Maths Quest 12 Mathematics Methods CAS

2ND EDITION
MATHS QUEST 12
Mathematical
Methods CAS
MATHS QUEST 12
Mathematical
Methods CAS
BRIAN HODGSON | NICOLAOS KARANIKOLAS | BEVERLY LANGSFORD-WILLING
MARK DUNCAN | TRACY HERFT | LIBBY KEMPTON | JENNIFER NOLAN | GEOFF PHILLIPS
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
RAYMOND ROZEN | MARGARET SWALE | ROBERT CAHN | RUTH BAKOGIANIS
ANDREW MENTLIKOWSKI | MARK BARNES | KYLIE BOUCHER | JENNY WATSON | CAROLINE DENNEY
SONJA STAMBULIC | ELENA IAMPOLSKY | ROSS ALLEN | RODNEY EBBAGE
2ND EDITION
VCE M AT H EM AT I CS U N I T S 3 & 4
Second edition published 2013 by

John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2010
Typeset in 10/12 pt Times LT Std
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2010, 2013
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Author:
Title:
Edition:
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ISBN:
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Dewey number:
Hodgson, Brian
Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods
CAS/Brian Hodgson et al.
2nd ed.
Milton, Qld: John Wiley & Sons Australia,
2009.
978 1 118 31068 7 (student pbk)
978 1 118 31081 6 (flexisaver)
978 1 118 31070 0 (student eBook)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Mathematics Textbooks.
510
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Introduction viii
About eBookPLUS x
Acknowledgements xi
ExAm PrACtICE 1
Based on chapters 12
Chapter 3
Chapter 1
Graphs and polynomials

1A The binomial theorem
Exponential and logarithmic equations
4
5
Exercise 1B 7
Division of polynomials 8
Exercise 1C 10
Linear graphs 11
Exercise 1D 14
Quadratic graphs 15
Exercise 1E 20
Cubic graphs 22
Exercise 1F 25
Quartic graphs 29
Exercise 1G 33
Solving systems of equations
Exercise 1H 42
Exercise 1A
1D
1E
1F
1G
1H
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F
3G
3H
34
3I
Summary 44
Chapter review 47
ICT activities 52
Answers 53
Chapter 2
Functions and transformations
57
2C
2D
2E
2F
2G
2H
2I
2J
57
Exercise 2A 62
The cubic function in power form 63
Exercise 2B 67
The power function (the hyperbola) 68
Exercise 2C 72
The power function (the truncus) 75
Exercise 2D 79
The square root function in power form 81
Exercise 2E 85
The absolute value function 86
Exercise 2F 89
Transformations with matrices 90
Exercise 2G 94
Sum, difference and product functions 95
Exercise 2H 98
Composite functions and functional equations
Exercise 2I 101
Modelling 101
Exercise 2J 106
Summary 109
Chapter review 112
ICT activities 118
Answers 119
129
Exercise 3A 132
Logarithm laws 133
Exercise 3B 136
Exponential equations 137
Exercise 3C 140
Logarithmic equations using any base 141
Exercise 3D 143
Exponential equations (base e) 144
Exercise 3E 146
Equations with natural (base e) logarithms 147
Exercise 3F 147
Inverses 148
Exercise 3G 149
Literal equations 150
Exercise 3H 151
Exponential and logarithmic modelling 152
Exercise 3I 153
Summary 156
Chapter review 157
ICT activities 160
Answers 161
Chapter 4
2A Transformations and the parabola

2B
129
3A The index laws
1B Polynomials
1C
127
Exponential and logarithmic graphs
163
4A Graphs of exponential functions with any base

4B
4C
4D
4E
4F
4G
99
4H
163
Exercise 4A 170
Logarithmic graphs to any base 171
Exercise 4B 177
Graphs of exponential functions with base e 178
Exercise 4C 182
Logarithmic graphs to base e 183
Exercise 4D 186
Finding equations for graphs of exponential and
logarithmic functions 187
Exercise 4E 189
Addition of ordinates 190
Exercise 4F 194
Exponential and logarithmic functions with absolute
values 196
Exercise 4G 198
Exponential and logarithmic modelling using
graphs 199
Exercise 4H 200
Summary 203
Chapter review 205
ICT activities 210
Answers 211
7E The derivative of e x
Chapter 5
Inverse functions
223
5A Relations and their inverses
Exercise 5A
227
5B Functions and their inverses
Exercise 5B
Exercise 5D
7H
232
235
5D Restricting functions
7G
228
231
5C Inverse functions
Exercise 5C
7F
223
7I
236
241
7J
Summary 244
Chapter review 245
ICT activities 249
Answers 250
Chapter 6
Circular (trigonometric) functions
259
6A Revision of radians and the unit circle

6B
6C
6D
6E
6F
6G
6H
6I
259
Exercise 6A 262
Symmetry and exact values 263
Exercise 6B 268
Trigonometric equations 270
Exercise 6C 275
Trigonometric graphs 276
Exercise 6D 280
Graphs of the tangent function 282
Exercise 6E 285
Finding equations of trigonometric graphs 286
Exercise 6F 288
Trigonometric modelling 289
Exercise 6G 290
Further graphs 292
Exercise 6H 297
Trigonometric functions with an increasing
trend 298
Exercise 6I 298
Summary 300
Chapter review 303
ICT activities 306
Answers 307
Applications of differentiation
365
8A Equations of tangents and normals

8B
8C
8D
8E
8F
8G
365
Exercise 8A 366
Sketching curves 367
Exercise 8B 373
Maximum and minimum problems when the
function is known 374
Exercise 8C 377
Maximum and minimum problems when the
function is unknown 378
Exercise 8D 382
Rates of change 383
Exercise 8E 385
Related rates 387
Exercise 8F 389
Linear approximation 390
Exercise 8G 391
Summary 393
Chapter review 394
ICT activities 398
Answers 399
9B
317
Exercise 7A 321
7B Limits and differentiation from first
principles 325
Exercise 7B 328
7C The derivative of xn 330
Exercise 7C 331
7D The chain rule 332
Exercise 7D 334
Contents
Chapter 8
403
9A Antidifferentiation
315
7A Review gradient and rates of change
vi
Summary 353
Chapter review 355
ICT activities 359
Answers 360
Integration
Chapter 7
Differentiation
341
Chapter 9
ExAm PrACtICE 2
335
Exercise 7E 337
The derivative of loge (x) 338
Exercise 7F 340
The derivatives of sin (x), cos (x) and tan (x)
Exercise 7G 343
The product rule 344
Exercise 7H 345
The quotient rule 346
Exercise 7I 347
Mixed problems on differentiation 348
Exercise 7J 351
9C
317
9D
9E
9F
9G
403
Exercise 9A 409
Integration of e x, sin (x) and cos (x) 411
Exercise 9B 413
Integration by recognition 414
Exercise 9C 417
Approximating areas enclosed by functions 418
Exercise 9D 421
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus 423
Exercise 9E 426
Signed areas 427
Exercise 9F 430
Further areas 432
Exercise 9G 435
9H Areas between two curves
437
Exercise 9H 439
9I Average value of a function 441
Exercise 9I 444
9J Further applications of integration
Exercise 9J 447
11D Expected value, variance and standard deviation of
the binomial distribution

Exercise 11D 550
445
Summary 449
Chapter review 452
ICT activities 456
Answers 457
Summary 554
Chapter review 555
ICT activities 559
Answers 560
Chapter 12
Continuous distributions
463
12B
Chapter 10
Discrete random variables

10A Probability revision
465
465
12C
477
10B Discrete random variables
479
Exercise 10B 484
10C Measures of centre of discrete random
distributions 487
Exercise 10C 492
10D Measures of variability of discrete random
distributions 494
Exercise 10D 501
563
12A Continuous random variables
ExAm PrACtICE 3
Exercise 10A
547
Summary 504
Chapter review 506
ICT activities 511
Answers 512
12D
12E
12F
12G
Chapter 11
The binomial distribution
515
11A The binomial distribution
515
Exercise 11A 523

11B Problems involving the binomial distribution for
multiple probabilities 526
Exercise 11B 529
11C Markov chains and transition matrices 532
Exercise 11C 543
563
Exercise 12A 566
Using a probability density function to
find probabilities of continuous random
variables 568
Exercise 12B 572
Measures of central tendency and
spread 575
Exercise 12C 580
Applications to problem solving 581
Exercise 12D 584
The normal distribution 586
Exercise 12E 589
The standard normal distribution 591
Exercise 12F 597
The inverse cumulative normal
distribution 599
Exercise 12G 602
Summary 605
Chapter review 608
ICT activities 612
Answers 613
ExAm PrACtICE 4
617
Exam practice answers
619
Cumulative exam practice

Answers
Index
621
642
645
Contents
vii
Introduction
Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods CAS is specifically designed for the VCE Mathematical Methods
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viii
Introduction
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Acknowledgements
xi
Chapter 1
Graphs and polynomials

DiGitaL DoC
doc-9159
10 Quick Questions
Chapter ContentS
1a
1B
1C
1D
1e
1F
1G
1h
The binomial theorem

Polynomials
Division of polynomials
Linear graphs
Quadratic graphs
Cubic graphs
Quartic graphs
1a
the binomial theorem
In Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS we learned the following binomial expansions:
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2xa + a2
(x + a)3 = x3 + 3x2a + 3xa2 + a3
These are called binomial expansions because the expressions in the brackets contain two terms,
bi meaning 2.
By continuing to multiply successively by a further (x + a), the following expansions would be
obtained:
(x + a)4 = (x3 + 3x2a + 3xa2 + a3)(x + a)
= x4 + 4x3a + 6x2a2 + 4xa3 + a3
5
(x + a) = (x4 + 4x3a + 6x2a2 + 4xa3 + a3)(x + a)
= x5 + 5x4a + 10x3a2 + 10x2a3 + 5xa4 + a5
The coefficients associated with each term can be arranged in a triangular shape as shown:
(x + a)0
(x + a)1
(x + a)2
(x + a)3
(x + a)4
(x + a)5
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
3
6
10
1
4
10
1
5
Notes
1. The first and last numbers of each row are 1.
2. Each other number is the sum of the two numbers immediately above it.
Chapter 1 Graphs and polynomials
This triangle is known as Pascals triangle. Each number can also be obtained using combinations, as
follows.
Row
0

0
1

1
1

0
2

1
2

0
3

1
3

0
3
4

0
4

1
2

2
3

2
4

2
3

3
4

3
4

4
n
n!
Note: = nCr =
( n r )! r !
r
n
Remember that nCr is another way of writing , and is called n-choose-r.
r
For example, the expansion of (x + a)6 can be written using combinations and then evaluated:
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
(x + a)6 = x6a0 + x5a1 + x4a2 + x3a3 + x2a4 + x1a5 + x0a6
0
1
2
3
4
5

6
6
5
4
2
3
3
2
4
4
6
= x + 6x a + 15x a + 20x a + 15x a + 6xa + a
Now the binomial theorem can be formally stated.
n
n
n
n
(ax + b)n = (ax)nb0 + (ax)n 1b1 + . . . +
(ax)1bn 1 + (ax)0bn
0
1
n 1
n
Notes
1. The indices in each term always sum to n, that is, the powers of (ax) and b sum to n.
2. The power of ax decreases from left to right while the power of b increases.
3. The number of terms in the expansion is always n + 1.
n
4. The (r + 1)th term is (ax)n r br.
r
The binomial theorem can also be stated using summation notation:
n
n
(ax + b)n = (ax)n rbr, where
r = 0 r
means the sum of n + 1 terms from r = 0 to r = n.
r= 0
WorkeD exampLe 1
Use the binomial theorem to expand (2x 3)4.

think
1
Complete the binomial theorem expansion

where ax is the 1st term, b is the 2nd term and
n is the index, using the appropriate row of
Pascals triangle to assist.
Write
4
4
(2x 3)4 = (2x)4(3)0 + (2x)3(3)1
0
1
4
4
+ (2x)2(3)2 + (2x)1(3)3
2
3
4
+ (2x)0(3)4
4
Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods CAS
Evaluate the combinations and the powers.
= 1(16x4) + 4(8x3)(3) + 6(4x2)(9)

+ 4(2x)(27) + 1(81)
Simplify.
= 16x4 96x3 + 216x2 216x + 81
WorkeD exampLe 2
5
2
Expand the binomial expression 2 + x .

x
think
1
Write
Complete the binomial expansion where

2
ax = 2 , b = x and n = 5, using row 5 of Pascals
x
triangle to assist.
5
5
4
3
2
2
2
2 2
2 + x = 2 + 5 2 x + 10 2 x
x
x
x
x
2
2
2
+10 2 x 3 + 5 2 x 4 + x 5
x
x
Evaluate the powers.
Simplify.
32
16
8
+ 5 8 x + 10 6 x 2
10
x
x
x
2
4
+10 4 x 3 + 5 2 x 4 + x 5
x
x
32 80 80 40
+
+
+
+ 10 x 2 + x 5
x10 x 7 x 4
x
WorkeD exampLe 3
State the coefficient of i x2 and
ii x4 in (3 2x)8, without the use of technology.
think
Write
i 1 The powers of the 1st term decrease and
i x0, x1, x2
the powers of the 2nd term increase 0, 1,

2, . . . Use this to find which term gives a
power of x2.
2
Find the appropriate term by using the

binomial theorem.
Evaluate the term.
State the coefficient.
ii 1 Find which term gives a power of x4.
Evaluate the term.
tUtoriaL
eles-1173
Worked example 3
The third term gives a power of x2.
8
Third term = 36 (2x)2
2
= 28 729 4x2
= 81 648x2
The coefficient of x2 is 81 648.
ii x0, x1, x2, x3, x4
The fifth term gives a power of x4.

8
Fifth term = 34 (2x)4
4
= 70 81 16x4
= 90 720x4
State the coefficient.
The coefficient of the fifth term is 90 720.
WorkeD exampLe 4
Find the fourth term in the expansion of (x 2y)5.

think
Write
Find the fourth term by using the binomial theorem.
Evaluate the term.
5
Fourth term = x2(2y)3
3
= 10 x2 8y3
= 80x2y3
WorkeD exampLe 5
1 5
Find and evaluate the term that is independent of x in the expansion of x 3 + 2 .
x
think
1
Write
Find how the powers of x are generated

in the expansion from left to right.
1
Powers of x are (x3)5 = x15, (x3)4 2 = x10,
x
2
3
1
1
(x 3)3 2 = x5, (x 3)2 2 = x0 . . .
x
x
Find the required term.
Evaluate.
State the solution.
that is, x15, x10, x 5, x 0, x 5, x 10

The fourth term is independent of x, as the
power of x = 0.
3
5
1
Fourth term = ( x 3 )2 2
x
3
1
6
= 10 x 6
x
= 10
The term that is independent of x is the fourth
term, 10.
WorkeD exampLe 6
Find the coefficient of y4 in the expansion of ( y + 3)3 (2 y)5.

think
1
Write
y4 terms will result when multiplying from the first and

second brackets respectively: terms 1 and 2, terms
2 and 3, terms 3 and 4 and terms 4 and 5.
Write down the sum of these 4 products, using
y4 terms = y3[5(2)4(y)] + 3y2(3)[10(2)3(y)2]
Pascals triangle to assist.
+ 3y(3)2[10(2)2(y)3] + 33[5(2)(y)4]
Evaluate.
State the solution.
exercise 1a
DiGitaL DoC
doc-9238
SkillSHEET 1.1
Binomial expansions
1 We1
= 80y4 + 720y4 1080y4 + 270y4

= 170y4
The coefficient of y4 is 170.
Use the binomial theorem to expand each of the following.

b (x + 4)5
c (x 1)8
4
e (7 x)
f (2 3x)5
a (x + 3)2
d (2x + 3)4
2 We2 Expand each of the following binomial expansions.
1 3
x
2 7
x
a x +
b 3x
5
3
2
x
x2
6
2 3
x +
x
State the coefficient of i x2 ii x3 and iii x4 in each of the following.
3 We3
a (x 7)3
2
c + 3 x
b (2x + 1)5
3 6
d x2
e 7x +
D 45
e 135
3 6
x2
5 3
x
4 mC The coefficient of x3 in 3 x 2 is:
a 135
B 45
C 75
5 mC Which of the following does not have an x5 term when expanded?
a (x + 6)8
6 mC If x 3 +
a 15
B 3x 2
1 7
C 6 x +
5 8
D (8 3x)5
1 8
2
x
x2
2 5
e
f
= ax15 + bx10 + cx 5 + d + 5 + 10 , then a + b + c + d + e + f equals:
2
x
x
x
B 31
C 63
D 243
e 127
7 mC Which one of the following expressions is not equal to (2x 3)4?

a (3
2x)4
D 16x4 24x3 + 36x2 54x + 81
B (2x 3)(2x
3)3
(2 x 3)6
(3 2 x)2
e 16x4 96x3 + 216x2 216x + 81
8 We4 Find the fourth term in the expansion (x + 3y)6.

9
10
11
12
13
x 9
Find the third term in the expansion of 3 , assuming ascending powers of x.

4
2 6
We5
Find and evaluate the term that is independent of x in the expansion of 3 x + 2 .
x
5
2 4
Find and evaluate the term independent of x in the expansion of x 3 .
x
3 4
Find and evaluate the term that is independent of x in the expansion of x 2 + 2 .
x
We6 Find the coefficient of p4 in the expansion of (p + 3)5(2p 5).
14 In the expansion of (2a 1)n, the coefficient of the second term is 192. Find the value of n.
1B
Units: 3 & 4
polynomials
A polynomial in x is an expression that consists of terms which have non-negative integer powers
of x only.
P(x) is a polynomial in x if:
P(x) = an xn + an 1 xn 1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where n is the degree (or highest power) of the polynomial and is a non-negative integer. The values of
an, an 1, . . ., a2, a1 and a0 are called the coefficients of their respective power of x terms.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
WorkeD exampLe 7
Which of the following expressions are not polynomials?

9
a x6 4x4 + 2x3 + 7x
b x 2 + x3 x2 + 6 x 5
2
d 8 + 2x 3x2 + 9x3 x4
e 3 x 2 2
x
think
c 7 3xy + 4x2 x3 +
Write
and d are polynomials because they are

expressions with non-negative integer powers
of x only.
1 a
is not a polynomial as it has a power of 92 ,

which is not an integer.
2 b
is not a polynomial as it has a power of

( ), which is not an integer, and it also
has one term, 3xy, which is not a power
of x only.
3 c
b, c and e are not polynomials.
1
2
2
= 2 x 2 and so
x2
has a power that is not a positive integer.
4 e
is not a polynomial because
Polynomials can be added and subtracted by collecting like terms.

WorkeD exampLe 8
Given that P(x) = 6 2x + 3x2 + x4, Q(x) = x5 2x4 + x2 5x 2 and R(x) = x2 4, find:
a P(x) + Q(x)
b P(x) R(x).
think
a 1 Add the polynomials.

2
Write
a P(x) + Q(x) =6 2x + 3x2 + x4 + x5 2x4
+ x2 5x 2
= x5 x4 + 4x2 7x + 4
Collect like terms.
b 1 Subtract the polynomials.
b P(x) R(x) = 6 2x + 3x2 + x4 (x2 4)
Remove brackets.
= 6 2x + 3x2 + x4 x2 + 4
Collect like terms.
= x4 + 2x2 2x + 10
evaluating polynomials
A value for a polynomial, P(x), can be found for a particular value of x by simply substituting the given
value of x into the polynomial expression and evaluating. That is, polynomial functions are evaluated in
the same way as any function.
WorkeD exampLe 9
For the polynomial P(x) = 2x4 x3 + 5x2 6x + 4, find:

a its degree
b P(1)
c P(2).
think
Write
a The degree of the polynomial is the highest power a The degree of P(x) is 4.
of x.
b 1 Substitute the given value of x into the
polynomial expression.
2
Evaluate.
c 1 Substitute the given value of x into the
polynomial expression.
2
Evaluate.
b P(1) = 2(1)4 (1)3 + 5(1)2 6(1) + 4
=21+56+4=4
c P(2) = 2(2)4 (2)3 + 5(2)2 6(2) + 4
= 32 + 8 + 20 + 12 + 4 = 76
WorkeD exampLe 10
If p(x) = ax5 + x4 3x3 + bx 5, p(1) = 5 and p(2) = 65, find the values of a and b.
think
Write
Substitute a given value of x into the

polynomial and equate it to the given answer.
Simplify the equation.
Make b the subject of the equation and call this

equation [1].
Substitute a given value of x into the

polynomial and equate it to the given answer.
b=4a
Solve this equation for a.
Substitute the value of a into equation [1].
Find the value of b.
P(2) = a(2)5 + (2)4 3(2)3 + b(2) 5

= 65
Substituting a = 2 into equation [1]:

b = 4 2
=6
Therefore, a = 2 and b = 6.
polynomials
Which of the following are not polynomial expressions?
1 We7
i
[2]
32a + 8 2a = 52
30a = 60
a = 2
State the solution.
x3
[1]
Substituting b = 4 a:
32a + 2(4 a) = 52
Substitute [1] into [2].
exercise 1B
+ 1 + 3 b 5 = 5
a + 4 b = 0
32a + 16 24 + 2b 5 = 65
32a + 2b 13 = 65
32a + 2b = 52
10
P(1) = a(1)5 + (1)4 3(1)3 + b(1) 5

= 5
2x
ii x4 + 3x2 2x +
iii x7 + 3x6 2xy + 5x
2
x
Given that P(x) = 8 3x + 2x2 + x4, Q(x) = x5 3x4 4x2 1 and R(x) = 8x3 + 7x2 4x
iv 3x8 2x5 + x2 7
2 We8
then find:
a P(x) + Q(x)
v 4x6 x3 + 2x 3
b Q(x) R(x)
vi 2 x 5 + x 4 x 3 + x 2 + 3 x
c 3P(x) 2R(x)
d 2P(x) Q(x) + 3R(x).
3 We9 For each of the following polynomials, find: i its degree ii P(0) iii P(2) and iv P(1).
a P(x) = x6 + 2x5 x3 + x2
c P(x) = 5x6 + 3x4 2x3 6x2 + 3
4 mC If P(x) =
x8
3x6
a 479
5 We10
2x4
x2
+ 3, then
B 95
If P(x) =
2x7
ax5
b P(x) = 3x7 2x6 + x5 8

d P(x) = 7 + 2x 5x2 + 2x3 3x4
P(2)
C 31
3x3
is equal to:
D 481
e 103
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evaluating polynomials
+ bx 5, P(1) = 4 and P(2) = 163, find a and b.
6 Find a and b, given that f (x) = ax4 + bx3 3x2 4x + 7, f (1) = 2 and f (2) = 5.
7 For Q(x) = x5 + 2x4 + ax3 6x + b, Q(2) = 45 and Q(0) = 7. Find a and b.
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SkillSHEET 1.2
Simultaneous
equations
8 Find a and b if P(x) = ax6 + bx4 + x3 6, 3P(1) = 24 and 3P(2) = 102.

9 mC
If P(x) = ax4 x3 + 3x2 5 and P(1) = 1, then a is equal to:

a 1
B 0
C 2
D 3
n
3
2
b If f (x) = x 2x + x 5x and f (2) = 10, then n is equal to:
a 4
B 6
C 7
D 5
a
e 2
e 1
1C
interaCtiVitY
int-0246
When sketching cubic or higher order graphs, it is necessary to factorise the polynomials in order to find
the x-intercepts. As will be shown later in this section, division of polynomials can be used to factorise
an expression.
When one polynomial, P(x), is divided by another, D(x), the result can be expressed as:
P( x )
R( x )
= Q( x ) +
D( x )
D( x )
where Q(x) is called the quotient,
R(x) is called the remainder, and
D(x) is called the divisor.
WorkeD exampLe 11
Find the quotient, Q(x), and the remainder, R(x), when x4 3x3 + 2x2 8
is divided by the linear expression x + 2.
think
1
Set out the long division with each

polynomial in descending powers of x. If one
of the powers of x is missing, include it with
0 as the coefficient.
Divide x into x4 and write the result above.
Write
x + 2 x4 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
x +2
x4
x3
3x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
Multiply the result x3 by x + 2 and write the

result underneath.
x3
x + 2 x4 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
x4 + 2x3
Subtract and bring down the remaining terms

to complete the expression.
x3
x + 2 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
(x4 + 2x3)
5x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
Divide x into 5x3 and write the result above.
Continue this process to complete the long

division.
x3 5x2 + 12x 24
x + 2 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
(x4 + 2x3)
5x3 + 2x2 + 0x 8
(5x3 10x2)
12x2 + 0x 8
(12x2 + 24x)
24x 8
(24x 48)
40
The polynomial x3 5x2 + 12x 24, at the top,

is the quotient.
The quotient, Q(x), is x3 5x2 + 12x 24.
The result of the final subtraction, 40, is the

remainder.
The remainder, R(x), is 40.
x4
x4
Note: P(2) = (2)4 3(2)3 + 2(2)2 8

= 16 + 24 + 8 8
= 40
The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 2) is P(2).
8
tUtoriaL
eles-1193
Worked example 11
This is an example of the remainder theorem, which states:

When P(x) is divided by (x a), the remainder is P(a)
or
b
.
a
when P(x) is divided by (ax + b), the remainder is P
Furthermore, if the remainder is zero, then (x a) is a factor of P(x).

This leads to the factor theorem, which states:
If P(a) = 0, then (x a) is a factor of P(x)
or
b
if (ax + b) is a factor of P(x), then P
= 0.
Note: If (x a) is a factor of P(x) and a is an integer, then a must be a factor of the term independent
of x. For example, if (x 2) is a factor of P(x), then the term independent of x must be divisible by 2.
Therefore, (x 2) could be a factor of x3 2x2 x + 2, but (x + 3) could not be a factor.
WorkeD exampLe 12
Determine whether or not D(x) = (x 3) is a factor of P(x) = 2x3 4x2 3x 8.

think
Write
Evaluate P(3).
P(3) = 2(3)3 4(3)2 3(3) 8

= 54 36 9 8
=1
If P(3) = 0 then (x 3) is a factor of P(x), but if

P(x) 0, (x 3) is not a factor of P(x).
P(3) 0 so (x 3) is not a factor of P(x).
WorkeD exampLe 13
a Factorise P(x) = 2x3 x2 13x
6.
think
a 1 Use the factor theorem to find a value for
a where P(a) = 0 and a is afactor of the

numerical term. Try a = 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,
6, 6 until a factor is found.
Divide P(x) by the divisor (x + 2) using long

division.
b Solve 2x3 x2 13x 6 = 0.

Write
a P(1) = 2(1)3 (1)2 13(1) 6
= 18
0
P(1) = 2(1)3 (1)2 13(1) 6
=4
0
P(2) = 2(2)3 (2)2 13(2) 6
= 20
0
P(2) = 2(2)3 (2)2 13(2) 6
=0
So (x + 2) is a factor.
2x2 5x 3
x +2
x2 13x 6
3
(2x + 4x2)
5x2 13x 6
(5x2 10x)
3x 6
(3x 6)
0
2x3
Express P(x) as a product of linear and

quadratic factors.
Factorise the quadratic, if possible.
= (x + 2)(2x + 1)(x 3)
b 1 Rewrite the equation in factorised form,

using the answer to part a.
2
Use the Null Factor Law to state the

solutions.
exercise 1C
P(x) = (x + 2)(2x2 5x 3)
b 2x3 x2 13x 6 = 0
(x + 2)(2x + 1)(x 3) = 0
x = 2,
or 3
Find the quotient, Q(x), and the remainder, R(x), when each of the following polynomials
are divided by the given linear expression.
a x3 2x2 + 5x 2, x 4
b x5 3x3 + 4x + 3, x + 3
c 6x4 x3 + 2x2 4x, x 3
d 3x4 6x3 + 12x, 3x + 1
1 We11
2 a For each corresponding polynomial in question 1, evaluate:

i P(4)
ii P(3)
iii P(3)
iv P(
1
3)
b Compare these values to R(x) in question 1 and comment on the result.

3 We12
In each of the following determine whether or not D(x) is a factor of P(x).
a P(x) = x3 + 9x2 + 26x 30, D(x) = x 3
b P(x) = x4 x3 5x2 2x 8, D(x) = x + 2
c P(x) = 4 9x + 6x2 13x3 12x4 + 3x5, D(x) = 4 x
d P(x) = 4x6 + 2x5 8x4 4x3 + 6x2 9x 6, D(x) = 2x + 1
4 mC Examine the equation f (x) = x4 4x3 x2 + 16x 12.
a Which one of the following is a factor of f (x)?
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Finding factors
of polynomials
a x+1
D x+3
B x
e x4
C x+2
b When factorised, f (x) is equal to:

a
B
C
D
e
(x + 1)(x 3)(x + 4)
(x + 2)(x 2)(x 3)(x 1)
(x + 2)(x 4)(x + 3)(x + 1)
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 3)(x 4)
x(x 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
5 We13a Factorise the following polynomials.

a P(x) = x3 + 4x2 3x 18
b P(x) = 3x3 13x2 32x + 12
c P(x) = x4 + 2x3 7x2 8x + 12
d P(x) = 4x4 + 12x3 24x2 32x
6 We13b Solve each of the following equations.
a 3x3 + 3x2 18x = 0
b 2x4 + 10x3 4x2 48x = 0
c 2x4 + x3 14x2 4x + 24 = 0
d x4 2x2 + 1 = 0
7 If (x 2) is a factor of x3 + ax2 6x 4, then find a.
8 If (x 1) is a factor of x3 + x2 ax + 3, then find a.
9 Find the value of a if (x + 3) is a factor of 2x4 + ax3 3x + 18.
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WorkSHEET 1.1
10
10 Find the value of a and b if (x + 1) and (x 2) are factors of ax3 4x2 + bx 12.
11 If (2x 3) and (x + 2) are factors of 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 30, find the values of a and b.
1D
Linear graphs
Linear graphs are polynomials of degree 1. Graphs of linear functions are straight lines and may be
sketched by finding the intercepts.
revision of properties of straight line graphs

1. The gradient of a straight line joining two points is:
y2 y1
m=
x 2 x1
B (x2, y2)
2. The general equation of a straight line is:
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the value of the y-intercept.
A (x1, y1)
(0, c)
3. The equation of a straight line passing through the

point (x1, y1) and having a gradient of m is:
y y1 = m(x x1)
Gradient = m
A (x1, y1)
x
4. The intercept form of the equation of a straight line is:

x y
+ = 1 or
a b
y
(0, b)
bx + ay = ab
(a, 0)
5. Parallel lines have the same gradient.

6. The product of the gradients of two lines that are perpendicular equals 1.
1
That is,
m1 m2 = 1 or m1 =
m2
WorkeD exampLe 14
Sketch the graph of the linear function 3x 2y = 6 by indicating the intercepts.

think
Write/DraW
Substitute y = 0 into the equation.
When y = 0, 3x 2 0 = 6
Solve the equation for x to find the x-intercept.
Substitute x = 0 into the equation.
Therefore, the x-intercept is 2.
Solve the equation for y to find the y-intercept.
When x = 0, 3 0 2y = 6
y = 3
Draw a set of axes.
Therefore, the y-intercept is 3.
Indicate the x-intercept and y-intercept and rule

a line through these points.
x=2
y
0
3x 2y = 6
x
11
WorkeD exampLe 15
Find the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, of each straight line described below.
a The line with a gradient of 2 and passing through (3, 2)
b The line passing through (0, 8) and (2, 2)
c The line that passes through (3, 4) and is parallel to the line with equation y 2x 5 = 0
d The line that passes through (1, 3) and is perpendicular to the line with equation y + 2x 3 = 0
think
a 1 Write the rule for the pointgradient form of the
equation of a straight line, y y1 = m(x x1).
Substitute the value of the gradient, m, and

the coordinates of the point (x1,y1), into the
equation.
Expand the brackets.
Express the equation in the form required.
b 1 Write the rule for the gradient, m, of a straight
Write
y y1 = m(x x1)
y (2) = 2(x 3)
y + 2 = 2x 6
y 2x + 8 = 0
or 2x y 8 = 0
b
m=
line, given 2 points.

2
Substitute the values of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) into

the rule and evaluate the gradient.
Substitute the values of m and (x1, y1) into the

rule for the pointgradient form of the equation
of a straight line. (Coordinates of either point
given may be used.)
Express the equation in the form required.
c 1 State the gradient of the given line, which is the
same as the gradient of the parallel line.
28
0
6
=
2
=3
y y1 = m(x x1)
y 8 = 3(x 0)
y 8 = 3x
3x y + 8 = 0
c y 2x 5 = 0 becomes y = 2x + 5.
The gradient of the parallel lines is 2.
Write the rule for the pointgradient form of the

equation of a straight line.
y y1 = m(x x1)
Substitute the values of m and the coordinates

(x1, y1) = (3, 4).
y 4 = 2(x 3)
Simplify and write in the required form.
d 1 Find the gradient of the given line.
12
y2 y1
x 2 x1
y 4 = 2x 6
2x y 2 = 0
d y = 2x + 3
The gradient of the line is 2.
The gradient of the perpendicular line is 12 .
Find the gradient of the perpendicular line.
Write the rule for the pointgradient form of the

equation of a straight line.
y y1 = m(x x1)
Substitute the values of m and the coordinates

(x1, y1) = (1, 3).
y 3 = 1 (x 1)
Simplify and write in the required form.
2y 6 = (x 1)
x 2y + 5 = 0
the domain and range of functions

The domain of a function, y = f (x), is the set of values of x for which the function is defined (that is, all
x-values that can be substituted into f (x) and an answer found).
The range of f (x) is the set of values of y for which the function is defined.
If the rule and the domain of a function are given, then the function is completely defined.
y = 4x, x 0
For example,
f (x) = 4x, x 0
f : (, 0] R, f (x) = 4x
or
interval notation
Restricted domains or ranges can be represented by interval notation in three forms.
1. The closed interval.
2. The open interval.
3. The half-open interval.
a
[a, b] = {x : a x b}
(a, b) = {x : a < x < b}
[a, b) = {x : a x < b}
If the domain or range is unrestricted, it can be denoted as R or (, ).

R+ = (0, )
R+ {0} = [0, )
R = (, 0)
R {0} = (, 0]
WorkeD exampLe 16
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, stating the domain and range of each.
a 4x 2y = 8, x [3, 3]
b f(x) = 1 2x, x [, 1]
think
a 1 Substitute the smallest value of x into the
equation.
Write/DraW
a When x = 3,
12
2y = 8
2y
= 20
y = 10
Solve the equation for y, to find an end point of

the straight line.
State the coordinates of the end point.
(3, 10) is a closed end of the line.
Substitute the largest value of x into the

equation.
When x = 3,
12 2y = 8
Solve the equation for y, to find the other end

point of the line.
State the coordinates of the 2nd end point.
Plot the two points on a set of axes with closed

circles (since both points are included).
2y
= 4
y=2
(3, 2) is the other closed end of the line.

y
2
3
0
4
(3, 10)
10
(3, 2)
2 3
4x 2y = 8,
x [3, 3]
Draw a straight line between the two points.
Find the intercepts and mark them on the graph.
When x = 0, y = 4
When y = 0, x = 2
The x-intercept is 2 and the y-intercept is 4.
10
State the domain, which is given with the rule.
The domain is [3, 3].
11
State the range from the graph.
The range is [10, 2].

13
b 1 There is no smallest value of x, so substitute the
b When
largest value of x into the equation and find y.
x = 1,
y = f (1)
=3
State the coordinates of the upper end point.
(1, 3) is an open end of the line.
Substitute another value of x within the domain

into the equation (that is, a value of x < 1,
since x (, 1)) and find y.
When
State the coordinates of the point.
(2, 5) is another point on the line.
Plot the 2 points on a set of axes and mark the

point (1, 3) with an open circle.
Rule a straight line from (1, 3) to (2, 5) and

beyond. An arrow should be placed on the other
end to indicate that the line continues.
x = 2,
y = f (2)
=5
f(x) = 1 2x,
x (, 1)
(2, 5)
(1, 3)
y
5
3
21 0
Note that there are no intercepts.
The domain is (, 1).
State the range by examining the graph.
The range is (3, ).
Linear graphs
exercise 1D
1 We14
Sketch the graph of each of the following linear functions by indicating the intercepts.
a 2x + 3y = 12
b 2y 5x 10 = 0
c 2x y = 1
2 We15a Find the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, of each straight line described below.
a The line with a gradient of 3 and passing through (2, 1).
b The line with a gradient of 2 and passing through (4, 3).
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SkillSHEET 1.3
Gradient
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SkillSHEET 1.4
Using gradient to
find the value of a
parameter
3 We15b Find the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, of each straight line described below.
a The line passing through (3, 4) and (1, 10).
b The line passing through (7, 5) and (2, 0).
4 mC Which one of the following points does not lie on the straight line with equation 2y 3x 6 = 0?
B (2, 0)
e (4, 9)
a (2, 6)
D (1, 2)
C (0, 3)
5 We15c Consider the points A(2, 5) and B(1, b).

a Find b if:
i the gradient of the straight line AB is 2
ii the equation of the straight line AB is y x = 7.
b Find the general equation of the straight line which passes through (4, 5) and is parallel to the line
c
with equation y 3x + 4 = 0.
We15d Find the equation in the form ax + by + c = 0 that passes through (2, 4) and is
perpendicular to the line with equation 2y x + 1 = 0.
6 Match each of graphs af with the appropriate rule ivi.

a
b
y
y
(2, 4)
2
0
1
14
y
2
4
2
i x + 2y + 4 = 0
iv 3y + 2x = 6
ii y = 3
iii y 2x 2 = 0
v y 2x = 0
vi x = 2
7 State the range for each function graphed below.

a
x
(5, 2)
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SkillSHEET 1.5
interval notation
(4, 2)
(6, 5)
(5, 2)
(3, 3)
(4, 3)
0
x
(5, 6)
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SkillSHEET 1.6
Domain and range for
linear graphs
8 We16 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, stating i the domain and ii the range
of each.
a 4y + 3x = 24, x [12, 12]

c 4x 3y 6 = 0, x [2, 5)
b 2x 5y = 10, x < 5
Units: 3 & 4
9 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (2, 5) and is:
a parallel to the line with equation y = 3 2x
b perpendicular to the line with equation y = 3x 7.
Write equations in the form ax + by + c = 0.
10 Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (3, 1) and is:
a parallel to the line with equation 4x 2y = 13
b perpendicular to the line with equation 4x 2y = 13.
11 mC If the straight lines 3x y = 2 and ax + 2y = 3 are parallel, then a is equal to:
a 6
B 2
C 2
D 3
e 6
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
See more
Watch
a video about
quadratic functions.
12 mC If the straight lines 5x + y 3 = 0 and bx y 2 = 0 are perpendicular, then b is equal to:

a 5
1e
1
5
C 5
1
5
e 3
Quadratic graphs
Quadratic functions are polynomials of degree 2. Graphs of quadratic functions are parabolas and may
be sketched by finding the turning point and intercepts.
revision of quadratic functions

1. The general form of the quadratic function is y = ax2 + bx + c, x R.
2. The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola and:
(a) for a > 0, the graph has a minimum value
(b) for a < 0, the graph has a maximum value
(c) the y-intercept is c
b
(d) the equation of the axis of symmetry and the x-value of the turning point is x =
2a
(e) the x-intercepts are found by solving the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
15
3. The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be solved by either:

(a) factorising
or
b
b 2 4 ac
.
(b) using the quadratic formula, x =
2a
4. The turning point can be found by completing the square (see next page). The turning point is
located on the axis of symmetry, which is halfway between the x-intercepts.
the discriminant
The value of (b2 4ac), which is the value inside the square root sign in the quadratic formula,
determines the number of solutions to a quadratic equation or the number of x-intercepts on a
quadratic graph.
This value is called the discriminant.
1. If b2 4ac > 0, there are two solutions to the equation and there are two x-intercepts on the graph.
2. If b2 4ac > 0 and is a perfect square, the solutions are rational; otherwise they are irrational.
3. If b2 4ac = 0, the two solutions are equal and there is one x-intercept on the graph; that is, the graph
has a turning point on the x-axis.
4. If b2 4ac < 0, there are no real solutions and there are no x-intercepts on the graph.
WorkeD exampLe 17
Use the discriminant to determine the number of x-intercepts for the

quadratic function f(x) = 2x2 + 3x 10.
think
Write
tUtoriaL
eles-1174
Worked example 17
c = 10
Find the values of the quadratic coefficients a,

b and c using the general quadratic function,
y = ax2 + bx + c.
a = 2, b = 3,
Evaluate the discriminant.
b2 4ac = 32 4(2)(10)
= 9 + 80
= 89
If the discriminant is greater than 0, there are

two x-intercepts. If it is not a perfect square,
the solutions are irrational.
b2 4ac > 0
So there are two x-intercepts, which are both
irrational.
WorkeD exampLe 18
Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = 12 5x 2x2, showing all intercepts. Give exact answers.
think
16
Write/DraW
Evaluate f (0) to find the y-intercept (or state the

value of c).
f(0) = 12 5(0) 2(0)2

= 12
State the y-intercept.
The y-intercept is 12.
Set f(x) = 0 to find the x-intercepts.
f(x) = 12 5x 2x2 = 0
Factorise the quadratic (or use the quadratic

formula).
(4 + x)(3 2x) = 0
Solve the equation using the Null Factor Law.
4 + x = 0 or 3 2x = 0
x = 4 or x = 32
State the x-intercepts.
The x-intercepts are 4 and 32 .
Draw a set of axes and mark the intercepts or

the coordinates of the points where the graph
crosses the axes.
12 (0, 12)
f(x) = 12 5x x2
Sketch a parabola through the intercepts.

( 32 , 0)
(4, 0)
0 1 2
The x-coordinate of the turning point of a quadratic function is exactly halfway between the two
4 + 3
2 = 5 (or 1 1 ) . Substitute x = 5 into the original

x-intercepts, so for Worked example 18, x =
4
4
2
4
equation to find the y-coordinate of the turning point.
b
,
The x-coordinate of the turning point can also be found by using the formula x =
2a
where ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Units: 3 & 4
Finding turning points by completing the square

Consider the general quadratic equation:
y = ax2 + bx + c
By completing the square, this equation may be manipulated into the form
y = a(x b)2 + c
where the turning point is (b, c).
This way of writing the function is known as the power form or turning point form. The transformations
associated with this form will be discussed more fully in chapter 2.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
WorkeD exampLe 19
For the function y = 2(x + 3)2 4, find:

a the coordinates of the turning pointb the domain and range.
think
Write
Write the general formula.
y = a(x b)2 + c
Write the function.
y = 2(x + 3)2 4
a 1 Identify the values of a, b and c.

2
State the coordinates of the turning point (b, c).
b 1 Write the domain of the parabola.

2
Write the range y c (as a < 0).
a a = 2,
b = 3,
c = 4
The turning point is (3, 4).

b The domain is R.
The range is y 4.
WorkeD exampLe 20
The function graphed at right is of the form y = x2 + bx + c.

Find:
a the ruleb the domainc the range.
Write the answers to b and c in interval notation.
y
(5, 10)
0
think
a 1 Write the general rule for a quadratic in turning point form.
Write
(1, 6)
a y = a(x b)2 + c
Find the values of b and c using the given turning point.
Since the turning point is (1, 6):

b = 1, c = 6 y = a(x + 1)2 6
Find the value of a using the point (5, 10).
10 = a(5 + 1)2 6
a=1
17
Substitute these values in the rule.
Simplify.
So
y = 1(x + 1)2 6
= x2 + 2x + 1 6
= x2 + 2x 5
The rule is y = x2 + 2x 5.
b x 5
b 1 Use the graph to find the domain. Look at all the
values that x can take.

2
Domain = [5, )
State the domain in interval notation.
c 1 Use the graph to find the range. Look at all the values
c y 6
that y can take.

