D
:3
Er
(D
ii

G3 > G2 > (~1 [

t"

(3'2~~.

L_

Xl X2

FIGURE 5-10 The shapes of normal distribution curves

for various a and constant #.

FIGURE 5-11 The Gaussian (normal) distribution curve.

Refer to Table 5-8 for area under the standard normal

distribution curve.
The area under normal distribution curve to the right
of t (Fig. 5-11)

B(t) = 1 - A ( t )

(5-107)

where A(t) is the area to the left of t.

The area under the entire normal distribution curve is
A ( t ) + B(t) and is equal to unity. The term B(t) can be
found from Table 5-8 or by integrating the area under
the curve.
erf(x) = - ~

Error function or probability integral

e - ? dt

(5-108)

Refer to Table 5-9 for erf(x) for various values of x.

The resultant mean of adding the means of two
populations (Fig. 5-12)

/z = #s + #~

(5-109)

The resultant mean of subtracting the means of two

populations

#=#s-#~

(5-110)

The resultant standard deviation for both subtraction

and addition of two standard deviations #s and ~

c~ = 4 6 -2 + c~2

(5-111)

o')

"o
iv

o
r-

II

80
140
Strength (S) and Stressf(o)
FIGURE 5-12
populations.

Distribution curves for two means of

D E S I G N OF M A C H I N E E L E M E N T S F O R S T R E N G T H

5.21

T A B L E 5-7
Standard normal curve ordinates

y = - - .1~ e

-?/2

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

.3989
.3970
.3910
.3814
.3683
.3521
.3332
.3123
.2897
.2661
.2420
.2179
.1942
.1714
.1497
.1295
.1109
.0940
.0790
.0656
.0540
.0440
.0355
.0283
.0224
.0175
.0136
.0104
.0079
.0060
.0044
.0033
.0024
.0017
.0012
.0009
,0006
.0004
.0003
.0002

.3989
.3965
.3902
.3802
.3668
.3503
.3312
.3101
.2874
.2637
.2396
.2155
.1919
.1691
.1476
.1276
.1092
.0925
.0775
.0644
.0529
.0431
.0347
.0277
.0219
.0171
.0132
.0101
.0077
.0058
.0043
.0032
.0023
.0017
.0012
.0008
.0006
.0004
.0003
.0002

.3989
.3961
.2894
.3790
.3653
.3485
.3292
.3079
.2850
.2613
.2371
.2131
.1895
.1669
.1456
.1257
.1074
.0909
.0761
.0632
.0519
.0422
.0339
.0270
.0213
.0167
.0129
.0099
.0075
.0056
.0042
.0031
.0022
.0016
.0012
.0008
.0006
.0004
.0003
.0002

.3988
.3956
.3885
.3778
.3637
.3467
.3271
.3056
.2827
.2589
.2347
.2107
.1872
.1647
.1435
.1238
.1057
.0893
.0748
.0620
.0508
.0413
.0332
.0264
.0208
.0163
.0126
.0096
.0073
.0055
.0040
.0030
.0022
.0016
.0011
.0008
.0005
.0004
.0003
.0002

.3986
.3951
.3876
.3765
.3621
.3448
.3251
.3034
.2803
.2565
.2323
.2083
.1849
.1626
.1415
.1219
.1040
.0878
.0734
.0608
.0498
.0404
.0325
.0258
.0203
.0158
.0122
.0093
.0071
.0053
.0039
.0029
.0021
.0015
.0011
.0008
.0005
.0004
.0003
.0002

.3984
.3945
.3867
.3752
.3605
.3429
.3230
.3011
.2780
.2541
.2299
.2059
.1826
.1604
.1394
.1200
.1023
.0863
.0721
.0596
.0488
.0396
.0317
.0252
.0198
.0154
.0119
.0091
.0069
.0051
.0038
.0028
.0020
.0015
.0010
.0007
.0005
.0004
.0002
.0002