2
Range = [6, )
State the range in interval notation.
WorkeD exampLe 21
Sketch the graph of y = 12 ( x 1) 2 + 2 , clearly showing the coordinates of the turning point and the
intercepts with the axes. State its range.
Units: 3 & 4
think
Write/DraW
AOS:
Write the general equation of the parabola.
y = a(x b)2 + c
Topic:
Identify the values of the variables.
a = 12 ,
Concept:
Write a brief statement on the transformation

of the basic parabola.
The graph of y = x2 is dilated in the y direction by the

factor of 12 (that is, it is wider than the basic curve); it
is translated 1 unit to the right and 2 units up.
State the shape of the parabola (that is, positive

or negative).
a > 0; the parabola is positive.
State the coordinates of the turning point (b, c).
As both a and c are positive, only the

y-intercept needs to be determined. Find the
y-intercept by making x = 0.
y-intercept: x = 0
y = 12 (0 1)2 + 2
Do more
Interact
with quadratic
functions in
turning point
form.
b = 1,
c=2
= 12 (1)2 + 2
= 12 + 2 = 2 12
Sketch the graph:

Draw a set of axes and label them. Plot the
turning point and the y-intercept. Sketch the
graph of the positive parabola, so that it passes
through the points previously marked.
2 2
2
0
Since y 2, that is the range.
x
1
y = 12 (x 1)2 + 2
The range is y [2, ).
WorkeD exampLe 22
Sketch the graph of y = 3 + 8x 2x2, showing the turning point and all intercepts, rounding
answers to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
think
18
Write/DraW
Find y when x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 3
Let the quadratic equal zero.
When y = 0,
3 + 8x 2x2 = 0
Solve for x using the quadratic formula.
x=
x=
b2
4 ac
2a
where a = 2
b=8
c=3
82 4( 2)(3)
2( 2)

8
88
=
4
8 2 22
=
4
22
2
=2
22
2
2+
or
22
2
State the x-intercepts, rounding to 2 decimal

places.
The x-intercepts are 0.35 and 4.35.
Use the formula for the x-value of the turning
b
point, x = .
2a
x=
2( 2)
x=2
To calculate the y-coordinate of the turning

point, substitute x = 2 into the function.
y = 2(2)2 + 8(2) + 3
y = 11
State the turning point.
Draw a set of axes and mark the coordinates

of the turning point and the points where the
graph crosses the axes.
10
Sketch a parabola through these points.
y
12
(2, 11)
9
f(x) = 3 + 8x
2x2
3 (0, 3)
(0.35, 0)
(4.35, 0)
x
0
1
4 5
Note: Function notation includes the rule, the domain and the co-domain. For example, f (x): [2, 1] R,
where f (x) = x2 3, is a parabola with rule f (x) = x2 3 and domain [2, 1]. The range is a subset of the
co-domain, R.
WorkeD exampLe 23
The weight of a person t months after a

gymnasium program is started is given by the
t2
function: W ( t ) = 3 t + 80 , where t [0, 8]
2
and W is in kilograms. Find:
a the minimum weight of the person
b the maximum weight of the person.
19
Write/DraW
think
1
Complete the square to find the turning point.
t2
3t + 80
2
1
= 2 [t 2 6t + 160]
W=
= 2 [t 2 6t + 9 + 160 9]
1
= 2 [(t 3)2 + 151]

1
= 2 (t 3)2 + 75.5
2
State the minimum turning point.
The turning point is (3, 75.5).
Find the end point value for W when t = 0.
When t = 0,
W = 80
State its coordinates.
Find the end point value of W when t = 8.
When t = 8,
W = 88
State its coordinates.
The other end point is (8, 88).
On a set of axes, mark the end points and

turning point.
Sketch a parabola between the end points.
Locate the maximum and minimum values

of W on the graph.
One end point is (0, 80).
W (kg)
Maximum (8, 88)
90
80 (0, 80)
Minimum (3, 75.5)
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t (months)
a State the minimum weight from the graph.
a The minimum weight is 75.5 kg.
b State the maximum weight from the graph.
b The maximum weight is 88 kg.
exercise 1e
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Discriminant
Quadratic graphs
Use the discriminant to determine the number of x-intercepts for each of the following
quadratic functions.
a f (x) = x2 3x + 4
b f (x) = x2 + 5x 8
2
c f (x) = 3x 5x + 9
d f (x) = 2x2 + 7x 11
2
e f (x) = 1 6x x
f f (x) = 3 + 6x + 3x2
1 We17
Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions, showing all intercepts. Give
exact answers.
a f (x) = x2 6x + 8
b f (x) = x2 5x + 4
2
c f (x) = 10 + 3x x
d f (x) = 6x2 x 12
2 We18
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Quadratic graphs
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SkillSHEET 1.7
Domain
and range for
quadratic graphs
20
3 Find the turning point for each of the functions in question 2.
Give exact answers.

4 We19 For each of the following functions find:
i the coordinates of the turning point
ii the domain
iii the ra nge.
a y = 2 x2
c y = (x + 2)2
b y = (x 6)2
d y = 2(x + 3)2 6
Each of the functions graphed on the following page is of the form y = ax2 + bx + c,
ii the domain
iii the range.
where a = 1 or 1. For each function, give: i the rule
5 We20
Write the answers to b and c in interval notation.

a
(1, 6)
0
(1, 9)
(1, 2)
(2, 3)
x
(4, 16)
Sketch the graphs of the following, clearly showing the coordinates of the turning point and
the intercepts with the axes.
a y = 2x2 + 3
b y = (2x 5)(2x 3)
c y = (2x 3)2 8
6 We21
7 mC
Consider the function with the rule y = x2 2x 3.
a It has x-intercepts:
a (1, 0) and (3, 0)
D (2, 0) and (1, 0)
B (1, 0) and (3, 0)

e (0, 1) and (0, 3)
C (1, 0) and (3, 0)
b It has a turning point with coordinates:

a (1, 0)
B (2, 3)
C (1, 4)
8 mC The function f (x) = (x + 3)2 + 4 has a range given by:

a (3, )
B (, 3]
C [4, )
9 mC The range of the function y = (x 4)2, x [0, 6] is:

a [0, 16]
B [4, 16]
C [0, 4]
D (1, 4)
e (1, 0)
D (, 4]
e R
D (4, 12]
e [0, 16)
10 We22 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, showing the turning point and all
intercepts. Round answers to 2 decimal places where appropriate.

a f (x) = (x 2)2 4
b f (x) = (x + 4)2 + 9
2
c y = x + 4x + 3
d y = 2x2 4x 6
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Quadratic graphs
turning point form
11 Sketch the graph of each of the functions below and state i the domain and ii the range of each
function.
a y = x2 2x + 2, x [2, 2]
c f (x) = x2 3x 2, x [10, 6]
b y = x2 + x 1, x R+
d f (x) = 5 + 6x 3x2, x [5, 3)
12 We23 The volume of water in a tank, V m3, over a 10 month period is given by the function
V(t ) = 2t 2 16 t + 40, where t is in months and t [0, 10].

Find:
a the minimum volume of water in the tank
b the maximum volume of water in the tank.
Maximum height
Tower
Ball
13 A ball thrown upwards from a tower attains a
height above the ground given by the function

h(t) = 12t 3t2 + 36, where t is the time in seconds
and h is in metres.
Find:
a the maximum height above the ground that the ball
reaches
b the time taken for the ball to reach the ground
c the domain and range of the function.
h(t) = 12t 3t2 + 36
Ground
14 A section of a roller-coaster at an amusement park follows the path of a
parabola. The function h(t) = t2 12t + 48, t [0, 11], models the height
above the ground of the front of one of the carriages, where t is the time in
seconds and h is the height in metres.
a Find the lowest point of this section of the ride.
b Find the time taken for the carriage to reach the lowest point.
c Find the highest point above the ground.
d Find the domain and the range of the function.
e Sketch the function.
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21
1F
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with sketching
cubic functions.
Cubic graphs
Cubic functions are polynomials of degree 3. In this section, we will look at how graphs of cubic
functions may be sketched by finding intercepts and recognising basic shapes.
Forms of cubic functions

Cubic functions may take several forms. The three main forms are described below.
General form
The general form of a cubic function is:
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
If a is positive (that is, a > 0), the function is called a positive cubic. Several positive cubics appear
below.
y
If a is negative (that is, a < 0), the function is called a negative cubic. Several negative cubics appear
below.
y
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
x
x
Basic form
Some (but certainly not all) cubic functions are transformations of the form y = x3, which has a
stationary point, a point of inflection at the origin. These may be expressed in the power form:
y = a(x b)3 + c
where (b, c) is the point of inflection.
For example, y = 2(x 3)3 + 5 is the graph of y = x3 translated +3 from the y-axis, +5 in the y direction
and dilated by a factor of 2 from the x-axis.
This form, called basic form or power form, works in the same way as a quadratic equation expressed
in turning point form or power form:
y = a(x b)2 + c
where (b, c) is the turning point and a is the dilation factor.
The power form and its transformations will be discussed in more detail in chapter 2.
y
y = x3
y = a(x b)3 + c
(b, c)
x
22
Factor form
Cubic functions of the type:
y = a(x b)(x c)(x d)
are said to be in factor form, where b, c and d are the x-intercepts. Often a cubic function in general form
may be factorised to express it in factor form.
y
y = (x + 2)(x 1)(x 3)
y

where a > 0
2
b
c d
3 x
repeated factors
A twice only repeated factor in a factorised cubic function

indicates a turning point that just touches the x-axis.
y = (x a)2 (x b)
WorkeD exampLe 24
For each of the following graphs, find the rule and express it in factorised
form. Assume that a = 1 or a = 1.
a
f(x)
f(x)
tUtoriaL
eles-1194
Worked example 24
x
2 0
think
a 1 Find a by deciding whether the graph is a positive
or negative cubic.
Write
a The graph is a positive cubic, so a = 1.
Use the x-intercepts 4, 0 and 3 to find the factors.
The factors are (x + 4), x and (x 3).
Express f(x) as a product of a and its factors.
f(x) = 1(x + 4) x(x 3)
Simplify.
f(x) = x(x + 4)(x 3)
b 1 Find a by deciding whether the graph is a positive
or negative cubic.
b The graph is a negative cubic, so a = 1.
Use the x-intercept 2, which is also a turning

point, to find the repeated factor.
(x + 2)2 is a factor.
Use the other x-intercept, 3, to find the other factor.
(x 3) is also a factor.
Express f(x) as a product of a and its factors.
f(x) = 1(x + 2)2(x 3)
Simplify.
f(x) = (3 x)(x + 2)2
23
WorkeD exampLe 25
Sketch the graph of y = x3 x2 10x 8, showing all intercepts.

think
Write/DraW
x = 0, y = 8
Find y when x = 0.
When
Let P(x) = y.
Let
Use the factor theorem to find a factor of the

cubic P(x) = x3 x2 10x 8.
P(1) = 13 12 10(1) 8
= 18
0
P(1) = (1)3 (1)2 10(1) 8
=0
so (x + 1) is a factor.
Use long division, or otherwise, to find the

quadratic factor.
By long division:
x2 2x 8
3
x + 1 x x2 10x 8
(x3 + x2)
2x2 10x 8
(2x2 2x)
8x 8
(8x 8)
0
y = (x + 1)(x2 2x 8)
Factorise the quadratic, if possible.
Express the cubic in factorised form and let it

equal 0 to find the x-intercepts.
If (x + 1)(x 4)(x + 2) = 0
Solve for x using the Null Factor Law.
x = 1, 4 or 2
The x-intercepts are 2, 1, and 4.
10
Sketch the graph of the cubic.
P(x) = x3 x2 10x 8
= (x + 1)(x 4)(x + 2)
y = x3 x2 10x 8
2 1 0
restricting the domain of cubic functions

1. If the domain is R then the range is also R.
2. To find the range if the domain is restricted, it is necessary to look
at the end points and turning points, then find the highest and
lowest y-values.
For example:
The range can not be stated for the diagram at right because the
y-coordinate of the local minimum is not known.
Recall that cubic functions that do not have any turning points can
have only one x-intercept.
24
(6, 8)
(4, 3)
Coordinate of local
minimum required
WorkeD exampLe 26
Sketch the graph of y = x3 5x, where x (2, 1), using the unrestricted function as a guide.
State the domain and range, without the use of technology.
think
Write/DraW
Decide whether it is a positive or negative

cubic by looking at the coefficient of x3.
Negative cubic
Find the x-intercept/s.
When
y = 0,
x3 5x = 0
x(x2 + 5) = 0
x = 0 (x2 + 5 0)
The x-intercept is 0.
Find the y-intercept.
When
Find y when x has the value of the lower end

point of the domain.
When
State the coordinates of this end point and

decide whether it is open or closed.
The open end point is (2, 18).
Find y when x has the value of the upper end

point.
When x = 1, y = (1)3 5(1)

=6
State the coordinates of this end point and

decide whether it is open or closed.
The closed end point is (1, 6).
Mark these points on a set of axes.
Sketch the part of the cubic between the end

points.
10
Verify this graph using a graphics calculator.
x = 0,
y = (0)3 5(0)
=0
x = 2,
= 18
(2, 18)
y = (2)3 5(2)
(1, 6)
x
0
11
The domain is (2, 1].
12
From the graph, state the range. Note that the

intercept is not included in the domain.
The range is [6, 18).
Cubic graphs
exercise 1F
For each of the following graphs, find the rule and express it in factorised form.
Assume that a = 1 or a = 1.
1 We24
a
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Cubic graphs factor
form
25
Match each of the following graphs to the most appropriate rule below.
2
a
0 1
2 0
ii y = (x + 3)(1 x)(x 4)
iii y = (x + 4)(x + 2)(1 x)
iv y = (x + 2)2(5 x)
v y = (x + 3)(x 1)(x 4)
vi y = (x + 4)(x + 2)(x 1)
vii y = (3
i y = (x 3)3
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Cubic graphs
4
0
y
2
viii y = (x + 2)2(x 5)
x)3
3 We25 Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing all intercepts.
a y = x3 + x2 4x 4
b y = 2x3 8x2 + 2x + 12
c y = 24 + 26x 2x3
d y = 18 21x + 8x2 x3
Verify your answers by using a calculator.

4 mC
a Fully factorised, x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 is equal to:
a (x + 3)3
D (x 3)3
B (x + 2)3
e (x + 2)(x 2)2
C (x 2)3
b The graph of y = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 is:

a
2
2
26
5 mC The function graphed in the figure could have the following rule:
a
B
C
D
e
y = (x 2)3 + 2
y = (x + 2)3 + 2
y = (2 x)3 + 2
y = (x + 2)3 2
y = (x 2)3
10
(2, 2)
x
0
6 mC The graph of f (x) = 5(x + 1)3 3 is best represented by:
a
B
y
y
(1, 3)
(1, 3)
x
(1, 3)
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Cubic graphs
3
y = a( x b) + c
form
y
(1, 3)
(1, 3)
x
7 mC
The graph of f (x) = 2(x 1)2 (x + 3) is best represented by:
(0, 6)
(1, 0) 0
C
(0, 6)
(3, 0)
(3, 0)
D
(1, 0)
y
(1, 0)
x
(3, 0) 0
(1, 0)
(0, 6)
(0, 6)
e
(3, 0) 0
y
(3, 0)
(1, 0)
(0, 6)
27
The graph shown is best represented by the equation:

y = (x a)3 + b
y = (x a)3 + b
y = (a x)3 + b
y = (x + a)3 + b
y = (x + a)3 + b
8 mC
a
B
C
D
e
(a, b)
(0, c)
x
If a < 0 and b, c > 0 then the graph shown is best represented by the equation:
b
y
y = 2 ( x + a ) 2 ( x c)
a c
b
y = 2 ( x + a)2 (c x )
b
a c
b
y = 2 ( x a ) 2 ( x + c)
a c
b
a
0
y = 2 ( x + a)2 ( x b)(c x )
a c
b
y = 2 ( x a ) 2 ( x c)
a c
9 mC
a
B
C
D
e
10 We26 Sketch the graph of each of the following restricted functions, using the unrestricted function as
a guide. State i the domain and ii the range in each case.
a f (x) = x3 + x2 10x + 8, x [2, )
b f (x) = 3x3 5x2 4x + 4, x [2, 1]
c f (x) = 3x3 + 4x2 + 27x 36, x (0, 1]
d f (x) = 3x x3, x [1, 2)
e f (x) = x3 + 2x, x [2, 1) (0, 3]
f f (x) = 2x3 x, x (1, 1) [2, 3)
11 The function f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx 64 has x-intercepts (2, 0) and (4, 0). Find the values of a and b.
12 The functions y = x3 2x2 + ax + 10 and y = 6 + (a + b)x 4x2 x3 both have (1, 0) as an x-intercept.
Find the values of a and b.

13 The cross-section of a glass vessel that is 6 cm high can be modelled by the cubic function f (x) and its
reflection through the y-axis, g(x), as shown below.

a Find the values of a, b and c, and hence state the rule of f (x).
b Find the rule for g(x) and state its domain and range.
c What is the width of the vessel when the height is 3.375 cm?
y
g(x)
f(x) = a(x + b)3 + c

(4, 6)
(3, 3)
(2, 0)
14 The distance of a group of hikers, d km, from their starting point t hours after setting off on a hike can
be modelled by the function with the rule:
d(t) = at2(b t)
The hikers are 3 km from the start after 2 hours and return to the starting point after 5hours.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Hence, give the rule for d(t) stating its domain and range.
c Sketch the graph of d(t).
d Find to the nearest 100 metres the maximum distance of the hikers from their starting point and
the time, to the nearest minute, that it occurs.
28
Quartic graphs
1G
Quartic functions are polynomials of degree 4. The general form of a quartic is:
Units: 3 & 4
y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e

When sketching the graphs of quartic functions, all axes intercepts can be found by factorisation and
a sign diagram used to check the shape. If a sign diagram is not sufficient and the basic shape is not
recognised, then a graphics calculator could be used to establish the shape of the graph.
positive quartics (a > 0)

2. y = ax4 + cx2, c 0
y
3. y = ax2(x b)(x c)
5. y = a(x b)(x c)3
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Do more
Interact
with sketching
quartic functions.
x
b
The repeated factors

(x b)2 and (x c)2 indicate
the graph touches the x-axis
at x = b and x = c.
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
6. y = a(x b)(x c)(x d )(x e)
Units: 3 & 4
The repeated factor x2

means there is a turning
point at the origin. The
factors (x b) (x c)
indicate x-intercepts at
x = b and x = c.
4. y = a(x b)2(x c)2
Topic:
b
0
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Basic shapes of quartic graphs

1. y = ax4
AOS:
The cubed factor (x c)3

means the graph has a
point of inflection at x = c.
ex
The factors indicate

intercepts at
x = b, c, d and e.
y
negative quartics (a < 0)

If a < 0, that is, each of the above rules is multiplied by 1, then the
graphs are reflected through the x-axis.
For example, the graph of y = x4 (at right) is a reflection, through the
x-axis, of the graph of y = x4.
Similarly, the graph of y = x4 + x2 = (x4 x2) is a reflection through the
x-axis of the graph of y = x4 x2.
Note: The above graphs can be translated horizontally or vertically but
this is considered in Chapter 2.
To find the x-intercepts of a quartic function, let y = 0 and solve the
equation for x.
Repeated factors touch the x-axis as they do for cubic and quadratic
functions.
y = x 4
y
y = x 4 + x2
29
WorkeD exampLe 27
Sketch the graph of y = x4 x3 7x2 + 5x + 10, showing all intercepts.

think
Write/DraW
tUtoriaL
eles-1195
Worked example 27
When x = 0, y = 10
Let y = P(x).
Let P(x) = x4 x3 7x2 + 5x + 10
Find two linear factors of the quartic

expression, if possible, using the factor
theorem.
P(1) = (1)4 (1)3 7(1)2 + 5(1) + 10

=8
0
P(1) = (1)4 (1)3 7(1)2 + 5(1) + 10
=0
(x + 1) is a factor.
P(2) = (2)4 (2)3 7(2)2 + 5(2) + 10
=0
(x 2) is a factor.
Find the product of the two linear factors.
(x + 1)(x 2) = x2 x 2
Use long division to divide the quartic by the

quadratic factor x2 x 2 (or use another
method).
x2
Express the quartic in factorised form.
y = (x + 1)(x 2)(x2 5)
Factorise the quadratic factor, x2 5, using

difference of perfect squares.
y = (x + 1)(x 2)(x + 5)(x 5)
To find the x-intercepts, set y equal to zero.
Let y = (x + 1)(x 2)(x + 5)(x 5) = 0
Solve for x using the Null Factor Law.
10
11
Sketch the graph of the quartic.
x2
5
x 1 7x2 + 5x + 10
(x4 x3 2x2)
0 5x2 + 5x + 10
(5x2 + 5x + 10)
0
x4
x3
x = 1, 2, 5
The x-intercepts are 1, 2, 5 and 5.
y
(0, 10)
(1, 0)
( 5, 0)
3 2 1 0
(2, 0)
1
( 5, 0)
x
3
WorkeD exampLe 28
Sketch the graphs of each of the following equations, showing the coordinates
of all intercepts. Use a CAS calculator to find the coordinates of the turning
points, rounding to 2 decimal places as appropriate.
a y = x2 (x 1)(x + 2)
b y = (x + 3)2(x 1)2
30
tUtoriaL
eles-1196
Worked example 28
think
a 1 State the function.
Write/DraW
a y = x2(x 1)(x + 2)
When x = 0, y = 0
Find the x-intercepts.
When y = 0,
0 = x2(x 1)(x + 2)
x = 2, 0, 1
State the x-intercepts, noting where the graph

touches and where it cuts the x-axis.
The graph touches the x-axis at x = 0.

The other x-intercepts are 2 and 1.
State the coordinates of the turning points,

using a CAS calculator to assist.
The minimum turning points are (1.44, 2.83)

and (0.69, 0.40).
The maximum turning point is (0, 0).
Sketch the graph of the quartic, using a

CAS calculator to assist.
(2, 0)
(0, 0)
0
(1, 0)
(0.69, 0.40)
(1.44, 2.83)
b 1 State the function.
b y = (x + 3)2(x 1)2
When x = 0,
y = (3)2(1)2
= 9
When y = 0,
0 = (x + 3)2(x 1)2
x = 3, 1
State the points where the graph touches the

x-axis from the repeated factors.
The graph touches the x-axis at x = 3 and x = 1.
State the coordinates of the turning points,

using a CAS calculator to assist.
The maximum turning points are (3, 0) and

(1, 0), and the minimum turning point is (1, 16).
Sketch the graph of the quartic, using a

graphics calculator to assist.
y
(3, 0)
(1, 0)
0
(0, 9)
(1, 16)
31
WorkeD exampLe 29
Determine the equation of the graph shown.

y
3
3
1 0
1 2
think
Write
The x-intercepts are 3, 1, 1, 2.
Write the equation using factor form with a

dilation factor of a.
y = a(x + 3)(x + 1)(x 1)(x 2)
Substitute the coordinates of the y-intercept

into the equation.
(0, 3) 3 = a(0 + 3)(0 + 1)(0 1)(0 2)
Solve the equation to find a.
Write the equation.
3=a6
a = 12
y = 12 ( x 1)( x 2)( x + 3)( x + 1)
WorkeD exampLe 30
Sketch the graph of y = x4 2x2, x (1, 1], using the unrestricted function as a guide. State the
domain and the range in each case.
think
32
Write/DraW
State the function.
y = x4 2x2, x (1, 1]
When
When
x = 0,
y = (0)4 2(0)2
=0
x4
y=0
2x4 = 0
x2(x2
+ 2) = 0
Factorise the quartic expression.
Solve for x.
x = 0 is the only solution

(as x2 + 2 0).
The only x-intercept is 0.
Find y when x is one end point of the domain.
When
State the coordinates and whether it is an open

or closed point.
(1, 3) is an open end point.
x = 1,
y = (1)4 2(1)2
= 3
x = 1,
y = (1)4 2(1)2
= 3
10
Find y when x is the other end point of the

domain.
When
11
State the coordinates and whether it is an open

or closed point.
(1, 3) is a closed end point.
12
Sketch the graph of the quartic, using

knowledge of basic shapes over the domain.
y
(0, 0)
0
(1, 3)
(1, 3)
y = x 4 2x2
13
State the domain, which is given with

the rule.
The domain is (1, 1].
14
From the graph, state the range.
Quartic graphs
exercise 1G
1 We27 Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing all intercepts.
a y = (x 2)(x + 3)(x 4)(x + 1)
b y = 2x4 + 6x3 16x2 24x + 32
4
2
c y = x 4x + 4
d y = 30x 37x2 + 15x3 2x4
4
3
2
e y = 6x + 11x 37x 36x + 36
2 We28 Sketch the graph of each of the following equations, showing the coordinates of all intercepts.
Use a calculator to find the coordinates of the turning points, rounding to 2 decimal places as
appropriate.
a y = x2 (x 2)(x 3)
b y = (x + 1)2 (x 1)2
2
c y = (x 1) (x + 1)(x + 3)
d y = (x + 2)3 (1 x)
DiGitaL DoC
doc-9245
SkillSHEET 1.8
Solving quartic
equations
3 mC Consider the function f (x) = x4 8x2 + 16.

a When factorised, f (x) is equal to:
a (x + 2)(x 2)(x 1)(x + 4)
C (x + 3)(x 2)(x 1)(x + 1)
e (x 2)2 (x + 2)2
B (x 1)(x 4)(x + 4)
D (x 2)3 (x + 2)
b The graph of f (x) is best represented by:

a
y
2
16
D
2
e
y
16
y
16
DiGitaL DoC
doc-9171
Quartic graphs
factor form
y
16
y
4
33
c If the domain of f (x) is restricted to [2, 2], then the range is:
a [0, 16]
C [2, 12]
B [0, 10]
D R+
e [0, )
d If the range of f (x) is restricted to (0, 25) then the maximal domain is:
a [2, 3)
B (2, 3)
e If the domain of f (x) is restricted to
(1,
C (3, 2)
D (3, 3)
e (3, 4)
0), then the range is:

D (9, 16)
C (1, 9)
f If the domain of f (x) is restricted to [0, ), then the range is:
a R
D [0, 16)
B R+
C [0, )
a (0, 16)
e [9, )
B (0, 4)
e [2, )
4 We29 Determine the equation of each of the following graphs.

a
2 1 0
1 0
5 We30 Sketch the graph of each of the following restricted functions, using the unrestricted function as
a guide. State i the domain and ii the range in each case.
a y = (2 x)(x2 4)(x + 3), x [2, 3]
b y = 9x4 30x3 + 13x2 + 20x + 4, x (2,1]
c y = (x 2)2(x + 1)2, x (, 2]
d y = 4x2 x4, x [3, 2]
6 The function f (x) = x4 + ax3 4x2 + bx + 6 has x-intercepts (2, 0) and (3, 0). Find the values
of a and b.
DiGitaL DoC
doc-9172
Investigation
Quartics and
beyond
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
7 The function f (x) = x4 + ax3 + bx2 x + 6 has x-intercepts (1, 0) and (3, 0). Find the values
of a and b.
8 The functions y = (a 2b)x4 3x 2 and y = x4 x3 + (a + 5b)x2 5x + 7 both have an x-intercept of 1.
Find the value of a and b.
1h Solving systems of equations

Simultaneous linear equations
Previously we learned that simultaneous equations are two or more independent equations containing
two or more variables.
Simultaneous equations with two variables

Three possible scenarios exist when we are dealing with two linear simultaneous equations. They are
represented graphically below.
One unique solution
y
No solutions
y
Intersecting lines
34
Infinitely many solutions
Parallel lines
Co-incident (overlapping)
WorkeD exampLe 31
Consider a set of simultaneous equations that have one unique solution.

ax 7y = 0
2x + (a 9)y = 0
Find the value(s) of a, where a is a real constant.
think
1
For a unique solution, the lines can neither

be co-incident nor parallel. Parallel and
co-incident lines have gradients that are
the same.
Write
ax 7y = 0
2x + (a 9)y = 0
[1]
[2]
Consider the circumstances that are necessary

for either infinitely many solutions or no
solutions.
Begin by writing the equations.
2
Rearrange both equations so that they are in

the form y = mx + c.
ax 7y = 0
7y = ax
a
y= x
7
2x + (a 9)y = 0
(a 9)y = 2x
2
y=
x
a9
[1]
[3]
[2]
[4]
2
a
=
7 a9
a(a 9) = 14
a2 9a + 14 = 0
(a 2)(a 7) = 0
a = 2 or a = 7
Equate the gradients and solve for a.
Check the possibilities by substituting the

values of a into equations [1] and [2].
When a = 2,
ax 7y = 0
2x 7y = 0
First substitute the value a = 2 and interpret

the result.
2x + (a 9)y = 0
[2]
2x + (2 9)y = 0
2x 7y = 0
When a = 2 the lines are co-incident.
Then substitute the value a = 7 and interpret

the result.
When a = 7,
ax 7y = 0
7x 7y = 0
xy=0
[1]
[1]
2x + (a 9)y = 0
[2]
2x + (7 9)y = 0
2x 2y = 0
xy=0
When a = 7 the lines are co-incident.
5
State the solution.
When a = 2 and a = 7, the lines are co-incident.

So, for a unique solution a R\{2, 7}.
35
WorkeD exampLe 32
For the linear simultaneous equations given below:

a determine the values of t for which there are i infinitely many solutions and ii no solutions
b determine the unique solution for the equations in terms of t, specifying the restrictions on t.
tx 3y = 6
2x + (t 5)y = 3t
think
a 1 Write and number the equations.
Rewrite each equation in the form

y = mx + c.
Write
tx 3y = 6
2x + (t 5)y = 3t
tx 3y = 6
3y = tx + 6
t
y= x2
3
2x + (t 5)y = 3t
(t 5)y = 2x + 3t
2
3t
y=
x+
t 5
t 5
When there are no solutions or infinitely

many solutions, the two lines have the same
gradients, therefore they should be equated.
Equate the gradients.
[1]
[2]
[1]
[3]
[2]
[4]
2
t
=
3 t 5
t(t 5) = 6
t2 5t + 6 = 0
(t 2)(t 3) = 0
t = 2 or t = 3
Check the possibilities by substituting the

values of t into equations [1] and [2].
When t = 2,
tx 3y = 6
2x 3y = 6
i First substitute the value t = 2, and
2x + (t 5)y = 3t
[2]
2x + (2 5)y = 3(2)
2x 3y = 6
When t = 2, the lines are co-incident and have
infinitely many solutions.
interpret the result.
ii Then substitute the value t = 3, and
interpret the result.
When t = 3,
tx 3y = 6
3x 3y = 6
xy=2
y=x2
[1]
[1]
2x + (t 5)y = 3t
[2]
2x + (3 5)y = 3(3)
2x 2y = 9
9
xy=
2
9
y=x
2
When t = 3, the lines are parallel lines and there
are no solutions.
b 1 To find the unique intersection point between
the lines, solve equations [1] and [2].

Write equations [2] and [3].
36
2x + (t 5)y = 3t
t
y= x2
3
[2]
[3]
Substitute [3] into [2] and simplify to

find x in terms of t.
t
2 x + (t 5) x 2 = 3t
3
t2x
5tx
2t
+10 = 3t
3
3
6 x + t 2 x 6t 5tx + 30 = 9t
2x +
t 2 x 5tx + 6 x = 15t 30
x (t 2 5t + 6) = 15t 30
15t 30
t 2 5t + 6
15(t 2)
x=
(t 2)(t 3)
15
, t3
x=
t3
x=
Substitute the expression for x into

equation [3].
State the solution.
t
y= x2
3
t 15
y=
2
3 t 3
5t
y=
2
t 3
5t 2(t 3)
y=
t 3
3t + 6
y=
t 3
[3]
There is a unique solution when

15
3t + 6
, where t R\{2, 3}.
x=
and y =
t 3
t 3
Simultaneous equations with three variables

Simultaneous equations with three variables are systems of planes. The system of planes can have no
solution, one unique solution or infinite solutions.
No solution
One unique solution
Infinite solutions
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
There is no point at which

all three planes intersect.
There is one unique point

at which all three planes
intersect.
The three planes have a line of intersection

and therefore have an infinite number of
points at which they intersect.
Alternatively the planes might be co-incident.
37
So, the solution of simultaneous equation with 3 (or more) variables can be:
no solution
a point
a line
a plane.
WorkeD exampLe 33
Solve the following simultaneous linear equations.

x + 2y 3z = 11
4x 3y + z = 12
3x y z = 14
think
1
Write and number the equations.
One variable must be eliminated. Decide which

variable to eliminate first. In this case, eliminate z.
Write
x + 2y 3z = 11
4x 3y + z = 12
3x y z = 14
[1]
[2]
[3]
4x 3y + z = 12
12x 9y + 3z = 36
[2] 3
[4]
12x 9y + 3z = 36
x + 2y 3z = 11
[4]
+
[1]
13x 7y
[5]
To do so, multiply equation [2] by 3 to give

equation [4].
3
Add equation [1] to equation [4] to eliminate the

variable z to give equation [5].
Multiply equation [3] by 3 to give equation [6].
3x y z = 14
9x 3y 3z = 42
[3] 3
[6]
Eliminate z by subtracting equation [1] from [6]

to give equation [7].
9x 3y 3z = 42
x + 2y 3z = 11
[6]
[1]
8x 5y
[7]
Multiply equations [5] by 5 and [7] by 7 to give

equations [8] and [9] respectively.
Subtract equation [9] from equation [8] to

eliminate y and solve for x.
Substitute x = 2 into equation [7] to find y.
10
= 31
13x 7y = 47
65x 35y = 235
[5] 5
[8]
8x 5y = 31
56x 35y = 217
[7] 7
[9]
65x 35y = 235

56x 35y = 217
[8]
[9]
9x
x
38
= 47
= 18
=2
8x 5y = 31
8(2) 5y = 31
16 5y = 31
5y = 15
y = 3
[7]
Substitute x = 2 and y = 3 into equation [1] to

find z.
x + 2y 3z = 11
2 + 2(3) 3z = 11
2 6 3z = 11
3z = 15
z = 5
[1]
State the solution.
The planes will intersect at a unique point when

x = 2, y = 3 and z = 5.
WorkeD exampLe 34
Consider the following system of simultaneous equations.

kx y + z = 8
3x + ky + 2z = 2
x + 3y + z = 6
For what values of k, is there:
i a unique solution?
ii no solution?
iii an infinite number of solutions?
think
Write
i 1 Write the equations and attribute a number
kx y + z = 8
3x + ky + 2z = 2
x + 3y + z = 6
to each.
2
[1]
[2]
[3]
Eliminate a variable. In this case, eliminate

the variable z.
kx y + z = 8
x + 3y + z = 6
To do this, start by subtracting equation [3]

from equation [1] to give equation [4].
[1]
[3]
kx x 4y = 14
x(k 1) 4y = 14
[4]
Multiply equation [3] by 2 to give

equation [5].
x + 3y + z = 6
2x + 6y + 2z = 12
[3] 2
[5]
Subtract equation [5] from

equation [2] to give equation [6].
3x + ky + 2z = 2
2x + 6y + 2z = 12
[2]
[5]
x + ky 6y = 14
x + y(k 6) = 14
[6]
x(k 1) 4y = 14
x + y(k 6) = 14
[4]
[6]
Write equations [4] and [6] beneath each

other.
To eliminate the variable x, multiply

equation [6] by (k 1) to give equation [7]
and then subtract the result from
equation [4].
x ( k 1) 4 y = 14
x + y( k 6) = 14
[4]
[6] (k 1)
x ( k 1) 4 y = 14
x ( k 1) + y( k + 6)( k 1) = 14( k 1)
[4]
[7]
4y
y( k + 6)( k 1) = 14 14( k 1)
+ 6)( k 1)) = 14 k + 28
y( k 2 + 7 k 10) = 14 k + 28
14 k + 28
y= 2
k + 7 k 10
14( k 2)
y=
, k 5, k 2
( k 5)( k 2)
y( 4 ( k
Interpret the result.
ii 1 Determine the value of y in terms of k

from step 6 above.
14
into equation [4] to
( k 5)
determine the value of x in terms of k.
Substitute y =
That is, there is a unique solution

when k 5 or k 2.
14( k 2)
( k 5)( k 2)
14
=
( k 5)
y=
x ( k 1) 4 y = 14
[4]
14
x ( k 1) 4
= 14
k 5
39
x ( k 1)( k 5) 56 = 14( k 5)
14( k 5) + 56
( k 1)( k 5)
14 k 14
=
( k 1)( k 5)
14( k 1)
=
( k 1)( k 5)
14
x=
k 5
x=
14
14
and y =
into
( k 5)
( k 5)
equation [3] to determine the value of z in
terms of k.
Substitute x =
x + 3y + z = 6
[3]
14
14
+ 3
+z= 6
x 5 x 5
14 + 42 + z ( k 5) = 6( k 5)
6( k
5) 56
k 5
6 k 26
=
k 5
z=
Determine the value of k for which there

will be no solution.
14
14
and y =
and
( k 5)
( k 5)
6 k 26
z=
, we know that x, y and z will all
k 5
be undefined when k = 5.
Given, x =
Therefore, there is no solution when k = 5.

iii Deduce when there will be an infinite number
of solutions.
We know from i that there is a unique solution

when k 5 or k 2.
We know from ii that there is no solution
when k = 5.
So, there are an infinite number of solutions
when k = 2.
Note: This solution is best understood

when explored using a CAS calculator. The
solution process is shown in the Calculator
companion.
Solving simultaneous equations with three variables can be applied in a number of situations. One
such example is outlined in Worked example 35.
WorkeD exampLe 35
The cubic function with the general equation y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + 8 passes through the points
(1, 2) (2, 4) and (4, 8). Find the values of a, b and c.
think
1
40
Substitute the points (1, 2), (2, 4) and (4, 8)

into the equation y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + 8 to form
three linear simultaneous equations.
Write
(1, 2)
2 = a(1)3 + b(1)2 + c(1) + 8
6 = a + b + c
[1]
Attribute a number to each resulting equation.
(2, 4)
4 = a(2)3 + b(2)2 + c(2) + 8
12 = 8a + 4b 2c
6 = 4a + 2b c
[2]
(4, 8)
8 = a(4)3 + b(4)2 + c(4) + 8
0 = 64a + 16b + 4c
0 = 16a + 4b + c
[3]
Write equations [1], [2] and [3] underneath each

other.
Begin by eliminating a variable. In this case,

eliminate the variable c first.
To do this, add equations [1] and [2] to give
equation [4].
Also, add equations [2] and [3] to give

equation [5].
=a+b+c
= 4a + 2b c
0 = 16a + 4b + c
6
12
4
[1]+
[2]
= 3a + 3b
= a + b
[4]
= 4a + 2b c
0 = 16a + 4b + c
Subtract equation [4] from equation [5] to

determine the value of a.
=a+b+c
= 4a + 2b c
6
6
[1]
[2]
[3]
1
4
[2]+
[3]
= 12a + 6b
= 2a + b
[5]
= 2a + b
= a + b
[5]
[4]
3 = 3a
1=a
6
Substitute a = 1 into equation [4] to find the

value of b.
= a + b
= 1 + b
3 = b
[4]
Substitute a = 1 and b = 3 into (1)

=13+c
6 = 2 + c
4 = c
6
Substitute a = 1 and b = 3 into equation [1] to

find the value of c.
State the equation of the cubic.
Given a = 1, b = 3 and c = 4, the equation

of the cubic function is y = x3 3x2 4x + 8.
=a+b+c
=13+c
4 = c
6
[1]
Units: 3 & 4
Simultaneous equations with three or

more variables
Simultaneous equations with any number of variables could also be solved using a CAS calculator and
matrix theory.
This method is certainly preferred when solving simultaneous equations where there are more than
three variables to be solved.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
41
WorkeD exampLe 36
Solve these five linear simultaneous equations using matrices and a CAS calculator.
2v + w 3x + 2y z = 12
v + 3w + 4x y + 2z = 13
v 2w + 5x 2y 3z = 32
3v w + 2x y 3z = 18
3v + 3w 4x + 3y 2z = 9
think
1
Write
Represent the equations in matrix form.
On a calculator, store the matrices as variables

a and b as shown opposite.
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
1
1
3
1
3
2
1
3
12
13
32
18
9
2
4
1
3
5
4
5
2
4
3
4
5
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
3
2
3
2
3
3
v
w
x
y
z
a 1b will give the solution.
Write the solution.
v = 2, w = 4, x = 1, y = 3 and z = 5.
exercise 1h
12
13
32
18
9
1 We31 Find the value(s) of a where a R, when the following equations below have a unique
solution.
ax + 9y = 0
3x + (a 6)y = 0
2 We32 Consider the following linear simultaneous equations.
mx 5y = 10
3x (m 2)y = 6
a Find the values of m, where m R, for which there are infinitely many or no solutions.
b Find the unique solution for the equations in terms of m, specifying the restrictions on m.
3 We33 Solve:
x+y+z=9
+ 2y 3z = 15
x + 5y + 3z = 29
a algebraically
b using matrices and a CAS calculator.
42
4 Solve:
x y z = 5
6x + 2y 5z = 2
3x + y + 4z = 13
a algebraically
b using matrices and a CAS calculator.
5 We34 Consider the following system of simultaneous equations.
6x + 2y z = 1
x+y+z=2
kx + y z = 1
For what values of k, is there:
i a unique solution?
ii no solution?
6 An amateur drama company were selling tickets for their latest production. The opening night was a
sell out with all 200 tickets being sold. Tickets were priced as follows:
Adults
Children
Senior citizens
10
$9.50 each
$4.50 each
$3.50 each
The takings for the opening night amounted to $1375. Also, there were three times as many
childrens tickets sold as there were senior citizens tickets.
a Construct a system of linear simultaneous equations to represent this purchase of tickets for the
opening night. Determine algebraically the number of each type of ticket sold for the opening night.
b Use matrices and a CAS calculator to solve the problem.
As an experiment, the manager of a seafood outlet at a large food court has decided to offer a lunch
special for the purchase of cooked seafood. It would involve selling only fish (medium sized pieces
of flake), F, medium portions of chips, C, and potato cakes, P, over a luncheon period from 12 noon to
2.30 pm. The portions were priced as follows:
1 medium piece of flake
$6.00
1 medium serve of chips
$4.50
1 potato cake
$1.00
On the first occasion the lunch special was trialled, 255 portions of food were sold. The total
takings for the luncheon special were $1067.50. It was also known that there were 50 more portions
of chips sold than there were pieces of flake.
a Construct a system of linear simultaneous equations to represent this luncheon special.
Determine algebraically the number of each type of ticket sold for the opening night.
b Use matrices and a CAS calculator to solve the problem.
We35 The general equation of a cubic function is given by y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d where a, b, c and
d are real constants. If it is known that the cubic function passes through the points (2, 62), (0, 4),
(2, 26) and (5, 64), find the values of a, b, c and d a algebraically and b using matrices and
a CAS calculator.
The general equation of a circle is given by x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0 where a, b and c are real
constants. If it is known that the circle passes through the points (3, 1), (6, 2) and (0, 2), find the values
of a, b and c a algebraically and b using matrices and a CAS calculator.
We36 Solve the following five linear simultaneous equations using matrices and a CAS calculator.
a + 2b c + d e = 24
2a + 3b 2c d 3e = 34
2a + b + 3c 2d + e = 31
3a + 5b 2c 2d + 3e = 18
4a 2b c 3d + e = 5
43
Summary
1
pascals triangle
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
1
3
6
10
1
4
10
1
5
Binomial theorem
n
n
n
n
(ax + b)n = (ax)nb0 + (ax)n 1b + +
(ax)bn 1 + (ax)0bn
0
1
n 1
n
Notes
1. Indices add to n.
2. There are n + 1 terms in the expansion.
n
3. The (r + 1)th term is (ax)n rbr.
r
polynomials
If P(x) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and n is a non-negative integer then P(x) is a

polynomial of degree n and an, an 1, . . . , a2, a1 are called coefficients and a R.
Remainder theorem:
If P(x) is divided by (x a), then the remainder is P(a). If P(x) is divided by (ax + b) then the
b
remainder is P .
a
Factor theorem:
1. If P(a) = 0, then (x a) is a factor of P(x) or if (ax + b) is a factor of P(x), then:
b
P = 0.
a
2. If (x a) is a factor of P(x) then a must be a factor of the term independent of x.
Linear graphs
Linear equations are polynomials of degree 1.

General equation is
ax + by + c = 0
or
y = mx + c
where m = gradient
c = y-intercept
y y
m= 2 1
The gradient
x 2 x1
Equation if a point and the gradient is known:
y y1 = m(x x1)
Parallel lines have the same gradient.
If m1 and m2 are the gradients of perpendicular lines, then:
m1 m2 = 1
1
m1 =
or
m2
Quadratic graphs
Quadratic equations are polynomials of degree 2.

General equation is
y = ax2 + bx + c
The general quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, can be solved for x using the
Quadratic formula:
44
x=
b 2 4 ac
2a
Discriminant = b2 4ac and:

1. if b2 4ac > 0, there are 2 x-intercepts (and if b2 4ac is a perfect square, the intercepts
are rational)
2. if b2 4ac = 0, there is 1 x-intercept
3. if b2 4ac < 0, there are no x-intercepts.
The power form or turning point form of the quadratic is:
y = a(x b)2 + c
and the turning point is (b, c).
b
The equation of the axis of symmetry and the x-value of the turning point of a parabola is
.
2a
The axis of symmetry is halfway between the x-intercepts.
Cubic graphs
Cubic equations are polynomials of degree 3.

General equation is y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
Basic shapes of cubic graphs:
1. If a > 0:
Positive cubic
Power form
y
y = a(x b)3 + c
(b, c)
Factor form
y
Repeated factor
y

where a > 0
c d
y = (x a)2 (x b)
2. If a < 0, then the reflections through the x-axis of the types of graph in the above figures are
obtained.
Quartic graphs
Quartic equations are polynomials of degree 4.

General equation is y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e
Basic shapes of quartic graphs:
1. If a > 0:
y
b
0
y = a(x b)2(x c)2
y = ax4
45
b
x
y=
ax4
cx2,
c0
y = a(x b)(x c)3

y
y = ax2(x b)(x c)
e x
y = a(x b)(x c)(x d)(x e)
2. If a < 0, then reflection through the x-axis of the types of graph above is obtained.
Note: It is possible to translate the cubic and quartic graphs shown in the cubic graphs and
quartic graphs sections above.
Functions
Solving systems of
equations
Simultaneous equations with two variables can have no solution (if lines are parallel), one solution
(if lines intersect) or infinitely many solutions (if the lines overlap).
Simultaneous equations with three variables can have no solution (if there is no point in which
all three planes intersect), one solution (one unique point at which all three planes intersect)
or infinitely many solutions (if the three planes have a line of intersection, or if the planes are
coincident).
Simultaneous equations with any number of equations can be solved using a CAS calculator and
matrix theory.
46
A function is fully defined if the rule and domain are given.

The domain of a function is the set of values of x for which the function is defined.
The range of a function is the set of values of y for which the function is fully defined.
Restricted domains can be represented by interval notation:
[a, b] = {x: a x b}
(a, b) = {x: a < x < b}
[a, b) = {x: a x < b}
Chapter review
1 Expand each of the following.
a (2y
x 2
b
2 x
3x)5
S ho rt
a n S W er
2 If a factor of P(x) = 7 + ax + 5x2 + 15x3 + bx4 is (x2 1), find the values of a and b.
3 Factorise each of the following expressions.
a x3 12x2 + 17x + 90
b 2x4 + 7x3 31x2 + 36
4 Find the equation of each of the straight lines described below.

a The line which passes through the points (5, 6) and (1, 1).
b The line which is perpendicular to the line with equation 2x y + 10 = 0 and passes through the
point (3, 3).

5 Sketch the graph of y = 8 2x x2, by labelling the turning point and all intercepts. State its domain
and range.
6 Sketch the graph of y = 3x2 + 8x 3, x [3, 0). State the range of this function.
7 a If (x + 3) is a factor of f (x) = x3 + bx2 + ax 18 and g(x) = ax2 + bx 75, then find the values of a
and b.
b Sketch the graph of f (x) by labelling all intercepts.
8 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 7x3 + 12x2 + 4x 16.
9 Solve the following five linear simultaneous equations using matrices and a CAS calculator.
3a
5b + c 7d + e = 17
+ 4b c + 3d 5e = 20
2a + 3b + 3c 3d 2e = 11
6a b c d + e = 20
5a + 2b 3c + 4d 4e = 53
2a
1 When expanded, (1 2x)5 is equal to:
a 1 + 2x
+
+
C 5 10x + 20x2 40x3 + 80x4 160x5
e 1 10x + 40x2 80x3 + 80x4 32x5
4x2
8x3
16x4
32x5
B 1 2x +
D 1 + 2x 4x2 + 8x3 16x4 + 32x5
4x2
8x3
16x4
32x5
m U Ltip L e
C ho iC e
1 8
2 The coefficient of x5 in the expansion of 4 x 2 is:
x
a 4096
D 16 384
B 131 072
e 16 384
C 4096
a 153 090 x2
B 243x4
1 10
3 Assuming descending powers of x, the fifth term of the expansion of 3 x + is:
81
x5
4 Which of the following expressions is not a polynomial?
a x3 + 3x 1
B x4 5x3 + 3x2 6x
D 729x2
81
x2
x 4 + 5x 3 2 x 2 + 5x 3
C x21 x11 + x 3
e x6 x5 + 2x4 x3 + 4x 2
5 The value of P(3) in the polynomial, P(x) = x5 4x3 3x2 + 10x + 1, is:
a 31
D 6
B 139
e 1
C 191
6 The degree of the polynomial (5 6x + x3 + 7x6) (x2 3x4 + 2) when expanded is:
a 24
D 16
B 8
e 21
7 The remainder when x5 + 2x4 + 4x3 5x + 3 is divided by (x + 3) is:

a 271
D 3
B 51
e 108
C 10
C 171
47
8 For which one of the following polynomial expressions is (x 2) not a factor?

a x3 + 3x2 4x 12
D x3 + x2 10x + 8
B x4 2x3 6x2 8x + 2
e 2x3 + 3x2 9x 10
C x4 + 2x3 7x2 8x + 12
9 Which one of the following is a factor of 2x4 4x3 10x2 + 12x?

a (x 2)
D (x 4)
B (x + 3)
e (x 3)
10 The rule for the graph shown is:

a 2x + y + 4 = 0
C 2y x 4 = 0
e 4x + 2y = 0
C (x + 1)
y
2
B x 2y 4 = 0
D x + 2y 4 = 0
0
y
Questions 11 and 12 refer to the graph at right, which has a gradient of 2.

11 The value of b must be:
a 5
D 1
B 3
e 4
(2, b)
C 1
(3, 5)
12 The y-intercept is:
a (0, 3)
B (0, 2)
D (0, 1)
C (0, 2 )
13 If 3x2 + 4x 5 = 0, then the value of the discriminant is:
e ( 2 , 0)
44
B 44
C
D 23
e 76
76
2
Questions 14 and 15 refer to the function with the rule: y = 2x + 8x 10 where x ( 6, 2).
14 Which one of the following graphs could represent this function?

a
(6, 14)
65
(2, 14)
65
10
(6, 22)
(6, 14)
(2, 14)
0 12
10
(2, 14)
(6, 14)
2 1 0
10
56
(2, 10)
(6, 6)
1 0 2
2
10
x
(2, 3.6)
15 The range of this function is:

a (18, 14)
D [18, 14]
B (10, 14)
e (14, 10)
16 The graph of y = 3x3 could be:

a
B
y
y
48
0 12
65
C [18, 14)
17 Which of the following intercepts does the graph of f (x) = 6 + 11x + 3x2 2x3 have?
a ( , 0), (2, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 6)
B (2, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 6)
C ( 12 , 0), (2, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 6)
D (2, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 6)
1
2
1
2
e ( , 0), (3, 0), (2, 0) and (0, 6)
18 The rule for the graph shown at right could be:

a
B
C
D
e
f (x) = (x
+ 3)
f (x) = (x + 1)(x 3)2
f (x) = (x + 1)2(3 x)
f (x) = (x2 1)(x + 3)
f (x) = (x 3)(x + 1)2
1 0
19 The rule for the graph shown at right could be:

a
B
C
D
e
f(x)
1)2(x
f (x) = x(x +
f (x) = x(x 2)2
f (x) = x2(x 2)2
f (x) = x(x 2)3
f (x) = x(2 x)2
f(x)
2)3
20 The graph of y = (x + 3)2(x 1)(x 3) is best represented by:

a
3
3
x
3
0 1
1 A rogue satellite has its distance from Earth,
d thousand kilometres, modelled by a cubic

function of time, t days after launch. After 1 day
it reaches a maximum distance from Earth
of 4000kilometres, then after 2 days it is
2000 kilometres away. It effectively returns to
Earth after 3 days, then moves further and
further away.
a What is the satellites initial distance from
Earth?
b Sketch the graph of d versus t for the first
6 days of travel.
c Express d as a function of t.
d The moon is approximately 240 000 kilometres from Earth. Which is closer to Earth after 8 days,
the satellite or the moon? By how far?
ex ten D eD
r eS p o n S e
49
e The satellite is programmed to self-destruct. This happens when it is 490 000 kilometres
from Earth. What is the life span of the satellite?

State the domain and range of d(t).
y
A bridge spans a narrow canal as shown in the diagram at right.
a Find the equation of a parabola that models the shape of the
3
archway.
2
b Show that a barge 3 m wide and carrying cargo with a total height of
1.7 m (with a rectangular cross-section) cannot fit under the arch.
1
c How much cargo (in height, correct to 1 decimal place) must be
Barge
x
removed for the barge to fit under the bridge?
2 1 0 1 2
In the town of Newtonia there is an annual 10 m race (for the
Surface of canal
Polynomial Cup) for mini robots that have been programmed with
mathematical formulas by Professor Liebnitz. There is a lot of betting
on the race as the professor keeps the formulas secret and is known to
favour surprise winners.
The three contestants were programmed as follows, where x is the distance from the start line in
metres and t is the time in minutes:
Liney
x = 2.4 + 0.75t
Quadder
x = 0.2t(t 5.1)
Cubric
x = 0.2t(t 5.1)(t 9.1)
Using a CAS calculator, describe the motions of the three contestants, specifically:
a the direction they travelled in and how fast they were moving
b where and when they changed direction
c where and when they passed or met each other
d who won the race and by how much.
Sketch the graphs of their movements on the same set of axes, labelling all relevant points. You will
need an extra graph to get a close-up of the finish.
The diagram at right shows a main road passing through O, A, C and E. The road crosses a river at
point O and 3 kilometres further along the road at point C. Between O and C, the furthest the river is
from the road is 8.54 kilometres, at a point D, 2.25 kilometres east of a northsouth line through O.
Point A is 1 kilometre east of point O. If point O is taken as the origin
N
and the road as the x-axis, then the path of the river can be modelled
River
W
E
by a quartic function, as shown in blue.
S
a Give the coordinates of C and D.
O A
b Find the rule for the quartic function, f (x).
C Main road
E
c How far is the river from the main road along the track AB?
d A canoeing race, of at least 17 kilometres in length, along
B
the river is being organised. It is suggested that the race
D
could start at O and finish at C. Is this course satisfactory?
Why?
y
Willie Wonkie, of Willie Wonkies Construction
Company, makes a sketch of the symmetrical W
for a large neon sign as shown at right. The x- and
y-axes represent the supporting crosspieces. The
width of the W along the x-axis is 6 metres and the
point on the vertical support is 2 1 metres above
4
the horizontal support. The W can be modelled
x
by a quartic function, with all x-intercepts exactly
evenly spaced.
a Find the rule for the letter W.
b If the top of the W is 8 metres wide, find the
coordinates of the highest points of the letter.
c State the domain of the function.
f
50
d Use a graphics calculator to find the coordinates of the lowest points of the W, giving values
correct to 3 decimal places. Hence find the range of the function.

e In order to test the strength of his design, Willie Wonkie moves the horizontal crosspiece so that it
just touches the lowest points of the W. Find the new rule that describes the W now.
State the domain and range of the new function.
Note: The following questions use differentiation of polynomials.
6 A plane cruising at 10 000 m is coming in to land at an airport at sea level, as can be seen in the diagram
below.
f
y
Planes
10 km
flight path
10 000 m
x
50 km
Airport
If the plane descends smoothly and makes no changes in direction, show that a possible model would
be y = ax2(x b).
a Find the equation if the plane begins its descent when 50 km horizontally from the airport.
b What is the altitude of the plane when it is 2 km horizontally from the airport?
c How accurate do you think this model is?
7 The diagram below shows a symmetrical skateboard ramp with horizontal platforms at A and B, and
vertical supporting struts at C and D.
y
A
B
E
G
2m
4m
x
3m
D
2m
4m
a Write an equation for a quartic function that models the ramp, assuming a smooth connection at
A and B.
b Show that the right half of the ramp can be modelled by a cubic equation y = a(x b)(x 4)2 and
DiGitaL DoC
doc-9173
Test Yourself
Chapter 1
find its equation by evaluating a and b.

c The right-hand side can also be modelled by two smoothly connected parabolas.
i If the strut DF is 1 m long, find the equation of the lower parabola passing through F.
ii Find the equation of the upper parabola if it meets the lower one at F, and show that the
connection is not smooth (that is, their gradients are not equal at the point where they meet).
iii Show that the two parabolas meet smoothly at (3, 0.75) provided the lower parabola passes
through F.
d Which model is the closest to the actual ramp if the strut is really 1.6 m long?
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
51
ICT activities
Chapter opener
DiGitaL DoC
10 Quick Questions doc-9159: Warm up with ten quick questions on
graphs and polynomials. (page 1)
1a
tUtoriaL
We3 eles-1173: Watch a worked example on binomial expansion.
(page 3)
DiGitaL DoC
SkillSHEET 1.1 doc-9238: Practise binomial expansions using Pascals
triangle. (page 4)
1B
polynomials
DiGitaL DoCS
Spreadsheet doc-9160: Investigate evaluating polynomials. (page 7)
SkillSHEET 1.2 doc-9239: Practise solving simultaneous equations.
(page 7)
1C
interaCtiVitY
Division of polynomials int-0246: Consolidate your understanding of
the division of polynomials and rational functions. (page 8)
tUtoriaL
We11 eles-1193: Watch a worked example on the division of
polynomials. (page 8)
DiGitaL DoCS
Spreadsheet doc-9161: Investigate finding factors of polynomials.
(page 10)
WorkSHEET 1.1 doc-9162: Binomial expansion, division of polynomials
and solving and factorising polynomial equations (page 10)
1D
Linear graphs
DiGitaL DoCS
SkillSHEET 1.3 doc-9240: Practise calculating the gradient of parallel
and perpendicular lines. (page 14)
SkillSHEET 1.4 doc-9241: Practise using the gradient to find the value
of a parameter. (page 14)
SkillSHEET 1.5 doc-9242: Practise using interval notation. (page 15)
SkillSHEET 1.6 doc-9243: Practise finding the domain and range for
linear graphs. (page 15)
1e
Quadratic graphs
tUtoriaL
We17 eles-1174: Watch a worked example on using the
discriminant. (page 16)
52
DiGitaL DoCS
Spreadsheet doc-9163: Investigate the value of the disciminant.
(page 20)
Spreadsheet doc-9164: Investigate quadratic graphs.
(page 20)
SkillSHEET 1.7 doc-9244: Practise recognising domain and range for
quadratic graphs. (page 20)
Spreadsheet doc-9165: Investigate graphs of functions.
(page 21)
Spreadsheet doc-9166: Investigate quadratic graphs in turning point
form. (page 21)
WorkSHEET 1.2 doc-9167: Calculate gradients, axial intercepts
and values of the discriminant, sketch graphs of polynomials, and
determine equations for graphs. (page 21)
1F
Cubic graphs
tUtoriaL
We24 eles-1194: Watch a worked example on determining the
rule of a cubic. (page 23)
DiGitaL DoCS
Spreadsheet doc-9168: Investigate cubic graphs in factor form.
(page 25)
Spreadsheet doc-9169: Investigate cubic graphs. (page 26)
Spreadsheet doc-9170: Investigate cubic graphs of the form
y = a(x b)3 + c. (page 27)
1G
Quartic graphs
tUtoriaLS
We27 eles-1195: Watch a worked example on sketching the
graph of a quartic. (page 30)
We28 eles-1196: Watch a worked example on finding the turning
points of a quartic using a CAS calculator. (page 30)
DiGitaL DoCS
SkillSHEET 1.8 doc-9245: Practise solving quartic equations.
(page 33)
Spreadsheet doc-9171: Investigate quartic graphs in factor form.
(page 33)
Investigation doc-9172: Quartics and beyond (page 34)
Chapter review
DiGitaL DoC
Test Yourself Chapter 1 doc-9173: Take the end-of-chapter test to test
your progress. (page 51)
To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
Answers CHAPTER 1
GraphS anD poLYnomiaLS
exercise 1a
3 a No
4 a C
1 a x2 + 6x + 9
b x5 + 20x4 + 160x3 + 640x2 + 1280x + 1024
c x8 8x7 + 28x6 56x5 + 70x4 56x3
d
e
f
2 a
b
+ 28x2 8x + 1
16x4 + 96x3 + 216x2 + 216x + 81
2401 1372x + 294x2 28x3 + x4
32 240x + 720x2 1080x3
+ 810x4 243x5
3 1
x3 + 3x + + 3
x x
2187x7 10 206x5 + 20 412x3 22 680x
15 120 6048 1344 128
+
3 + 5 7
x
x
x
x
c x12 + 18x9 + 135x6 + 540x3 + 1215 +
4
8
9
10
12
14
exercise 1D
1 a
exercise 1C
1 a Q(x) = x2 + 2x + 13
R(x) = 50
b Q(x) = x4 3x3 + 6x2 18x + 58
R(x) = 171
c Q(x) = 6x3 + 17x2 + 53x + 155
R(x) = 465
d Q(x) =
R(x) =
x3
3 20
27
7
3
x2
7
9
+ x+
iv
iv
iv
iv
1
14
7
19
9
10
11
12
a 2x + y 9 = 0
a y 2x 7 = 0
E
B
exercise 1e
1 a 0
d 2
2 a
Quadratic graphs
b 2
c 0
e 2
f 1
y
8
Linear graphs
b x + 3y 17 = 0
b x + 2y + 1 = 0
y
4
0
5 x
0
y
d
x
1
2
1 13
a y 3x + 5 = 0
a 3x + y + 13 = 0
a
c
6 a
d
7 a
d
8 a
i 1
1 12
12
10
1
y
y
5
b 2x + y + 5 = 0
b yx+2=0
b y 3x + 7 = 0
ii 8
2x + y = 0
iii
vi
b v
e i
[2, )
[2, 3]
b (5, )
e R
c iv
f ii
(12, 15) y
c [2, 3)
f (, 6)
5 9
)
2 4
1)
3 a (3,
1
2
b( ,
1
4
1
12
c (1 , 12 )
4 a
b
c
d
5 a
b
c
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
d ( , 12
(0, 2)
(6, 0)
(2, 0)
(3, 6)
y = x2 2x 1
y = x2 4x + 1
y = 8 + 2x x2
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
R
R
R
R
R
[1, )
[4, 4)
1
)
24
iii
iii
iii
iii
iii
iii
iii
y2
y0
y0
y 6
[2, )
[3, )
[16, 9]
6 a
6
3
8 x
(12, 3)
i [12, 12]
b
ii [3, 15]
x
y
(0, 15)
y
5 x
0
2
i (, 5)
c
ii (, 0)
)
(5, 14
3
101
27
2 a i 50
ii 171
20
iii 465
iv 3 27
b The result is the same.
d Yes
2
3
4
5
polynomials
1 ii, iii, vi
2 a x5 2x4 2x2 3x + 7
b x5 3x4 8x3 11x2 + 4x 1
c 3x4 16x3 8x2 x + 24
d 17 18x + 29x2 + 24x3 + 5x4 x5
3 a i 6
ii 0
iii 124
b i 7
iii 280
ii 8
c i 6
ii 3
iii 331
d i 4
ii 7
iii 55
4 B
5 a = 4, b = 8
6 a = 3, b = 5
7 a = 0, b = 7
8 a = 2, b = 5
9 a C
bD
c No
5 a (x 2)(x + 3)2
b (3x 1)(x + 2)(x 6)
c (x + 2)(x 2)(x + 3)(x 1)
d 4x(x + 1)(x + 4)(x 2)
6 a x = 3, 0 or 2
b x = 4, 3, 0 or 2
3
c x = 2, 2 or 2
d x = 1
7 a=2
8 a=5
9 a=7
10 a = 10, b = 26
11 a = 9, b = 11
1458 + 729
x3
x6
243 810 1080 720
2
5
d 10 7 + 4 x + 240 x 32 x
x
x
x
ii 1
iii 0
a i 21
b i 40
ii 80
iii 80
c i 0
ii 810
iii 0
d i 0
iii 0
ii 540
e i 0
ii 302 526
iii 0
A
5C
6 D
7 D
540x3y3
19 683 x 2
4
4860
11 160
54
13 105
6
exercise 1B
b Yes
b B
(2, 23 )
0
2
i [2, 5)
3
2
2 14
ii [ 3 , 3 )
(2, 1)
1 0.09
1.5
2.91 x
53
7 a B
8 D
10 a
bC
9A
h
48 (0, 48)
(1, 4)
36
0
i
ii
11 t
1 a
b
2 a
e
3 a
Cubic graphs
y = x(x + 6)(x 5)
y = (x + 2)2(x 1)
v
vi
b iv
f viii
c ii
g vii
(1, 3)
2 1 0
1 0
1 0
1 3
4 (2 , 4 )
6
18
5t
c d (km) d(t) = t2
4
4 x
y = x2 + x 1, x R
R+
ii
4 a B
5 C
3
(, 4]
i [2, )
2 4 6 x
ii
y
1
[4 4 ,
128]
m3
3 1 0
32
(2, 32)
c
ii [100, 8]
b 80 m3
b6s
12 a 8
13 a 48 m
c Domain = [0, 6], range = [0, 48]
14 a 12 m
b 6 s
c 48 m
d Domain = [0, 11], range = [12, 48]
54
2
3
i [2, 1]
(5, 100)
100
f(x) = 5 + 6x 3x2
ii [0, )
(1, 0)
1 0
(1, 8)
1 2
Quartic graphs
y
24
1 a
y
4
x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
(3, 4)
50
i [5, 3)
exercise 1G
9 E
d Max. d 4.6 km when t = 3 h and 20 min
6]
y
100
f(x) = x2 3x 2
108 64 2 0
bE
8 D
7 B
10 a
1
1
50 (12 , 4 4 )
(6, 16)
[10,
6 A
5
4
3
(2, 3)
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 t (h)
2 3
i
c (10, 128)
14
y
ii [1, 10]
(1, 1) [2, 3)
(57, 18] (3, 3)
a = 6, b = 24
a = 7, b = 4
a a = 3, b = 3, c = 3 and f (x) = 3(x 3)3 + 3
b g(x) = 3(x + 3)3 + 3, domain = [4, 2],
range = [0, 6]
c 7 cm
1
a a = 4, b = 5
2 (5 t )
b d (t ) = t
, domain = [0, 5]
4
i
ii
11
12
13
10
i [2, 2]
1
2
24
2
5 y = x 2x + 2
(2, 2)
2 (1, 1)
y
10
2 1 0
(1, 3)
(2, 18)
(3, 57)
(1, 8)
(2, 10)
11 a
(1, 3)
12
i [2, 1) (0, 3]
ii [12, 3) (0, 33]
4
1 0
(3, 33)
(2, 12)
3
(2, 1)
d i
h iii
[1, 2)
(14, 4]
exercise 1F
1 0
(2, 14)
(6, 12)
(2, 4)
(4, 9)
24
12
(11, 37)
y
3
ii
4
3
(1, 8)
[32, 0]
3 x
2 0 1 2
36 (0, 36)
i (0, 1]
ii (36, 8]
4 a y = (x + 2)(x 1)(x 3)(x + 1)
b y = 12 (x 2)2(x + 1)(x 4)
5
2
5 a
+ 810yx4 243x5
x8 x 6 7x 4
224
b
+
14 x 2 + 70 2
256 8
4
x
448 512 256
+ 4 6 + 8
x
x
x
2 a = 15, b = 2
3 a (x 9)(x + 2)(x 5)
b (2x 3)(x + 1)(x + 6)(x 2)
4 a 7x + 6y 1 = 0
b x + 2y 9 = 0
24
36
(3, 30)
i [2, 3]
3
32 0
2
3
ii [30, 0]
y
400
b (2, 400)
300
y
2 a
Short anSWer
1 a 32y5 240y4x + 720y3x2 1080y2x3
3 2
Chapter reVieW
0 1
2 1
(1.15, 2.08)
100
(1, 36)
(2, 1]
i
ii [36, 400)
(2, 0)
0
1
4
7 a a = 9, b = 2
y
b
i (, 2]
ii (, 16]
(0, 1)
x
y
(3, 45)
[3, 2]
[45, 0]
6 a = 4, b = 19
7 a = 1, b = 7
8 a = 3, b = 1
0 (1, 0)
exercise 1h
1 a R\{3, 9}
2 a m = 5 infinitely many solutions, m = 3
(2.28, 9.91)
y
3
4
(0.25, 8.54)
5
6
(2, 0)
(1, 0)
3 a E
c A
e D
1 0
i
ii
(3, 0)
bB
dD
f C
8
9
10
18
(0.22, 3.23) (0, 3)
2 3
Range = [ 25
, 0]
3
(2, 16)
(1, 0)
0
(1, 0)
1
3
)
( 43 , 25
3
(1, 0)
(2.59, 1.62)
Domain = R, range = (, 9]
(3, 0) x
c
(0, 0)
(1, 9)
200
no solutions
6
10
b x=
, m R\{3, 0, 5}
, y=
m+3
m+3
x = 1, y = 2, z = 6
x = 2, y = 3, z = 4
5
5
Unique solution k , no solution k =
3
3
100 adult tickets, 75 childrens tickets,
25 senior citizen tickets sold on opening
night.
75 portions of flake, 125 portions of chips
and 55 potato cakes sold during the lunch
special period.
a = 3, b = 12, c = 3, d = 4
a = 6, b = 4, c = 4, d = 2
a = 7, b = 3, c = 2, d = 5, e = 4
16
9 a = 3, b = 2, c = 6, d = 1, e = 5
mULtipLe ChoiCe
1
5
9
13
17
E
C
E
E
A
2
6
10
14
18
B
C
D
B
E
3
7
11
15
19
A
C
A
C
D
4
8
12
16
20
D
B
D
B
A
extenDeD reSponSe
1 a 0 km
b d (1000 km)
c
d
e
f
(1, 4)
(3, 0)
t (days)
d = t 3 6t 2 + 9t
The satellite by 40 000 km
10 days
Domain = [0, 10], range = [0, 490]
55
2 a y = 3 0.75x2
b y = 1.3125, so cannot fit.
c Reduce the height by 0.4 m.
momentarily at (2.1, 8.8), then moving

back towards the start. Meets Liney
at (3.8, 5.24) and Quadder at the start
line at 5.1 min. Slows down, stopping
at (7.37, 5.8) and then speeding for
the finish.
3
x (m)
(2.1, 8.8)
10
(3.8, 5.24)
5
(0, 2.4) (0.3, 2.6)
0
5
Finishing
line
(5.1, 0)
L
Q
10.1
4
10 t (min)
(2.55, 1.3)
(7.37, 5.8)
10
Liney: Starts 2.4 m in front of start

line moving forwards at a constant
0.75 m/min. Passed by Cubric after
0.3 min and 2.6 m from the start line,
meets Cubric coming back towards
Liney at 3.8 min and 5.24 m from the
start line.
Quadder: Starts at start line, travelling
1.3m the wrong way for 2.55 min,
stopping momentarily then moving
forward with increasing speed. Meets
Cubric at the start line after 5.1 min.
Cubric: Starts at start line moving very
fast towards the finish passing Liney
at (0.3, 2.6), then slowing, stopping
56
x (m)
10.2
10
9.9
(10.1, 10.1)
(10.07, 10)
(10.092, 10)
(10.0899, 9.97)
(10.04, 9.9)
10
L
(10.13, 10)
C
10.15 t (min)
The Finish: Quadder overtakes Limey at

(10.04, 9.9).
Cubric overtakes Limey at (10.0899,
9.97).
Quadder finishes the race in 10.07 min,
Cubric in 10.09 min, Liney in 10.13 min.
Quadder wins by 1.2 s, Cubric second
by 2.4 s to Liney.
4 a C is (3, 0) and D is (2.25, 8.54)
b y = x4 3x3
c 2 km
d Yes, because a straight route from O to
D to C is approximately 17.4 km and the
river course is longer than this.
5 a y = 14 (x + 3)(x + 1)(x 1)(x 3)

1
b (4, 26 4 ) and (4, 26 4 )
[4,
c Domain
4]
d (2.236, 4) and (2.236, 4);
1
range [4, 26 4 ]
1
e y = 4 (x 2.236)2(x + 2.236)2
1
f Domain [4, 4], range = [0, 30 4 ]
6 Teacher to check the model
x 2 ( x 75)
a y=
6250
b 46.72 m
c Seems to be extremely low 2 km from
touchdown. Not very accurate.
3( x 4) 2 ( x + 4)2
7 a y=
256
b y=
3( x 4)2 ( x + 2)
32
x2
3
c i
4
( x 4)2
y=
ii
; the gradients are 1 and 2,
2
respectively, so not smooth.
iii Teacher to check
d Quartic is the closest, 1.6875 m.
ChapTer 2
Functions and transformations

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10 Quick Questions
ChapTer ConTenTS
2a
2b
2C
2d
2e
2F
2G
2h
2i
2J
Transformations and the parabola

The cubic function in power form
The power function (the hyperbola)
The power function (the truncus)
The square root function in power form
The absolute value function
Transformations with matrices
Sum, difference and product functions
Composite functions and functional equations
Modelling
2a Transformations
Transformations
and the parabola
In this chapter we consider the basic graphs of the quadratic and cubic functions, the hyperbola and
truncus, square root and absolute value functions.
The following transformations of the above graphs are discussed: dilation, reflection and translation.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
dilation
Concept:
A dilation is the stretching or compressing of a graph.

Let the basic graph be y = f (x).
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
dilation away from the x-axis: y = af (x)
1. Stretches or compresses the graph f (x) by a factor of a from the x-axis.

2. Each y-value of the basic graph is multiplied by a factor of a, that is (x, y) (x, ay).
3. When | a | > 1, the graph of f (x) is stretched and becomes narrower.
4. When 0 < | a | < 1, the graph of f (x) is compressed and becomes wider.
dilation away from the y-axis: y = f (nx)
1
from the y-axis.
n
x
1
2. Each x-value of the basic graph is multiplied by a factor of , that is (x, y) ( , y).
n
n
3. When |n| > 1, the graph of f (x) is compressed from the y-axis and becomes narrower.
4. When 0 < |n| < 1, the graph of f (x) is stretched from the y-axis and becomes wider.
Note: For the graphs we will be looking at in this chapter a horizontal dilation can be expressed as
a vertical dilation. For example, (2x + 1)3 can be written as 23 ( x + 12 )3 = 8( x + 12 )3. So in this case a
1
horizontal dilation from the y-axis by a factor of 2 is the same as a vertical dilation from the
x-axis by a factor of 8. This can simplify the process of describing transformations for these
particular graphs.
1. Stretches or compresses the graph f (x) by a factor of
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
ChapTer 2 Functions and transformations
57
The concept of dilation is illustrated in the following diagrams:

y
Original graph dilated

from the x-axis
Original graph dilated

from the y-axis
Original graph
ref lection
Reflection provides a mirror image of a graph.
Reflection can take place in one or both axes.
Let the basic graph again be y = f (x).
ref lection in the x-axis: y = f (x)
1. The mirror image of the original graph appears across the x-axis (the mirror line).
2. Each y-value is the negative of the original, the x-value is unchanged, that is (x, y) (x, y).
reflection in the y-axis: y = f ( x)
1. The mirror image of the original graph appears across the y-axis (the mirror line).
2. Each x-value is the negative of the original, the y-value is unchanged, that is (x, y) (x, y).
reflection in both axes: y = f ( x)
1. The basic graph is reflected in the x-axis and then the y-axis (or vice versa).
2. Both the x- and y-values are the negatives of the original, that is (x, y) (x, y).
The concept of reflection is shown in the diagrams below. The red star is the original graph.
y
x
Reflection in the y-axis
Reflection in the x-axis

y
Reflection in both axes
Translation: y = f (x b) + c
A translation slides the graph. Translation can be horizontal (to the right or left along the x-axis), or
vertical (up or down along the y-axis).
Consider our basic graph y = f (x).
1. If y = f (x b) the basic graph is translated b units parallel to the x-axis:
(a) in the positive direction (i.e. to the right) when b > 0
(b) in the negative direction (i.e. to the left) when b < 0.
Each x-value has b added to it, that is (x, y) (x + b, y).
2. If y = f (x) + c, the basic graph is translated c units parallel to the y-axis:
(a) in the positive direction (i.e. up) when c > 0
(b) in the negative direction (i.e. down) when c < 0.
Each y-value has c added to it, that is (x, y) (x, y + c).
58
3. If y = f (x b) + c the basic graph is translated both horizontally and vertically.

y
x
x
Original graph
x
Vertical translation up
y
Vertical translation down
Horizontal translation
to the left
to the right
Naturally, the graph can be subject to a combination of two or more transformations.
Combination of transformations
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Spreadsheet
Transformations
When describing transformations that have been applied to a basic graph f (x), it is best to put the graph
into the format y = af (x b) + c. The order of transformations is important as dilations and reflections
are applied before translations, so ensure that you describe the transformations in this order (remember
D-R-T).
In this chapter we shall consider graphs, derived from basic curves, using single transformations
dilations, reflections or translations as well as combinations of those.
Modelling of data will also be considered.
Units: 3 & 4
The quadratic function in power form

The graph of y = x2 is a parabola with the turning point at the origin. The
domain of the function is R and the range is R+ {0}.
Throughout this section we refer to the graph of y = x2 as the basic parabola.
Let us now consider the effect of various transformations on the graph of this
basic parabola.
Quadratic functions are also power functions. Power functions are functions
of the form f (x) = xn, n R. The value of the power, n, determines the type of
function. When n = 1, f (x) = x, and the function is linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x2
and the function is quadratic. Other power functions will be discussed later.
Under a sequence of transformations of f (x) = xn, n R, the general form
of a power function, is f (x) = a(x b)n + c (where a, b, c and n R). All linear
and quadratic polynomials are also linear and quadratic power functions,
because all linear and quadratic functions are transformations of f (x) = x and
f (x) = x2, respectively.
When a quadratic function is written in turning point form it is written in
power form. For example, the quadratic function y = x2 + 4x + 6 can also be
represented as the power function y = (x + 2)2 + 2.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
a=2
a=1 1
a = 2
y = ax2
dilation
In power form, a is the dilation factor. It dilates the graph in the y direction. The larger | a | is, the thinner
the graph of the parabola. If | a | is a proper fraction, that is, 0 < | a | < 1, the graph is wider than the basic
parabola.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
59
reflection
If a is negative, the graph of the basic parabola is reflected in the x-axis,
that is, the graph is flipped upside down.
If x is replaced with x, the graph of the basic parabola is reflected in
the y-axis, that is, the graph is flipped sideways. Due to its symmetry,
this effect cannot be seen on the basic parabola, but it is more obvious
with a parabola that has already been translated. For example, the graphs
of y = (x 3)2 and y = (x 3)2 are reflections of each other across the
y-axis.
y = ( x 3)2 y
y = (x 3)2
(0, 9)
(3, 0)0 (3, 0)
Translation
horizontal translation
If b > 0, the graph of the basic parabola is translated horizontally to the right,
and if b < 0, the graph of the basic parabola is translated horizontally to the left.
For example, a graph with the equation y = (x 2)2 is a basic parabola that has
been translated 2 units to the right, and a graph with the equation y = (x + 3)2 is
a basic parabola that has been translated 3 units to the left.
If the coefficient of x is not 1, the equation must be rewritten in the form
y = a(x b)2 + c in order to be able to work out the value of b.
For example, y = (4x + 3)2 is translated 43 of a unit to the left, since
y
b=
0
3
2
y = (x b)
y = (4 x + 3)2
3
= [4( x + 4 )]2
3
= 16( x + 4 )2
c=2
c = 1
Vertical translation
If c > 0, the graph is translated vertically upward, and if c < 0, the graph is
translated vertically downward. For example, the graph with equation
y = x2 + 2 is a basic parabola that has been translated 2 units up, and the graph
with equation y = x2 1 is a basic parabola that has been translated 1 unit down.
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Spreadsheet
The quadratic function
in power form
b=2
The graph of y = a(x b)2 + c shows the combination of the transformations shown
above.
The turning point of the graph is (b, c).
The domain of the parabola is R and the range is [c, ) if a > 0 or [, c) if a < 0.
x
0
1 y = x2 + c
y y = a(x b)2 + c
(b, c)
0
Worked example 1
State the changes required to transform the graph of y = x2 into the graph of y = 2(x + 3)2 4.
Think
60
WriTe
Write the general formula for the parabola.
y = a(x b)2 + c
Identify the value of a.
a=2
State the effect of a on the graph.
The graph of y = x2 is dilated by the factor

of 2 from the x-axis.
Identify the value of b.
b = 3
State the effect of b on the graph.
The graph is translated 3 units to the left.
Identify the value of c.
c = 4
State the effect of c on the graph.
The graph is translated 4 units down.
We can use transformations to find the equation of the function from its graph by first examining the
new position of the turning point.
Worked example 2
Use transformations to find the equation of this function.
(4, 2)
0
Think
WriTe
Write the general formula of the parabola.
y = a(x b)2 + c
From the graph state the horizontal translation

and hence the value of b.
Translated 4 units to the right, so b = 4.
From the graph, state the vertical translation and

hence the value of c.
Translated 2 units up, so c = 2.
Substitute the values of b and c into the general

formula.
y = a(x 4)2 + 2
The graph of the parabola passes through the origin. Using (0, 0):
Substitute x = 0 and y = 0 into the formula.
0 = a(0 4)2 + 2
Solve for a, which is the dilation factor.
0 = 16a + 2
16a = 2
2
16
= 81
a=
Substitute the value of a into y = a(x 4)2 + 2

and write your answer.
The equation of the parabola shown is:

y = 81 ( x 4)2 + 2
Worked example 3
Given the equation y = kx2, determine the effect on the graph y = x2, when k = {2, 3, 4}.
Sketch the graphs.
Think
1
Sketch the graph of y = x2.
WriTe/draW
y
30
20
10
3 2 1 0
On the same set of axes as you used in step 1

sketch the graphs of y = 2x2, 3x2, 4x2
y
30
20
10
3 2 1 0
Answer the question by describing the changes

in words.
y = x2
1 2 3 x
y = 4x2
y = 3x2
y = 2x2
y = x2
1 2 3 x
As the value of k increases the graph becomes

thinner and stretches away from the x-axis.
61
exercise 2a
State the changes required to transform the graph of y = x2 into the graph of each of the
following.
1 We1
a y = 2x2
b y = 13 x 2
c y = 3x2
d y = x2 6
y = (x 2)2
e y = 1 x2
2
g y = (x + 3)2
h y = 2(3 x)2
y = (x + 2)2 1
k y = 1 2(3 + x)2
y = (x 0.5)2 + 2
y = 3(2 x 3)2 4
2 mC The equation of a parabola is given by
being:
a translated further to the left
C thinner
e reflected in the y-axis
1
(2 x)
x )2 + 3. Increasing m will result in the graph
m
b translated further up
d wider
iii
3 Match the graphs of the parabolas with the following equations.

a y = x2 + 2
b y = 2(x 2)2
c y = 2 (x + 2)2
ii
y = x2
d y = (2 xx)2
2
e y = (2 + x)2 + 2
0
2
4 We2 Use transformations to find the equation of each function.

a
(2, 2)
y
0
(1, 2)
c
(1, 3)
y
4
2 x
(2, 4)
5 mC The equation of the graph shown opposite is best given by:
y
d
b
a y = (x c)2 + d
b y = c (x b)2
C y = (x + c)2 + b
d y = (c x)2 + d
a0
e y = d (x c)2
6 Find the equation of the image of y = x2 under each of the following transformations:
a dilation by the factor of
b
c
d
e
62
1
2
from the x-axis
a reflection in the x-axis

a translation by 2 units to the right and 1 unit down
a dilation by the factor of 3 from the x-axis, followed by translation of 2 units down
a reflection in the x-axis, followed by translation of 3 units to the left.
iv
7 Find the equations of these graphs.

a
b
y
0
1
x
1 0
4
d
y
2
x
0 2
y
8
9
6
0
2 2
0 x
8 We3 Find the equation of y = x2 under the following sequential transformations (in order):
a dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis
b reflection in the x-axis
c translation of 1 parallel to the x-axis
d translation of 3 parallel to the y-axis.
9 Find the image of the point (x, y) under each of the following transformations:
a reflection in the y-axis
b reflection in the x-axis
c dilation by a factor of 3 from the x-axis
d dilation by a factor of 2 from the y-axis
1
e dilation by a factor of 3 from the y-axis
f translation of 2 units horizontally in the positive direction
g translation of 1 unit parallel to the y-axis.
10
The parabola has a turning point at (z, 8); it intersects the y-axis at y = 10 and one of the
x-intercepts is x = 5. Find:
a the value of z
b the equation of the parabola.
Units: 3 & 4
11 For the parabola whose range is y 3, whose x-coordinate of the turning point is 4 and whose
1
y-intercept is y = 2 3 , find:
a the y-coordinate of the turning point
b the equation of the parabola
c the coordinates of the x-intercepts.
12 The design shown in the diagram at right can be obtained by taking the red
3
3
4
2 0
1
2
2
Topic:
Concept:
The graph of the function y = x3 is shown at right: Both the domain and range of
the function are R. The function is constantly increasing and has a stationary point
of inflection (where the gradient is 0) at the origin (0, 0).
Throughout this section we shall refer to the shape of the graph of y = x3 as a
positive cubic, or a basic cubic curve.
Cubic functions are also power functions. Power functions are functions of the
form f (x) = xn, n R. The value of the power, n, determines the type of function.
When n = 1, f (x) = x and the function is linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x2 and the
function is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3 and the function is cubic. When n = 4,
f (x) = x4 and the function is quartic. Other power functions will be discussed later.
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
portion of the parabola and transforming it to form each of the other

9 fragments. (One or more transformations may be used to form each
fragment.) If the highlighted fragment is given by f (x), 2 x 2, define the
other 9 fragments in terms of f (x) and specify their domains.
2b
AOS:
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
63
Under a sequence of transformations of f (x) = x n, n R, the general form of a power function is

f (x) = a(x b)n + c (where a, b, c and n R). All linear and quadratic polynomials are also linear
and quadratic power functions, but this is not the case for cubic functions (or quartic functions). For
example, a cubic power function in the form f (x) = a(x b)3 + c has exactly one x-intercept and one
stationary point of inflection. A cubic polynomial in the form f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d can have one,
two or three x-intercepts and is therefore not a power function.
All cubic power functions are also cubic polynomials, but not all cubic polynomials are cubic power
functions. For example, the cubic function y = 2(x 3)3 + 1 is a polynomial and a power function. It is
the graph of y = x3 under a sequence of transformations.
a=2
y
a=1
a = 12
dilation
The value a is the dilation factor; it dilates the graph from the x-axis. The
larger a is, the thinner the graph.
y = ax3
reflection
diGiTal doC
doc-9170
Spreadsheet
Cubic function
y = a(x b)3 + c
y = (x 1)3 y
If a is negative, the graph of the basic cubic is reflected in the x-axis,

that is, the graph is flipped upside down.
If x is replaced with x, the graph of the basic cubic is reflected in the
y-axis, that is, the graph is flipped sideways. For example, the graphs
y = (x 1)3 and y = (x 1)3 are reflections of each other across the
y-axis.
(1, 0) 0
y = (x 1)3
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
Translation
If b > 0, the graph of the basic cubic is translated horizontally to the right, and
if b < 0, the graph of the basic cubic is translated horizontally to the left. For
example, the graph with equation y = (x 2)3 is a basic cubic translated 2 units
to the right, and the graph of y = (x + 3)3 is a basic cubic, translated 3 units to
the left, that is, parallel to the x-axis in the negative direction.
If the coefficient of x is not 1, the equation must be rewritten in the form
y = a(x b)3 + c in order to be able to work out the value of b. For example,
the graph of y = (2x 5)3 is translated 52 units to the right, since y = (2x 5)3
b = 3
b=2
y = (x b)3
= [2(
[2( x 52 )]3
= 8( x 52 )3
The value of c translates the graph vertically or along the y-axis. If c > 0, the
graph is translated vertically up, and if c < 0, the graph is translated vertically
down.
The coordinates of the stationary point of inflection are (b, c).
For example, if y = x3 is translated 1 unit up, the equation of the resulting
graph is y = x3 + 1 and the point of inflection is (0, 1); if it is translated
2 units down, the equation of the resulting graph is y = x3 2 and the point of
inflection is (0, 2).
The graph of y = a(x b)3 + c shows the combination of the transformations
described above.
Finally, the domain and range of y = a(x b)3 + c are R (all real numbers).
64
c=1
c = 2
x
0
2
y = x3 + c
y = a(x b)3 + c
(b, c)
0
Worked example 4
State the changes necessary to transform the graph of y = x3 into the graph of y = 2(x + 1)3 4.
Think
WriTe
Write the general equation of the cubic function.
y = a(x b)3 + c
a=2
The graph is dilated by the factor of

2 in the y direction.
b = 1
The graph is translated 1 unit to the left.
c = 4
The graph is translated 4 units down.
Worked example 5
For each of the following graphs:

i state the coordinates of the stationary point of inflection
ii find the x- and y-intercepts
iii sketch the graph
iv state the transformations that the graph of y = x3 has undergone to form each new equation.
a y = (x + 3)3 1
b y = (4 x)3 + 6
Think
a Write the equation.

i Since the rule is of the form y = a(x b)3 + c,
identify the values of b and c and hence write the

coordinates of the stationary point of inflection (b, c).
WriTe/draW
y = (x + 3)3 1
i b = 3, c = 1
Stationary point of inflection:
(3, 1)
ii Find the y-intercept by letting x = 0.
ii y-intercept: x = 0,
iii To sketch the graph on a set of labelled axes, mark the
iii
Find the x-intercept by letting y = 0.
stationary point of inflection and the x- and y-intercepts,

then sketch the positive cubic passing through the points
marked.
iv State the kind of reflection and the vertical and
horizontal translations.
y = (0 + 3)3 1
= 27 1
= 28
x-intercept: y = 0
(x + 3)3 1 = 0
(x + 3)3 = 1
x + 3 = 1
x = 4
y
(4, 0)
0
(3, 1)
iv The graph is reflected in the x-axis.
There is a horizontal translation

of 3 units to the left and a vertical
translation of 1 unit down.
65
b Write the equation.
y = (4 x)3 + 6
i Since the rule is of the form y = a(x b)3 + c,
i b = 4, c = 6
identify the values of b and c and hence write

the coordinates of the stationary point of
inflection (b, c).
Stationary point of inflection: (4, 6)
ii Find the y-intercept by letting x = 0.
ii y-intercept: x = 0,

Note: Do not round off until the very last step;
for graphing purposes, round off your final
answer to 1 decimal place.
y = (4 0)3 + 6
= 64 + 6 = 70
x-intercept: y = 0
(4 x)3 + 6 = 0
(4 x)3 = 6
4 x = 3 6
4 3 6 = x
x 5.8
iii To sketch the graph on a set of labelled axes,
iii
mark the stationary point of inflection and the

x- and y-intercepts, then sketch the positive
cubic passing through the points marked.
y
(4, 6)
0
iv State the kind of reflection and the vertical
(5.8, 0)
iv The graph is reflected in the y-axis. There is
and horizontal translations.
a horizontal translation of 4 units to the right

and a vertical translation of 6 units up.
To find the equation of the curve from a given graph, we need to establish exactly what transformations
were applied to the basic cubic curve. This is best done by observing the shape of the graph and the
position of the stationary point of inflection.
Worked example 6
Find the equation of the curve, if it is of the form y = a(x b)3 + c.
y
5
3
0
Think
66
WriTe
Write the general equation of the cubic function.
y = a(x b)3 + c
Write the coordinates of the stationary point of

inflection (b, c) and hence state the values of b and c.
The stationary point of inflection is

(1, 3). So b = 1, c = 3.
Substitute the values of b and c into the general formula.
y = a(x 1)3 + 3
The graph passes through the point (0, 5) (y-intercept).