.3982
.3939
.3857
.3739
.3589
.3410
.3209
.2989
.2756
.2516
.2275
.2036
.1804
.1528
.1374
.1i82
.1006
.0848
.0707
.0584
.0487
.0387
.0310
.0246
.0194
.0151
.0116
.0088
.0067
.0050
.0037
.0027
.0020
.0014
.0010
.0007
.0005
.0003
.0002
.0002

.3980
.3932
.3847
.3725
.3572
.3391
.3187
.2966
.2932
.2492
.2251
.2012
.1781
.1561
.1354
.1163
.0989
.0833
.0694
.0573
.0468
.0379
.0303
.0241
.0189
.0147
.0113
.0086
.0065
.0048
.0036
.0026
.0019
.0014
.0010
.0007
.0005
.0003
.0002
.0002

.3977
.3925
.3836
.3712
.3555
.3372
.3166
.2943
.2709
.2468
.2227
.1989
.1758
.1539
.1334
.1145
.0973
.0818
.0681
.0562
.0459
.0371
.0297
.0235
.0184
.0143
.0110
.0084
.0063
.0047
.0035
.0025
.0018
.0013
.0009
.0007
.0005
.0003
.0002
.0001

.3973
.3918
.3815
.3697
.3538
.3352
.3144
.2920
.2685
.2444
.2203
.1965
.1736
.1518
.1315
.1127
.0957
.0804
.0669
.0551
.0449
.0363
.0290
.0229
.0180
.0139
.0107
.0081
.0061
.0046
.0034
.0025
.0018
.0013
.0009
.0006
.0004
.0003
.0002
.0001

5.22

C H A P T E R FIVE

T A B L E 5-8
Areas under the standard normal distribution curve

A(t)=

Co~ 1

e_? /2 at

+t

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

.0000
.0398
.0793
.1179
.1554
.1915
.2258
.2580
.2881
.3159
.3413
.3643
.3849
.4032
.4192
.4332
.4452
.4554
.4641
.4713
.4772
.4821
.4861
.4893
.4918
.4938
.4953
.4965
.4974
.4981
.4987
.4990
.4993
.4995
.4997
.4998
.4998
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0040
.0438
.0832
.1217
.1591
.1950
.2291
.2612
.2910
.3186
.3438
.3665
.3869
.4049
.4207
.4345
.4463
.4564
.4649
.4719
.4778
.4826
.4864
.4896
.4920
.4940
.4955
.4966
.4975
.4982
.4987
.4991
.4993
.4995
.4997
.4998
.4998
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0080
.0478
.0871
.1255
.1628
.1985
.2324
.2642
.2939
.3212
.3461
.3686
.3888
.4066
.4222
.4357
.4474
.4573
.4656
.4726
.4783
.4830
.4868
.4898
.4922
.4941
.4956
.4967
.4976
.4982
.4987
.4991
.4994
.4995
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0120
.0517
.0910
.1293
.1664
.2019
.2357
.2673
.2967
.3238
.3485
.3708
.3907
.4082
.4236
.4370
.4484
.4582
.4664
.4732
.4788
.4834
.4871
.4901
.4925
.4943
.4957
.4968
.4977
.4983
.4988
.4991
.4994
.4996
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0160
.0557
.0948
.1331
.1700
.2054
.2389
.2704
.2996
.3264
.3508
.3729
.3925
.4099
.4251
.4382
.4495
.4591
.4671
.4738
.4793
.4838
.4875
.4904
.4927
.4945
.4959
.4969
.4977
.4984
.4988
.4992
.4994
.4996
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0199
.0596
.0987
.1368
.1736
.2088
.2422
.2734
.3023
.3289
.3531
.3749
.3944
.4115
.4265
.4394
.4506
.4599
.4678
.4744
.4798
.4842
.4878
.4906
.4929
.4946
.4960
.4970
.4978
.4984
.4989
.4992
.4994
.4996
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0239
.0636
.1026
.1406
.1772
.2123
.2454
.2764
.3051
.3315
.3554
.3770
.3962
.4131
.4279
.4406
.4515
.4608
.4686
.4750
.4803
.4846
.4881
.4909
.4931
.4948
.4961
.4971
.4979
.4985
.4989
.4992
.4994
.4996
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0279
.0675
.1064
.1443
.1808
.2157
.2486
.2794
.3078
.3340
.3577
.3790
.3980
.4147
.4292
.4418
.4525
.4616
.4693
.4756
.4808
.4850
.4884
.4911
.4932
.4949
.4962
.4972
.4979
.4985
.4989
.4992
.4995
.4996
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0319
.0714
.1103
.1480
.1844
.2190
.2518
.2823
.3106
.3365
.3599
.3810
.3997
.4162
.4306
.4429
.4535
.4625
.4699
.4761
.4812
.4854
.4887
.4913
.4934
.4951
.4963
.4973
.4980
.4986
.4990
.4993
.4995
.4996
.4997
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