Substitute the coordinates of this point into the equation.
Using (0, 5):

5 = a(0 1)3 + 3
Solve this equation.
2 = a (1)
=a
Write the solution for the equation.
a = 2
Substitute the value of a into y = a(x 1)3 + 3.
y = 2(x 1)3 + 3
exercise 2b
State the changes necessary to transform the graph of y = x3 into the graph of each of the
following.
a y = 7x3
b y = 2 x3
c y = x3 + 4
1 We4
d y = 6 x3
g y = 4(2 x)3
j
2
y = 6 2 ( x 1)3
e y = (x 1)3
h y = 6(7 x)3
f
i
y = (x + 3)3
y = 3(x + 3)3 2
k y = 1 (2 x + 5)3
4
y = 3 2(4 + 2 xx)3
Which of these transformations were applied to the graph of y = x3 to obtain each of the graphs
below?
i reflection in the x-axis
ii translation to the left
iii translation to the right
iv translation up
v translation down
a
0
x
0
d
0
e
3 We5 For each of the following graphs:

i find the stationary point of inflection
ii find the x- and y-intercepts
iii state the transformation(s) that the graph y = x3 has undergone to produce the given graph
iv sketch the graph.
3
y = 1 2x3
y = 3 x3 6
y = 2(x 4)3
y=
y = 4(1 x)3
y = (x 1)3 + 2
y = 3 (x + 2)3
y = 2(x + 1)3 6
y = 4 x3
( x 2)3
diGiTal doC
doc-9176
Spreadsheet
Function grapher
Questions 4 to 6 refer to the function y = 2(mx 4)3 3.

4 mC The coordinates of the stationary point of inflection are:
4
,3
m
4
d , 3m 3
m
(4m, 3)
4 , 3
4 3
,
m m
5 mC The graph of y = x3 is dilated in the y direction by the factor of:

a
2
m
2m
2
m3
2m3
6 mC If m > 1, increasing m will cause the graph to become:

a wider
b thinner and translated not as far to the right
C shifted further to the left
d shifted further to the right
e shifted further down
67
7 Find the equation of the graph resulting from each of the following transformations of the graph of y = x3:
a a dilation by the factor of 12 from the x-axis
b a reflection in the x-axis and a translation by 5 units to the left
c a translation by 3 units to the right and 1 unit down
d a dilation from the x-axis by the factor of 2, followed by the vertical translation of 3 units
e a reflection in the x-axis, then a translation of 1 unit to the left and 1 unit down.
8 Find the equation of the graph resulting from the following sequential transformations of the graph
of y = x3:
a dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis
b reflection in the y-axis
c translation of 2 in the positive direction parallel to the x-axis
d translation of 1 in the negative direction parallel to the y-axis.
9 We6 Find the equations of these curves, if they are of the form y = a(x b)3 + c.
a
(1, 2)
(1, 1)
1
0
d
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact with
transformations of
the hyperbola.
x
e
12
1 1 0
2
10 mC The graph of y = 2(x + 3)3 + 1 has been reflected in the x-axis, shifted 3 units to the right and
1 unit up. The equation of the resulting graph is:

a y = 2(3 x)3 + 2
b y = 2(x + 2)3 + 2
C y = 2(2 x)3
d y = 2(x 3)3 + 1
e y = 2x3
11 The graph of a cubic function of the form y = a(x b)3 + c has a stationary point of inflection at
(1, 4) and cuts the y-axis at y = 2. Find the equation of the function.
12
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Do more
Interact with
transformations of
the truncus.
68
The graph of y = a(b x)3 + c has a stationary point of inflection at (2, 1) and passes through the
)
point (1,, 12 ).
a Find the equation of the curve.
b State the shape of the curve (that is, whether it is positive or negative cubic).
2C
1
y
The graph shown at right is called a hyperbola and is given by the equation y = .
x
n, n R. The value of
Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = x
the power, n, determines the type of function. We saw earlier that when
y=0
n = 1, f (x) = x and the function is linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x2 and the function
x
0
is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3 and the function is cubic. When n = 4,
4 and the function is quartic.
f (x) = x
The power function that produces the graph of a hyperbola has a value of
1
x=0
n = 1. Thus, the function f ( x ) = can also be expressed as the power function
1
x
f (x) = x .
The graph exhibits asymptotic behaviour. That is, as x becomes very large positive or negative,
the graph approaches the x-axis, but never touches it, and as x becomes very small positive or negative
(i.e. approaches 0), the graph approaches the y-axis, but never touches it. So the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is
a vertical asymptote and the line y = 0 (the x-axis) is the horizontal asymptote. Both the domain and the
range of the function are all real numbers, except 0; that is, R\{0}.
1
The graph of y = can be subject to a number of transformations.
y
x
a
+ c or y = a(x b)1 + c.
Consider y =
a=2
xb
a=1
a = 12
x
y=0
dilation
The value a is a dilation factor. It dilates the graph from the x-axis.
x=0
y = ax
reflection
x = 3
If a is negative, the graph of the basic hyperbola is reflected

in the x-axis. If x is replaced with x, the graph of the basic
hyperbola is reflected in the y-axis.
1
1
and y =
For example, the graphs of y =
x3
x3
are reflections of each other across the y-axis.
y=
x=3
y = x 1 3
1
3
x
y=0
(0, 13 )
Translation
The value b translates the graph b units horizontally, that is, parallel to the x-axis. If b > 0, the graph is
translated to the right, and if b < 0, the graph is translated to the left. For example, the graph with
1
is a basic hyperbola translated 3 units to the right. This graph has a vertical asymptote
equation y =
x3
of x = 3 and domain R\{3} (and a horizontal asymptote y = 0). If a basic hyperbola is translated 3 units
1
, with a vertical asymptote of x = 3 and domain R\{3}. Hence, the
to the left, it becomes y =
x+3
equation of the vertical asymptote is x = b and the domain is R\{b}. The horizontal asymptote and the
range remain the same, x = 0 and R\{0}, respectively.
The value c translates the graph c units vertically, that is, parallel to the y-axis. If c > 0, the graph is
translated upward, and if c < 0, the graph is translated c units downward. The graph with equation
1
y = + 3 is a basic hyperbola translated 3 units up. This graph has a horizontal asymptote of y = 3 and
x
a range of R\{3} (and a vertical asymptote x = 0). If a basic hyperbola istranslated 3 units down, it
1
becomes y = 3, with a horizontal asymptote of y = 3 and a range of R\{3} (and a vertical asymptote
x
x = 0). Hence the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = c and the range is R\{c}.
Always draw the asymptote as a dotted line and label it with its equation (for example, y = 3) at the
end of the asymptote. Ensure that the graph continues to approach the asymptote getting closer but not
touching or crossing the asymptote or bouncing away from the asymptote.
The graph of y =
a
+ c shows the combination of these transformations.
xb
y
y = x
c
b+
y=c
diGiTal doC
doc-9177
Spreadsheet
The hyperbola
c
0
x=b
69
Finally, if the coefficient of x is a number other than 1, to obtain the value of h the equation should be
rearranged first. For example,
4
4
.
y=
=
3 x + 6 3( x + 2)
Therefore, b = 2 (not 6 as it may seem at first); that is, the graph is translated 2 units to the left.
Worked example 7
1
State the changes that should be made to the graph of y = in order to obtain the graph of
x
4
y=
1.
x+2
Think
WriTe
a
+c
xb
Write the general equation of the hyperbola.
y=
a = 4
1
State the changes to y = x , caused by a.
1
The graph of y = x is dilated by the
factor of 4 from the x-axis and reflected in
the x-axis.
b = 2
c = 1
State the changes to the graph, caused by c.
The graph is translated 1 unit down.
Worked example 8
2
+ 2, state:
x3
a the quations
e
of theas
ymptotes
c the range.
For the graph of y =
b the domain
Think
a 1 Write the general equation of the hyperbola.

2
Identify the values of b and c and hence write the

equations of the asymptotes:
Horizontal asymptote: y = c
Vertical asymptote: x = b
WriTe
a y=
a
+c
xb
b = 3, c = 2
Horizontal asymptote: y = 2
Vertical asymptote: x = 3
b State the domain of the hyperbola: R\{b}.
b Domain: R\{3}
c State the range of the hyperbola: R\{c}.
c Range: R\{2}
Sketching the graph of the hyperbola by hand can be easily done by following these steps:
1. Find the position of the asymptotes.
2. Find the values of the x- and y-intercepts.
3. Decide which quadrants the hyperbola is in depending on whether a > 0 or a < 0.
4. On the set of axes draw the asymptotes (using dotted lines) and mark the intercepts.
5. Treating the asymptotes as the new set of axes, sketch either the positive or negative hyperbola,
making sure it passes through the intercepts that have been previously marked.
70
Worked example 9
2 4
, clearly showing the intercepts with the axes
x+2
and the position of the asymptotes.
Sketch the graph of y =
Think
1
TUTorial
eles-1197
Worked example 9
WriTe/draW
a
+ c and state
Compare the given equation with y =
xb
the values of a, b and c.
a = 2, b = 2,
c = 4
1
is dilated by the
x
factor of 2 from the x-axis, translated
2 units to the left and 4 units
down.
Write a short statement about the effects

1
of a, b and c on the graph of y = .
x
The graph of y =
Write the equations of the asymptotes.

The horizontal asymptote is at y = c.
The vertical asymptote is at x = b.
Asymptotes: x = 2; y = 4
Find the value of the y-intercept by letting x = 0.
y-intercept: x = 0
2
y=
4
0+2
= 1 4
= 3
Point (0, 3)
Find the value of the x-intercept by making y = 0.
x-intercept: y = 0
2
0=
4
x+2
2
=4
x+2
2 = 4(
4( x + 2)
= 4x + 8
4x = 2 8
= 6
x=
=
Point
6
6
4
3
2
3
2,0
To sketch the graph:

(a) Draw the set of axes and label them.
(b) Use dotted lines to draw the asymptotes. The
asymptotes are x = 2 and y = 4.
(c) Mark the intercepts with the axes. The intercepts are
y = 3 and x = 3 .
y
( 32 ,
0)
0
(0, 3)
(d) Treating the asymptotes as your new set of axes,

sketch the graph of the hyperbola (as a is positive, the
graph is not reflected); make sure the upper branch
passes through the x- and y-intercepts previously
marked.
x
y = 4
x = 2
The next example shows how to find the equation of the hyperbola from its graph.
71
Worked example 10
Find the equation of the graph shown.
6
3
0 2
Think
WriTe
a
+c
xb
Write the general equation of the hyperbola.
y=
From the graph, identify the values of b and c

Remember that the equation of the horizontal
asymptote is y = c and of the vertical asymptote is
x = b.
b = 2,
Substitute the values of b and c into the formula.
y=
Substitute the coordinates of any of the 2 known

points of intersection with the axes into the formula
(say, the x-intercept).
Substitute (4, 0):

a
0=
+3
42
Solve for a.
0=
c=3
a
+3
x2
a
+3
2
a
= 3
2
a = 6
6
Substitute the value of a into y =
Re-order terms (optional).
exercise 2C
a
+ 3.
x2
y=
x2
y = 3
+3
6
x2
1
State the changes that should be made to the graph of y = in order to obtain the graph of
x
each of the following.
1 We 7
a y=
2
x
b y=
c y=
1
x6
d y=
2
x+4
e y=
1
+7
x
y=
2
5
x
g y=
1
3
4+x
h y=
72
y=
x 1
2
+6
x3
1
Which of the following transformations were applied to the graph of y = to obtain each
x
of the graphs shown below?
i translation to the right
ii translation to the left
iii translation up
iv translation down
v reflection in the x-axis
a
3 We8 For each of the following, state:

i the equations of the asymptotes
2
ii the domain
1
x
x+6
2
3
d y=
e y= +4
3 x
x
4
5
g y=
2
h y=
+1
x+6
2 x
4 For each of the following graphs, state:
ii the dom
ain
a y=
b y=
iii the range.

c y=
x2
1
f y=
5
x
1
i y=
m
n+x
iii the range.

c
y
2
y
1
0
2
0
n
0
a
m
73
5 On the same set of axes sketch the graphs of y =

diGiTal doC
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Spreadsheet
Function grapher
4
1
2
3
, y=
, y = and y =
.
x
3x
x
3x
6 We9 Sketch each of the following, clearly showing the position of the asymptotes and the intercepts
with the axes. Check your answers, using a CAS calculator.

1
1
a y=
b y=
1
x+3
x+2
2
6
d y=
e y=
3
1 x
x+5
1
2
4
g y = 1
h y= +
2 x
5 1+ x
x+3
2
j y=
1
k y=
3 4x
x2
y=
y=
i
l
3
3
x 1 4
3
+6
x2
1
y=
+4
2x + 3
4x + 3
y=
x 1
7 mC The equation of the graph shown is likely to be:
1
x4
1
C y = 3
4x
a
1
+4
x3
1
d y=
3
4x
y = 3+
y=
3
0
1
y = 3
x4
8 mC Which of the following is a true statement for the graph of y =

a
b
C
d
e
The domain is R\{1}.

The range is R\{3}.
The equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = 3.
The equation of the vertical asymptote is x = 2.
None of the above.
2
3?
x +1
9 We10 Find the equation for each of the following hyperbolas, if they are of the form y =
a
4
1
10
diGiTal doCS
doc-9178
WorkSHEET 2.1
History of mathematics
doc-9179
The history of some
major curves
74
If a function is given by f ( x ) =
and the intercepts with the axes.
a f (x + 2)
d f (1 x) + 2
y
2
112
0
34
y
5
3 4
1
1
1
, sketch each of the following, labelling the asymptotes
x
b f (x) 1
e f (x 1) 1
11 Sketch the graph of yx 3x + 1 = 0, and state its domain and range.
(Hint: First transpose the equation to make y the subject.)
a
+ c.
xb
c f (x) 2
f 1 f (x 2)
2d
The graph shown at right is known as a truncus. The equation of the

graph is given by:
Units: 3 & 4
y = 12
x
Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n R. The value
y=0
x
0
of the power, n, determines the type of function. We saw earlier that when
2 and the
n = 1, f (x) = x and the function is linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x
x=0
function is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3 and the function is cubic.
4 and the function is quartic. When n = 1, f (x) = x1
When n = 4, f (x) = x
and the power function produces the graph of a hyperbola.
The power function that produces the graph of a truncus has a value of n = 2. Thus, the function
f ( x ) = 12 can also be expressed as the power function f (x) = x2.
x
The function is undefined for x = 0. Hence, the equation of the vertical asymptote is x = 0 and the
domain of the function is R\{0}.
We can also observe that the graph approaches the x-axis very closely, but never touches it. So y = 0 is
the horizontal asymptote.
Since the whole graph of the truncus is above the x-axis, its range is R+ (that is, all positive real
numbers).
Similar to the graphs of the functions, discussed in the previous sections, the graph of y = 12 can
x
undergo various transformations.
a
+ c , or y = a(x b)2 + c.
Consider the general formula y =
( x b) 2
dilation
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
The value a is the dilation factor. It dilates the graph from the x-axis.
The dilation factor does not affect the domain, range or asymptotes.
y=0
a=3
a=2
x
x=0
reflection
If a is negative, the graph of a basic truncus is reflected in

the x-axis. The range becomes R (that is, all negative real
numbers).
a
y = 2
x
y = 12
x
y=0
y = 12
x=0
y
x,
the graph of the basic truncus is

If x is replaced with
reflected in the y-axis. The effect of this reflection
1
1
, but
cannot be seen in the basic graph, since 2 =
x
( x )2
it becomes more obvious if the graph has been translated
1
horizontally first. For example, the graphs of y =
(
x
3)2
1
are reflections across the y-axis.
and y =
( x 3)2
The vertical asymptote changes from x = 3 to x = 3 and
the domain changes from R \{3} to R \{3}.
1
( x 3)2
1
y=
( x 3)2
y=
y=0
x = 3
x=3
75
Translation
y
The value b translates the graph b units horizontally. If b > 0, the
graph is translated to the right, and if b < 0, the graph is translated
1
b = 2
b=3
left. For example, the graph of the equation y =
results from
2
( x 3)
y=0
translating a basic truncus 3 units to the right. The vertical asymptote
x
2 0
3
is x = 3 and the domain is R \{3}. If a basic truncus is translated
1
y =
1
(x b)2
2 units to the left, it becomes y =
,
where
the
vertical
( x + 2)2
asymptote is x = 2 and the domain is R \{2}. Hence, the equation of the vertical asymptote is x = b and
the domain is R \{b}. The range is still R+ and the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
The value c translates the graph c units vertically. If c > 0 the graph is translated upward, and if c < 0,
1
the graph is translated c units downward. For example, the graph with equation y =
+ 1 results when
x2
a basic truncus is translated 1 unit upward. The horizontal asymptote is y = 1 and the range is (1, ). If
1
a basic truncus is translated 1 unit down, it becomes y =
1, with y = 1 as the horizontal asymptote
2
x
and (1, ) as the range. Hence the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = c and the range
is (c, ).
y
y =
+c
x2
c=1
y=1
c = 1 x
1
x=0
y = 1
Note: If a is positive (see graph below), the whole graph of the truncus is above the line y = c (the
horizontal asymptote) and hence its range is y > c, (c, ).
If a is negative, the whole graph is below its horizontal asymptote and therefore the range is y < 0,
or (, c).
y
y
y=c
y=c
x
x
The graph of y =
a
+ c shows the combination of these transformations.
( x b) 2
y
y=
a
+ c
(x b)2
y=c
c
0
b
x=b
76
Worked example 11
State the transformations required to change the graph of y =

Think
1
1
1.
into the graph of y =
2
x
( x 2) 2
WriTe
a
+c
( x b) 2
Write the general formula for the truncus.
y=
a = 1
1
The graph of y = 2 is reflected in the
x
x-axis.
b=2
The graph is translated 2 units to the right.
c = 1
Worked example 12
2
4 , state:
(3 + x) 2
a the equations of the asymptotes
For the function y =
b the
dom
ain
Think
a 1 Write the general formula for the truncus.
c the range.
WriTe
a y=
a
+c
( x b) 2
Write the general equations of the asymptotes.
Vertical asymptote: x = b
Horizontal asymptote: y = c
Identify the values of b and c.
b = 3, c = 4
State the equations of the asymptotes by

substituting the values of b and c into
corresponding formulas.
Asymptotes: x = 3 and y = 4
b Write the domain of the truncus, which is R\{b}.
b Domain: R\{3}
c 1 Check whether a is positive or negative.
c a>0
Write the range (which for a > 0 is y > c).
Range: y > 4
a
+ c, then compare the given equation
( x b) 2
1
with the general formula to see what changes should be made to the basic curve (the graph of y = 2 ) to
x
transform it to the one you want. This should give you an idea of how the graph will look.
The following algorithm can then be used:
1. Find the position of the asymptotes.
2. Find the intercepts with the axes.
3. On the set of axes, draw the asymptotes (using
dotted lines), label with the equation and mark the
x- and y-intercepts.
4. Treating the asymptotes as the new set of axes,
a>0
a<0
sketch the basic truncus curve.
5. Make sure the curve passes through the points marked on the axes.
To sketch the graph of a truncus, first put it in the form y =
77
Worked example 13
Sketch the graph of y = 2
1
, clearly showing the position of the asymptotes and the
( x + 1) 2
intercepts with the axes (correct to 1 decimal place).

Think
WriTe/draW
a
+c
( x b) 2
Write the general formula for the truncus.
y=
Identify the values of a, b and c.
a = 1,
Write a short statement about the transformations

1
the graph of y = 2 should undergo in order to be
x
changed into the one in question.
1
is reflected in the
x2
x-axis, translated 1 unit to the left and
2 units up.
Write the equations of the asymptotes

(y = c and x = b).
Asymptotes: x = 1 and y = 2
Find the x-intercept (round off to 1 decimal place).
x-intercept: y = 0
b = 1,
c=2
The graph of y =
0 = 2
1
( x + 1)2
1
=2
( x + 1)2
( x + 1)
1)2 = 12
x +1 =
x=
1
2
1
2
1
x = 12 1 or x =
2 1
0.3
1.7
y-intercept: x = 0
1
(0 + 1)2
= 2 1
=1
y = 2
To sketch the graph: draw the set of axes and label

them; use dotted lines to draw asymptotes; mark the
x- and y-intercepts; treating the asymptotes as the
new set of axes, draw the basic truncus curve upside
down (since a is negative); make sure it intersects
the axes in the right places.
y=2
(0, 1)
0
(1.7, 0)
(0.3, 0)
x = 1
In the above example we have considered sketching the graph from the given equation. Sometimes
the opposite task is required; that is, the equation of the function should be established from its
graph.
78
Worked example 14
Find the equation of the curve shown in this diagram.
x=2
12
Think
WriTe
a
+c
( x b) 2
Write the general equation of the truncus.
y=
1
Compared to y = 2 , the graph is shifted 2 units to the
x
right. (There is no shift along the y-axis.)
b = 2 and c = 0
Substitute the values of b and c into the formula.
y=
Substitute the coordinates of the y-intercept into the

formula.
Using (0,, 2 ) :
a
+0
( x 2)2
a
=
( x 2)2
a
2 (00 2)2
a
=
4
1
a = 4 ( 2)
=
Solve for a.
a = 2
Substitute for a in the equation.
y=
exercise 2d
2
( x 2)2
1
State the transformations required to change the graph of y = 2 into the graph of
x
each of the following:
2
3
a y= 2
b y=
x
x2
1
2
c y=
d y=
( x + 2)2
( x 3)2
1 We11
y=
2
+6
x2
e y=
1
x2
h y=
g y = 3
i
y = 5
1
( x + 2)2
(4 + x )2
4
+1
( x 3)2
1
2 mC To obtain the graph shown, the graph of y = 2 was:
x
a reflected in the x-axis and translated 2 units down
b translated 2 units to the left
C reflected in the x-axis and translated 2 units to the left
d reflected in the x-axis and translated 2 units to the right
e reflected in the x-axis and translated 2 units up
x=2
79
3 mC Which of the following translations took place, so that the graph of
1
was changed into the one shown at right?
x2
m units to the left and p units up
m units to the right and p units up
m units to the left and n units up
m units to the right and n units up
m units to the left and n units down
y=
a
b
C
d
e
p
y=n
x
x=m
4 We12 For each of the following state:

ii the domain
iii the range.
a y=
d
y=
g y=
2
x2
b y=
2
( x + 1)2
e y=
4 1
+
5 x2
h y=
c y = ( x 2)2
3x 2
5
(4 + x )2
1 3
2 x2
y=
2
3
x2
y=
2
+4
( x 1)2
Questions 5 to 7 refer to the following diagrams.

i
ii
iii
3
0
iv
3
v
vi
3
3
3
0
5 mC Which of the above functions has the domain R\{3}?

a ii only
d ii, iii and vi
b iii only
e v and vi
C ii and iii
6 mC Which of the above functions has the range y < 3?

a i, ii and iv
d v only
b iii, v and vi
e iii and vi
7 mC Which of the graphs has asymptotes y = 0 and x = 3?

a i
b ii
d iv
e v
C iv only
C iii
8 We13 Sketch each of the following, clearly showing the position of the asymptotes and the intercepts
diGiTal doC
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Spreadsheet
Function grapher
80
with the axes (correct to 1 decimal place where appropriate).

2
1
a y=
b y=
2
( x 3)2
5x
d y=
(x
1)2
e y = 1
4
x2
c y=
2
(4 + x )2
y=
1
3
2x 2
g y=
j
y=
2
(3 + x )2
y=
2
1
+
3 ( x 2)2
1
+3
(2 x )2
y=
4
1
(2 x 4)2
2
2
( x 1)2
h y = 4
3
1
2
4( x + 1)
4
k y=
9 We14 Find the equation for each of the following.

a
y
1
0
34
y = 2
x=0
c
x=2
d
y
1
2
y=1
0
x=
x=
f
2.5
y = 2
x=1
x=4
10
y = 3
y
0
2
y=4
4
1 0
x y=0
Units: 3 & 4
The domain of a truncus is R\{2}; its range is y > 3 and its graph cuts the x-axis at x = 1 and
x = 3. Find the equation of the function.
11 The domain of a truncus is R\{1}; its range is (2, ) and its graph cuts the y-axis at y = 5. Find the
equation of the function.
The square root function

in power form
2e
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
The square root function is given by y = x (or y = x 2 ).

y
Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n R. The value of
the power, n, determines the type of function. We saw earlier that when n = 1,
f (x) = x and the function is linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x2 and the function
is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3 and the function is cubic. When n = 4,
0
f (x) = x4 and the function is quartic. When n = 1, f (x) = x1 and the power
2, f (x) = x2 and the
function produces the graph of a hyperbola. When n =
power function produces the graph of a truncus.
1
The power function that produces the graph of the square root function has a value of n = 2 .
1
x 2.
Thus, the function f ( x ) = x can also be expressed as the power function f ( x ) = f ( x ) =

The function is defined for x 0; that is, the domain is R+ {0}, or [0, ). As can be seen from the
graph, the range of the square root function is also R+ {0}, or [0, ). Throughout this section we
will refer to the graph of y = x as the basic square root curve. Let us now investigate the effects
of various transformations on the basic square root curve. Consider the function y = a x b + c, or
y = a( x b) + c.
1
2
AOS:
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
81
dilation
The value a is a dilation factor; it dilates the graph from the x-axis. The domain is still [0, ).
y
a=3
a=2
a=1
a = 12
y=a x
reflection
If a is negative, the graph of a basic square root curve is reflected in

the x-axis. The range becomes (, 0]. The domain is still [0, ).
y = x
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
(1, 1)
y = x
If x is replaced with x, the graph is reflected in the y-axis.

For example, the graphs with equations y = x and y = x are
reflected across the y-axis. The domain becomes (, 0] and the
range is [0, ).
y
y = x
y = x
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
x
(0, 0)
Translation
The value b translates the graph horizontally. If b > 0, the graph is translated
to the right, and if b < 0, the graph is translated to the left. The graph
with the equation y = x 3 results when the basic curve is translated 3
units to the right. This translated graph has domain [3, ) and range [0, ).
If the basic curve is translated 2 units to the left, it becomes y = x + 2 and
has domain [2, ) and range [0, ). The domain of a square root function
after a translation is given by [b, ).
The value c translates the graph vertically. If c > 0, the graph is translated
vertically up, and if c < 0, the graph is translated vertically down. If y = x
is translated 2 units vertically up, the graph obtained is y = x + 2, with
domain [0, ) and range [2, ). If the basic curve is translated 4 units
down, it becomes y = x 4, with domain [0, ) and range [4, ).
The range of the square root function is [c, ) for a > 0.
b = 2
(2, 0) 0
y
(0, 2)
0
c=2
c = 4
(0, 4)
82
b=3
x
y= xb
The graph of y = a x b + c shows the combination of these transformations.

The point (b, c) is the end point of the square root curve. For example, the
end point of y = x 2 + 1 is (2, 1).
(3, 0)
y= x+c
y=a xb+c
(b, c)
0
It is always good practice to label the end point with its coordinates. Make sure it is an open circle if
the x-value is not in the required domain and a closed circle if its x-value is within the functions domain.
Consider the function y = a b x + c.
y
The graph of y = a x + b + c has (b, c) as its end point. If this
y=a bx +c y=a x+b +c
function is reflected in the y-axis, it
becomes y = a
x
y=a
+ b + c with end point (b, c). The equation
+ b + c can then be rewritten as y = a b x + c.
(b, c)
For example, the graph of y = 2 x + 1 can be rewritten as
y=
(b, c)
x
x + 2 + 1, which has an end point of (2, 1) and bends to the
left. The domain is (, 2] and the range is [1, ). The equation y = x + 2 + 1 results in y =
when it is reflected in the y-axis. The domain changes from [2, ) to (, 2]
+ 2 +1
1 the
and the range remains [1, ). The equation y = 2 x + 3 1 can be rewritten as y = 2( x + 32 ) 1;
domain is [ 2 , ) and the range is [1, ).

Worked example 15
State the transformations required to change y = x to y = 3 x + 5 + 3.

Think
WriTe
Write the general formula for the square root curve.
y = a x b +c
a = 3
The graph is dilated by a factor of 3 from

the x-axis and reflected in the x-axis.
b = 5
c=3
The graph is translated 3 units up.
Worked example 16
For each of the following functions find the domain and range.
a y = 2 x 3 +1
b y = 4 3x + 2 4
Think
c y=
TUTorial
eles-1198
Worked example 16
4 x+2
WriTe
Write the general formula.
y = a xb +c
a 1 Write the question.
a y = 2 x 3 +1
b = 3, c = 1
State the domain x b.
The domain is [3, ).
State the range (y c for a > 0).
The range is [1, ).
b 1 Write the question.
b y = 4 3x + 2 4
Factorise the expression under the square root sign.
y = 4 3( x + 23 ) 4
State the domain.
The domain is [ 3 , ).
83
Identify the value of c and check whether a is positive or

negative.
c = 4, a < 0
State the range.
The range is (, 4].
Write the question.
b = 4, c = 2
Since the function is of the form y = a b x + c, the

domain is x b.
The domain is (, 4].
State the range (y c).
The range is [2, ).
c y=
4 x +2
To sketch the graph of the square root function, we need to

a>0
a>0
compare the given formula with y = a x b + c. This will give
y=a bx+c
y=a xb+c
us an idea of the changes required to transform the basic square
(b, c)
a<0
a<0
root curve into the one we want. It will also let us know the way
the curve will look. The diagram at right illustrates the idea.
Once the coordinates of the end point and the direction of the curve are known, the intercepts with the
axes (if any) should be found before sketching.
Worked example 17
Sketch the graph of y = 2 x 3 + 1, clearly marking intercepts and the end points.
Think
WriTe/draW
Write the equation.
y = 2 x 3 + 1
Write the coordinates of the end point.
End point: (3, 1)
State the shape of the graph.
Shape:
x-intercept: y = 0
0 = 2 x 3 +1
2 x3 =1
x3 =
x3=
=
x=
Find the y-intercept, if there is one.
1
2
1
( 2 )2
1
4
1
34
y-intercept: x = 0
y = 2 0 3 + 1
= 2
3 +1
Does not exist, so there is no

y-intercept.
6
Sketch the graph by plotting the end point, marking the

x-intercept, and drawing the curve so that it starts at the end point
and passes through the x-intercept.
y
1
0
84
(3, 1)
(3 14 , 0)
x
3
Worked example 18
Given f : [0, ) R, where f ( x) = x and g(x) = af (x) + b, where a and b are positive real
constants, consider the effect on g(x) as a and b increase individually.
Think
1
WriTe/draW
Sketch the basic graph of f ( x ) = x on a CAS calculator

using a suitable domain.
y
y = f (x)
0
2
Sketch g(x) = af(x) + b on the same set of axis as used

in step 1 for:
i a = 2, b = 0
y
y = g(x) = 2 f(x)
y = f (x)
x
0
ii a = 2, b = 1
ii
y = 2 f(x) +1
y = 2 f(x)
y = f (x)
y
(0, 1)
0
3
Explore other values for a and b, and write your

description in words.
exercise 2e
As a increases, the graph is dilated away

from the x-axis.
As b in increases, the graph is
translated up parallel to the y-axis.
State the transformations required to change y = x to each of the following.
1 We15
1
3
a y=2 x
b y =
c y = 3 x 1
d y= 2 4+x
e y = x 1
g y = x 4 +3
h y = 62 3+ x
y =
1
2
y = 23 x
2 x + 3
2 For each of the functions in question 1 write the coordinates of the end point.
3 mC The graph shown at right was obtained by translating the graph of y = x : y
a
b
C
d
e
3 units up and 9 units to the right

3 units down and 9 units to the right
9 units up and 3 units to the right
3 units down and 9 units to the right
none of the above
4 mC To obtain the graph in the diagram at right, the graph of y = x was:

a
b
C
d
e
translated 2 units to the right and 4 units up

translated 4 units to the right and 2 units up
translated 2 units to the right, 4 units up and reflected in the x-axis
reflected in the y-axis, translated 4 units up and 2 units to the right
reflected in the x-axis, translated 4 units up and 2 units to the left.
3
0
(2, 4)
0
85
5 We16 Find the domain and range for each of the following functions.
c y = x 3
d y = 4+2 x
y = x 1+3
g y = 2 + x 1
h y = 4 2 2x + 1
y= 3 x 7
k y = 6 + 4 2x
a y = x +1
b y= x3
e y = 5 x
f
j
= 35
3x 4 + 2
Questions 6 to 7 refer to the diagram at right.

6 mC The equation of the graph is of the form:
a y = a x b + c, a > 0
b y = a x b + c, a < 0
C y = a b x + c, a > 0
d y = a b x + c, a < 0
e could be either B or C
7 mC The domain and range (in that order) of the function are:
a (, 2] and (, 2]
b (, 2) and (, 2)
d ( , 2] and ( , 2]
e (, 2] and (, 2]
diGiTal doC
doc-9176
Spreadsheet
Function grapher
y
(2, 2)
0
8 We17 Sketch the graph of each of the following, clearly marking intercepts and end points.
a y= x+2
b y=
d y = x 6 +1
e y= 3+ x +2
y = 12 4 + x
g y = 2x 3
h y = 6 + 3x + 2
y = 2 x 1
1
3
x +3
c y = 2 x
mC The equation of the graph shown at right is:

y
=
2
x 1
a
b y = 22 1 x
C y = x 1 2
Units: 3 & 4
1
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch
a video on the
modulus function.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
86
(1, 2)
d y = x 2 +1
e y = 22 x 1
The graph of y = x was dilated by the factor of 2 from the x-axis and
translated m units to the right and 4 units down. It intersects with the
x-axis at x = 5. Find:
a the value of m
b the equation of the curve.
11 The end point of the square root curve is at (4, 3) and its y-intercept is 9. Sketch the graph of the curve
and hence establish its equation.
10
12 The graph of y = x was dilated by the factor of 4 from the x-axis, reflected in the x-axis, translated
1 unit to the left and p units up. Find:

b the equation of the curve
a the value of p, if the graph cuts the y-axis at y = 4
c the x-intercept
d the domain
e the range.
f Hence, sketch the graph, showing the coordinates of the end points and the intercepts with the axes.
2F
Units: 3 & 4
C (, 2} and {2, +)
9 We18
AOS:
y = 1 2 x
The function f (x) = | x | is called an absolute value function or modulus function.

The domain of this function is R and its range is R+ {0}. Its graph is
symmetrical in the y-axis and has a cusp (a sharp point) at the origin.
The symbol | x | represents the magnitude of x, (that is, the size of x),
regardless of its sign.
x , if x 0
Therefore,
|x| =
x , if x < 0
Compare the graphs of y = x and y = | x |.
For x 0, the graphs of the two functions are
y
identical, while for x < 0 the graph of y = | x | is the
reflection of y = x in the x-axis.
In general, any graph of the form y = |f (x)| is
x
0
called an absolute value function. To sketch the
graph of y = |f (x)|, we need to sketch the graph of
y=x
y = f (x) first and then reflect in the x-axis the portion
of the graph which is below the x-axis.
0
y = |x|
0
y = |x|
Worked example 19
Sketch the graph of y = | x2 1|.

Think
WriTe/draW
We first need to sketch the graph of y = x2 1.

State the shape of this graph.
Let y = x2 1
Shape: positive parabola, translated 1 unit down
State the coordinates of the turning point (note

that it is also the y-intercept).
Turning point: (0, 1)
x-intercept: y = 0
x2 1 = 0
x2 = 1
x= 1
= +1 or 1
Sketch the graph of the parabola (Figure A).
Reflect the portion of the parabola for

1 < x < 1 in the x-axis; mark the new y-intercept
(Figure B).
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(1, 0) x
(1, 0) 0 (1, 0)
(0, 1)
y=
Figure A
|x2
1|
Figure B
Similar to the graphs discussed in the previous sections, the graph of the absolute
value function can be transformed through dilations, translations and
reflections. If y = a| f (x)| + c, a is the dilation factor. It dilates the graph from
the x-axis. The larger a is, the thinner the graph. If a < 0, the graph is reflected
in the x-axis.
The value c translates the graph along the y-axis. If c > 0, the graph
is moved c units up and if c < 0, it is moved c units down.
a=2
a=1
a = 1
c=1
c = 2
1
0
2
x
y = |x| + c
Worked example 20
Sketch the graph of y = |x 2| + 1.

Think
WriTe/draW
Compare the given function with y = a|f (x)| + c,

and write a short comment.
The graph of y = |x 2|
is translated 1 unit up.
To sketch the required shape we first need

to sketch y = x 2 (a straight line). Find the
y-intercept by letting x = 0.
Let y = x 2.
y-intercept: x = 0
y=02
= 2
TUTorial
eles-1199
Worked example 20
87
Sketch the line.
x-intercept: y = 0
x2=0
x=2
y
(2, 0) x
0
(0, 2)
Reflect the portion below the x-axis in the x-axis;

mark the new y-intercept.
y
(0, 2)
0
Move the graph 1 unit up; mark the new y-intercept

and the coordinates of the cusp.
(2, 0)
y
(0, 3)
(2, 1)
0
absolute value functions as hybrid functions

An absolute value expression can be thought of as two separate expressions, depending on whether it is
negative or positive.
|2x + 3| can be written as (2x + 3) or (2x + 3) depending upon the value that x takes.
To determine these particular values of x, we need to solve the two inequalities 2x + 3 0 and
3
3
and x < , respectively.
2x + 3 < 0, giving x
2
2
This gives us a domain for the two expressions above, so we can write a representation for the
absolute value expression as:
3
2 x + 3, where x
2
|2x + 3| =
(2 x + 3), where x < 3
This is a useful process when used to rewrite an absolute value function that is to be graphed, because
it gives us a rule for each part of the graph in the form of a hybrid function. It is also important when
needing to differentiate a function of this type in a later chapter.
Worked example 21
Express f (x) = |5x 4| as a hybrid function, defining the domain of each part
and graphing the function.
Think
1
Break the function into two parts: a negative and

positive part.
Simplify the domain and function for each.
WriTe/draW
TUTorial
eles-1200
Worked example 21
5 x 4, where 5 x 4 0
f ( x ) = | 5x 4 | =
(5 x 4), where 5 x 4 < 0
First function: 5x 4
First domain: 5x 4 0
4
x5
Second function: (5x 4) = 5x + 4

Second domain: 5 x 4 < 0 x <
88
4
5
Rewrite the function in hybrid form with the two rules

with their respective domains.
Graph the two functions for the specific domains.
4
5 x 4, where x
5
f (x) =
5 x + 4, where x < 4
5
y
5
4 (0, 4)
3
2
1
2
exercise 2F
f(x) = | 5x 4 |
1
( 45 , 0)
1 mC Which of the following functions best describes this graph?

a y = |(x 1)3|
C y = |x3 + 1|
e y = |(x + 1)3 + 1|
b y = |(x + 1)3|
d y = |x3 1|
1
1 0
2 For each of the following functions state the domain and range.
a y = 2|x|
b y = |x| + 1
1
+1
x +1
3 We19 Sketch the graphs of each of the following.
a y = 2|x|
b y = |x + 5| 6
d y = |x2 1| + 1
e y = 2 |x2 2|
d y = |x2 3| 2
1 3
g y=
x 4
y=
2
h y=
+3
6 x
c y = 4 3|x|
f
y= 2
y=
1
x2
c y = 2|3 x| + 1
f y = |(x + 1)2 1| 2
i
diGiTal doC
doc-9181
Spreadsheet
absolute value function
1 1
y=
4
4 x2
1
k y = 2 x 2 + 3
l y = 2 x +1 8
1
x2
4 We21 Given the function f (x) = | 3x 1|:
a rewrite the function as a hybrid function with appropriate domains
b find f (0) a nd f (2)
c sketch the graph, labelling any significant points.
5 Given the function f (x) = | x2 3x |+ 2:
a rewrite the function as a hybrid function with appropriate domains
b find f (1) and f (2)
c sketch the graph, labelling any significant points.
6 The design shown at right is to be embroidered on the outer side of a pair of
childrens socks. The total length of the design is 12 cm and its width is
8 cm. If we draw the set of axes through the centre of the design, the red
section can be thought of as the absolute value function on a restricted
domain.
a Find the rule for the red section and specify the domain.
b Using your knowledge of the transformations, and the rule for the red
section, find the rules for the blue, green and yellow sections of the
design.
c Using a graphics calculator, sketch the 4 functions that were obtained
in a and b. Have you obtained the right design?
j
y
6
4x
diGiTal doC
doc-9180
WorkSHEET 2.2
89
2G
inTeraCTiViTY
int-0247
Transformations
with matrices
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch
a video on
transformations
using matrices.
Transformations of graphs can be described using matrices as an alternative to function notation.