.0359
.0754
.1141
.1517
.1879
.2224
.2549
.2852
.3133
.3389
.3621
.3830
.4015
.4177
.4319
.4441
.4545
.4633
.4706
.4767
.4817
.4857
.4890
.4916
.4936
.4952
.4964
.4974
.4981
.4986
.4990
.4993
.4995
.4997
.4998
.4998
.4999
.4999
.4999
.5000

5.23

DESIGN OF M A C H I N E ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

T A B L E 5-9
Error function or probability integral

erf(x) = ~

x
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0

2J. e-t2dt

.11246
.22270
.32863
.42839
.52050
.60386
.67780
.74210
.79691
.84270
.88021
.91031
.93401
.95229
.96611
.97635
.98379
.98909
.99279
.99532
.99702
.99814
.99886
.99931
.99959
.99976
.99987
.99992
.99996
.99998

1
.01128
.12362
.23352
.33891
.43797
.52924
.61168
.68467
.74800
.80188
.84681
.88353
.91296
.93606
.95385
.96728
.97721
.98441
.98952
.99309
.99552
.99715
.99822
.99891
.99935
.99961
.99978
.99987
.99993
.99996

.02256
.13476
.24430
.34913
.44747
.53790
.61941
.69143
.75381
.80677
.85084
.88679
.91553
.93807
.95538
.96841
.97804
.98500
.98994
.99338
.99572
.99728
.99831
.99897
.99938
.99963
.99979
.99988
.99993
.99996

.03384
.14587
.25502
.35928
.45689
.54646
.62705
.69810
.75952
.81156
.85478
.88997
.91805
.94002
.95686
.96952
.97884
.98558
.99035
.99366
.99591
.99741
.99839
.99902
.99941
.99965
.99980
.99989
.99994
.99997

.04511
.15695
.26570
.36936
.46623
.55494
.63459
.70468
.76514
.81627
.85865
.89308
.92051
.94191
.95830
.97059
.97962
.98613
.99074
.99392
.99609
.99753
.99846
.99906
.99944
.99967
.99981
.99989
.99994
.99997

.05637
.16800
.27633
.37938
.47548
.56332
.64203
.71116
.77067
.82089
.86244
.89612
.92290
.94376
.95970
.97162
.98038
.98667
.99111
.99418
.99626
.99764
.99854
.99911
.99947
.99969
.99982
.99990
.99994
.99997

.06762
.17901
.28690
.38933
.48466
.57162
.64938
.71754
.77610
.82542
.86614
.89910
.92524
.94556
.96105
.97263
.98110
.98719
.99147
.99443
.99642
.99775
.99861
.99915
.99950
.99971
.99983
.99991
.99995
.99997

.07886
.18999
.29742
.39921
.49375
.57982
.65663
.72382
.78144
.82987
.86977
.90200
.92751
.94731
.96237
.97360
.98181
.98769
.99182
.99466
.99658
.99785
.99867
.99920
.99952
.99972
.99984
.99991
.99995
.99997

.09008
.20094
.30788
.40901
.50275
.58792
.66378
.73001
.78669
.83243
.87333
.90484
.92973
.94902
.96365
.97455
.98249
.98817
.99216
.99489
.99673
.99795
.99874
.99924
.99955
.99974
.99985
.99992
.99995
.99997

.10128
.21184
.31828
.41874
.51167
.59594
.67084
.73610
.79184
.83851
.87680
.90761
.93190
.95067
.96490
.97546
.98315
.98864
.99248
.99511
.99688
.99805
.99880
.99928
.99957
.99975
.99986
.99992
.99996
.99998

....