The transformations that have been considered so far (dilations, reflections and translations) can be
represented in matrix form. This describes how a particular point on a graph will be moved (or mapped)
to a resultant location by the application of a dilation, reflection or translation, or a combination of the
three. Remember the definition of a transformation is a rule that links each point in the Cartesian plane
to another point. So the matrix can be used for any point on a curve, or in fact used to determine the new
rule for a function that has undergone one or a series of transformations. The new points or rules are
termed images of the original.
reflections and dilations
x
We can summarise the use of matrices to map these transformations, T , of points on a curve as
y
follows:
(Let x be the transformed value of x, and y be the transformed value of y.)
x x' 1 0 x x
T =
=
represents a reflection in the y-axis.
=
y y' 0 1 y y
x x' 1
T =
=
y y' 0
0 x
=
1 y

x
represents a reflection in the x-axis.
y
x x' a 0 x ax
T =
=
represents a dilation of a factor of a from the y-axis.
=
y y' 0 1 y y
x x' 1 0 x x
T =
=
represents a dilation of a factor of a from the x-axis.
=
y y' 0 a y ay
These operations can be combined to represent more than one transformation, for example
x x' 2 0 x 2 x
T =
=
=
y y' 0 3 y 3 y
represents a reflection in the y-axis, a dilation of a factor of 2 from the y-axis, and a dilation of a factor
of 3 from the x-axis.
Worked example 22
Using matrices, find the location of the point (x, y) under the following transformations of the
point (1, 3):
dilation by a factor of 2 from the y-axis
reflection in the x-axis.
Think
1
Construct the correct matrix that represents the

transformations described.
x x' 2
T =
=
y y' 0
WriTe
0 x

y
Write the matrix equation* and interpret this to

answer the question.
0 1
=
1
3
The image of the point (1, 3) is at (2, 3).

Matrix
operations can be done using a CAS calculator, but as the matrix multiplication required here is simple, it
is recommended it be done by hand.
90
The difficult part is to correctly identify the transformation matrix. Once you have done that it is a matter
of performing a matrix multiplication.
Translations
Translations require a slightly different process. The transformation matrix is a 2 1 matrix, and finding
the new image requires addition of the matrices rather than multiplication.
b
Matrices describing translations are of the form .
c
This represents:
a translation of b units in the positive direction of the x-axis
a translation of c units in the positive direction of the y-axis.
Note b > 0 and c > 0:
If either of the terms is negative, the translation is in the negative direction.
A zero entry indicates there is no translation in a particular direction.
So a translation of a point (x, y) can be described as follows:
x x' x b
T =
= +
y y' y c
x+b
=
y + c
Worked example 23
Find the location of the point (x', y') under the following transformations of the point (2, 4):
translation of 3 units in the x direction
translation of 5 units in the y direction.
Think
WriTe
Construct the correct matrix that represents the

x x' x 3
T =
= +
y y' y 5
Construct and solve the appropriate matrix equation.

x x'
T =
=
y y'

+
4

Interpret this to answer the question.
+
4
3 1
=
2 3 1
+
=
4 5 1
The image of the point (2, 4) is at (1, 1).
Matrix operations can be done using a CAS calculator, but as the matrix addition required here is simple,
it is recommended it be done by hand.
Note it is very important to use the correct mathematical language, both for the size and the direction of
the transformation. For example, dilations are by a factor of, in other words a multiple of the original
value, as distinct from translations, which are described as of n units, which is a set distance. In terms
of direction, the expression from the y-axis can also be expressed as parallel to the x-axis, in the
x direction or even horizontally. The same applies for from the x-axis.
putting it all together

The formal notation often used to describe a transformation begins as T : R2 R2, which is saying
the transformation that maps a point (x, y) to another point (x, y) is and then the transformation is
91
described. For example, a transformation involving a dilation by a factor of 3 from the x-axis followed
by a translation of 2 in the x direction and 1 in the y direction could be defined as T : R2 R2,
T(x, y) = (x 2, 3y + 1), or simply (x, y) (x 2, 3y + 1).
When more than one transformation is described, it is known as a composition of the transformations.
When a series of transformations are described, they need to be done in the correct order as stated in
the question.
Worked example 24
Find the location of the point (x', y') under the following transformation of the point (3,2):

dilation by a factor of 3 from the x-axis
reflection in the x-axis
translation of 3 units in the x direction.
Think
1
WriTe
Perform the first three transformations together.

Construct the correct matrix that represents these
x x' 12
T =
=
y y' 0
0 x
y
3

1
2
0
0 3 3
= 2
3 2

6


0 3
x x' 12
T =
=

y
y'

3 2
0
1
2
0
Now perform the translation. Construct and solve

the appropriate matrix equation. Note we are using
the product matrix from step 2.
3 9
2 + 3 = 2
6 0 6

x x' 1
T =
= 2
y y' 0
4
3 3
+
2
0
Interpret this to answer the question.
The image of the point (3, 2) is at
( ,6).
9
2
Remember that a transformation maps any point on a curve to another by the same rule. Rather
than mapping a series of individual points on the same curve, we can simply find a new rule under a
transformation (or a series of them) and use this new rule to determine the location of any points from
the curve described by the original rule.
Worked example 25
Write the resultant equation from the following transformations of the curve
described by y = x3:
translation of 2 units in the negative y direction.
Think
1
92
Perform the first two transformations together.

Construct the correct matrix that represents these
x x' 2 0 x

T =
=
y y' 0 1 y
WriTe
TUTorial
eles-1201
Worked example 25
Now perform the translation. Construct the correct matrix

that represents this transformation described.
x x' 2
T =
=
y y' 0
0 x 0
+
1
y 2
0 x 2x
=
y y
Construct and solve the appropriate matrix equation. Note

we are using the product matrix from our first equation in
step 2.
x' 2 x 0
y' = y + =
2
The transformed values of x and y are 2x and y 2.
Therefore x' = 2x and y' = y 2.
Express x and y in terms of x' and y'.
x'
and
2
y = y' + 2
y = y' 2
State the resultant equation.
2x
y 2
x=
x
y= 2
2
So for any point on the graph of the original function, y = x3, we can map the corresponding point under
the transformations above by substituting the values into this transformed equation.
Lets have a look at another example. This time we will complete reflections/dilations and translations
in the one step.
Worked example 26
Find the image of the curve with equation y = x after a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a
dilation of a factor of 2 from the x-axis, and then a translation by +3 in the x direction.
Think
WriTe
Construct the correct matrices that represent the

x x' 1 0 x 3
+
T =
=
y y' 0 2 y 0
x' 1
y' =
The transformed values of x and y are x + 3 and 2y.
So x' = x + 3 and y' = 2y.
Express x' and y' in terms of x and y.
x = x' 3 and y =
x and drop
Substitute new y- and x-terms for y = x,
the primes.
0
3
and
2
0 x 3 x +3
+ =
2
y 0 2 y
y'
= x3
2
y = 2 x 3
y = 2 x 3
State the resultant equation showing all

transformations.
y = 2 x 3
93
exercise 2G
Identify the dilations and/or reflections described by the following matrices.
0 4
1 0
0 2
ii
0 3
iii
2 We22
We24
1
2
iv
Find the image of the point (3, 5) under the above transformations in question 1.
3 Find the image of the graphs of the following equations under the transformations in 1 i and 1 ii.
1
c y= x
b y = x3 5
x2
4 Identify the translations described by the following matrices.
a y=
1
2
iii 5
0
2
Find the image of the point (1, 2) under the transformations given in question 4.
3
2

5 We23
ii
6 Find the image of the following equations under each of the transformations defined in questions 4 i
and 4 ii.
a y = |x|
b y = x2 3x
7 The transformation T : R2 R2 which maps the curve with the equation y = x3 to the curve with the
equation y = (3x 6)3 + 1, could have:

x
1 0 x 6
+
3 y 1
a T
=
y 0
1
C T
= 3
y 0
e
8
0 x 2
+
1 y 1
1 0 x 3
+
3 y 1
b T
= 3
y 0
0 x 6
+
1 y 1
d T
=
y 0
x 3 0 x 6
T =
+
y 0 1 y 1
For the following transformations, where T : R2 R2, state what the transformation T represents
1
and determine the image of the equation f ( x ) = .
x
Note: Brackets on RHS means perform that transformation first.
x
y
a T
1 0 x 6
= 0 2 y +
1

x
y
b T
2
=
0
0 x 3
+
y 1
x 1 0 x 1
+
T = 3
y 0 1 y 2
9 A function g(x) is mapped to the curve h(x) = g(4(x + 1)) + 3. Create a matrix equation that will
map g(x) to h(x).
c
10 We25 The following transformations are applied, in order, to the graph of y = x3 4x:
dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis

reflection in the y-axis
translation of 1 unit in the y direction.
a Use matrices to determine the image equation under these transformations.
b Find the image of the point (2, 0) and check whether this point lies on the curve of the equation
from a.
94
3
1
and g( x ) =
+ 1, describe, in order, the transformations performed to
( x 2)2
x2
the graph of f (x) to give g(x) and create a matrix equation which would map f (x) to g(x).
11 We26
If f ( x ) =
12 If f (x) = g(2(x + 1)) + 1 and g( x ) = x , find f (x) in terms of x only, using:

a an algebraic method without the use of a CAS calculator
b matrices and a CAS calculator.
13 If f (x) = 2g(x 1) 2 and g(x) = x2 3x, find f (x) in terms of x only, using:
a an algebraic method without the use of a CAS calculator
b matrices and a CAS calculator.
14 If
h( x + 2)
2) + 1 =
x3
1
3 x 2 6 x , find h(x) using matrix methods.
2
2
Sum, difference and product

functions
2h
Sum functions
y
4
3
2
1
Units: 3 & 4
y = x2
A sum function is of the form y = f (x) + g(x), or alternatively y = (f + g)(x).

Many functions include two or more terms added (or
y = 1x
1
2
subtracted) together. For example the function y = x + can be thought
x
4 3 2 110 1 2 3 4 x
1
of as the sum of the functions y = x2 and y = .
2
x
These graphs can be drawn by sketching the two individual functions on
the same set of axes then adding the y-values (ordinates) for each x-value
and plotting the resulting points.
This is a useful method when we know the basic shape of the individual functions but do not
recognise the whole function. We would not use this method for a familiar function such as y = x2 + 3x,
as we have learnt ways of sketching this without breaking it up into parts.
1
Using the example in the first paragraph, y = x 2 + , we do not
y
x
4
recognise the shape of this function, but we know the two individual
y = x2
3
functions are the basic positive parabola and the hyperbola. We could
2
therefore sketch the graph of the parabola and the hyperbola and add
y = x2 + 1x 1
y = 1x
the y-values together for corresponding x-values to obtain points on the
curve of the sum function which can be joined together to obtain the
4 3 2 110 1 2 3 4 x
graph of the sum function.
2
Note that the domain of the hyperbola is restricted to R\{0} so the
y-value at x = 0 is undefined. As you cannot add an undefined number,
this x-value is also undefined for the sum function. A general rule is that the sum function is only defined
for the domain over which both of the individual functions are defined. The domain of the sum function
is, therefore, the intersection of the domains of the individual functions.
If h(x) = f (x) + g(x), then the domain h(x) = domain f (x) domain g(x).
difference functions
A difference function is of the form y = f (x) g(x), or alternatively
y = (f g)(x).
). It is essentially the same as a sum function except that one
1
of the individual functions is subtracted from the other. So y = x 2
x
could be sketched by the same method as described above but instead of
adding the y-ordinates, we would subtract one from the other.
The domain of a difference function is determined in the same way as a
sum function. We could extend our rule above to include difference
functions.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with the sums of
functions.
Units: 3 & 4
y = x2
y=
1
x
y
4
3
2
1
4 3 2 110
2
y = x2 1x
1 2 3 4x
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
95
If h(x) = f (x) g(x), then the domain h(x) = domain f (x) domain g(x).
We can also think of a difference function as adding a negative and it could be written
1
y = x 2 + . With this in mind, an alternative method of sketching the graph of a difference function
x
1
is to reflect the graph of the second function (in this example, x ) in the x-axis and then add the ordinates
as for a sum function.
When sketching graphs of sum/difference functions, there are key points that can be found on either
individual function to easily identify the value of the ordinate of the sum or difference function. These
are the x-intercepts and any point of intersection of the individual functions.
The x-intercept is where the ordinate of that particular function is zero, so the graph of the sum or
difference function is actually the ordinate of the other function for that value of x.
At the intersection, the ordinate of the sum function will be double that of the two individual
functions. For a difference function, an intersection of the two individual functions corresponds to on
x-intercept (y = 0) of the difference function.
Another useful y-value to look for is where the graphs of individual functions have y-values that are of
the same magnitude but one is positive and one is negative. This point is an x-intercept of the sum function.
y
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5
0.5
1 1.5 x
Worked example 27
Using addition of ordinates, sketch the graph of

f ( x) = log e ( x + 2) + x , x [ 1, 2 ].
Think
1
TUTorial
eles-1243
Worked example 27
WriTe/draW
Sketch the graphs of y = loge (x + 2) and

y = |x| on the same set of axes over the
required domain x [1, 2].
y
3
2 y = loge (x + 2)
(1, 1)
1.5 1 .5 0
2
96
Moving from left to right, add the

y-coordinates of the two graphs for the
key points and plot the resultant points.
The key points are the:
end points
y-intercepts
points of intersection.
The new points on the graph are marked
by an asterisk.
y =x (2, loge (4))

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x
3
(1, 1)
2 y = log (x + 2)
e
1
1.5 1 0.5 0
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
y =x (2, loge (4))

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x
Left end points (1, 0) and (1, 1), so the new point
will be at (1, 1).
Right end points (2, loge (4)) and (2, 2), so the
new point will be at (2, 2 + loge (4)).
y-intercepts (0, 0) and (0, loge (2)).
Points of intersection (0.44, 0.44) and (1.15, 1.15),
so the new points will be (0.44, 0.88) and (1.15, 2.30).
Join these points with a smooth curve to

create f (x).
y f(x) = loge (x + 2) +x
3
(2, 2)
y
=
x
(1, 1)
1
y = loge (x + 2) (2, loge (4))
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x
2
Remove the two individual graphs to leave

the sum function.
(2, 2 + loge (4))
y
3
2
(1, 1)
f(x) = loge (x + 2) +x
1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5
2 2.5 x
1 1.5
product functions
A product function is of the form y = f (x)g(x), or alternatively y = (fg)(x).
When graphing product functions, it is useful to graph the individual functions, f and g, and for any
relevant values of x, to identify the y-values, or ordinates and multiply these together to obtain the
y-value of the product function. If the y-value is undefined at a particular value of x for either of the
individual functions, then the product function is undefined for that value. We cannot multiply by an
undefined number.
If h(x) = f (x)g(x), then the domain h(x) = domain f (x) domain g(x).
When examining the graph of the two individual functions, it is useful to look at x-intercepts and
points where the value of either function is 1. The product function will also have an x-intercept at a
point where either individual function has an intercept (as multiplying by zero gives zero). At a point
where a function = 1, the product function will have a value equal to the value of the other function, or
its negative.
It is also useful to observe that where the individual functions are both above the x-axis, or both below
the x-axis, the value of the product function will be positive, that is, above the x-axis. This is because the
product of two positive numbers or two negative numbers is positive. Alternatively, where one function
is above and one below the x-axis, the value of the product function will be negative, that is, below the
x-axis.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Worked example 28
If f (x) = 2x and g( x) =
x + 1, sketch the graph of f ( x) g( x) = 2 x x + 1 .
Think
1
Sketch the graphs of f (x) and g(x).
WriTe/draW
y = 2x
y= x+1
(0, 1)
(1, 0) 0
Find the domain of f (x) and the domain of g(x).
Dom f = R and dom g = [1, )
97
Find the domain of f (x) g(x).
Dom fg = [1, )
Find the x-intercepts of both f and g and hence

find the x-intercepts of the product fg.
x-intercept for f (x) is when x = 0 and f (x) = 0

x-intercept for g(x) is when x = 1 and g(x) = 0
Hence, the x-intercepts for the product are
when x = 0 and x = 1.
Find the values of x for which the product is

negative.
f (x) is negative and g(x) is positive for

x (1, 0), so fg is negative for x (1, 0).

positive.
f (x) and g(x) are both positive for x (0, ),

so fg is positive for x (0, ).
Find the turning point using a CAS calculator.

Round the answer to 2 decimal places as
appropriate.
The turning point is ( 3 , 0.77).
Sketch the graph of the product.
y = 2x x +1
(1, 0)
(0, 0)
2
(
,
3
exercise 2h
1
0.77)
Sketch the graphs of f (x) = g(x) + h(x) using addition of ordinates, given the following
functions g(x) and h(x). State the domain of f (x) in each case.
a g(x) = x2, h(x) = x
x3
b g( x ) =
, h( x ) = x
2
c g(x) = 3x2, h(x) = | x |
1
, h( x)
x) = x + 2
x
2
Determine the equation of g(x) h(x) in each of the following cases then, using addition of
ordinates, sketch the graph of g(x) h(x).
d g( x ) =
a g( x ) =
x + 1, hh(( x ) = x
b g(x) = | x |, h(x) = | x + 1| 2
3 For each of the following, find the domain of f (x)g(x).
a f ( x ) = x 2 , g( x ) = 3 x
b f (x) = x + 2, g(x) = |2x + 1|
c
f ( x ) = x , g( x ) = 1 x
d f (x) = | x |, g(x) = x2 1
e
f ( x ) = x 3 , g( x ) =
x+2
4 We 27 Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = x +
general shape and any asymptotes.
2
for 4 x 4, by the addition of ordinates, showing the
x
5 Two functions are defined as f (x) = x2 and g( x ) = x .

a Sketch the graph of each on the same set of axes for 2 x 2.
b Find the smallest possible value of a given that the domain of the function h, where
h(x) = (f + g)(x), is a x 2.
98
c Find f (0) and g(0), and hence find h(0).

d Find f (1) and g (1), and hence find h (1).
e Find f (2) and g (2), and hence find h (2).
Using this information, sketch the graph of h(x) (on the same set of axes as in a).
Given the functions f (x) = x3, g(x) = | x | and h(x) = f (x) + g(x):
a Sketch the graph of each on the same set of axes for 2 x 2.

b Find f (2)and g (2), and hence find h (2).
c Find f (0) and g (0), and hence find h (0).
What is the range of the function h (in exact form).
g Using this information, sketch the graph of h(x) (on the same set of axes as in a).
h ( x ) = f ( x ) g( x ) .
7 We 28 Two functions are defined as f (x) = x 3 and g( x ) = x . L et h(
a Find the domain of h.
b Sketch the graph of each on the same set of axes.
c Find f (0) and g (0), and hence find h (0).
f What is the range of the function h (in exact form)?
g Using this information, sketch the graph of h(x) (on the same set of axes as in a).
x + 5 and g( x ) = 8 x and use these to find the domain of

the function h(x) = f (x) + g (x). On the same axes, sketch the graph of h(x), including the coordinates of
any end points.
x2
9 Use a CAS calculator to view and sketch the graphs of f (x) = | x + 2 | and g( x ) =
4, for
2
2.5 x 2.5. Then, without using the calculator, use these graphs to sketch the graph of h, if
h(x) = (f g)(x) on the same set of axes. Using the calculator, check the shape of the graph you
have drawn and use it to identify any significant points such as intercepts and cusp points to
2 decimal places. (You may need to adjust your window settings in order to clearly identify these
points.)
8 Sketch the graphs of the functions f ( x ) =
Composite functions and functional

equations
2i
Composite functions
A composite function is formed from two functions in the following way. If f (x) = x + 5 and
g(x) = 2x are two functions, then we combine the two functions to form the composite function
g(f (x)) = 2f (x) = 2(x + 5). That is, f (x) replaces x in the function g(x).
The composite function reads g of f and can be written g f.
Another composite function is f (g(x)) = g(x) + 5 = 2x + 5. In this case, g(x) replaces x in f (x). This
composite function reads f of g and can be written f g.
For the composite function f (g(x)) to be defined, the range of g must be a subset of (or equal to) the
domain of f, that is ran g dom f. It is easiest to list the domain and function of both f (x) and g(x) first
when dealing with composite function problems. For example: f (x) = x2 and g( x ) = x :
Domain
Range
f (x)
g(x)
[0, )
[0, )
[0, )
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video on composite
functions.
Composite functions can be rather complex to graph by hand, so a CAS calculator can be used for
assistance when sketching.
99
Worked example 29
For the pair of functions f ( x ) =

a show that f (g(x)) is defined
1
and g( x ) = x :
x+2
b find f (g(x))
c state its domain.
Think
WriTe
a 1 Create a table showing the domain and range of
both functions.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
b Form the composition function f (g(x)) by substituting
g(x) into f (x).

c The domain of f (g(x)) must be the same as the domain
of g(x). Since the domain of g(x) is

domain of f (g(x)).
g(x)
Domain
R \{2}
R+{0}
Range
R \{0}
R+{0}
ran g(x) dom f (x)

f (g(x)) is defined.
For f (g(x)) to exist the range of g must be a

subset of f.
R +{0},
f (x)
it is the
f ( g( x )) = f ( x )
1
f ( g( x )) =
x +2
Domain of f (g(x)) = R+{0}
Functional equations
Sometimes we are required to solve or analyse equations that are in terms of unknown functions, for
example, f (x) or f (y), rather than being in terms of unknown variables, for example x or y. An example
of the type of problem you might encounter is to find a function that satisfies f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y).
Alternatively, you might be required to determine if a particular function satisfies the rule f (2x) = 2f (x).
Equations such as f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) are called functional equations.
There are generally two ways to solve these types of problems: algebraically or using a CAS calculator.
Worked example 30
Determine if f (x) = 3x satisfies the equation f (x + y) = f (x) f (y).

Think
WriTe
Substitute the function into the LHS and RHS LHS = f (x + y) = 3x + y

of the equation separately.
RHS = f (x) f (y) = 3x 3y
Simplify the LHS of the equation to determine

if it equals the RHS of the equation.
LHS = f (x + y) = 3x + y
LHS = f (x + y) = 3x 3y
Answer the question.
f (x) = 3x satisfies the equation f (x + y) = f (x) f (y).
Worked example 31
Determine if g(x) = 10x satisfies the equation g(2x) = 2g(x).

Think
100
WriTe
Substitute 2x into the rule for g(x) and

simplify.
g(2x) = 10(2x)
g(2x) = 20x
Multiply g(x) by 2 and simplify.
2 g(x) = 2 10x
2g(x) = 20x
Write the solutions for g(2x) and 2g(x).
g(2x) = 20x
2g(x) = 20x
Therefore g(2x) = 2g(x).
LHS = RHS
If we consider the same equation f (2x) = 2f (x) for a different function, for example, f ( x ) = x ,
x ) = 2 x , which are not equal.
we obtain two different equations, f (2 x)
x ) = 2 x and 2 f ( x)
However, if we define this function on a CAS calculator and enter the statement f (2x) = 2f (x), the result
is x = 0. This means this equation holds true when x = 0 but not for any other values of x.
Composite functions and

functional equations
exercise 2i
1
We 29
For each of the following pairs of functions:
i show that f (g(x))
is de
fined
a f (x) = 2x 1 and g( x ) =
ii find f (g(x)) and state its domain.
x+3
c f (x) = 3(x 2)3 and g(x) = x2

e f (x) = (x + 1)(x + 3) and g(x) = x2
1
and g(x) = | x | + 1
x+2
d f (x) = | x | and g(x) = x3
b f (x) =
2
f ( x ) + f ( y)
satisfies the equation
= x + y.
x
f ( xxyy)
Determine which of iv hold for the following functions:
2 We 30 Show that f ( x ) =
3 We 31
i f (x y) = f (x) f (y)
iii f (x) + f (y) = (x2 + y2) f (xy)
ii f ( x y) =
iv
f (x)
f ( y)
x f (x)
f =
y f ( y)
v f (xy) = f (x) f (y)

a f (x) =
c
f (x) =
x
1
x
e f (x) = x2
b f (x) = | x |
1
x2
f f (x) = 2x
d f (x) =
1
and g( x ) = x , determine the values of a such that f (g(x)) exists.
( x + a) 2
1
+ 2, determine if f g
5 If f: x 2 y 0, where f ( x ) = x 2 and g:R/{1} R, where g( x ) =
x
+1
and g f exist and, if so, find the composition functions.
6 If f: x 0 y 3, where f ( x ) = 3 x and g:R y 1, where g(x) = x2 1, show that f g is not
defined. By restricting the domain of g, find a function h such that f h is defined.
4 f (x) =
7 Given w(x) = x + 3, x > 3 and v(x) = | x | 2, x R+, state the domain and range of each function.
Hence, find if w v and v w exist and, if so, state their rules including their domains.
8
Show that the equation g(x) = x3 satisfies the equation g(x) = g(x). Show that this statement is true
for all functions of the form g(x) = xn, where n is an odd natural number.
Show that g(x) = x4 satisfies the equation g(xy) = g(x)g(y). Show that this equation is true for all
functions of the form g(x) = xn, where n is a natural number.
10 Consider f : [4, ] R, f ( x ) = x 4 and g: R R, g(x) = 1 x. What transformations are
required to obtain f (g(x)) from f (x)?
9
2J
modelling
People such as scientists, financial advisers, business analysts, economists, statisticians and others often
have to deal with large and small sets of data.
Once the data are collected, we are often interested in finding the rules that link features of the data.
The process of finding such a rule is called modelling and the rule itself is known as the mathematical
model. When finding the model, the best way to start is to plot the data, as the shape of the graph might
suggest the type of relationship between the variables.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video on modelling
with data.
101
Types of graphs
By recognising the shape of a graph, it is possible to find the rule or mathematical model that describes
it. Throughout this chapter, several types of graphs have been investigated. Some of these basic
shapes are:
1
The graph of a cubic function: y = x3
The parabola: y = x2
The hyperbola: y =
x
y
y
y
y=0
x=0
The truncus: y =
y
The graph of a square root function:

y= x
1
x2
y=0
0
x=0
Reflections and translations can be applied to each of these graphs, but the basic shape of each graph
remains the same.
Worked example 32
Match each of the following graphs with the appropriate model.

a
a
i y = ax2
ii y = ax3
iii y =
iv y = 2
x
x
a
y
x
Think
Match the graphs using the information in the

summary above.
v y= a x
e
WriTe
i is a parabola; it matches graph b.

ii is a cubic; it matches graph e.
iii is a hyperbola (the graph is in opposite
quadrants); it matches graph c.
iv is a truncus (the graph is in adjacent
quadrants); it matches graph a.
v is a square root function; it matches graph d.
102
Worked example 33
2.5
3.54
4.33
5.59
a
a
, y=
or y = a x .
x
x2
b Select the appropriate rule and state the value of a.
The data in the above table exactly fit one of these rules: y = ax 2 , y = ax 3 , y =
a Plot the values of y against x.
Think
WriTe/draW
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
b 1 Study the graph. It appears to be a square root curve.
1 2 3 4 5
b Assume that y = a x .
Write the appropriate rule.

2
To find the value of a: select any pair of corresponding

values of x and y. (Since we need to take a square
root, the best to choose is the one where x is a perfect
square.)
Using (1, 2.5):
Substitute selected values into the rule and solve for a.
2.5 = a 1
=a1
a = 2.5
We need to make sure that the selected rule is the right

one. Replace a with 2.5 in the rule.
Verifying:
y = 2.5 x
Substitute the values of x from the table into the

formula and check if you will obtain the correct
values of y.
y = 2.5 0
=0
(2, 3.54): y = 2.5 2
= 3.54
(3, 4.33): y = 2.5 3
= 4.33
y
=
2.5 4
(4, 5):
=5
y
=
2.5 5
(5, 5.59):
= 5.59
As the values of y obtained by using the rule match

those in the table, the choice of model is correct.
The rule that fits the data is y = a x ,

where a = 2.5.
(0, 0):
The process of fitting a straight line to a set of points is often referred to as linear regression. Statistical
data is easiest to deal with in linear form. If the data is not linear, then a linear relationship can still be
found by transforming the x scale. A regression line can then be fitted.
m
For example, y = x + c is a hyperbola. However, if we substitute X for 1x , the rule becomes linear:
y = mX + c. The graph of y versus X will be a straight line with a gradient of m and a y-intercept of c. These
values (m and c) can then be established from the graph and thus the hyperbolic model can be determined.
Note: In a quadratic relationship, X is substituted for x2; in a cubic relationship, X is substituted for x3.
103
Worked example 34
It is believed that, for the data in the table below, the relationship between x and y can be
modelled by y = ax
ax 2 + bx + c.
x
5.3
8.6
14.8
23
34.4

b Calculate the values of a, b and c (correct to 3 decimal places) and write the equations.
Think
1
Since there are 6 data points and only 3 are required

to determine if the graph is a parabola, choose
3 points.
Note: The spread of x-values.
WriTe
14.8
5
34.4
Write the general rule for a parabola.
y = ax2 + bx + c
Substitute in the 3 chosen points.
4 = a(0) + b(0) + c
14.8 = a(3)2 + b(3) + c
34.4 = a(5)2 + b(5) + c
Simplify and number the equations.
4=c
14.8 = 9a + 3b + c
34.4 = 25a + 5b + c
[1]
[2]
[3]
Use [1] to simplify [2] and [3].
10.8 = 9a + 3b
30.4 = 25a + 5b
[4]
[5]
Solve simultaneously.
54 = 45a + 15b
91.2 = 75a + 15b
[4] 5
[5] 3
Subtract and simplify to find a.
91.2 54 = 75a 45a

37.2 = 30a
1.24 = a
Substitute the value of a into [5] and simplify.
30.4 = 25(1.24) + 5b
30.4 = 31 + 5b
0 = 5b
0.12 = b
Write the equation of the parabola.
a = 1.24
b = 0.12
c=4
y = 1.24x2 0.12x + 4
If the relationship between the variables is not given, we have to make an assumption of a model
from the graph of the data. We then have to transform the data according to our assumption. If the
assumption was correct, the transformed data, when plotted, will produce a perfectly straight, or nearly
straight, line.
a
+ b and so
x
on (we will not allow for a horizontal translation), so that the appropriate substitution can be made.
Note: In this section we will consider only the rules of the type y = ax2 + b, y = ax3 + b, y =
104
Worked example 35
35
21
16
12
11
10
Establish the rule connecting x and y that fits these data.

Think
1
Using either graph paper or a CAS calculator, plot

y against x.
WriTe/draW
y
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
The scatterplot appears to be a hyperbola. Write

the appropriate formula (remember that we do not
consider horizontal translations in this section).
Check your assumption: prepare a new table by

1
replacing values of x with (leave the values of
x
y unchanged).
1
Plot y against .
x
Assumption: y =
Comment on the shape of the graph.
If we replace
1
with X, the rule becomes
x
y = aX + b, which is the equation of the straight
line, where a is the gradient and b is the
y-intercept. These (a and b) can be found from the
graph as follows: draw in the line of best fit.
a
+b
x
0.5
0.33 0.25 0.2
35
21
16
12
11
0.17
10
y
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1
x
The graph is very close to a straight line,

therefore the assumption of a hyperbolic model
is correct.
y
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
y2 y1
x 2 x1
Write the formula for the gradient.
m=
Select any 2 points on the line.
Using (0.17, 10) and (1, 35):
Substitute the coordinates of the points into the

formula and evaluate.
m=
=
35 10
1 0.17
25
0.83
= 30.12
105
a=m
= 30.12.
10
Write the value of a.
Since a is the gradient,
11
Write the general equation of the straight line.
y = mx + c
12
Substitute the value of m and the coordinates of any

of the 2 points, say (1, 35) into the equation.
35 = 30.12 1 + c
13
Solve for c. (Alternatively, read the y-intercept

directly from the graph.)
35 = 30.12 + c
c = 35 30.12
= 4.88
14
State the value of b.
Since b is the y-intercept, b = c = 4.88.
a
Substitute the values of a and b into y = + b to
x
obtain the rule that fits the given data.
The rule for the given data is:
15
y=
30.12
+ 4.88
x
modelling
exercise 2J
1 We 32 Match each of the graphs with the appropriate model:

i y = ax2 + b
ii y = ax3 + b
a
+b
x
v y= a x +b
iii y =
iv y =
a
+b
x2
x
x
2 We 33 The data in each of the tables below exactly fit one of these rules: y = ax2, y = ax3,
a
a
,y=
or y = a x . For each set of data, plot the values of y against x and draw the graph.
x
x2
Select the most appropriate rule, and find the value of a.
y=
diGiTal doC
doc-9182
Spreadsheet
modelling
x
y
8.1
2.4
0.3
0
0
x
y
0
0
24
24
54
0.5
0.08
x
y
106
0.08
0.5
1
0.3
2
2.4
3
8.1
0.5
1.5
1.13
1.6
1.96
2.26
2.5
1.25
0.5
40.5
12
1.5
1.5
10
3 mC Which of the graphs below could be modelled by y =

i
ii
iii
12
a
+ b?
x2
y
x
iv
y
x
a i only
d i, ii and iv
b i, ii and iii
e i, iv, and v
C iv and v
4 We 34 It is believed that for the data in the table below, the relationship between x and y can be
modelled by y = ax2 + b.
x
3.2
4.9
14.5
29
46.8

b Plot the values of y against x2 and draw the line of best fit.
c Find the values of a and b and hence the equation describing the original data.
5 The table below shows the values of 2 variables, x and y.
28
13.5
12.5
2
10
4.3
41
Establish the mathematical model of the relationship between the variables, if it is known that it is of
the form y = ax3 + b.
6 The table below shows the results, obtained from an experiment, investigating the frequency of a
sound, f, and the length of the sound wave, .
0.3
1130
0.5
680
10
340
110
70
40
35
a Plot f against .
b From the following relationships select the one which you think is suggested by the plot:
a
, f = a .
1
c Based on your choice in part b, plot f against either 2, or , draw in the line of best fit and
use it to find the rule that connects the 2 variables.

f = a2, f =
107
7 For her science assignment, Rachel had to find the relationship between the intensity of the light, I, and
the distance between the observer and the source of light, d. From the experiments she obtained the
following results.
d
I
1
270
1.5
120
2
68
2.5
43
3
30
3.5
22
4
17
a Use a graphics calculator to plot the values of I against d. What form of relationship does the
graph suggest?
b Nathan (Rachels older brother) is a physics student. He tells Rachel that from his studies he is
a
certain that the relationship is of the type I = 2 . Use this information to help Rachel to find the
d
model for the required relationship.
8 We 35 The table below gives the values of 2 variables, x and y. Establish the rule, connecting x and y,
that fits these data.
x
y
0
4
1
7
3
9
5
11
7
12
9
13
9 Joseph is a financial adviser. He is studying the prices of shares of a particular company over the last
10 months.
Months
Price, $
diGiTal doC
doc-9183
Investigation
Goal accuracy
108
1
6.00
2
6.80
3
7.45
4
8.00
5
8.50
6
8.90
7
9.30
8
9.65
9
10.00
10
10.30
a Represent the information graphically.

b Establish a suitable mathematical model, which relates the share price, P, and the number of the
month, m.
c Use your model to help Joseph predict the share price for the next 2 months.
Summary
Graphs of the power
functions
Name
Parabola
Equation
y = a(x b)2 + c
Basic shape
Domain
If a > 0
yc
If a < 0
yc
Turning point at (b, c)
Stationary point of
inflection at (b, c)
R \{b}
R \{c}
Horizontal asymptote
y = c, vertical asymptote
x=b
R \{b}
If a > 0
y>c
If a < 0
y<c
y = c, vertical asymptote
x=b
xb
If a > 0
yc
If a < 0
yc
End point at (b, c)
(b, c)
0
Cubic
y = a(x b)3 + c
y
(b, c)
x
Hyperbola
y=
a
+c
xb
or
y = a(
a( x b) 1 + c
Truncus
y
c
x
a
y
+c
2
( x b)
or
y = a(
a( x b) 2 + c c
y=
y = a x b +c
or
y = a( x b) 2 + c
Special feature
Square root
Range
(b, c)
The equation for any graph y = f (x) above can be written in the general form:
y = af (x b) + c.
This form can be used to describe transformations of all of the functions considered.
For all of the above functions:
a is the dilation factor: it dilates the graph from the x-axis.
When an equation for these types of graphs is put into its general form of y = af (x b) + c, the
horizontal dilation can be described in terms of a vertical dilation.
If a < 0, the basic graph is reflected in the x-axis.
f (b x) or f (x + b) is the reflection of f (x + b) in the y-axis.
b translates the graph b units along the x-axis (to the right if b > 0, or to the left if b < 0).
c translates the graph c units along the y-axis (up if c > 0, or down if c < 0).
To put equations into general form:
If the coefficient of x is a number other than 1, to find the value of b and a, the equation should
be transposed to make the coefficient of x equal to 1.
For example,
y = (3x + 5)2 + 4
= [3( x + 53 )]2 + 4
= 32 ( x + 53 )2 + 4
= 9( x + 53 )2 + 4
Hence, a = 9, b =
5
3
109
The absolute value

function
y = |x| means
y = x, if x 0
and y = x, if x < 0
y
y = |x|
x
Domain: R Range: R+ {0}

To sketch y = | f (x)|:
1. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
2. Reflect the portion of the graph that is below the x-axis in the x-axis.
Or:
1. Express the function in hybrid form with specific domains where the absolute value expression
is positive and negative.
2. Sketch each rule for the specified domain.
For functions of the form y = a| f (x)| + c, a and c have the same impact on the graph of the absolute
value function, as on the graphs of all other functions discussed in this section.
Transformations with
matrices
The use of matrices to map transformations of points and equations can be summarised as follows,
where (x, y) is the image of the point (x, y) under the transformation.
x x' 1 0 x
=
T =
=
y y' 0 1 y
x x' 1
T =
=
y y' 0
represents a reflection in the y-axis.

y
0 x x
=
represents a reflection in the x-axis.
y y
x x' a 0 x ax
T =
=
represents a dilation of a factor of a from the y-axis.
=
y y' 0 1 y y
1
x x' 1 0 x x
T =
represents a dilation of a factor of a from the x-axis.
=
=
y y' 0 a y ay
Transformations can be combined to represent more than one transformation. For example,
4x + 2
x' 4 0 x 2
1
y' =
+ = y
3
0
+
3
2
x = 4x + 2
y
y =
+3
2
1
describes the following: dilation by a factor of 4 from the y-axis, a dilation by a factor of 2 from
+
the x-axis, reflection in the x-axis, a horizontal translation of 2 and a vertical translation of +3.
Sum and difference of

functions
110
For the graph of the sum/difference function, dom (f (x) g(x)) = dom f (x) dom g(x). The graph
of the sum/difference function can be obtained by using the addition of ordinates method.
For the product function, dom (f (x)g(x)) = dom f (x) dom g(x). Some features of the graph of the
product function are as follows:
the x-intercepts of f (x)g(x) occur where either f (x) or g(x) have their x-intercepts
f (x)g(x) is above the x-axis where f (x) and g(x) are either both positive or both negative
f (x)g(x) is below the x-axis where one of the functions f (x) or g(x) is positive and the other is
negative.
Composite functions
and functional
equations
For the composite function f (g(x)) to be defined, the range of g must be a subset of the domain of f.
Furthermore, if f (g(x)) is defined, the domain of f (g(x)) equals the domain of g(x).
Equations involving algebra of functions, for example f (2x) = 2f (x), are generally tested to
determine if they are true for particular functions.
To determine if an equation is true for a particular function, consider the LHS and RHS of the
equation separately to determine if the equation holds true for all values of x.
Alternatively, you may find a particular x-value for which the equation does not work; that is, a
counterexample.
These types of equations can be investigated by defining the functions on a CAS calculator and
then testing the algebraic function equation.
modelling
Modelling is the process of finding the rule (mathematical model) that fits the given data.
To model:
1. Plot the original data on graph paper or use a CAS calculator.
2. Make an assumption of the model.
3. Transform the data in accordance with your assumption.
4. Check the assumption by plotting the transformed data (if correct, the graph will be a straight or
nearly straight line).
5. Draw in a line of best fit.
6. Find the equation of the line (y = mx + c).
1
7. Replace x in the equation with the transformed variable (for example, x2, ).
x
111
Chapter review
S h orT
anS Wer
1 For the function y = 2(x 3)2 4:

a state the coordinates of the turning point
b state the domain and range
c sketch the graph.
b
6x 5
in the form a +
. Hence describe the transformations required
3x + 1
x+c
1
to produce this curve from the graph of y = .
x
3 The graph of a cubic function has a stationary point of inflection at (1, 1). It cuts the y-axis at y = 4.
Find the equation of the graph.
1
4 The graph of y = was dilated by the factor of 4 from the x-axis, reflected in the x-axis and then
x
translated 2 units to the left and 1 unit down.
a State the equation of the asymptotes.
b State the domain and range.
c State the equation of the new graph.
y
d Sketch the graph.
1
2
5 a State the changes necessary to transform the graph of y =
into the
2
x
1
x
one shown.
2 Express the function f ( x ) =
23
b Find the equation of the graph.

6 The domain of a truncus is R \{1}, the range is (, 2) and the graph cuts the
y-axis at y = 3. Find the equation of the function.
7 The basic square root curve was reflected in both axes and then translated so that its intercepts at the
9
10
11
axes were (0, 1) and (5, 0). Find the size and the direction of the translations; hence, find the equation
of the new graph.
2
2 , clearly showing the coordinates of the cusps, the
a Sketch the graph of y = 2
( x + 2)2
intercepts with the axes and the position of the asymptotes.
b State the domain and range of the graph in a.
a
The point (1, 3) undergoes a translation given by the matrix to (2, 0). Find a and b and
b
describe the transformations involved.
a 0
The point (1, 2) undergoes a series of transformations given by the matrices
and then
0 b
2 to ( 7, 4).

a Find the values of a and b.
b Find the image under the transformations of:
i y=2 x
ii y = x3 + x
a 0
A point on a curve (x, y) undergoes a transformation descibed by
to (x, y), where a is a
0 2
real constant such that a > 0.
y
a Find the values of x and y in terms of a, x and y.

b If the point is on the curve y = 2x2 x, find the image of
the curve in terms of a under this transformation.

c If the point (3, 6) is on the transformed curve, find the
value(s) of a and hence the rule of this image.
12 The graph of the function f : (2, 1) R, f (x) = x3 + 2x2 is
3
f(x) = x3 + 2x2
(2, 0)
13 Let f (x) = x2 determine which of the following relationships are true.

a f (x) f (y) = f (x) f (y)
c
112
f (x)
f (y)
= f (x) + f (y)
f (x)
2
1
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
1
shown at right.
Let g(x) = f (x) + 1, and sketch this graph on the same set of
axes. Hence, sketch (f + g)(x).
f ( y) = f (x) + f (y)
d f (x) f (y) = f (x) + f (y)
(1, 3)
0.5
14 The data in the table below exactly fit one of these models: y = ax3, y =
x
y
2
25
4
6.25
5
4
10
1
a
or y = a x .
x2
20
25
0.25 0.16
a Plot the values of y against x and use the scatterplot to choose a suitable model.
1
or x (depending on your choice in part a). Did you
x2
choose the right model? Explain your answer.
c Find the value of a.
b Plot the values of y against either x3,
1 The equation of a parabola is given by y = m 2(x + 3)2, where m > 0. The increase in m will result in:
a the graph being thinner
m U lTip l e
C ho iC e
b the graph being wider

C the increase of the domain
d the increase of the range
e the graph being shifted further to the right
2 The coordinates of the turning point of the parabola y = 2(3x + 6)2 3 are:
a (6, 3)
d
(2,
b (6, 3)
3)
3 The graph of y =
2 (b
bxx
3
3)3
C (2, 3)
(2, 3)
+ 1 is dilated in the y direction by the factor of:

2
b 3b
a 3
2b 3
3
2
3b3
3
4 The graph of y = 2 (3 + 4x) has a stationary point of inflection at:
d b3
a ( 43 , 2)
b ( 4 , 2)
d (
3
4
C (3, 2)
e (3, 2)
, 2)
2
+ 1 , then f (x) + 2 will have:
x
a the horizontal asymptote y = 2
b the horizontal asymptote y = 1
C the horizontal asymptote y = 3
d the vertical asymptote x = 2
5 If f ( x ) =
e the vertical asymptote x = 1

6 The equation of the graph shown is likely to be:
a y=
C y=
e
y=
x2
2
x +1
2
x+2
y =1
d y=
x+2
2
1
x+2
x
resulting graph would have the equation:
d y=
7 If the graph of y = 1 is reflected in the y-axis, translated
a y=
1
3
+
x2 4
1
4x 3
+2
b y = 4x + 2
e y=
3
4
units to the right and 2 units up, the

1
C y = 2 3 4x
1
+2
3 4x
113
8 Which of the following is not true for the graph at right?

a
b
C
d
e
The vertical asymptote is x = 2.

The horizontal asymptote is y = 4.
The domain is R\{2}.
The range is R\{4}.
The value of the y-intercept is greater than 4.
9 To obtain the graph shown, we need to:

a translate the graph of y =
b translate the graph of y =
C translate the graph of y =
d translate the graph of y =
e none of the above
1
x2
1
x2
1
x2
1
x2
one unit to the left and reflect in the x-axis
one unit to the left and reflect in the y-axis

1
one unit to the left and dilate it in the x direction

y
a y = a x m + n, a > 0
b y = a m x + n, a > 0
C y = a x m + n, a < 0
d y = a m x + n, a < 0
e y = a x + m + n, a < 0
11 The equation of this graph could be:
a y=d ax
e y=
xa
(m, n)
x
y
b y=
x a +d
d y = c a x
b a
a x c
a [1, )
2 x 1 + 3 is:
b [3, )
d [2, )
C [0.5, )
e [1, )
13 The range of the function y = 3

d (, 2)
1
2 is:
x2
b (, 5]
e (, 2]
C [3, )
x
y
15 Under the transformation T : R2 R2 of the plane defined by T
image of the curve y = | x | has the equation:

1
d y = 2 | x 1| + 3
b y = | 2x + 1| 3
e y=
1
2
y
2
14 The equation of the graph shown in the diagram at right is best described by:
a y = |x + 2| + 2
b y = 2 |x + 2|
C y = |2 x| + 2
d y = 2 |2 x|
e y = |x + 2| 2
a y = 2 x 1 + 3
12 The domain of the function f ( x ) =
a (1, )
one unit to the left and reflect in both axes
10 The equation of this graph is of the form:
C y=d
2 0 x 1
=
y + ,
0 1 3
the
C y = 2 | x + 1| 3
x 1 3
16 If g:[2, 4] R, where g(x) = x2(x 3), and h:(0, 3] R, where h(x) = 3 x, then the function f (x)
such that f (x) = g(x) h(x) is defined by the rule:

a f: R R, where f (x) = x2(x 3)2
b f: (0, 3] R, where f (x) = x2(x 3)2
C f: [2, 3] R, where f (x) = x2(x 3)2
d f: (0, 4] R, where f (x) = x2(x 3)2
e f: [2, 3] R, where f (x) = x2(x 3)(3 + x)
114
17 Given the function f ( x ) =

a h(x) = x + 2
d h(x) =
x2
x 3 then f h could exist if h(x) was defined as:

b h(x) = x2 3
e h( x ) =
+3
C h(x) = x3
x 2
18 Which of the following would be the best fit to model the data in the table below: y = ax2, y = ax3 or
y= a x.
x
y
1
0.3
2
2.4
3
8.1
4
19.2
The value of a is:

a 2.4
b 1.2
C 2.7
d 0.9
e 0.3
1
19 Certain data the values of y were plotted against and the line of best fit was drawn as seen on the
x
y
diagram at right. The model that relates the variables x and y is:
a y = 20x 1
C y = 20 1
e
y=
(1, 19)
b y = 19x + 1
d y=
19
1
x
20
1
x
(0.1, 1)
1
1 The graph of y = f (x) is shown at right.

a Sketch the graph of each of the following functions on the same set of axes
with the original graph and give the coordinates of the points A, B, C and D.
i y = f (x)
ii y = f (x)
iii y = f (x 2)
iv y = f (x) + 3
v y = 2f (x)
vi y = 1 f (x + 1)
b Maya, a fabric designer, wishes to use the curve of y = f (x) (red)
(0.5, 4)
D(4, 6)
ex Ten d ed
r eS p o n S e
B
C(2, 3)
A 2
3 2
7 x
2 units
apart
to create a wavy pattern as shown in the diagram at right. If she

wants the waves to be 2 units apart vertically, suggest the best way
she could alter the equation of y = f (x). (Remember a fabric has a
fixed width!)
1
2 The graph of the function f: (2, 0.5) (0.5, 2) R, f ( x ) = 2 is
x
shown below.
y
4
(0.5, 4)
3
f(x) = 12
2
(2, 0.25)
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
(2, 0.25)
0.5
1 1.5
2 2.5 x
The graph of y = f (x) is to be transformed to become the graph of y = f (2x) + 1.

a Describe these two transformations.
b Create matrices to represent these transformations.
c Use these matrices to find the images of the points (1, 1) and (2, 0.25) under these
transformations, and use these values to deduce the images of the points (1, 1) and (2, 0.25).
d On the same axes, sketch this transformed function, showing the coordinates of the four points
from c above.
e Using any method, find a rule for this transformed function.
115
3 A proposed section of a ride at an amusement park is to be modelled on the curve
y=
1
(600 x
500
+ 25 x 2 x 3 ), where y is the height (in metres) of the ride above ground level and x
is the horizontal distance (in metres). The x-axis represents ground level. It will travel through a
tunnel from A to C; B is the lowest point in the tunnel and D is the highest point on the ride.
y
A
15
Ex
40
0C
B
a Find the horizontal distance from A to E.

b Find the greatest depth below ground level and the maximum height above ground level that the
rollercoaster will reach in this section (correct to 2 decimal places).

c Describe the impact that a dilation by a factor greater than 1 from the x-axis would have on:
i the maximum depth and maximum height from b
ii the point at which the rollercoaster would emerge from the tunnel
iii the gradient of the slope at this point.
4 Lena and Alex are planning to buy a new house. Theyve been watching the prices of 3-bedroom
houses in a specific area, where they want to live, for the whole year. During each month they collected
the data and then, at the end of the month, they calculated the average price for that month. The results
of their calculations are shown in the table below. (The prices given are in thousands of dollars.)
Month
Price
10
11
12
240
248
255
261
266
271
273
274
275
274
272
270
a Plot the prices against the months. What model does the graph suggest?
b If the model of the form y = a(x h)2 + k is to be used for these data, what is (judging from the
graph) the most suitable value for h?

116
c Plot the values of y (the prices) against (x h)2, where h is the value youve selected in part b.
Comment on the shape of the graph.

d Draw a line of best fit and find its equation. Hence, state the values of a and k in the model.
e Write the equation of the model.
f According to the Real Estate Institute, the property market is on a steady rise (that is, the prices
are going up and are likely to rise further). Do the data collected by Lena and Alex support this
theory?
g Use the model to predict the average price for the next 2 months.
h Lena and Alex were planning to spend no more than 250 000 for their new house. Several months
ago the prices were in their range, but they could not find what they wanted. If the prices are
going to behave according to our model, how long do they have to wait until the prices fall back
into their range?
5 An eagle soars from the top of a cliff that is 48.4 metres above the ground and then descends towards
unsuspecting prey below. The eagles height, h metres above the ground, at time t seconds can be
modelled by the equation h = 50 + a , where 0 t < 25 and a is a constant.
t 25
a Find the value of a.
b Find the eagles height above the ground after i 5 seconds ii 20 seconds.
c After how many seconds will the eagle reach the ground?
d Comment on the changes in speed during the eagles descent.
e Sketch the graph of the equation.
After 24 seconds, the eagle becomes distracted by another bird and reaches the ground exactly
2 seconds later. For this second part of the journey, the relationship between h and t can be modelled by
the equation h = a(t 24)2 + c.
f Find the values of a and c.
g Fully define the hybrid function that describes the descent of the eagle from the top of the cliff to
the ground below.
diGiTal doC
doc-9184
Test Yourself
Chapter 2
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
117
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGiTal doC
functions and transformations. (page 57)
2a
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9175: Investigate transformations. (page 59)
Spreadsheet doc-9166: Investigate the quadratic function in power
form. (page 60)
2b
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9170: Investigate the cubic function in power form.
(page 64)
Spreadsheet doc-9176: Investigate graphs of functions. (page 67)
2C
TUTorial
We9 eles-1197: Watch a worked example on sketching the graph
of a hyperbola. (page 71)
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9177: Investigate the hyperbola. (page 69)
WorkSHEET 2.1 doc-9178: Find the domain, range, coordinates
of turning points and equations of asymptotes of various graphs.
(page 74)
History of Mathematics doc-9179: Investigate the history of major
curves. (page 74)
2d
diGiTal doC
2e
TUTorial
We16 eles-1198: Watch a worked example on implied domain
and range. (page 83)
diGiTal doC
118
2F
TUTorialS
We20 eles-1199: Watch a worked example on sketching the
graph of an absolute value function. (page 87)
We21 eles-1200: Watch a worked example on expressing an
absolute value function as a hybrid function. (page 88)
diGiTal doCS
WorkSHEET 2.2 doc-9180: Identify transformations, state domain
and range, sketch graphs of power functions and absolute value
functions. (page 89)
Spreadsheet doc-9181: Investigate graphs of absolute value
2G
inTeraCTiViTY
Transformations with matrices int-0247: Consolidate your
understanding of using matrices to transform functions.
(page 90)
TUTorial
We25 eles-1201: Watch how to use matrices to determine the
resultant equation after transformations. (page 92)
2h
TUTorial
We27 eles-1243: Watch how to use addition of ordinates to sketch
the sum of two functions. (page 96)
2J
modelling
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9182: Investigate modelling with functions.
(page 106)
Investigation doc-9183: Goal accuracy. (page 108)
Chapter review
diGiTal doC
Answers CHAPTER 2
FUnCTionS and
TranSFormaTionS
exercise 2a
Transformations and the
parabola
1 a Dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis
b Dilation by a factor of 13 from the x-axis
c Dilation by a factor of 3 from the x-axis,
d Translation 6 units down
e Dilation by a factor of 12 from the x-axis,
reflection in the x-axis, translation of
1 unit up
f Translation of 2 units to the right
g Reflection in the x-axis, translation of
3 units to the left
h Dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis,
translation of 3 units to the right
i Translation of 2 units to the left,
translation of 1 unit down
j Translation of 0.5 unit to the right,
translation of 2 units up
k Dilation by a factor of 2, reflection in
the x-axis, translation of 3 units to the
left, translation of 1 unit up
l Dilation by a factor of 12 from the
x-axis, translation of 1.5 units to the
right, translation of 0.25 units down
2D
3 a (ii)
b (v)
c (i)
d (iv)
e (iii)
4 a y = 1 (x 2)2 + 2
2
b y = 2(x + 1)2 2
c y = 3(x 1) + 3
d y = (x + 2)2 4
2
5E
b y = x2
6 a y = 12 x2
2
c y = (x 2) 1
d y = 3x2 2
e y = (x + 3)2
7 a y = (x 3)2 4
b y = 2(x + 1)2 + 1
c y = 13 (x + 3)2 4
7. f (x 4) + 6, 2 x 6
8. f (x + 2) + 9, 4 x 0
9. f (x 2) + 9, 0 x 4
exercise 2b
3 a
y=
b y=
y = 2(x + 1)2
d y = 2(x + 1)2 + 3
(x, y)
b (x, y)
(x, 3y)
d (2x, y)
x
f (x + 2, y)
e ( , y)
3
g (x, y 1)
10 a z = 3 or z = 15
2 (x 15)2 8
b y = 2(x 3)2 8 or y = 25
11 a 3
b y = 13 (x + 4)2 + 3
c x = 7, x = 1
12 1. f (x + 2) 3, 4 x 0
2. f (x 2) 3, 0 x 4
3. f (x + 4), 6 x 2
4. f (x 4), 2 x 6
5. f (x) + 6, 2 x 2
6. f (x) + 6, 2 x 2
8 a
c
9 a
c
2x2
i
iii
(1, 43 )
x
(1, 34 )
b iv
0.8
x
c iv
d iv
2.08
y
4
128
e iv
y
4
a dilation of 43 .
i (0, 1)
ii (0.8, 0), (0, 1)
iii There is a reflection in the x-axis, a
i
iii
3 a iv
i (0, 0)
ii (0, 0)
iii There are no translations, but there is
c
2x2
i (1, 6)
ii (0.4, 0), (0, 4)
iii There is a translation of 1 left and
6 down, and a dilation of 2.
The cubic function in
power form
1 a Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 7
b Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 23 , reflection in the x-axis
c Translation by 4 units up
d Reflection in the x-axis, translation by
6 units up
e Translation by 1 unit to the right
f Reflection in the x-axis, translation by
3 units to the left
g Dilation from the x-axis by the factor of
4, reflection in the y-axis, translation by
2 units to the right
h Dilation from the x-axis by the factor of
6, reflection in the x-axis, reflection in
the y-axis, translation by 7 units to the
right
i Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 3, translation by 3 units to the left,
translation by 2units down
j Dilation from the x-axis by the factor of
1 , reflection in the x-axis, translation by
2
1 unit to the right, translation by 6 units
up
k Dilation from the x-axis by the factor of
2, translation by 52 units to the left
l Dilation from the x-axis by the factor of
1 , reflection in the x-axis, translation by
4
8 units to the left, translation by 3 units
up
c ii
2 a i, iv
b iii, v
e ii, v
f iii, iv
d i, ii, iv
d y = 12 (x 2)2 + 2
e y = 3(x 1)2 + 6
f y = 4(x + 2)2 + 8
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
translation of 1 unit up, and a dilation

of 2.
(0, 6)
ii (2.08, 0), (0, 6)
There is a translation of 6 down and a
2
dilation of 3 .
(4, 0)
ii (4, 0), (0, 128)
There is a translation of 4 right and a
dilation of 2.
(2, 0)
ii (2, 0), (0, 4)
There is a reflection in the x-axis, a
translation of 2 right, and a dilation
1
of 2 .
(1, 0)
ii (1, 0), (0, 4)
There is a reflection in the y-axis, a
translation of 1 right, and a dilation
of 4.
(1, 2)
ii (0.3, 0), (0, 1)
There is a translation of 1 right and
2 up.
(2, 3)
ii (0.6, 0), (0, 5)
There is a reflection in the x-axis and
a translation of 2 left and 3 up.
f iv
y
4
g iv
y
2
1
0.3
h iv
3
x
2
0.6
119
i iv
4 a
0.4
4
6
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
c
d
4 E
5C
7 a y=
c
e
8 a
c
9 a
6 B
b y = (x + 5)3
1 x3
2
y = (x 3)3 1
y = (x + 1)3 1
y = 2x3
y = 2(x 2)3
y = 12 x3 + 4
c y=
3(x
1)3
d y = 2x3 + 3
10 E
b y = 2x3
d y = 2(x 2)3 1
b y = 2(x 1)3 + 2
+1
e y = 4(x + 1)3 12
d y=
1
3
(x
x = 4, y = 0
Range: R\{0}
x = 0, y = 2
Range: R\{2}
x = 3, y = 2
Range: R\{2}
x = 1, y = 1
Range: R\{1}
x = m, y = n
Range: R\{n}
x = b, y = a
Range: R\{a}
ii Domain: R\{0}
6
2
ii Domain: R\{3}
2 21
2
3
ii Domain: R\{m}
ii Domain: R\{b}
1
2
y
4
2
5
2
5
34 x
b Positive cubic
ii Domain: R\{1}
2 x
3
11 y = 2(x + 1) 4
12 a y = 12 (2 x)3 + 1
y
1
7 2
34 x
3)3
ii Domain: R\{4}
11 1
x
exercise 2C The power function
(the hyperbola)
1 a Dilation from the x-axis by the factor of 2
b Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 3, reflection in the x-axis
c Translation by 6 units to the right
d Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 2, translation by 4 units to the left
e Translation by 7 units up
f Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 2, translation by 5 units down
g Translation by 4 units to the left,
translation by 3units down
h Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 2, translation by 3 units to the right,
translation by 6 units up
i Dilation from the x-axis by the factor
of 4, reflection in the x-axis, translation
by 1 unit to the right, translation by
4 units down
2 a v
d v, iii
g v, i, iv
3 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
120
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
iii
i
ii
iii
b iii
e v, ii, iii
h ii, iv
ii
x = 0, y = 0
Range: R\{0}
x = 6, y = 0
ii
Range: R\{0}
ii
x = 2, y = 0
Range: R\{0}
ii
x = 3, y = 0
Range: R\{0}
ii
x = 0, y = 4
Range: R\{4}
ii
x = 0, y = 5
Range: R\{5}
x = 6, y = 2 ii
Range: R\{2}
ii
x = 2, y = 1
Range: R\{1}
x = n, y = m
Domain: R\{n}
Range: R\{m}
4 31
1
3
185
31
21
2 1
1
x
y
y =1
1 5
43
Domain: R\{0}
Domain: R\{3}
y=4
(6, 2)
5
Domain: R\{0}
52
y=
x+3
x2
y
10
8
6
4
2
(2, 11)
0 2 4
6 4 2
(0, 3)
x=1
Domain: R\{0}
Domain: R\{6}
y
10
8
6
4
2
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
(0, 32 ) 4
6
x=2
8
10
3 43
Domain: R\{6}
1 3
4 4
k
c
23
y
c i
f i, iii
Domain: R\{2}
6 a
Domain: R\{2}
7 E
y
3
1
3
8 C
2
9 a y=
x2
1
c y=
x+4
2
e y=
+2
x4
b y=
3
x +1
4
1
x
6
f y=
1
x +1
d y=
e Dilation from the x-axis by a factor of 5,
10 a
reflection in the x-axis, translation by

4 units to the left
f Dilation from the x-axis by a factor of
2, translation by 6 units up
g Reflection in the x-axis, translation by
3 units up
h Dilation from the x-axis by a factor of
4, translation by 3 units to the right,
translation by 1 unit up
i Reflection in the x-axis, translation
by 2 units to the left, translation by
5 units up
2 D
3 C
ii Domain R\{0}
4 a i x = 0, y = 0
iii Range: y > 0
ii Domain R\{0}
b i x = 0, y = 0
iii Range: y < 0
ii Domain R\{2}
c i x = 2, y = 0
iii Range: y > 0
d i x = 1, y = 0
ii Domain R\{1}
iii Range: y > 0
e i x = 4, y = 0
ii Domain R\{4}
iii Range: y < 0
ii Domain R\{0}
f i x = 0, y = 3
iii Range: y > 3
1
2
1
x
y
21
x
3
2
1
121
h
i
i x = 0, y
y
0.4
1
1
)
2
(3, 0)
2
1
3.7 3 2.3
y
4
3 97
y
11
12
2
3
i x = 1, y = 4
ii Domain R\{1}
6 B
2.7
7 B
1
2
0.7
41
y
y
3 4
3
x
x=2
l
x
(0,
9 a y=
1
8
exercise 2d
c y=
d
3 )
4
The power function

(the truncus)
1 a Dilation from the x-axis by a factor of 2
b Dilation from the x-axis by a factor of 3,
c Translation by 2 units to the left
d Dilation from the x-axis by a factor of 2,
translation by 3 units to the right
y
1
9
Domain: R\{0},
range: R\{3}
1
3
y=1
0.4
ii Domain R\{0}
= 12
iii Range: y < 12
8 a
iii Range: y > 4
11
ii Domain R\{0}
i x = 0, y = 5
5 C
(0,
y
1
iii Range: y > 45
1 2 3
2
2
x2
9
( x + 2)2
b y=
+1
8
3
( x 4)2
3
10 y =
3
( x + 2)2
e y=
d y=
f y=
( x 2)2
3
+4
( x + 1)2
5
2
( x 1)2
3
11 y =
+2
( x 1)2
121
exercise 2e The square root function in

power form
1 a Dilated from the x-axis by a factor of 2
b Dilated from the x-axis by a factor
of 13 , reflected in the x-axis
c Dilated from the x-axis by a factor of 3,
translated 1 unit to the right
d Dilated from the x-axis by a factor of 2,
reflected in the x-axis, translated 4 units
to the left
e Translated 1 unit down
f Dilated from the x-axis by a factor of 3,
up
g Translated 4 units to the right, translated
3 units up
h Dilated from the x-axis by a factor of 2,
to the left, translated 6 units up
i Dilated from the x-axis by a factor
of 12 , reflected in the x-axis, reflected in
the y-axis, translated 2 units to the right
and 23 units up
2 a (0, 0)
b (0, 0)
c (1, 0)
d (4, 0)
e (0, 1)
f (0, 2)
g (4, 3)
(3,
6)
i (2,
3 E
4 D
5 a Domain: x 1, range: y 0
b Domain: x 3, range: y 0
c Domain: x 0, range: y 3
d Domain: x 0, range: y 4
e Domain: x 0, range: y 5
f Domain: x 1, range: y 3
g Domain: x 2, range: y 1
b
2
1
2
7
1
1 21
y
2
4
(1, 1)
x
y
2
2
x
0.4
2)
3
2 1
2.7
9 E
10 a m = 1
y=3 4x +3
0.7
1
2
b y = 2 x 1 4
11
1 2
4
3
4
3
3
4
(4, 3)
12 a
b
c
d
e
f
p=8
y = 4 x + 1 + 8
x=3
x 1
y8
y
(1, 8)
y
41
1
4
1 C
2 a Domain: R, range: y 0
b Domain: R, range: y 1
c Domain: R, range: y 4
d Domain: R, range: y 2
e Domain: R \ {1}, range: y > 1
f Domain: R \ {0}, range: y 0
3 a
y
y
3 31
3
y
1
3.6
3
(6, 1)
x
122
exercise 2F
(1, 1)
4.4
y
2
3
2
1.4
3 43
i Domain: x 4 , range: y 2
6 D
7 D
8 a
5 1 1
11
x
h Domain: x 1 , range: y 4
j Domain: x 3, range: y 7
k Domain: x 2, range: y 6
l Domain: x 2, range: y 1
3.7
2 x
2
5
ii y = 32 x 3 + 20
35 63
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
f(x) = |3x 1|
3 2 1 0
x + 3 x + 2,0 < x < 3
b f (1) = (1)2 3 1 + 2 = 6,
6 a y = 32 x , 2 x 2
b Yellow: y = 6 32 x , 2 x 2;
2
green: y =
3
2
x 6,
blue: y =
3
2
x , 2 x 2
x 2;
c Teacher to check
exercise 2G Transformations with
matrices
1 i Reflection in the y-axis, dilation by a
factor of 2 from the x-axis
ii Dilation by a factor of 12 from the y-axis,
dilation by a factor of 4 from the x-axis,
iii Reflection in the y-axis, dilation by a
factor of 3 from the x-axis, dilation by a
factor of 2 from the y-axis
iv Dilation by a factor of 1 from the x-axis,
2
2 i (3, 10)
3
ii ( 2 , 20 )
iii (6, 15)
5
iv (3, 2 )
2
3 a i y= 2
x
1
ii y =
x2
0
1
dom f : R
b f (x) =
x3
+ x
2
y
3
2
1
6 a i y= x3 +2
3
ii y = x 2 2
0
1
dom f : [0, )
7C
8 a Reflection in the y-axis, dilation by a
iii ( 5 , 2)
2
ii y = x 7 x + 8
f(x) = |x 3x| + 2
2
b i y = x 9 x + 20
f (2) = 22 + 3 2 + 2 = 4
x 2 3 x + 2, x 0 x 3
5 a f (x) =
direction of the x-axis, translation of

2 units in the positive direction of the
y-axis
ii Translation of 2 units in the positive
direction of the x-axis, translation of
2 units in the negative direction of the
y-axis
iii Translation of 1 units in the negative
5
direction of the x-axis
5 i (4, 0)
ii (3, 4)
y=x
4 i Translation of 3 units in the positive
b f (0) =3 0 + 1 = 1, f (2) = 3(2) 1 = 5
y = x2
ii y = 4 2 x
3 x 1, x 1
3
4 a f (x) =
1
3
x
1,
x
+
<
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
y y = x2 + x
c i y=2 x
99
(1, 6)
exercise 2h Sum, difference and

product functions
1 a f (x) = x2 + x
b i y = 2 x 3 10
2
c f ( x ) = 3x + x
factor of 2 from the x-axis, translation

horizontally by +6, translation vertically
by +1
2
f (x) =
+2
( x + 6)
1.5 1 0.5 0
b Dilation by a factor of 2 from the y-axis,
1
2
dilation by a factor of from the x-axis,

reflection in the x-axis, horizontal
translation by +3, vertical
1
translation by 1 y =
1
x3
1
x 4
9 T
=
y 0
0 x 1
+
y 3
1
10 a y = 2 x + 8 x 1
b (2, 1); point lies on the curve
11 Dilation by a factor of 3 from the x-axis,
reflection in the x-axis, translation by

2 units in the positive direction of the
x-axis, translation by 1 unit in the positive
direction of the y-axis
x 1 0 x
+ 2
T =
1
y 0 3 y

2( x + 1) + 1
12 a, b g(2( x + 1)) + 1 =
13 a, b f (x) = 2x2 10x + 6

14 h(x) = x3 5
1.5
dom f : R
1
x
d f (x) = x + 2 +
y
6
4
2
c Horizontal translation by +1, vertical
translation by 2, 13 dilation from the

y-axis, reflection in the x-axis
1
+2
y =
3x + 1
0.5
6 4 2 2
dom f : R\{0}
2 a g( x ) h( x ) =
x +1 x
y
4
(1, 1)
6 4 2
2
0
b g( x ) h( x ) = x x + 1 + 2
(1, 3)
y
4
2
6 4 2 0
(1, 2) 2
123
3 a (, 3]
b R
c [0, 1]
d R
e [2, )
e f (2) = 1, g(2) =
(2, 4)
(2, 4)
e f (2) = 4, g(2) =
f
1 1 0
2
3
(2, 4) 4
(2, 8)
(2, 20.5 4)
(2, 2)
3 2 1
(2, 2)
0
2
4
(2, 8)
d f (1) = 1, g(1) = 1, h(1) = 0

e f (2) = 8, g(2) = 2, h(2) = 6
10
8
6
4
2
2 1 0
2
4
6
8
124
iii
4 a>0
(2.5, 5.38)
5 f g does not exist; g f (x) =
f(x)
5 4 3 2 1 0
2
4
g(x)
2 Teacher to check
3 a i f (x y) f (x) f (y)
ii f (x y) f (x) f (y)
(8, 13)
e ii f (g(x)) = (x2 + 1)(x2 + 3), domain R
f ran h: [6, 10]
iii f (x) + f (y) (x2 + y2) f (xy)

(2, 2)
1
iv
3
i
ii
x + 3 1, domain [3, )
1
b ii f (g(x)) =
, domain R
|x|+3
2
c ii f (g(x)) = 3(x 2)3, domain R
3
d ii f (g(x)) = x , domain R
c f (0) = 0, g(0) = 0, h(0) = 0
(2, 2)
v
f
6 (0, 6)
v
b i
(2, 6)
ii
(2, 8)
iii
x
f (x)
f( ) =
y
f ( y)
f (xy) = f (x) f (y)
f (x y) f (x) f (y)
f (x y) f (x) f (y)
f (x) + f (y) (x2 + y2) f (xy)
x
f (x)
y
f ( y)
f (xy) = f (x)f (y)
f (x y) f (x) f (y)
f (x y) = f (x) f (y)
f (x) + f (y) (x2 + y2)f (xy)
f (x)
x
f( )
f ( y)
y
f (xy) f (x) f (y)
iv f ( ) =
1 a ii f (g(x)) = 2
b f (2) = 8, g(2) = 2, h(2) = 10
(2, 10)
(2, 8)
iii f (x) + f (y) (x2 + y2) f (xy)
exercise 2i Composite functions and

functional equations
f (x)
1.5
f (x)g(x)
(2, 2)
iv
(2.5, 1.38)
v f (xy) = f (x) f (y)

e i f (x y) f (x) f (y)
6543210 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
h(x)
0.5
y
5
4
3
2
1
(2, 4)
y
8
ii
8 x + x + 5, x [ 5,8]
(8, 13)
(2, 20.5)
6 a
8 h( x ) =
2 , h(2) = 4 + 2
y
1
g(x)
g(1) = 1, h(1) = 0
iv
1.5 1 0.5 0
2
c f (0) = 0, g(0) = 0, h(0) = 0
2 , h(2) =
v
d i
iii
x
f (x)
y
f ( y)
f (xy) = f (x) f (y)
f (x y) f (x) f (y)
f (x y ) f (x) f (y)
f (x) + f (y) = (x2 + y2)f (xy)
x
f (x)
f( ) =
y
f ( y)
iv f ( ) =
y
4
b a=0
d f (1) =
iii f (x) + f (y) (x2 + y2) f (xy)
f ran h: [ 2, )
(2, 2 )
0
1
1
2
3
4
1,
1.5
0.5
1
2
c f (0) = 3, g(0) = 0, h(0) = 0

d f (1) = 2, g(1) = 1, h(1) = 2
5 a
0.5
f (x)
(4, 4.5)
v f (xy) = f (x) f (y)
1.5 1 0.5 0
2
0
f (x)
f ( y)
c i f (x y) f (x ) f (y)
g(x)
(4, 4.5)
2
4
iv f ( ) =
y
4
2
y
4
x
y
7 a dom h: [0, )
1
+2
x 2 +1
6 Restricted domain of g(x) = R \(1, 1)

7 dom w: ( 3, ), ran w: (0, ), dom v: R+,
ran v: (2, ) w v(x) = x + 1 ,

where x R+; v w(x) = x + 3 2, where
x (3, )
8 Teacher to check
9 Teacher to check
10 Reflection in the y-axis, translated +1
parallel to the x-axis
exercise 2J
modelling
b ii
1 a iii
d i
e v
2 a y = ax3, a = 0.3
a
c y= 2,a=2
x
a
e y= ,a=5
x
3 D
4 a
c iv
b y = ax2, a = 6
d y = a x , a = 1.6
f y = ax3, a = 1.5
y
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
1 2 3 4 5
y
50
40
30
20
10
2 f (x) = 2
0
10
5 10 15 20 25
Dilation 13 from the y-axis, dilation from

the x-axis by a factor of 7, reflection in the
x-axis, translation 13 parallel to the x-axis
in the negative direction, translation +2
parallel to the y-axis
3 y = 1 3(x 1)3
4 a x = 2, y = 1
b Domain: R\{2}, range: R\{1}
4
c y=
1
x+2
x2
c a = 2, b = 3.2, y = 2x2 3.2

1
5 y = 4 x3 12
6 a
f
500
400
300
200
100
0
10
1
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
3
6
9
12
15
18
D(4, 6)
f(x)
B C(2, 3)
A 2
2
A' B'
2
C'(2, 3)
by 2 units to the left and 1 unit down,

dilation by the factor of 2 along the y-axis
2
b y=
1
( x + 2)2
4d
ii
D'(4, 6)
1.3
Price
8 10 Month
ii y =
b p=2 m +4
11 a x =
c 10.63, 10.93
ChapTer reVieW
ShorT anSWer
1 a (3, 4)
b Domain: R, range: y 4
c
y
C(2, 3)
B2
A
2
1.6
4.4
x
y
,y =
a
2
b y=
4x2
a2
( f + g)( x ) = 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 1
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
A'(2, 3)
12 g:( 2,1) R, g( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 + 1
B'(2, 2)
A'
D'(4, 9)
2x
a
D(4, 6)
C(2, 3)
f(x)
A(2, 3), B(0, 5), C(2, 6), D(4, 9)

v
2f(x)
D'(4, 12)
(1, 7)
( f + g)(x)
(1, 4)
(1, 3)
f(x)
1
C' (2, 6)
B'
5
f(x) + 3 A
2
c a = 2, y = x2 x
(2, 1)
D'(6, 6)
A(0, 0), B(2, 2), C(4, 3), D(6, 6)
(1 x )3 1 x
+
+2
512
8
g(x)
f(x)
C'(4, 3)
iv
1 x
+2
8
14
f(x2)
D (4, 6)
10 a a = 8, b = 1
b i y=2
C(2, 3)
A'
x
2
iii
1
2
b Domain: R\{2}, range: (, 2]
9 a = 3, b =
A(2, 0), B(0, 2), C(2, 3), D(4, 6)

(1, 2)
2.7 2
y
f(x)
f(x)
D'(4, 6) D(4, 6)
C'(2, 3)
A
2
y
(3, 2)
A(2, 0), B(0, 2), C (2, 3), D(4, 6)
8 a
C
E
E
C
E
E
exTended reSponSe
2
( x 1)2
7 4 units to the right and 3 units up;
y=3 4x
8 y=3 x +4
9 a
$
E
C
D
A
B
D
2
5
8
11
14
17
f(x)
6 y=
270
b I= 2
d
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
D
D
D
C
E
C
E
5 a Reflection in the x-axis, translation
I
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
340
b No
d No
mUlTiple ChoiCe
c f=
13 a Yes
c Yes
14 c 100
1 a i
2 4 6 8 10
f
1000
800
600
400
200
7 a
7
3x + 1
C'(2, 6)
B'4
A 2B
A' 2
f(x)
D(4, 6)
C(2, 3)
x
A(2, 0), B(0, 4), C(2, 6), D(4, 12)
125
f(x)
vi
A'(3, 1)
A
B
2
C(2, 3)
C'(1, 2)
B'(1, 1)
D'(3, 5)
A( 3, 1), B( 1, 1),
C(1, 2), D(3, 5)
b Add multiples of 2, for example,
f (x) + 2, f (x) + 4, f (x) + 6,
f (x) 2 etc. and keep the domain
fixed at [3, 7].
2 a Dilation from the y-axis by a factor of 12 ,
vertical translation of +1
1 0
, 0
b 2
0 1 1
c ( 12 , 2), (1, 1.25) ( 12 , 2), (1, 1.25)
126
D(4, 6)
1 f(x + 1)
5 a a = 40
b i The eagle is 48 m above the ground.
ii The eagle is 42 m above the ground.
c It takes 24.2 s to reach the ground.
d The speed is slow to start but increases
e y=
1
+1
4x2
3 a 55 m
b Maximum height is 30.01 m above
ground and maximum depth is 5.38 m.
c i Minimum depths and maximum
heights would be greater.

iii Would be greater
y = a(x b)2 + c
b b=9
Straight line (negative gradient)
a = 0.55, c = 275
y = 0.55(x 9)2 + 275
No, the prices started going down.
$266 000, $261 000
About 4 months
ii No change
4 a
c
d
e
f
g
h
rapidly as the eagle approaches the

ground.
h
50 (0, 48.4)
(5, 48)
40
(20, 42)
30
20
10
(24.2, 0)
0
10
15
20
25
f a = 2.5, c = 10
40
, 0 t 24
50 +
t 25
g f (t ) =
2.5(t 24)2 + 10, 24 t 26
Exam practice 1 CHAPTERS 12

1 The functions f and g are graphed below. On the same axes sketch a graph of f + g.
f
S ho rT
a n S W er
15 minutes
0
1 mark
2 Write down the maximal domain of f : X R where f ( x ) =
x2 3 .
1 mark
3 For y = (2x
1:
a write down the y-coordinate of the turning point
b determine the equation of the axis of symmetry.
3)2
2 marks
4 a Using the factor theorem, show that x + 2 is a factor of x3 7x 6.

b Given x3 7x 6 = (x + 2)Q(x) where Q(x) is a quadratic factor, determine Q(x).
5 For what values of c does the graph of y =
2x
+ c intersect the graph of y =
x2
2 marks
+ x 2 at
two distinct points?
2 marks
6 Sketch the graph of the function f
:[1,
4) R, f (x) = | 3(x
3)2
10 |.
2 marks
1 Given a, b R, this graph could have the rule:

a y=
1
a
xb
b y=
e y=
10 minutes
+b
ax
1
d y=
a
xb
1
+b
C y=
x+a
m U lTip l e
C ho iC e
y=b
each question is worth

one mark.
x=a
x
1
+a
x+b
y
2 The graph sketched at right is best represented by the rule:

a y = (x a)(x b)2(x c)2
b y = (x a)(x c)2
C y = (x a)3(x c)2
d y = (x a)(x c)
e y = (x a)(x b)(x c)
3
x
3 The coefficient of the term in x4 in the expansion of (2 x 2 )5 is:

a 240
d 72
b 72
e 720
C 60
4 What is the equation of the horizontal asymptote of the graph of y =

a y = 4
d y=
3
4
b y = 3
3x 2
?
4x
C y = 1
e y=3
5 The quadratic function f : D R, f (x) = 2(x + 1)2 5 has a domain, D, of [0, 3]. The range of f is:
a [1, 3]
d [3, 27]
b R
e [5, )
C [5, 27]
6 The simultaneous linear equations 3x + ay = 12 and ax + 3y = 4a have infinitely many solutions for:
a a [3, 3]
d a=9
b a=3
e a=0
C a = 3 or a = 3
Exam practice 1
127
e x T ended
r e S ponS e
40 minutes
1 Severe tropical cyclone Vance devastated the town of Exmouth in northern WA in 1999. It produced a
measured wind gust of 267 km/h, which is the highest wind speed ever recorded on mainland Australia.
In order for it to be first categorised as a cyclone, its wind speed needed to exceed 119 km/h.
Several years later, it is a peaceful day, with no wind detectable at 1 pm. By 3 pm, however, the
wind speed is gusting to 200 km/h, and the residents know they are in trouble.
a Let t be the time in hours after noon and v be the wind speed. Establish a linear model of the form
v = at + b to represent the relationship between the wind speed and time.
2 marks
b Using this model, determine to the nearest minute when the wind speed will be high enough
for classification as a cyclone.
1 mark
c Predict to the nearest minute when the cyclone will break the record for the highest wind
speed ever recorded.
1 mark
d Explain why the linear model is unsatisfactory as a model for the cyclones behaviour.
1 mark
e i The wind speed actually peaks at 256 km/h at 5 pm. Use this data and the wind speed at
1 pm to help to create a quadratic model relating wind speed (v) to hours after noon (t).
How well does this model match all the data provided?
2 marks
ii The wind speed actually returns to zero at 1 am the following morning, 12 hours later.
Discuss how well this result matches the quadratic model.
1 mark
f i Establish a second quadratic model that exactly matches the following data:
1 mark
Time
1 pm
5 pm
1 am
Wind speed
0 km/h
256 km/h
0 km/h
ii Evaluate how well this model represents the relationship between time and wind speed.
g It has been suggested that a cubic function would be a better model for the data. Use all
the data provided in order to establish a cubic model.
1 mark
2 marks
h The graph below shows how air pressure in hectopascals (P hPa) and wind speed (v km/h) relate
1
)
x2
could represent the shape of the relationship between speed and distance across the cyclone.
1020
1010
1000
990
980
970
960
950
0 km
diGiTal doC
doc-1608
Solutions
exam practice1
128
Eye
Pressure
Wind speed
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
Wind speed (km/h)
Pressure (hPa)
to distance (x) across a cyclone. It has been suggested that a truncus (general form v ( x )
500 km
i What is the equation to the vertical asymptote for this relationship?

ii Determine a rule for the relationship between speed (v) and distance (x).
iii Determine a rule for the relationship between air pressure (P) and distance (x).
1 mark
2 marks
2 marks
ChapTer 3
Exponential and
logarithmic equations
diGiTal doC
doc-9185
10 Quick Questions
ChapTer ConTenTS
3a
3B
3C
3d
3e
3F
3G
3h
3i
The index laws

Logarithm laws
Exponential equations
Logarithmic equations using any base
Exponential equations (base e)
Equations with natural (base e) logarithms
Inverses
Literal equations
Exponential and logarithmic modelling
The index laws
3a
A number in index form has two parts, the base and the index, power, exponent or logarithm. A number
in index form is represented like this:
Index, power, exponent or logarithm
ax
Base
The index laws are summarised below.

ax ay = ax + y
ax ay = ax y
(ax)y
axy
a0 = 1 (a 0)
x
1
a = x (a 0)
a
1
ax
(ab)x
a = ax =
(y a )
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
= x a (x 0)
x
y
Units: 3 & 4
(y 0)
axbx
ax
aa
= x , b 0
b
b
Worked example 1
Simplify
(2 x 2 y3 )3 3( xy4 ) 2
.
6 x 4 2 xy4
Think
1
Remove the brackets by multiplying the indices.
Add the indices of x and add the indices of y.

Simplify 23 to 8 and multiply the whole numbers.
Subtract the indices of x and y. Divide 24 by 12.
WriTe
(2 x 2 y3 )3 3( xy 4 )2 23 x 6 y9 3 x 2 y8
=
6 x 4 2 xxyy 4
12 x 5 y 4
24 x 8 y17
=
12 x 5 y 4
= 2x3y13
ChapTer 3 Exponential and logarithmic equations
129
For negative indices and fractional or decimal indices, the same rules apply.
Worked example 2
Write in simplest form:

2
a 64
0.4
b 32
c 125
3.
Think
WriTe
x
y
a 1 Rewrite using the index law a =
ax
a 64
2
3
= 3 64 2
y
Rewrite using a x = ( a ) x .
= ( 3 664)2
Simplify by taking the cube root of 64.
= 42
Square 4.
= 16
0.4
b 1 Write as a fraction with a positive index.
Change 0.4 to
b 32
4
.
10
Simplify the fractional index.
=
x
1
320.4
1
4
3210
1
2
32 5
Rewrite using the index law a y = a x .
1
( 5 332)2
Simplify by taking the 5th root of 32.
1
22
Square 2.
1
4
c 1 Write 125
as a fraction with a position index.
c 125
125 3
=
1
( 125)2
Simplify by taking the cube root of 125.
1
(5)2
Simplify by squaring the denominator.
1
25
1
25
Rewrite using the index law
a x = ( y a ) x.
Write the answer.
125
Worked example 3
Simplify, leaving your answer with positive indices:
a a 2 b4 ( a 3 b 4 )
130
12 1 1
a b
b 1 2 .
3 b
Think
WriTe
a 1 Remove the brackets by multiplying the indices.
a a 2b4 (a3b 4)
Add the indices of a and of b.
= a 5b8
Place a5 in the denominator with a positive index.
b 1 Remove the outer index of 1 by inverting the
fraction.
= a 2b4 a 3b4
1 1
2
b a b
31 b 2
b8
a5
3 1 b2
1
a2b
Change 3 1 to 1 and change b 1 to b and place on

3
the numerator.
Simplify the numerator.
b 2b1
1
3a 2
b3
1
3a 2
4
1 1
a 2 b
31 b 2
Write the answer.
b3
1
3a 2
If the expression contains different numbers that do not have the same base, write each number as
a product of prime factors.
Worked example 4
Simplify
3 n 6 n + 1 12 n 1
, showing working.
32n 8n
Think
WriTe
3n 6n + 1 12n 1
32 n 8 n
3n (3
(3 22))n + 1 (2
(22 33))n 1
=
2
n
3
3 ((22 )n
Write each number as the product of prime factors.
Remove the brackets.
3n 3n + 1 2 n + 1 2 2 n 2 3n 1
32 n 2 3 n
In the numerator, add the indices of numbers

with base 3 and add indices of numbers with
base 2.
33n 23n 1
32 n 2 3 n
Subtract the indices of terms with the same base.
= 3n 2
Write the term with a negative index in the

denominator with a positive index.
= 3n
Simplify.
1
2
3n
2
131
Worked example 5
Simplify, leaving your answer with positive indices.

3
3
1
+
a x 2 2
b 1
x
x +2 x 12
Think
WriTe
a 1 Rewrite the expression with positive indices.
ax
x 2
1
= 2 3x 2
x
Find the lowest common denominator x2.
Simplify.
2
1
2 x
3
x
x2
x2
1 3x 4
x2 x2
1 3x 4
=
x2
b 1 Rewrite the question using positive indices.
3
1
+
1
1
+ 2 2
x x
3
x
+
1 + 2x 1 2x
x x
Find the common denominator for the terms

in the brackets and simplify.
Follow the process for division of fractions

(change the division sign to a multiplication
sign and invert the second fraction).
3x
x
+
1 + 2x 1 2x
Find the common denominator.
3 x (1 2 x)
x ) + x (1
(1 + 2 xx)
(1 + 2 x )(1 2 xx)
Expand the brackets on the numerator.
3x 6 x 2 + x + 2 x 2
(1 + 2 x )(1 2 xx)
Simplify the numerator by adding like terms.
4x 4x2
(1 + 2 x )(1 2 xx)
Factorise the numerator and write the answer.
4 x (1 x )
(1 + 2 x )(1 2 xx)
exercise 3a
1 We1
The index laws
Simplify:
a x3 x4
e
b x7 x2
( x 2 )3 x 5
( x 5 )2
2 We2
132
TUTorial
eles-1202
Worked example 5
2
27 3
c (x2)5
5x 2 y4 4 x 5 y
22 x 3 y 2
d (x 3)2
2 3
4 2
g (2 xy ) 5( x y)
4 x 5 y3 3 x 2 y3
Simplify:
3
b 25
c 810.25
27 3
d
64
243
e
32
3
5
3 Simplify:
x4 x5
a
x3
256
e
81
9 2
d
49
361.5
3
4
Simplify, leaving your answer with positive indices.
4 We3
a
3
16 4
3x 3y2
(x2y)
1
c x 2 y 2
3
2
b
5
3 2
9 x 2 y 2
1 2
2x 2 y 3
3 2
a2b c
d 1
3a 2 bc 2
1 1 2
9 x 5 y 2
2 3
a3b
3 1 2
a c
5 Simplify:
a
x4y 1
1
16 2
(x 2y3) 1
2 1
x 5 y 4
1
2
b
1
1 3
5x 3 y 4
1 2 1
83 x 3 y 2
3 3
a 2b4
d
ab 2
2 1 2
4 x 5 y 2
9a 3b 2
2 3
4a b
6 We4 Simplify:
a 2n 4n + 1 8n 1
b 3n 9n 1 27n + 1
c 2n 3n + 1 9 n
32 2
7 Simplify:
a 2n 1 3n 6n + 1
16
3
92
52 3
125 9
27
5
8 We5 Simplify, writing your answer as a single fraction with positive indices.
a
x 1+
b (x
x
1
1
c
+
x 1 +1 x 1 1
x
9 mC 3
a 1
+ 3x is equal to:
1 + 32 x
B
3x
+ x 2)2
1
d 2x(x2 y2)
C 3
x2
(x y)
d 6
1 + 3x
3x
logarithm laws
3B
If a > 0, then N = ax loga (N) = x.