The s t a n d a r d variable tR (deviation m u l t i p l i c a t i o n

factor) in o r d e r to determine the p r o b a b i l i t y o f failure
or the reliability

tR

(5-112)

---

where subscripts s a n d ~ refer to strength a n d

stress, respectively.
T h e reliability associated with tR

R-O.5+A(tR)
where A(tR) is

(5-113)

the area u n d e r a s t a n d a r d n o r m a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n curve.

Refer to T a b l e 5-10 for typical values o f R as a

f u n c t i o n o f s t a n d a r d i z e d variable tR.

5.24

CHAPTER FIVE

Particular

Formula

T A B L E 5-10
Reliability R as a function of t R
Survival rate (R) %

tR

5O
90.00
95.00
98.00
99.00
99.90
99.99

0
1.288
1.645
2.050
2.330
3.080
3.700
A safety factor of 1 is taken into account in determining the reliability from Eq. (5-113).

The fatigue
reliability

strength

reduction

factor

based

on

CR -- 1 - 0.08(tR)

(5-114)

where t R is also called the dev&tion multiplication

factor ( D M F ) , taken from Table 5-10.
#s - nt/za

If a factor of safety n' is to be specified together with

reliability, then Eq. (5-112) is rewritten to give a new
expression for tg

t~ =

The expression for safety factor n' from Eq. (5-115)

n'=--

'[

#s - n #a
= ~

#s-tR

~2+#2

(5-117)

y = mx + b

where m is the slope and b is the intercept on the y

axis
xy

The equations for regression

(5-116a)
(5-116b)

= --(#s-tR#)

The best-fitting straight line which fits a set of

scattered data points as per linear regression

(5-115)

m =

ExEy
n

(Ex)

b= Ey-mEx

(5-118a)

(5-118b)

The correlation coefficient

ms x

r = ~

(5-119)

Sy

where r lies between - 1 and +1.

If r is negative, it indicates that the regression line has
a negative slope.
If r = 1, there is a perfect correlation, and if r - - 0 ,
there is no correlation.

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS FOR STRENGTH

The equation for frequency or density function

according to Weibull

:
f(x)

5.25

b (X--xo)b-l(exp
O-xo

xo
(5-120)

The cumulative distribution function

F(x) =

f (x) dx = 1 - exp

Equation (5-121) after simplification

F(x) = 1 - exp

(5-121)

(0)

REFERENCES
1. Maleev, V. L., and J. B. Hartman, Machine Design, International Textbook Company, Scranton,
Pennsylvania, 1954.
2. Shigley, J. E., and L. D. Mitchell, Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1983.
3. Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1965.
4. Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Engineering Co-operative
Society, Bangalore, India, Bangalore, India, 1962.
5. Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. I (SI and Customary Units),
Suma Publishers, Bangalore, India, 1986.
6. Lingaiah, K., Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. II (SI and Customary Metric Units), Suma Publishers,
Bangalore, India, 1986.
7. Juvinall, R. C., Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983.
8. Deutschman, A. D., W. J. Michels, and C. E. Wilson, Machine Design--Theory and Practice, Macmillan
Publishing Company, New York, 1975.
9. Edwards, Jr., K. S., and R. B. McKee, Fundamentals of Mechanical Component Design, McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, New York, 1991.
10. Norton, R. L., Machine Design--An Integrated Approach, Prentice Hall International, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, 1996.
11. Lingaiah, K. Machine Design Data Handbook, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, 1994.
12. Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 10, 8th edition, p. 102, Metals Park, Ohio, 1975.