For example, an expression in index form can also be rewritten in logarithmic form.
8 = 23 log2 (8) = 3
Since 0 then loga (0) is undefined.

a0 = 1 loga (1) = 0
a1 = a loga (a) = 1
Let m = ax loga (m) = x and n = ay loga (n) = y.
mn = ax ay loga (mn) = x + y
= ax + y
= loga (m) + loga (n)
x
m
m a
= xy
loga
=
n
n ay
= ax y
= loga (m) loga (n)
p
m = (ax)p loga (mp) = px
= axp
= p loga (m)
ax
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
133
Change-of-base rule
Suppose b = ax, then loga (b) = x.
Consider N = b y, then logb (N) = y.
But N = b y = (ax) y = ax y.
Therefore, loga (N) = xy
= loga (b) logb (N).
Thus, logb ( N ) =
loga ( N )
.
loga (b)
This is called the change-of-base rule.

Worked example 6
Evaluate:
a log2 (1)
b log5 (5).
Think
WriTe
a Log of 1 to any base is equal to zero:
a log2 (1) = 0
b If the number and base are equal the answer is 1:
b log5 (5) = 1
loga (1) = 0.
loga (a) = 1.
Worked example 7
Write in index form:

a log2 (8) = 3
b logx (81) = 4.
Think
WriTe
a Use ax = y loga (y) = x.
a log2 (8) = 3 23 = 8
b Use ax = y loga (y) = x.
b logx (81) = 4 x4 = 81
Worked example 8
Simplify:
a log10 (5) + log10 (2)
c log2 (16)
b log4 (20) log4 (5)

d log 5
(5 x ) .
Think
WriTe
a 1 Rewrite using loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga n.

2
Simplify.
= log10 (10)
Simplify using loga (a) = 1.
=1
b 1 Rewrite using loga
m = log (m) log (n).

a
a
n
20
5
b log4 (20) log4 (5) = log4
Simplify.
= log4 (4)
=1
c 1 Rewrite 16 as a number with base 2.
134
a log10 (5) + log10 (2) = log10 (5 2)
c log2 (16) = log2 (24)
Rewrite using loga (m p) = p loga (m).
= 4 log2 (2)
=4
d 1 Rewrite using
a=
1
a y.
g5
d log
(5 x ) = log5 x 5
1
Rewrite using loga (mp) = p loga (m).
= 5 log5 ( x )
Worked example 9
Simplify log3 (27) + log3 (9) log3 (81).

Think
WriTe
Simplify log3 (27) using loga (mp) = ploga (m).
log3 (27) = log3 (33)

= 3log3 (3)
Note that log3 (3) = 1.
log3 (27) = 3
Simplify log3 (9).
log3 (9) = log3 (32)

= 2log3 (3)
=2
Simplify log3 (81).
log3 (81) = log3 (34)

= 4log3 (3)
=4
Write the answer.
log3 (27) + log3 (9) log3 (81)

=3+24
=1
Worked example 10
Simplify:
a 2 + log10 (3)
b 3 log3 (6) 3 log3 (18)
Think
a 1 Write 2 as 2 log10 (10) because log10 (10) = 1.
log 3 (9)
.
log 3 (27)
WriTe
TUTorial
eles-1179
Worked example 10
a 2 + log10 (3) = 2 log10 (10) + log10 (3)
= log10 (102) + log10 (3)
Rewrite using loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n).
= log10 (102 3)
Write 102 as 100.
= log10 (100 3)
Multiply the numbers in the brackets.
= log10 (300)
b 1 Rewrite using loga (m p) = p loga (m).
b 3 log3 (6) 3 log3 (18) = log3 (63) log3 (183)
Rewrite using
m
loga = loga (m) loga (n).
n
Write 63 as 6 6 6 and 183 as 18 18 18.
666
= log3
18 18 18
Simplify.
1
= log3 3
3
Write the numbers with the base 3.
= log3 (3 3)
Rewrite using loga (mp) = p loga (m).
= 3 log3 (3)
Simplify using loga a = 1.
= 3 1 = 3
63
= log3 3
18
135
g3 ((9) logg3 ((332 )

c log
=
3
c 1 Write the numbers with the same base. It is
logg3 ((27)
not possible to cancel the 9 and the 27 because

they cannot be separated from the log.
logg3 ((33 )
2 log3 (3)
3log3 (3)
Cancel the logs because they are the same.
2
3
Worked example 11
Calculate the value of log2 (18), correct to 2 decimal places.

Think
WriTe
Calculators can compare log10 or loge (to be

covered later in the chapter) only, so we need
to change the base using the rule:
logb ( N )
loga ( N ) =
logb (a)
Use a calculator to find log10 (18), log10 (2).
Write the answer.
exercise 3B
log2 (18) =
1.2553
0.3010
= 4.170 (to 3 decimal places)
log2(18) = 4.170 (to 3 decimal places)
logarithm laws
1 We6
Evaluate the following.
a log3 (1)
b log5 (1)
c log2 (2)
2 We7
Write the following in index form.
a log2 (16) = 4
b logx (25) = 2
d log3 (x) = 5
3
log10 (18)
log10 (2)
log5 1
5
c log5 (125) = x
Write the following in logarithmic form.

b 34 = 81
d 5x = 125
e 2 1 = 12
a 23 = 8
4 We8
Simplify:
a log6 (3) + log6 (2)
c 43 = x
f
b log2 (10) log2 (5)
d log3 (81)
d log6 (6)
log5 1
5
x3 = 27
c log2 (32)
f
log3 1
27
Simplify:
6 We9 Simplify:
a log4 (10) + log4 (2) log4 (5)
c
1
2
x4
y2
b 3log3 ( 3 x )
a log
g2 ( x )
c log2
b log5 (25) + log5 (125) log5 (625)
log10 (16) + log10 (5 )
d log3 (2) log3 (10) + log3 (15)
e log2 (16) + log2 (8) + log2 (4)

7 We10
Simplify:
a 4 log2 (12) 4 log2 (6)
log2 (64)
d
log2 (8)
136
b 2 + log5 (10) log5 (2)

e
loga ( x )
loga ( x )
c 1 + log2 (5)
8 We11 Evaluate correct to 3 decimal places.

a log10 (3)
b log5 (4)
d log2 (0.8)
e log4 (20)
9
a
c
e
g
c log10 (0.5)
f log3 (60)
Simplify:
5 log3 (x) + log3 (x2) log3 (x7)
3 log4 (x) 5 log4 (x) + 2 log4 (x)
log10 (x2) + 3 log10 (x) 2 log10 (x)
log5 (x + 1) + log5 (x + 1)2
b
d
f
h
4 log2 (x) + log2 (x3) log2 (x6)

4 log6 (x) 5 log6 (x) + log6 (x)
4 log10 (x) log10 (x) + log10 (x2)
log4 (x 2)3 2 log4 (x 2)
10 mC 2 log10 (5) log10 (20) + log10 (8) is equal to:

a log10 (2)
C 1
B log10 (2)
11 mC If loga (b) = 2, then b is equal to:

a 0
B 1
d a
C 2
e log10 (4)
e a2
12 If y = a log10 (x), find x when a = 2 and y = 3. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
3C
exponential equations
The equation ax = b is an example of a general exponential (or indicial) equation and 2x = 32 is an

example of a more specific exponential equation.
To solve one of these equations it is necessary to write both sides of the equation with the same base if
the unknown is an index or with the same index if the unknown is the base.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Worked example 12
Solve for x in each of the following.

1
a 2x = 32
b 3x =
27
c 2 3x =
Think
WriTe
a 1 Write 32 with base 2, the same as the
left-hand side.
2
d 2(1 x) = 16
162
The indices are equal because the base is

2 on each side of the equation.
b 1 Write 27 with base 3.
1
as a number with base 3.
33
Write
Equate the indices.
c 1 Divide both sides by 2 to leave 3x on the
left-hand side.
2
Write 81 as a number with base 3.
Equate the indices.
d 1 Write 16 with base 2.

2
Equate the indices.
Solve for x.
a 2x = 32
2x = 25
x=5
1
27
1
= 3
3
b 3x =
3x = 3
x = 3
c 2 3 x = 162
3x = 81
3x = 34
x=4
d 21 x = 16
21 x = 24
1x=4
x = 3
137
Worked example 13
Solve 5x 252x 3 = 625 for x using index laws.

Think
1
Write all numbers with the same base.
WriTe
5x 252x 3 = 625
5x (52)2x 3 = 54
5x 52(2x 3) = 54
Simplify.
Remove the brackets in the index.
Add the indices on the left-hand side.
55x 6 = 54
Equate the indices.
5x 6 = 4
Solve the equation.
5x 54x 6 = 54
5x = 10
x=2
Sometimes it is possible to use the methods for solving quadratic equations to help solve indicial
equations. Remember that 22x = (2x)2.
Worked example 14
Solve for x in the following.
a (2x 16)(2x + 4) = 0
b 32x 12 3x + 27 = 0
c 4x 2x + 3 + 16 = 0
TUTorial
eles-1180
Worked example 14
Think
a 1 Use the Null Factor Law to solve by making
each bracket equal to zero.
a (2x 16)(2x + 4) = 0
(2x 16) = 0 or (2x + 4) = 0
Solve each equation.
2x = 16 or 2x = 4
Write 16 as a number with base 2 but 4 can

not be written with base 2.
2x = 24 or no real solution
Solve by equating the indices.
b 1 Write 32x as (3x)2.
x=4
b 32x 12 3x + 27 = 0
(3x)2 12 3x + 27 = 0
Let 3x = a to make a simpler quadratic

equation to solve.
a2 12a + 27 = 0, where a = 3x
Factorise.
(a 3)(a 9) = 0
Use the Null Factor Law by making each

bracket equal to zero.
a 3 = 0, a 9 = 0
Solve for a.
Substitute back a = 3x.
3x = 3, 3x = 9
Write numbers with base 3.
3x = 31, 3x = 32
Equate the indices.
c 1 Rewrite 4x as (2x)2 and 2x + 3 as 2x 23.

2
138
WriTe
Rewrite 23 as 8.
a = 3, a = 9
x = 1, x = 2
c
4x 2x + 3 + 16 = 0
(2x)2 2x 23 + 16 = 0
(2x)2 2x 8 + 16 = 0
Let 2x = a to make a simpler quadratic

equation to solve.
Replace a 8 with 8a because the coefficient

precedes the pronumeral.
Factorise.
Use the Null Factor Law (only one solution).
Solve for a.
a=4
Substitute back a = 2x.
2x = 4
Write 4 as a number with base 2.
10
Solve by equating the indices.
a2 a 8 + 16 = 0 where a = 2x
a2 8a + 16 = 0
(a 4)(a 4) = 0
a4=0
= 22
x=2
Remember to always make the right-hand side equal to zero when solving quadratic equations.
It is a good idea to substitute your answer back into the original equation to check the accuracy of
your work.
If the base is not the same and the numbers cannot be written with the same base, then logarithms
can be used. It is possible to take the logarithm of both sides of an equation provided the same base
is used.
Worked example 15
Solve for x in the following. Give your answers in exact form using base 10 and correct to
3 decimal places.
a 5x = 10
b 2(x + 1) = 12
Think
a 1 Take the logarithm of both sides to base 10.
WriTe
5x = 10
log10 (5x) = log10 (10)
Use loga (mp) = p loga (m) and loga (a) = 1.
x log10 (5) = 1
Divide both sides by log10 (5).
x=
Use a calculator to simplify.
x 1.431, correct to 3 decimal places.
b 1 Take the logarithm of both sides to base 10.

2
Use loga (mp) = p loga (m) to simplify.
Use a calculator to simplify the right-hand side.
Solve for x.
1
log10 (5)
(exact form)
2(x + 1) = 12
log10 (2(x + 1)) = log10 (12)
(x + 1) log10 (2) = log10 (12)
( x + 1) =
x=
log10 (12)
log10 (2)
log10 (12)
1 (exact form)
log10 (2)
Note: Logarithms in bases other than 10 may be used.

Inequalities are worked in exactly the same way except that there is a change of sign when dividing or
multiplying both sides of the inequality by a negative number.
139
Worked example 16
Solve the following equations for x, giving your answers both in exact form and correct
to 3 decimal places.
a 2x > 5
b 0.5x 1.4
Think
WriTe
a 1 Write the inequality as an equation
(replace > with =).
a 2x = 5
Take the logarithm of both sides using base 10.
log10 (2x) = log10 (5)
Rearrange using loga (mp) = ploga (m).
xlog10 (2) = log10 (5)
x=
log10 (5)
log10 (2)
(exact form)
Simplify using a calculator.
x = 2.322 (3 decimal places)
Write answers as an ineqautions.
x>
log10 (5)
log10 (2)
> 2.322 (3 decimal places)
b 1 Write the ineqaulity as an equation
(replace with =).
Take the logarithm of both sides using

base 10.
log10 (0.5x) = log10 (1.4)
Rearrange using loga (m p) = plog10 (m).
xlog10 (0.5) = log10 (1.4)
Divide both sides by log10 (0.5).
x=
Simplify using a calculator.
x = 0.485
Write answers as an inequality.

Note: log10 (0.5) is a negative number,
so change the sign of the inequality.
exercise 3C
0.485
(3 decimal places)
1
2x
= 32
e 243x = 3
1
49
a 3 2x = 48
1
140
log10 (1.4)
log10 (0.5)
b 10x = 1000
c 52x 1 = 125
diGiTal doC
doc-9247
SkillSHEET 3.2
Solving equations
(3 decimal places)
a 3x = 81
d 7x =
log10 (1.4)
log10 (0.5)
1 We12
diGiTal doC
doc-9246
SkillSHEET 3.1
index form
b 0.5x = 1.4
3 We13
a 3x 3x 1 = 243
c 2x 4x 1 = 16
b 6x 2 = 216
d 22x 6 = 1
b 5x 52x + 1 = 625
d
33 x + 1
= 81
9x 2
4 We14
a (3x 9)(3x 1) = 0
b 22x 6 2x + 8 = 0
x
x
d 4 6 2 16 = 0
e 9x = 2 3x + 3
c 62x 7 6x + 6 = 0
5 Solve for x in the following.

a 25x + 4 5x 5 = 0
b 42x 20 4x = 64
6 We15 Solve for x correct to 3 decimal places.

a 2x = 5
b (0.3)x 1 = 10
x
d 3 5 = 27
e 5 7x = 1
c (1.4)2 x = 6
f 2x 3x + 1 = 10
7 We16 Solve for x correct to 3 decimal places.

a 3x > 5
b 22x 7
x
d 7 0.5
e (0.4)x > 0.2
c (0.2)x > 3
diGiTal doC
doc-9248
SkillSHEET 3.3
Solving
indicial equations
by equating
the bases
8 mC The value of x for which 5 2x = 1255, correct to 3 decimal places, is:

a 7.971
B 897.750
C 897.749
d 7.972
e 2.059
9 mC The solution to the equation 102x = 3 10x + 4 is:
a log10 (1), log10 (4)
B 1, 4
d 0, 0.602
e log10 (4)
C 10x + 1, 10x 1
diGiTal doC
doc-9249
SkillSHEET 3.4
Solving liner
inequations
logarithmic equations using

any base
3d
The equation loga (y) = x is an example of a general logarithmic equation. Laws of logarithms and
indices are used to solve these equations.
Worked example 17
Solve for x in the following equations.

a log2 (x) = 3
b log3 (x4) = 16
c log5 (x 1) = 2
Think
a 1 Rewrite using ax = y loga (y) = x.

2
Rearrange and simplify.
b 1 Rewrite using loga (m p) = p loga (m).

2
Divide both sides by 4.
Rewrite using ax = y loga (y) = x.
Rearrange and simplify.
c 1 Rewrite using ax = y loga (y) = x.

2
Solve for x.
WriTe
a log2 (x) = 3
23 = x
x=8
b log3 (x4) = 16
4 log3 (x) = 16
log3 (x) = 4
3 4=x
1
34
1
=
81
x=
c log5 (x 1) = 2
52 = x 1
x 1 = 25
x = 26
The base of a logarithmic function and the base of an exponential function must be a positive real
number other than 1. In the expression loga (x), a R+\{1}.
141
Worked example 18
Solve for x in each of the following:

a logx (4) =
125
b log x
= 3.
Think
TUTorial
eles-1203
Worked example 18
WriTe
logx (4) = 2
x2 = 4
Solve the quadratic equation.
x2 4 = 0
(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
x 2 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
x=2
Check to see if solutions are valid.
x = 2 is the only solution.
This is the only solution. The solution x = 2 is not valid because the base of a logarithmic function must
be a positive real number other than 1.
b log x
b 1 Rewrite using: ax = y loga (y) = x.
125
= 3
1
= 125
x
2
Rewrite the LHS using a positive index.
1
= 1
x 3 125
Equate the denominators.
x3 = 125
Take the cube root of both sides.
x = 3 125 = 5
State the answer.
log5
125
= 3
Worked example 19

a log2 (16) = x
b log 3
=x
c log9 (3) = x
Think
WriTe

2
Write 16 with base 2.
Equate the indices.
b 1 Rewrite using ax = y loga (y) = x.
a log2 (16) = x
2x = 16
2x = 24
x=4
b
log3 1
3
=x
3x =
1
Equate the indices.
c 1 Rewrite using ax = y loga (y) = x.

2
142
1
3
1
3x = 3
x = 1
c log9 (3) = x
9x = 3
(32)x = 3
Remove the brackets.
32x = 31
Equate the indices.
2x = 1
Solve.
x=
1
2
Worked example 20

a log2 (4) + log2 (x) log2 (8) =
b log10 (x) + log10 (x 3) = log10 (4)
Think
WriTe
a 1 Simplify the left-hand side.
Use loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n) and

m
loga = loga (m) loga (n).
n
Solve.
a log2 (4) + log2 (x) log2 (8) = 3
4 x
=3
log2
8
x
log2 = 3
2
23 =
x
2
x = 2 23
=28
= 16
b 1 Simplify the left-hand side by using
loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n).
b log10 (x) + log10 (x 3) = log10 (4)
log10x (x 3) = log10 (4)

x(x 3) = 4
Equate the logs.
Expand.
Solve the quadratic equation.
x2 3x 4 = 0
(x 4)(x + 1) = 0
x = 4 or x = 1
x > 0, x 3 > 0 because it is not possible to

take the logarithm of a negative number, x > 3.
x = 4 is the only solution.
x2 3x = 4
logarithmic equations using any base
exercise 3d
1 We17 Solve for x in the following.

a i log5 (x) = 2
iii log10 (x2) = 4
v log4 (2x 3) = 0
vii log5 (1 x) = 4
b i log (x) = 4
3
iii log2 (x3) = 12
v log10 (2x + 1) = 0
vii log10 (5 2x) = 1
ii log2 (x) = 3
iv log3 (x + 1) = 3
vi log2 (x) = 5
ii log4 (x) = 2
iv log5 (x 2) = 3
vi log3 (x) = 2
diGiTal doC
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WorkSHEET 3.1

a
i logx (9) = 2

8
g x ((25) =
ii log
2
3
iii log
g x 1 = 3
iv logx (62) = 2
i logx (16) = 4
ii logx (125) =
iv logx (43) = 3
g x 1 = 2
iii log
64
3
4
143

a
i log2 (8) = x
ii log5 1 = x
iii log4 (2) = x

v log
g 1 ((2) = x
iv log6 (1) = x
16
1
ii log4 = x
b i log3 (9) = x
iii log8 (2) = x
iv log8 (1) = x
v log 1 (9) = x
3

a i log2 (x) + log2 (4) = log2 (20)
iii log3 (x) log3 (2) = log3 (5)
v log4 (8) log4 (x) = log4 (2)
b i log3 (10) log3 (x) = log3 (5)
iii log2 (x) + log2 (5) = 1
v 5 log4 (8) = log4 (x)
a i log2 (x) + log2 (6) log2 (3) = log2 (10)
iii log3 (5) log3 (x) + log3 (2) = log3 (10)
v log5 (x) + log5 (x 2) = log5 (3)
b i log3 (x) + log3 (x + 2) = log3 (8)
iii log5 (x) + log5 (x + 20) = 3
v log6 (x 2) + log6 (x + 3) = 1
ii log5 (3) + log5 (x) = log5 (18)

iv log10 (x) log10 (4) = log10 (2)
ii log6 (4) + log6 (x) = 2
iv 3 log10 (x) = log10 (2)
ii log2 (x) + log2 (5) log2 (10) = log2 (3)

iv log5 (4) log5 (x)+ log5 (3) = log5 (6)
ii log4 (x) + log4 (x 6) = 2
iv log5 (x + 1) + log5 (x 3) = 1
6 mC If loga (x) = 0.7, then loga (x2) is equal to:

a 0.49
B 1.4
d 0.837
e 0
C 0.35
7 mC If log10 (x) = (a), then (log10 x)2 + log10 (x) 6 becomes:

a (log10 (a))2 + log10 (a) 6
B a2 + a + 6
e log10 (106x3)
d (a 2)(a + 3)
C log10 (x3) 6

a (log10 (x))2 + log10 (x) 2 = 0 (Hint: Let a = log10 (x).)
b (log10 x)2 2 log10 (x) 3 = 0
c (log2 (x))2 2 log2 (x) = 8
d (log2 (x))2 + 3 log2 (x) = 4
log3
+3=0
4
2
g log2 (x ) = (log2 (x))
i log10 (x2 + 2x 5) = 1
e (log3
9 If
(x))2
(x4)
(log5 (x))2 log5 (x3) + 2 = 0

h log3 (x3) = (log3 (x))2
j log3 (x2 3x 7) = 1
log10 ( x )
= 4, find x.
log10 (2)
3e
exponential equations (base e)
Eulers number e, named after an 18th century Swiss mathematician, is a very important number used in
problems involving natural growth and natural decay. Like , it is irrational and has to be approximated:
e = 2.718 281 828 459 . . . The number e can be used to find the value of an investment after a period of
time, or the temperature of a liquid after it has been cooling.
1 n
To find the value of e, take the expression 1 + and evaluate it for increasing values of n.
n
n
1
+ 1 = + 1 =
n=1
1 2
1
n
1
144
n=2
+ 1 = + 1 =
2.25
1
1
n
2
n=3
+ 1 = + 1 =
2.370 37
1
1
n
3
n=5
n
5
+ 1 = + 1 =
2.488 32
1
1
n
5
n = 10
+ 1 = + 1
1
1
n
10
n = 100
n
100
1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.704 81
n
100
n = 1000
n
1000
1 + 1 = 1 + 1
= 2.716 92
n
1000
10
= 2.593 74
10 000
1 n
1
n = 10 000 1 + = 1 +
= 2.718 15
n
10 000
1 n
As n increases, 1 + becomes closer and closer to 2.718 281 or e, or
n
1 n
e = lim 1 + .
n
n
An answer given in terms of e is an exact answer.

The laws of indices apply in the same way if e is the base, that is:
ex ey = ex + y
ex ey = ex y
(ex)y = exy
e0 = 1
1
e x= x
e
x
e y = ex
Worked example 21
Solve for x in e3x = e.

Think
WriTe
Write the equation.
e3x = e
Write e with a power of 1.
e3x = e1
Equate the indices.
3x = 1
Solve for x.
x=
1
3
CAS calculators have an ex function, which is treated in the same way as any other number.
Worked example 22
Solve for x, showing working. Express your answers in exact form and correct to 3 decimal places.
a ex = 3
b ex 3ex = 2
Think
a 1 Write the equation.

2
As loge (e) = 1, take loge of both sides

of the equation.
Rewrite using loga (x p) = p loga (x).
Solve for x.
WriTe
ex = 3
loge (ex) = loge (3)
x loge (e) = loge (3)
x = loge (3)
1.099, correct to 3 decimal places.
145
b ex 3e
b 1 Write the equation.
1
.
ex
ex
=2
3
=2
ex
Write e x as
Multiply every term by ex.
(ex)2 3 = 2ex
Make the right-hand side equal to zero.
(ex)2 2ex 3 = 0
Let ex = a.
a2 2a 3 = 0 where a = ex
Factorise and solve for a.
(a 3)(a + 1) = 0
a 3 = 0 or a + 1 = 0
a = 3 or a = 1
Substitute ex for a.
ex = 3 or ex = 1
Solve for x by taking the log of both

sides to base e.
ex = 3 is the only solution because

ex = 1 has no real solution.
exercise 3e
exponential equations (base e )
1 Evaluate the following, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.

1
a e2
f
b e4
g ln (4)
c e2
h ln (5)
d e3
i loge (1.5)

b ex = e2
c ex 2 = e4
1
1
e e x +1 =
f ex 2 = 2
g e3 x + 6 = e
e
e
2 We21
a ex = e
e 4e
j loge (3.6)
1
d e2x = e
h e2 x 1 =
e3
3 We22 Solve for x in each of the following, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
a ex = 2
b ex = 5
e ex = 1.3
ex = 2.6
c ex =
1
2
g 2ex = 6
d ex =
1
4
h 3ex = 12
4 Solve for x in each of the following, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
a (ex 1)(ex + 2) = 0
b (e x 2)(e2x 3) = 0
c (3e x 2)(2ex 1) = 0
d (ex)2 ex = 0
e (ex)2 e ex = 0
f (ex)2 7ex + 10 = 0
g 6 11ex + 3e2x = 0
h 18 23ex + 7e2x = 0
a ex 4e x = 0
b ex 15e x 2 = 0
c 5ex 12e x 11 = 0
x
x
x
x
x
x
d 3e + 6e 11 = 0
e 4e + 6e 11 = 0
f e + 2e = 3
a ex > 1
b ex < e
c ex < 2
d e2x 4
e ex + 1 6
f e1 x 10
x
g e > 0.75
7 If y = Ae kt, and y = 19.6 when t = 2, and y = 19.02 when t = 5, find the
value of the constants A and k. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal

places.
8 For a body that has a higher temperature than its surroundings,
Newtons Law of Cooling is given by the formula = 0e kt,

where is the difference between the temperature of the body and
its surroundings after t minutes and 0 is the difference between
the original temperature of the body and its surroundings. If the
temperature of a freshly poured cup of coffee is 90 C in a room with a constant temperature of 18 C,
and it cools to 65 C after 10 minutes, find the value of k. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
146
equations with natural (base e)

logarithms
3F
CAS calculators have an LN function that can be used to find the log to base e in the same way that the
LOG key is used to find the log of a number to base 10. CAS calculators default to base 10 when using
the LOG key.
In general, aloga(x) = x, where a R+\{1}.
The laws of logarithms apply in the same way for base e as they do for base 10.
ex = y loge (y) = x.
Worked example 23
Solve for x, giving your answer both in exact form and correct to 3 decimal places, given that
loge (x) = 3.
Think
WriTe
Rewrite using ex = y loge (y) = x.
loge (x) = 3
e3 = x
Write the answer in exact form.
x = e3
Use a calculator to obtain the answer correct to

3 decimal places. Enter 3 then press the ex key
(or equivalent).
loge 3 = 20.085 536

= 20.086, correct
to 3 decimal places
Worked example 24
Solve for x giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places where appropriate.
a loge (3) = loge (x)
b loge (x) + loge (3) = loge (6)
Think
WriTe
a Since the base is the same, equate the numbers.
a loge (3) = loge (x)
b 1 Rewrite using loge (mn) = loge (m) + loge (n).
b loge (x) + loge (3) = loge (6)
Equate the number parts.
Solve for x.
x=3
loge (3x) = loge (6)

3x = 6
x=2
equations with natural (base e)

logarithms
exercise 3F
1 We23 Solve for x in each of the following giving, exact answers.

a loge (x) = 1
b loge (x) = 2
c loge (x) = 2
d loge (x) = 1
2 Solve for x, giving exact answers when appropriate, otherwise, correct to 3 decimal places.
a ln (2x) = 2
b ln (3x) = 1
c ln (x3) = 3
2
2
d ln (x ) = 2
e ln (x ) = 0.4
f ln (x3) = 0.9
g ln (x 1) = 1
h ln (2x + 1) = 2
3 We24 Solve for x, giving exact answers when appropriate, otherwise, correct to 3 decimal places.
a loge (x) = loge (2)
b loge (x) = loge (5)
c loge (x) + loge (3) = loge (9)
d loge (x) + loge (2) = loge (8)
e loge (x) loge (5) = loge (2)
1 + loge (x) = loge (6)

147
4 Solve for x, giving exact answers.

a loge (x) + loge (5) loge (10) = loge (3)
c 3 loge (2) + loge (x) loge (4) = loge (5)
e loge (x) + loge (x + 1) = loge (2)
b 2 loge (3) + loge (x) loge (2) = loge (3)

d loge (4) + loge (3) loge (x) = loge (2)
f ln (x + 1) + ln (2x 1) = ln (5)
5 mC If ln (y) = ln (x) + ln (a), then an equation relating x and y that does not involve logarithms is:
a y=x+a
B y = ax
C y=xa
d y=
6 mC In the equation 2 loge (x) loge (3x) = a, x =

a 3ea
C 3a
B a
x
a
d loge (6a)
y=
a
x
e no solution
7 Write the following equation without logarithms and with y as the subject.
2 loge (x) + 1 = loge (y)

8 If loge (x) = a and y =
ea,
express y in terms of x.
9 Solve for x the equation eln (x) = 2.

10 Five grams of a radioactive substance is decaying so
that the amount, A grams, that is left after t days, is
given by the formula A = 5e kt.

a Find the value of A when the number of grams
of the radioactive substance has been halved.
b Rewrite the equation with the new value of A.
c Rearrange the equation so that t is the subject
of the equation.
d If k = 0.005, find how long it will take for the
number of grams of the radioactive substance
to be halved. Give your answer correct to the
nearest day.
diGiTal doC
doc-9187
WorkSHEET 3.2
3G
inTeraCTiViTY
int-0248
inverses
inverses
Inverse operations are opposite operations. Addition and subtraction are inverse operations to each other
and multiplication and division are inverse operations to each other.
Squaring and taking the square root are also inverse operations. The equation of the inverse of the
function y = e x can be found by interchanging the x and y so that y = e x becomes x = e y. Using a x = y
loga (y) = x, x = e y becomes loge (x) = y or y = loge (x). Therefore y = e x and y = loge (x) are the equations
of inverse functions.
Thus two important properties follow:
aloga(x) = x, x R+
and
loga a(x) = x, x R.
Worked example 25
Calculate the inverse of y = 3ex + 1.

Think
148
Interchange x and y to write the inverse

equation.
In order to make y the subject, begin by

rewriting the equation using
ax = y loga (y) = x.
Make y the subject.
WriTe
y = 3ex + 1
Inverse is x = 3ey + 1
x
ey + 1 =
3
x
y + 1 = loge
3
x
y = loge 1
3
Worked example 26
Calculate the inverse of f(x) = 2 log10 (x 1) + 1.

Think
WriTe
Interchange x and y to write the inverse equation.
Let y = 2 log10 (x 1) + 1
Inverse is x = 2 log10 (y 1) + 1
In order to make y the subject, begin by

subtracting 1 from both sides.
x 1 = 2 log10 (y 1)
x 1
= log
log10 ( y 1)
2
10
Add 1 to both sides.
y = 10
Write the answer.
exercise 3G
x 1
2
= y 1
x 1
2
+1
( x ) = 10
x 1
2
+1
inverses
1 We25 Find the inverse of the following.

a y = 2ex
c y = ex 1
e y = e2 x
b y = ex + 1
d y = e2x 1
f y = e2 3x
2 Find the equation of the inverse of the following.

a y = 2 + ex
c y = 1 2ex
e y = 3 2ex 2
b y = 2 ex
d y = 2 + ex + 1
f y = 2 3ex + 1
3 We26 Find the inverse of the following.

a f (x) = 2 loge (x)
c f (x) = loge (x 1)
e f (x) = loge (2 x)
b f (x) = loge (x + 1)
d f (x) = loge (2x 1)
f f (x) = loge (2 3x)
4 Find the equation of the inverse of the following.

a y = 2 + loge (x)
c y = 2 + 3 loge (x)
e y = 3 + 2 ln (x 1)
b y = 2 loge (x)
d f (x) = 2 ln (x 1)
f f (x) = 1 3 ln (x + 2)
diGiTal doC
doc-9250
SkillSHEET 3.5
inverses
5 mC If y = 5 loge (3x 2) + 1, the equation of the inverse is:

a
x 1
5
3
e
x 1
5
+2
x 1
5
3
e
x+2
3
x 1
5
+2
6 mC If y = 5e 2x + 1 1, the equation of the inverse is:

a
1 x + 1
ln
+1
2 5
1 x + 1 1
ln
+
2 5 2
(2x)
7 mC If eloge
a x2
d 2x
= y, then y equals:
1 x + 1
ln
1
2 5
1 x + 1 1
ln
e
2 5 2
5ln( x 1) + 1
2
B loge (2x)
e 2ex
C e2x
149
3h
literal equations
An equation such as ekx = a, where k R and a R+, is called a literal equation. It does not have a
numerical solution. The solution will be expressed in terms of the other variables, in this case a and k,
often called parameters.
For this equation, the solution is: kx = ln (a)
x=
1
ln (a), k 0, a R +
k
Worked example 27
kx
Solve ekx = 5 + 2e
for x, where k R\{0}.
Think
WriTe
TUTorial
eles-1204
Worked example 27
2
e kx
Rewrite the equation with positive powers.
e kx = 5 +
Multiply both sides by ekx.
(ekx)2 = 5ekx + 2
Let y = ekx and make the right-hand side zero

to obtain a quadratic equation in terms of y.
y2 5y 2 = 0
Solve for y using the quadratic formula.
y=
y=
( 5)
( 5)2 4 1 2
2 1
5 33
2
y =
5 + 33
5 33
or y =
2
2
Substitute ekx for y.
e kx =
5 + 33
5 33
or e kx =
2
2
Only the first solution is valid as ekx > 0.
e kx =
5 + 333
2
Re-write the exponential equation in

logarithmic form using ax = y loga (y) = x or
take logs of both sides. Divide both sides by k.
Write the solution and state the restriction

for k.
5 + 333
kx = loge
2
x =
5 + 333
1
loge
, k R \ {0}.
k
2
Worked example 28
1
Solve for x, given that 2 log 2 ( x ) 5log 2 ( p) = log 2 (6) where p > 0.
Think
1
150
Simplify the left-hand side using

p loga (m) = loga (mp) and
m
loga (m) loga (n) = loga .
n
WriTe
1
log2 x 2 log2 ( p5 ) = log2 (6)

x
log2 5 = log2 (6)
p
x
=6
p5
Equate both sides.
Multiply both sides by p5.
x = 6 p5
Square both sides to obtain x.
x = (6p5)2
Write the solution and state the restriction for p.
x = 36p10 where p > 0
Some equations can only be solved using a CAS calculator, that is, no algebraic method exists. The
following example demonstrates this.
Worked example 29
Solve the following equations using a CAS calculator. Give your answers correct to
3 decimal places.
a ex = x3
b loge (x) = x 2
Think
WriTe
Enter the equations to be solved by choosing

the algebra and solve functions.
Write the solutions correct to 3 decimal places.
a Solving ex = x3 for x gives x = 1.857 or
x = 4.536.
b Solvinglog e (x) = x 2 for x gives x = 0.159 or
x = 3.146.
exercise 3h
literal equations
1 Solve 5e2x = a for x, where a R+.

2 If log3 (D) = cy + log3 (Z), solve for D.
3 Solve emx + n = 3k for x, where m R\{0} and k R+.
4 Solve for q given that 2 log3 (p + 5q) = 4.
x2
y4
z2x5
y
+ log10 3 log10 3 4 log10 4 = 0.
3
2
z x
z x
z
y z
5 Prove that log10
6 Consider the exponential equation 9xb 273a = 81.

a Find x in terms of a and b, where a R, b R\{0}.
b Hence find the value of x if a = 2 and b = 3.
7 Solve 42x b = 20 for x, where b R.
8 Solve 2x 1 = 3x + a for x, where a R.
9 If y = m + Rebx, solve for x.
10 Solve for a given that (log2 (5a))2 = 16b2.
11 We27 Solve e kx = 3 +
a
for x, where a 0, k R\{0}.
e kx
1
12 We28 Solve for x given that 2 log4 ( x ) 3log4 ( y) = log4 (3).

13 Solve for b given that 2 loge (a) 5 loge (b) 2 = 0, where a, b R+.
151
14 We29 Solve the following equations using a CAS calculator. Give your answers correct to
3 decimal places.
a ex = 3x
b x+2=e x
2
c x 1 = e2x
15 We29 Solve the following equations using a CAS calculator. Give your answers correct to
3 decimal places.
a ln (x) = 2 x
b ln (x 2) = x 4
c x2 1 = ln (2x)
16 Solve for x given that log7 (x) = log4 (p).
exponential and logarithmic

modelling
3I
eleSSon
eles-0091
exponential and
logarithmic modelling
Exponential and logarithmic functions can be used to model many real situations involving natural
growth and decay.
Continuous growth and decay can be modelled by the equation A = A0ekt, where A0 represents the
initial value, t represents the time taken and k represents a constant.
For continuous growth, k is positive, but for continuous decay, k is negative. Logarithms to base 10,
often called common logarithms, are used in scientific formulas for measuring the intensity of
earthquakes, the acidity of solutions and the intensity of sound.
Worked example 30
In the town of Ill Ness, the number of cases of a particular disease,

D, can be modelled by the equation D = D0ekt, where t is the time in years.
TUTorial
Using available medication the number of cases is being reduced
eles-1181
Worked example 30
by 20% each year. There are 10 000 people with the disease today.
a How many people will have the disease after one year?
b Find the value of k correct to 3 decimal places.
c Write the equation substituting values for k and D0.
d Find how long it would take for the number of people with the disease to be halved. Give your
answer correct to the nearest year.
e How long would it take for the number of people with the disease to be reduced to 100? Give
your answer correct to the nearest year.
Think
a 1 Find the percentage of people with the
disease after one year.
a (100 20)% = 80%
Find 80% of the original number.
80% of 10 000 = 8000
Write a sentence.
Therefore, 8000 people will have the disease after

one year.
b 1 Substitute t = 0 and D = 10 000 into the
given equation.
152
WriTe
D = D0 ekt
When t = 0 and D = 10 000
10 000 = D0 ek 0
10 000 = D0 1
10 000 = D0
So
D = 10 000ekt
[1]
Substitute t = 1 and D = 8000 into [1],

and solve for k.
When t = 1 and D = 8000,

8000 = 10 000ek 1
8000
= ek
10 000
0.8 = ek
loge 0.8 = loge (ek)
0.223 = k log (e)
e
0.223 = k 1
k = 0.223
0.223t
c 1 Use the given equation D = D0ekt.
c D = 10 000e
d 1 Substitute 5000 for D.
d D = 10 000e
Simplify by dividing both sides by 10 000.
Take loge of both sides.
Solve for t.
0.223t
When D = 5000,
5000 = 10 000e 0.223t

0.223t
0.5 = e
loge (0.5) = 0.223t

t=
loge (0.5)
0.223
3.108 (3 decimal places)

5
Write a sentence.
e 1 Write the equation.

2
Substitute 100 for D.
Simplify by dividing by 10 000.
Solve for t.
Write the answer in a sentence.
exercise 3i
It would take about 3 years.

D = 10 000e0.223t
When D = 100,
100 = 10 000e0.223t
0.01 = e0.223t
loge (0.01) = 0.223t
t 20.651 (3 decimal places)
It would take about 21 years.
exponential and logarithmic modelling

0.6t
,
1 We30 Changing -gluconolactone into gluconic acid can be modelled by the equation y = y0e
where y is the number of grams of -gluconolactone present t hours after the process has begun.
Suppose 200 grams of -gluconolactone is to be changed into gluconic acid.
a Find the value of y0.
b Write the equation replacing y0 with your answer.
c How many grams of -gluconolactone will be present after 1 hour? Give your answer correct
to the nearest gram.
d How long will it take to reduce the amount of -gluconolactone to 50 grams? Give your answer
correct to the nearest quarter of an hour.
0.18t
,
2 The decay of radon-222 gas is given by the equation y = y0e
where y is the amount of radon

remaining after t days. When t = 0, y = 10g. Give all answers to the nearest whole number.
a Find the value of y0.
b Write the equation substituting your value of y0.
c What will be the mass after 1 day?
d How many days will it take for the mass to reach 1 g?
153
3 The equation y = A + B loge (x) relates two variables x and y. The table below shows values of x and y.
x
y
a
b
c
d
1
3
2
4.386
3
m
Find the value of A and B correct to the nearest whole number.

Write the equation relating x and y substituting values for A and B.
Using your new equation, find the value of m correct to 3 decimal places.
If y = 7.6, find x correct to the nearest whole number.
4 An amount of $1000 is invested in a building society where the 5% p.a. interest paid is compounded
continuously. The amount in the account after t years can be modelled by the equation A = A0ert,
where r is the continuous interest rate.
a Find the value of A0 and r.
b Write the equation substituting values of A0 and r.
c Find the amount in the bank after i 1 year
ii 10 years. Give your answer correct to the
nearest dollar.
d How long will it take for the investment to double in value? Give your answer to the nearest
year.
5 The number of people living in Boomerville at any time, t years, after the first settlers arrived can be
modelled by the equation P = P0ekt. Suppose 500 people arrived on 1 January 1850, and by 1 January
1860 there were 675 people.
a What is the value of P0?
b Find the value of k correct to 2 decimal places.
c Write the equation substituting values for P0 and k.
d What will be the population on 1 January 1900? Give your answer to the nearest 10 people.
e When will the population be 2000?
6 A cup of soup cools to the temperature of the surrounding air. Newtons Law of Cooling can be
written as T TS = (T0 TS)e kt, where T is the temperature of the object after t minutes, and TS is
the temperature of the surrounding air. The soup cooled from 90 C to 70 C after 6 minutes in a room
with an air temperature of 15 C.
a Find the values of TS, T0 and k correct to 2 decimal places.
b Write the equation substituting the values for TS, T0 and k.
c Find the temperature of the soup after 10 minutes. Give your answer to the nearest degree.
d How long would it take for the soup to be 40 C? Give your answer to the nearest minute.
e If the soup is placed in a refrigerator in which the temperature is 2 C, how long will it take for the
soup to reach 40 C? Use the same value of k and give your answer to the nearest minute.
7 The diameter of a tree for a period of its growth can be modelled by the equation D = D0ekt, where t
is the number of years after the beginning of the period. The diameter of the tree grew from 50 cm to
60 cm in the first 2 years that measurements were taken.
a Find the values of D0 and k.
b Write the equation using these values.
c How much will it have grown in the first 5 years? Round to the nearest centimetre.
d How long will it take for the trees diameter to double? Round to the nearest year.
8 The decay of a radioactive substance can be modelled by the equation M = M0e kt, where M grams is
the mass of the substance after t years. After 10 years the mass of the substance is 98 grams and after
20 years the mass is 96 grams.
a What was the mass of the substance initially? Give your answer to the nearest gram.
b Find the value of k. Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
c Write the equation using these values.
d Find the mass of the substance after 50 years.
e How long would it take for the mass to be halved?
9 The number of bacteria present in a culture at any time, t hours, can be modelled by the equation
N = N0ekt.
a If the original number is doubled in 3 hours, find k correct to 2 decimal places.
b Write the equation substituting the value of k.
c Find the original number of bacteria if there were 2500 bacteria after 4 hours. Give the answer
correct to the nearest thousand.
154
d Write the equation substituting your value for the original population.
e Find the number of bacteria present after 8 hours. Give your answer correct to the nearest
thousand.
10 The intensity of light d metres below the surface of the sea can be modelled by the equation
I = I0e kd. Divers in the Sea of Loga have found that the intensity of light is halved when a diver is
5 metres below the surface of the water.
a Find the value of k correct to 4 decimal places.
b Write the equation substituting the value of k.
c Find the percentage of light available at a depth of 10 metres.
d If artificial light is necessary when the intensity of light is less than 0.1 of the intensity at the
surface (I<0.1I0), find how deep a diver can go before artificial light is necessary.
155
Summary
The index laws
For a 0,
ax ay = ax y
ax ay = ax + y
x
y
xy
(a ) = a
a0 = 1
1
1
x
a = x and x = a x
a
a
1
y
a y = y a and a = a x
ax = y loga (y) = x
x
y
logarithm laws
For a > 0
loga (1) = 0
loga (a) = 1
loga (0) is undefined.
loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n)
m
loga = loga (m) loga (n)
n
loga (mp) = p loga (m)
loga ( N )
logb ( N ) =
loga (b)
To solve exponential equations:

1. write all terms with the same base, write terms with the smallest possible base or take the
logarithm of both sides of the equation
2. then solve the equation.
A negative number cannot be expressed in index form.
If 0 < x < 1, then loga (x) < 0 and if x > 1 then loga (x) > 0.
It is not possible to take the logarithm of a negative number.
If the base is the same, equate the indices.
If the indices are the same, equate the bases.
Use the Null Factor Law to solve quadratic equations.
Change the sign of an inequality when multiplying or dividing by a negative number.
(base e)
1 n
Eulers number e = lim 1 + = 2.718 281828459 ...
h
n
The laws of indices and logarithms apply in the same way when using e.
Evaluate e by using the ex button on the calculator.
The number e is an exact answer. Use the calculator to give an approximation if required.
On a calculator, use the LN button to take the log of a number to base e. The LOG button defaults
to base 10 if not specified.
loge (x) = ln (x).
ex > 0, that is, ex = 1 has no real solution.
equations with natural

(base e) logarithms
To solve logarithmic equations use the laws of logarithms and indices.
inverses
literal equations
156
The equation y = loge (x) is an inverse function of y = ex.

To find an inverse, interchange x and y, then make y the subject of the new equations.
a log ( x ) = x , x R +
loga (a x ) = x , x R
a
An equation such as ekx = a, where k R and a R+, is called a literal equation.

Literal equations do not have numerical solutions.
The solution of a literal equation is expressed in terms of the other variables, in this case a and k,
often called parameters.
Chapter review
2
3 y 45 , leaving your answers with positive indices.

2 If log2 (5) = 2.321 and log2 (9) = 3.17, find log2 5 .
3 2
1 Simplify 4 x 5 y 3 2 x
S ho rT
a n S W er
3 Solve 3 2x 7 = 17 for x.
log2 (32)
.
log2 (8)
1
5 Solve log x (2) = for x .
3
6 If 4e(2 x) = 128, find x, giving your answer in exact form.
4 Evaluate
7 Solve for x in loge (5) + loge (x) loge (2) = loge (10).
8 Find the rule of the inverse function to y=3e2xa.
9 Find the rule of the inverse function of y = loge (1 x) + 3.
10 Solve 6e3x = k for x, where k R+.
11 Solve 3eax + b 6k = 0 for x and state the necessary restrictions for the parameters a, b and k.
12 Solve for x given that 4 log2 (ax + b) = 12.
13 Solve for x given that log2 (x) = y + log2 (z). State the restrictions for the parameters.
1 If a > 1, the solution of x for the equation x = a2 is:
a
B
C
d
e
m U lTip l e
C ho iC e
1
a negative number less than 1
a positive number less than 1
a negative number greater than 1
a positive number greater than 1
2 2 log3 (x) + 4 log3 (x) log3 (x6) is equal to:
6x
C log3 (6x x6)
B log3 6
x
a 0
8x
e 6log3 (x x6)
d log3 6
x
3 Evaluated to 3 decimal places, log3 (24) is:

a 2.892
d 0.346
B 2.893
e 1.380
C 0.345
4 The solution set of the equation (2x 1)(22x 4) = 0 over R is:

a {0, 1}
d {1, 4}
B {0, 2}
e {2, 4}
C {1, 2}
= 4 over R is:
B
2, ex + 6
e loge 6
5 The solution set of the equation ex 12e

a loge (2), loge (6)
d loge (2)
6 If loge (x) = a, then e2a + 3ea 2e

a a 2 + 3a
is equal to:
2
a
C 2 loge (a) + 3loge (a)
C 2, 6
ex
2
B x + 3x
2
loge (a)
2
x
d loge ( x 2 ) + 3loge ( x )
2
loge ( x )
e (ea + 2)(e + 1)
7 If loge (2x) = a, then x is equal to:

a 2ea
B 2ae
ae
2
e e2a
ea
2
157
8 If ex + 4 = e2x 1, then x is equal to:

a
C e5
B 5
d 5
9 The solution(s) to the equation 2 ln (x) = ln (x + 4) + ln 2 is/are:

a 2, 4
d 2
B 2, 4
e 4
C 1
x2
, then y is equal to:
y
10 If 2a =
x
2a
x
d
22 a
a
2
x
a
2
x2
4a
x2
2a
11 The equation which is the inverse of y = ex 1 is:

a y = loge (x) 1
d y = loge (x + 1)
B y = loge (x 1)
e y=e x1
C y = loge (x) + 1
12 The air pressure P cm of mercury at h km above sea level can be modelled by the equation
P=76e 0.13h. One kilometre above sea level the pressure has:
a increased by approximately 9 cm
B decreased by approximately 9 cm
C increased by approximately 41 cm
d decreased by approximately 41 cm
e neither increased nor decreased significantly
13 If 3log ( x + 4) = y , then y equals:
a log (x + 4)
B x+4
d 3 log (x + 4)
e 4
3
e x Tended
r e S p onS e
1 loge
C (x + 4)3
a = x . If log (a) = 0.6932, find the value of x, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
e
3
x x2 x3
+
+ + ...
1! 2! 3!
a Write the next 3 terms.
b Substitute x = 1 in the equation using the first 7 terms.
c Show that e 2.7182.
2 ex = 1 +
3 The apparent brightness of a star can be found using the formula B = 6 2.5 log10 A, where A is the
actual brightness of that star. Find the apparent brightness of a star with actual brightness of 3.16.
4 Earthquake magnitude is often reported on the Richter scale. The magnitude, M, is given by
a
M = log10 + B , where a is the amplitude of the ground motion in microns at the receiving
T
station, T is the period of the seismic wave in seconds, and B is an empirical factor that allows for the
weakening of the seismic wave with the increasing distance from the epicentre of the earthquake.
Find the magnitude of the earthquake if the amplitude of the ground motion is 10 microns, the
period is 1 second and the empirical factor is 6.8.
5 Five grams of a radioactive substance is decaying so that the amount, A grams, that is left after t days,
is given by the formula A = 5e kt.

a Find the value of A when the number of grams of the radioactive substance has been halved.
b Rewrite the equation with the new value of A.
c Rearrange the equation so that t is the subject of the equation.
d If k = 0.005, find how long it will take for the number of grams of the radioactive substance to
be halved. Give your answer correct to the nearest day.
158
6 A school in the suburb of Bienvenue opened with 30 students in February 1995. It has been found for
the first years after opening that the number of students enrolled in the school tyears after opening can
be modelled by the equation N = N0ekt. There were 45 students enrolled in February 1996.
a Find the values of N0 and k.
b Write the equation substituting the values for N0 and k.
c How many students will there be 5 years after the opening?
d How many years will it take for the school to have 1000 pupils?
Another school in the suburb of Enbaisse has a declining student population. The number of students
enrolled at any one time can be modelled by the equation E = E0e rt. There are 1000 students
enrolled in February 1995 and 900 in February 1996.
e Find the values of E0 and r.
f Write the equation substituting the values for E0 and r.
g How many students will be enrolled after 5 years?
h How many years will it take for the two schools to have approximately the same number of
pupils?
i What will the population be then? Use the calculator value in the working and do not round off
until the final answer.
7 Solve ekx = 4 + ke kx for x, where k R+.
diGiTal doC
doc-9188
Test Yourself
Chapter 3
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
159
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGiTal doC
exponential and logarithmic equations. (page 129)
3a
The index laws
TUTorial
We5 eles-1202: Watch a worked example on writing expressions
with positive indices. (page 132)
3B
logarithm laws
TUTorial
We10 eles-1179: Watch a worked example on simplifying
logarithmic expressions. (page 135)
3C
TUTorial
We14 eles-1180: Watch a worked example on solving
exponential equations. (page 138)
diGiTal doCS
SkillSHEET 3.1 doc-9246: Practise writing expressions using index
form. (page 140)
SkillSHEET 3.2 doc-9247: Practise solving equations. (page 140)
SkillSHEET 3.3 doc-9248: Practise solving indicial equations by
equating the bases. (page 141)
SkillSHEET 3.4 doc-9249: Practise solving linear inequations.
(page 141)
3d
logarithmic equations using any base
TUTorial
We18 eles-1203: Watch a worked example on solving logarithmic
equations using a CAS calculator. (page 142)
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 3.1 doc-9186: Simplify exponential and logarithmic
expressions, and solve logarithmic and exponential equations.
(page 143)
160
3F
equations with natural (base e) logarithms
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 3.2 doc-9187: Solve logarithmic and exponential
equations and application questions. (page 148)
3G
inverses
inTeraCTiViTY
Inverses int-0248: Consolidate your understanding of inverses using
the interactivity. (page 148)
diGiTal doC
SkillSHEET 3.5 doc-9250: Practise finding inverses. (page 149)
3h
literal equations
TUTorial
We27 eles-1204: Watch a worked example on solving literal
equations. (page 150)
3i
eleSSon
Exponential and logarithmic modelling eles-0091: Learn about how
exponential and logarithmic modelling is used. (page 152)
TUTorial
We30 eles-1181: Watch a worked example on exponential
modelling. (page 152)
Chapter review
diGiTal doC
Answers CHAPTER 3
exponenTial and
loGariThmiC eQUaTionS
exercise 3a
1 a x7
e x
2 a 9
d
3 a
The index laws

1
b x5
c x10
d
x6
4
2
10 x y
f 5x4y3
g
3
b 1
c 3
9
16
x6
b8
d 3
4 a
125
8
27
c 216
27
64
5 5
b 6x 4 y 3
x11 y 2
5
243 x 2
y2
x6
5 a
y4
c
c
6 a
d
b
3
8y8
26n 1
7 a 22n 32n + 1
1 + x2
x
2
x
c
1 x2
9 B
b
d
2
3
iv 127
vii
( )=
1
2
iii
5 a 1 log2 (x) b log3 (x)

2
6 a 1
d 1
7 a 4
b1
e 9
b3
d 2
e 1
c 5
f 3
x2
c log2
y
c 2
c log2 (10)
8 a 0.477
b 0.861
c 0.301
d 0.322
e 2.161
f 3.727
9 a 0
b log2 (x)
c 0
d 0
e 3 log10 (x)
f 5 log10 (x)
g log5 (x + 1)3 or 3 log5 (x + 1)
h log4 (x 2)
10 C
11 E
12 31.623
c 1
c 2
5
1
2, 1
1
b
b
d
f
b
d 3
d 1
c 1, 0
1, 2
0.912
1.365
0.672
x 1.404
e x < 1.756
1
2
1
v 2
4 a i5
iii 10
v4
b i2
iii
2
5
vi 1
ii 1
iii 16
v 0
vi
32
16
125
6
625
4
1
iv 0
b2
c 6
e 2
f 0
2
11
1
14
3 a 0.693
c 0.693
e 0.262
g 1.099
4 a 0
c 0.405, 0.693
e 1
g 0.405, 1.099
5 a 0.693
c 1.099
e 0.288, 0.693
6 a x>0
c x < 0.693
e x 0.792
g x < 0.288
7 20.00, 0.01
b
d
f
h
b
d
f
h
b
d
f
b
d
f
8 0.04
equations with natural

(base e ) logarithms
1
1
1 a e
b e2
c
d
e2
e
2 a 3.695
b 0.906 c e
d e
e 1.221
f 1.350 g 1.368 h 0.432
3 a 2
b5
c 3
d 4
e 10
f 2.207
2
4 a 6
b
c 2.5
d 6
3
f 1.5
6A
8y=x
B
ex2
2
a 2.5
ln(2)
c t=
k
exercise 3G inverses
x
1 a y = loge
2
5
7
9
10
ii 6
iv 8
c y = loge (x) + 1
ii 9
(base e )
1 a 7.389
d 1.396
g 1.386
j 1.281
(1 2 x )
3 x
e y = 2 + log ( 2 )
2 x
f y = log ( 3 ) 1
c y = loge
1 + loge ( x )
2
2 loge ( x )
3
b y = loge (2 x)
d y = loge (x 2) 1
7 D
1
b 1000,
100
1
4
exercise 3e
b y = loge (x) 1
f y=
2 a y = loge (x 2)
ii 8
iv 4
1
b e kt = 2
d 139 days
d y=
e y = 2 loge (x)
ii 6
iv 2
1.609
1.386
0.956
1.386
0.693, 0.549
0
0.693, 1.609
0.251, 0.693
1.609
0.405, 1.099
0, 0.693
x<1
x 0.693
x 1.303
exercise 3F
e 1
ii 2
iv 0
d 2,
3, 27
1, 16
5, 3
9 16
e
g
i
2 a 1
iv 500
v 128
5 a i5
iii 1
v3
b i2
iii 5
v3
6 B
8 a 10, 1
c 16,
v 2
ii
iv
ii
iv
ii
f logx (27) = 3
b1
e 1
b
b
b
e
1
5
v
b i2
1
iii
b log3 (81) = 4
d log5 (125) = x
2 a i3
iii 2
b i2
iii 8
3 a i3
laws
b 0
d 1
b x2 = 25
d 35 = x
3 a log2 (8) = 3
c log4 (x) = 3
2 a 4
3 a 3
4 a 2, 0
d 3
5 a 0
6 a 2.322
c 3.325
e 0.827
7 a x > 1.465
c x < 0.683
d x 0.356
8 D
9 E
( x + 1)2
x4
1
d
x+y
logarithm
0
1
24 = 16
5x = 125
1
5 1= 5
e log2
15 7
2a 2 b 2
36n + 1
b 3
c 5
e
iv 26
vii 624
b i 81
exercise 3B
4 a 1
d 4
b 1
8 a
1 a 4
d 2
exercise 3d logarithmic equations

using any base
1
1 a i 25
ii
iii 100 or 100
y4
c 2n 33n + 1
1 a
c
2 a
c
e
3
a9 b3
20 x
exercise 3C
f
h
j
1
16
10
25, 5
1, 27
2, 5
b 54.598
e 1.284
h 1.609
c 1.649
f 1.221
i 0.405
3 a
f (x) = e 2
y = ex 2
y=e
x2
3
f (x) = e x 1
ex + 1
d f (x) =
2
2 ex
f
f (x) =
3
b y = e2 x
d
f (x) = e2 x + 1
x3
= 1+ e 2
f (x) = e
f (x) = e x + 1
f (x) = 2 ex
4 a
c
e
5 C
6E
1 x
3
7D
161
exercise 3h
1 x=
1
loge
2
literal equations
a, a > 0

5
2 D = Z 3cy
loge (3k ) n
m
9 p
4 q=
5
5 Proof:
3 x=
x 2 y4
z2x5
y
log10 3 5 log10 3 4 log10 4
z x
z
y z x
x 2 y4
z 2 x 5
y
= log10
log
log
+
10
10
z 4
z3x 4
y3 z 5 x
x 2 y4
z 2 x 5 y
= log10 3 5 log10 7 4
z x
y z x
xy
xy
= log10 5 log10 5
z
z
= log10 (1)
=0
4 9a
6 a x=
2b
7
b x=
3
loge 20 + 2b loge 2
7 x=
4loge 2
a loge ( 3) + loge ( 2 )
8 x=
2
loge
3
1
y m
9 x = loge
R
b
b
16
1
or a =
10 a =
5
5 16b
3 + 9 + 4a
1
11 x = loge
k
2
12 x = 9 y6
a2
13 b = 5
e2
162
14 a
b
c
15 a
b
c
x = 1.512 or x = 0.691
0.443
1.058
x = 1.557
x = 2.159 and x = 5.146
x = 0.191 and x = 1.433
16 x = 7
modelling
1 a 200
c 110 g
2 a
c
3 a
c
4 a
c
5 a
c
e
6 a
b
c
d
e
7 a
c
8 a
c
e
9 a
c
e
10 a
c
11
b y = 200e
1
d 2 hours
4
b
d
b
d
b
d
b
d
y = 10e 0.18t
13 days
y = 3 + 2 loge (x)
10
A = 1000e0.05t
14
0.03
2240
12 8 b , a 0
x R+,
y R,
z R+,
mUlTiple ChoiCe
1
5
9
13
E
D
E
B
2 A
6 B
10 B
3 B
7 C
11 D
4 A
8 B
12 B
exTended reSponSe
b
d
b
d
D = 50e0.09t
8 years
0.002
90 g
1 0.41
2 a
b I = I0e 0.1386d
d 16.6 metres
x4 x5 x6
+
+
4! 5! 6!
1 1 1
1
1
+ +
+
+
2 6 24 120 720
c Check with teacher.
4.75
4 7.8
a 2.5
b e kt = 0.5
ln(2)
c t=
d 139 days
k
a 30, 0.4055
b N = 30e0.4055t
c 228
d 9 years
e 1000, 0.1054
f E = 1000e 0.1054t
g 590
h 7 years
i 485
1
x = ln 2 + 4 + k
k
b e = 1+1+
b N = N0e0.23t
d N = 1000e0.23t
3
5
2 0.849
4 13
, a R \{0}
bR
k R+
13 x = z 2y,
33
3 3
b + ln(2 k )
0.6t
ShorT anSWer
14
y 15
k
10 1 ln
3
10 g
8g
3, 2
5.197
1000, 0.05
1051, 1649
500
P = 500e0.03t
1896
15 C, 90 C, 0.05
T = 15 + 75e 0.05t
60 C
22
27
50, 0.09
28 cm
100
M = 100e 0.002t
347 years
0.23
1000
6000
0.1386
25%
x5
1
2
ChapTer reVieW
loge x + a
3
9 y = 1 e(x 3)
8 y=
loge ( p )
loge ( 4 )
exercise 3i
6 2 5 ln (2)
5 8
7 4
Chapter 4
Exponential and
logarithmic graphs
Chapter ContentS
4a
4B
4C
4D
4e
4F
4G
4h
Graphs of exponential functions with any base

Logarithmic graphs to any base
Graphs of exponential functions with base e
Logarithmic graphs to base e
Finding equations for graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions
Addition of ordinates
Exponential and logarithmic functions with absolute values
Exponential and logarithmic modelling using graphs
Graphs of exponential functions

with any base
DiGital DoC
doc-9189
10 Quick Questions
4a
The function f (x) = ax is an exponential function where a is a positive, real number which is not 1 (that
is, a R+\{1}). In this chapter, a will take the values of 2, 10 and Eulers number e.
An exponential function f (x) can be written f: R R where f (x) = ax and a R+\{1}. In the previous
chapter it was seen that if x has a positive coefficient, f (x) is an increasing function and may be used to
describe physical growth. Examples of this include population and bacterial growth, and increases in
investment values, light intensity and temperature.
If x has a negative coefficient, f (x) is a decreasing function and may be used to describe physical
decay. Examples of this include population and bacterial decline, radioactive decay, temperature cooling
and decreases in light intensity and vehicle values.
Graphs with a positive coefficient of x are considered first.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Graphs of f (x) = 2x and f (x) = 10x

The graphs of f (x) = 2x and f (x) = 10 x are shown below.
y
12
10
8
6 (0, 1)
4
Asymptote 2
(1, 2)
y= 0
x
0
3 2 1
1 2 3
y
12
(1, 10)
10
8
6
4
Asymptote 2
(0, 1)
y= 0
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
f (x) = 2x
f (x) = 10x
These graphs have a number of common features:

1. They both cross the y-axis at the point (0, 1) because a0 = 1.
2. The graph does not cross the x-axis; therefore, there are no x-intercepts.
3. There is a horizontal asymptote along the x-axis (y = 0).
4. For f (x) = a x, another point on the graphs is (1, a).
Chapter 4 Exponential and logarithmic graphs
163
5. The maximal domain is R.

6. The range is R+.
7. They are both increasing functions. That is, as x , y .
8. It can be seen that the greater the value of a, the steeper the graph.
Dilation
A dilation changes the shape of the graph, making it wider or narrower.
Dilation from the x-axis

If the coefficient of ax is changed to a positive real number greater than 1, the graph is stretched
vertically and is said to be dilated from the x-axis.
This could be written f (x) = Aax where A is the dilation factor. The graph is stretched vertically (along
the y-axis) away from the x-axis because each y-value is being multiplied by the constant A. In mapping
notation, a dilation factor of A from the x-axis, where A > 0, is given by (x, y) (x, Ay). If A = 3 and
a = 2 the function becomes f (x) = 3 2x.
A comparison can be made more easily if graphs are drawn on the same axes.
The graphs of f (x) = 2x, g(x) = 3 2x and h(x) = 4 2x are shown. The dilation factor, A, is 1, 3 and
4 respectively.
y
h(x) = 4 2x
g(x) = 3 2x
(0, 4)
4
3 (0, 3) f(x) = 2x
2
1 (0, 1)
Asymptote
x y= 0
0
1 2 3
3 2 1
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 3 2x
h(x) = 4 2x
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, 3)
(0, 4)
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
y=0
y=0
y=0
(1, 2)
(1, 6)
(1, 8)
Domain
Range
Dilation factor from the x-axis
A point on the graph
(x, y) (x, 3y)
Mapping
(x, y) (x, 4y)
If A is a real number between 0 and 1, the y-values are multiplied by a constant which is less than
1 and the graph becomes less steep.
A comparison can be made more easily if the graphs are drawn on the same axes.
The graphs of f (x) = 2x, g(x) = 12 2x and h(x) = 14 2x are drawn below.
y
2
(0, 1)
Asymptote
y= 0
164
(0, 12)
1
(1, 2)
f(x) = 2x
g(x) =
1
2
2x
h(x) = 14 2x
(1, 1)
1
(0, 14) (1, 2 )

x
0
1
The dilation factor is 1,
1
2
and
1
4
respectively.
f (x) = 2x
g( x ) = 12 2 x
h( x ) = 14 2 x
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, )
(0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
y=0
y=0
y=0
1
2
1
4
(1, 2)
(1, 1)
Domain
Range
1
2
1
4
1
2
Mapping
(1, )
(x, y) (x , y)
(x, y) x , 12 y
1
4
For any positive real value of A, as A increases, the graph of f (x) = A 2x becomes steeper and closer
to the y-axis. Similarly, as A decreases the graph becomes less steep and further from the y-axis. The
domain, range and horizontal asymptote stay the same as for f (x) = 2x. The mapping is (x, y) (x, Ay).
Dilation from the y-axis

If the coefficient of x changes, the graph is stretched horizontally and is said
y
g(x) = 22x
1
f(x) = 2x x
to be dilated from the y-axis. This can be written f (x) = a kx where is the
h(x) = 22
k
4
dilation factor. The dilation factor is the reciprocal of the coefficient of x.
1
In mapping notation, a dilation factor of from the y-axis, where k > 0, is
2
Asymptote
k
1
(0, 1)
given by (x, y) ( x, y).
y=0
k
0
1 2 3 x
3 2 1
To show the effect of a dilation
from the y-axis, the three graphs
x
f (x) = 2x, g(x) = 22x and h(x) = 2 2 are drawn at right. The dilation
factors are 1, 12 and 2, respectively.
x
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 22x
h(x) = 2 2
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
y=0
y=0
y=0
1
2
(2, 4)
(1, 4)
(4, 4)
Domain
Range
Dilation factor from the y-axis
Mapping
(x, y)
1
2
x, y
(x, y) (2x, y)
For all the graphs discussed so far (that is, of the form f (x) = A akx, a R+\{1}, k > 0), the maximal
domain is R, the range is R+, the x-axis is the horizontal asymptote and they are all increasing
functions. The dilations have affected the steepness of the graphs. The mapping is (x, y) ( 1k x, Ay).
165
WorkeD exaMple 1
x
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 2 2 , showing the intercepts and the asymptote, and stating the
domain and the range.
think
Write/DraW
x
Write the rule.
f (x) = 2 2 2
State the basic shape and transformations.
An exponential curve with basic shape f (x) = 2x.

Dilation of 2 units from the x-axis and 2 units
from the y-axis.
Find the y-intercept. Either let x = 0 or use the

fact that the y-intercept is A in the function
If x = 0, then
f (x) = A a k .
y = 2 22
= 2 20
=21
=2
so the y-intercept is 2.
Find the horizontal asymptote.
The horizontal asymptote is the x-axis. There are

no x-intercepts.
Find another point on the graph.
If x = 2, y = 2 2 2 = 4.
Sketch the graph.
y
4
(2, 4)
(0, 2)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
f (x) = 2 2 2
Asymptote
y=0
x
The domain is R and the range is R+.
State the domain and the range.
translation
If a constant is added to the function, the graph is moved up or down and is said to be translated
vertically. In mapping notation, a vertical translation of B units is given by (x, y) (x, y + B).
The graph of g(x) = 2x + 1 is shown below with the graph of f (x) = 2x. The graph of f (x) = 2x has been
moved up 1 unit. Every y-value has been increased by 1. The line y= 1 is the horizontal asymptote.
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 2x + 1
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, 2)
Range
(0, )
(1, )
y=0
y=1
(1, 2)
(1, 3)
Mapping
(x, y)
(x, y) (x, y + 1)
Domain
166
y
4
3
(0, 2)
g(x) = 2x + 1
f(x) = 2x
(1, 3)
(0, 1)
0
1
(1, 2) Asymptote
y=1
2
The graph of g(x) = 2x 1 is the graph of f (x) = 2x translated 1 unit down. This means that the horizontal
asymptote is now the line y = 1 and the graph crosses the x-axis. Therefore, there is an x-intercept. Every
y-value has been decreased by 1. The graph of y = 2x 1 is shown with the graph of y = 2x.
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 2x 1
x-intercept
(0, 0)
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, 0)
Range
(0, )
(1, )
y=0
y = 1
(1, 2)
(1, 1)
Domain
f(x) = 2x
4
2
(0, 1)
3 2 1
(1, 2)
g(x) = 2x 1
(1, 1)
x
0 1 2 3
Asymptote
y = 1
(x, y) (x, y 1)
Mapping
In mapping notation, a horizontal translation of b units is given
by (x, y) (x + b, y).
The graph of g(x) = 2x 1 is the graph of f (x) = 2x translated 1 unit
to the right.
The graph of h(x) = 2x + 1 is the graph of f (x) = 2x translated 1 unit
to the left.
The graph of g(x) = 2x 1 is shown at right with the graph
of f (x) = 2x.
h(x) = 2x + 1
f(x) = 2x
f(
4
2
(0, 1)
3 2 1
g(x) = 2x 1
(1, 1)
(0, 12 )
01 2 3
Asymptote
y=0
x
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 2x 1
h(x) = 2x + 1
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, )
(0, 2)
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
y=0
y=0
y=0
(1, 2)
(2, 2)
(0, 2)
(x, y) (x + 1, y)
(x, y) (x 1, y)
Domain
Range
1
2
Mapping
Horizontal and vertical translations have the same effect regardless of the base.
g(x)=2 + 10x + 1 is f (x) = 10 x translated 1 unit to the left and 2 units up. Horizontal translations
keep the same asymptote, domain and range as the original function; vertical translations keep the
same domain, but the range changes.
It is interesting to note that f (x) = 0.5 2x can be written as f (x) = 2x 1 because
f (x) = 0.5 2x
1
= 2 2x
= 2 1 2x
= 2x 1
A dilation of 0.5 from the x-axis has the same effect on f (x) = 2x as a translation of 1 unit to the right.
167
WorkeD exaMple 2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x 1 2, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and

stating the domain andrange.
think
tUtorial
eles-1205
Worked example 2
Write/DraW
f (x) = 2x 1 2
An exponential curve with the same shape as
f (x) = 2x
Horizontal translation of 1 unit to the right
Vertical translation of 2 units down
Write the rule.
State the basic shape.
State the translations.
Find the horizontal asymptote by translating

y = 0 down 2 units.
Find the y-intercept. Make x = 0.
y-intercept:
If x = 0, then
y=2 12
1
=22
1
Find the x-intercept. Make y = 0.

Equate the indices.
Solve for x.
Sketch the graph.
6
7
= 1 2
x-intercept:
If y = 0, then
y
1
3 2 1
1
2
10
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with exponential
functions and their
transformations.
(2, 0)
0 1 2 3 x
f (x) = 2x 1 2
1
(0, 12 ) Asymptote
y = 2
The domain is R and the range is (2, ).
For all the graphs of the form f (x) = ax + b + B, where b, B R and a R+\{1}, the maximal domain
is R, the range is (B, ), the horizontal asymptote is y = B and they are all increasing functions.
The graph remains exactly the same shape as f (x) = ax. The mapping is (x, y) (x b, y + B).
reflections
If a negative sign is in front of the a the graph is reflected in the x-axis. (Remember a > 0.) The mapping
is (x, y) (x, y).
The graph of g(x) = 2x is shown with the graph of f (x) = 2x.
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 2x
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
R+ = (0, )
R = (, 0)
y=0
y=0
Domain
Range
Mapping
168
2x 1 2 = 0
2x 1 = 21
x1=1
x=2
(1, 2)
(1,
2)
(x, y) (x, y)
f(x) = 2x
Asymptote
(1, 2) y = 0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
(1, 2)
2
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
g(x) = 2x
If there is a negative sign before the x term, the graph is reflected in the y-axis. The graph of g(x) = 2x
is shown with the graph of f (x) = 2x.
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 2 x
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
y=0
y=0
(1, 2)
(1, 2)
Domain
Range
f(x) = 2x
g(x) = 2x y
3
Mapping
(1, 2) 2
1
3 2 1
(1, 2)
(0, 1)
0
Asymptote
y= 0
x
1 2 3
(x, y) (x, y)
For all the graphs of the form g(x) = ax, where a R+\{1}, the maximal domain is R and the range is
The horizontal asymptote is y = 0 and the functions are all decreasing. It is the reflection of f (x) = ax
in the x-axis. The mapping is (x, y) (x, y).
For all the graphs of the form g(x) = ax, where a R+\{1}, the maximal domain is R and the range is
+
R . The horizontal asymptote is y = 0 and the functions are all decreasing. It is the reflection of f (x) = ax
in the y-axis. The mapping is (x, y) (x, y).
R.
WorkeD exaMple 3
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 2x 1, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and stating the domain
and the range showing all working.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = 2 2x 1
An exponential curve with basic shape f (x) = 2x
State the transformations.
Horizontal translation of 1 unit to the right

Vertical translation of 2 units up
Reflection in the x-axis

y = 0 up 2 units.
Find the y-intercept by making x = 0.
If x = 0,
f (x) = 2 2
=2
1
2
= 12
1
The y-intercept is 1 2.
6
Find the x-intercept by making y = 0.
2 2x 1 = 0
2x 1 = 21
x1=1
x=2
If y = 0,
169
Sketch the graph.
y
2
Asymptote
y=2
(0, 32 )
1
0
2 1
(2, 0)
x
2
f (x) = 2 2x 1
1
8
The domain is R and the range is (, 2).

with any base
exercise 4a
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, showing the intercepts and the
asymptote, and stating the domain and range of each one.
a f (x) = 2x
b f (x) = 10x
c f (x) = 2 10x
d f (x) = 3 2x
x
x
3x
e f (x) = 0.3 2
f f (x) = 0.5 10
g f (x) = 2
h f (x) = 102x
1 We1
DiGital DoC
doc-9190
Spreadsheet
exponential graphs
f (x) = 5 32x
j f (x) = 4 23x
k f (x) = 2 10 2
l f (x) = 2 2 2
We2 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and
stating the domain and range of each one.
a f (x) = 2x + 1
b f (x) = 3x + 2
c f (x) = 3x 3
d f (x) = 2x 4
x
+
2
x
+
1
x
4
e f (x) = 2
f f (x) = 10
g f (x) = 3
h f (x) = 2x 3
x
+
1
x
2
i f (x) = 2
8
j f (x) = 10
+1
We3
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and
stating the domain and range of each one.
a f (x) = 2x
b f (x) = 10x
c f (x) = 10x
d f (x) = 2x
x
x
x
e f (x) = 1 3
f f (x) = 10 10
g f (x) = 2 + 10
h f (x) = 1 + 2x
1
x
2
x
i f (x) = 2 2
j f (x) = 1 3
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 31 x, showing the intercepts and asymptotes and stating the domain and
range.
Sketch the graph of the function f: R R where f (x) = 3 2x 1, showing the intercepts and
asymptotes and stating the domain and range.
Sketch the graph of the function f: R R where f (x) = 5 4 31 x showing the intercepts and
asymptotes and stating the domain and range.
State the transformation of y = 2x needed to sketch the graphs of the following functions. Give details of
each transformation.
a y = 23x
b y = 24x
c y = 2 2x
d y = 3 2x
e y = 2x
x
x
x
x
1
f y=2
g y=2 +1
h y=2 3
i y=2
j y = 2x + 5
Each of the following functions is a translation of f (x) = 10x. State how far each graph is translated, and
in which direction.
a f (x) = 10 x + 4
b f (x) = 10 x 2
c f (x) = 10 x + 2
d f (x) = 10 x 3
x
x
x
1
e f (x) = 10 3
f f (x) = 2 + 10
g f (x) = 10
h f (x) = 102 + x
x
+
1
x
4
x
3
i f (x) = 5 + 10
j f (x) = 10
+2
k f (x) = 10
4
l f (x) = 10 x + 2 3
Write down the domain and range for each of the following graphs and the equations for the horizontal
asymptotes.
i
4
5
6
7
6
4
2 (0, 2)
y=0
x
0
3 2 1
1 2
170
6
4
4 (0, 4)
2
(0, 2)
y=1
3 2 1
0 1
y=3
2
3 2 1
0 1
y
2
e
y=1
3 2 1 0
x
y=2
3 2 1
y=1
(1, 0)
4 (0, 4)
1 0
1 2
2 (0, 2)
0
1 2 3
10 If the graph of f (x) = 2x is translated 1 unit up and reflected in the x-axis, what is the new equation?
11 If the graph of f (x) = 1 2x + 3 is translated 2 units to the right and dilated by factor 3 from the x-axis,
what is the new equation?

12 MC The domain and range of the graph of f (x) = 102x 1 + 3 are respectively:
a R, R
B R, [1, )
C [3, ), R
D [1, ), R
e R, (3, )
13 MC The y-intercept of the graph of f (x) = 10x + 1 is:
a 1
B 2
e 11
C 1
D 2
x
1
14 MC When the graph of f (x) = 2
4 is translated 3units down and 2 units to the left, it becomes:
a f (x) = 2x 3 7
B f (x) = 2x 3 1
C f (x) = 2x + 1 7
x
+
1
x
2
D f (x) = 2
1
e f (x) = 2
6
15 Under certain conditions a mathobacillus bacterial colony doubles its numbers every minute. The
population can be modelled by:
P = 50 2t
where P is the number of bacteria t minutes after counting has begun.
a Find the number of bacteria when t = 0.
b Find the number of bacteria after 3 minutes.
c Sketch the graph of the population as a function of time.
4B
logarithmic graphs to any base
The function f (x) = loga (x) is a logarithmic function where a is a positive, real number which is not 1
(that is, a R+\{1}). Logarithms to base 10 appear in many scientific formulas. An example of this is the
intensity of earthquakes which is measured on the Richter scale.
Remember that loga (x) does not exist when x < 0.
In this course only graphs of functions where a > 1 are considered. Graphs with a positive coefficient
of x will be considered first.
Graphs of f (x) = log2 (x) and f (x) = log10 (x)

The graphs of f (x) = log2 (x) and f (x) = log10 (x) are shown below.
Asymptote
y x= 0
(2, 1)
2
(1, 0)
1
1 0
1
2
2 3
f (x) = log2 (x)
Asymptote
x= 0
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
(10, 1)
(1, 0)
2 4 6 8 10
f (x) = log10 (x)
These graphs have a number of common features:

1. They are both increasing functions; that is, as x , y .
2. Both graphs cross the x-axis at the point (1, 0), as loga (1) = 0
3. The y-axis is a vertical asymptote, so there is no y-intercept. This is because loga (0) is undefined.
4. There are no negative values of x because the log of a negative number does not exist.
5. Another point on the graph is (a, 1), where a is the base because loga (a) = (1).
6. The domain is R+.
7. The range is R.
8. It can be seen that the smaller the value of a, the steeper the graph or the more rapidly the graph rises.
171
Dilation
Dilation from the x-axis
If the coefficient of loga (x) is changed to a positive real number greater than 1, the graph is stretched
along the y-axis and is said to be dilated from the x-axis. This could be written
f (x) = A loga (x) where A is the dilation factor. The graph is stretched along the y-axis
because each y-value is being multiplied by the constant, A. In mapping notation, a dilation factor of A
from the x-axis, where A > 0, is given by (x, y) (x, Ay).
The asymptote, x-intercept, domain and range are the same for all graphs of the form
f (x) = A loga (x).
Graphs with different values of A can be more easily compared by drawing them on the same axes.
The graphs of g(x) = 2 log10 (x), f (x) = log10 (x) and h(x) = 1 log10 (x) are drawn below. Notice that, as
2
A increases, the graph becomes steeper.
Asymptote
y x= 0
(10, 2) g(x) = 2 log10 (x)
1
0
(10, 1) f(x) = log10 (x)

h(x) = 12 log10 (x)
1
(10, 2 )
x
2 4 6 8 10
f (x) = log10 (x)
g(x) = 2 log10 (x)
h(x) = 12 log10 (x)
x-intercept
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
y-intercept
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
x=0
x=0
x=0
1
2
(10, 1)
(10, 2)
Domain
Range
Vertical asymptote
1
2
(x, y) (x, 2y)
Mapping
(10, )
(x, y) (x , y)
1
2
1
2
Note: h(x) = 1 log10 (x) can be written as h(x) = log10 (x ) and is drawn in the same way.
2
Dilation from the y-axis

If the coefficient of x is changed to a positive
real number not equal to 1, the graph is
stretched along the x-axis and is said to be
dilated from the y-axis. This could be written
1
f (x) = loga (kx), where is the dilation
k
factor. When k > 1, the graph moves away
from the x-axis.
To see the effect of a dilation from the
x-axis the graphs g(x) = log10 (2x), f (x) = log10
(x) and h(x) = log10 ( 1 x) are drawn at right.
2
172
y Asymptote
x= 0
1
g(x) = log10 (2x)

f(x) = log10 (x)
( 12 , 0)
0
h(x) = log10 (2 x)
2 (2, 0)
(1, 0)
h(x) = log10
( x)
1
2
f (x) = log10 (x)
g(x) = log10 (2x)
x-intercept
(1, 0)
( ,0)
(2, 0)
y-intercept
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
x=0
x=0
x=0
1
2
(10, 1)
(5, 1)
(20, 1)
Domain
Range
Dilation factor from the y-axis
Another point on the graph
Mapping
1
2
(x, y)
1
2
(x, y) (2x, y)
x, y
For all graphs discussed so far (that is, of the form y = A loga (kx), A R+\{1}, k > 0), the
maximal domain is R+, the range is R, the y-axis is the vertical asymptote and they are all
increasing functions. The graphs have varied in their x-intercepts. The dilation factor from
1
the x-axis is A and the dilation factor from the y-axis is . In mapping notation, (x, y) 1 x, Ay .
k
k
If the base is 2, the graph is steeper than when the base is 10 but the
vertical asymptote, intercept, domain and range stay the same as for
f (x) = A log10 (kx).
The graphs of f (x) = 2 log10 (3x) and f (x) = 2 log2 (3x) are shown
at right.
1. The vertical asymptote is the y-axis.
2. The x-intercept is 1 .
3
3. The domain is R+ and the range is R.
4. The basic graph is dilated by factor 2 from the x-axis and factor
1
from the y-axis.
3
Asymptote
y x=0
f(x) = 2 log2 (3x)
2
1
( 3 , 0)
1
f(x) = 2 log10 (3x)

2
WorkeD exaMple 4
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3 log10 (2x), showing the intercepts and the asymptote, and state the
domain, range and the kind of transformation.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = 3 log10 (2x)
A logarithmic graph with basic shape

f (x) = log10 (x)
Find the vertical asymptote (log10 (0) is

undefined).
The vertical asymptote is the y-axis.
Find the x-intercept.

Remember that log10 (1) = 0.
x-intercept:
Let y = 0,
3 log10 (2x) = 0
2x = 1
x = 13
The x-intercept is 1 .
There are no y-intercepts.
Mark another point on the graph. Choose one

which makes 2x equal the base.
Let x = 5, y = 3 log10 (10)

=31
=3
Coordinates are (5, 3).
173
Asymptote
y x=0
3
Sketch the graph.
(5, 3)
f(x) = 3 log10 (2x)
( 2 , 0)
3
8
The domain is R+ and the range is R.
The dilations are of factor 3 from the x-axis and

factor 1 from the y-axis.
3
translation
Translations may be either vertical or horizontal.
Ver tical translation

If a constant is added to the function, the graph is moved up or down and is said to be translated
vertically.
The graphs of f (x) = log10 (x), g(x) = log10 (x) + 1 and h(x) = log10 (x) 1 are drawn and compared.
y Asymptote
x=0
2
g(x) = log10 (x) + 1

f(x) = log10 (x)
1
0
1
h(x) = log10 (x) 1

2
12 x
10
2
3
f (x) = log10 (x)
g(x) = log10 (x) + 1
1
10 ,
h(x) = log10 (x) 1
x-intercept
(1, 0)
y-intercept
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
Vertical asymptote
x=0
x=0
x=0
1 unit up
1 unit down
(1, 0)
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
(x, y) (x, y + 1)
(x, y) (x, y 1)
Domain
Range

Mapping
(10, 0)
If a constant is added to x, the graph of f (x) = log10 (x) is translated horizontally.
The graphs of f (x) = log10 (x), g(x) = log10 (x + 1) and h(x) = log10 (x 1) are drawn.
174
f (x) = log10 (x)
g(x) = log10 (x + 1)
h(x) = log10 (x 1)
x-intercept
(1, 0)
(0, 0)
(2, 0)
y-intercept
R+ = (0, )
(1, )
(1, )
x=0
x = 1
x=1
1 unit to left
1 unit to right
(10, 1)
(9, 1)
(11, 1)
(x, y) (x 1, y)
(x, y) (x + 1, y)
Domain
Range
Vertical asymptote
Mapping
y
2
g(x) = log10 (x + 1)
1
2 1
0 1
f(x) = log10 (x)

h(x) = log10 (x 1)
2
x = 1
x=1
For all graphs of the form f (x) = loga (x + b) + B, where b and B R and a R+\{1}, the maximal
domain is (b, ), the range is R, the vertical asymptote is x=b and they are all increasing
functions. The graph has exactly the same shape as f (x) = loga (x). The horizontal translation is b
and the vertical translation is B. In mapping notation, (x, y) (x b, y + B).
WorkeD exaMple 5
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 1 + log10 (x + 2), showing intercepts and asymptotes,
and stating the domain, range and transformations. Give intercepts to
1 decimal place.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = 1 + log10 (x + 2)
Logarithmic graph, basic shape

f (x) = log10 (x)
Find the vertical asymptote (log10 (0) is

undefined).
x+2=0
x = 2 is the vertical asymptote.
If y = 0,
Use the law ax = y loga(y) = x.
x + 2 = 10 1
x = 0.1 2
= 1.9
The x-intercept is 1.9.
tUtorial
eles-1206
Worked example 5
1 + log10 (x + 2) = 0
log10 (x + 2) = 1
175
Sketch the graph.
If x = 0, y = 1 + log10 (0 + 2) (exact answer)

1 + 0.301 03
1.3, correct to 1 decimal place
The y-intercept is 1.3.
Asymptote y
x = 2
2
(0, 1.3)
(1.9, 0)
0
x
4 6 8
f(x) = 1 + log10 (x + 2)
The domain is (2, ) and the range is R.
The horizontal translation is 2 units to the left and

the vertical translation is 1 unit up.
reflections
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with logarithmic
functions and their
transformations.
If there is a negative sign in front of the loga (x) term, the graph is
reflected in the x-axis. The mapping is (x, y) (x, y).
The graphs of f (x) = log10 (x) and g(x) = log10 (x) are shown at right.
f (x) = log10 (x)
g(x) = log10 (x)
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
x-intercept
y-intercept
Domain
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
x=0
x=0
(10, 1)
(10, 1)
Vertical asymptote
(1, 0)
0
1
Range
Asymptote
y x=0
f(x) = log10 (x)
1
(10, 1)
2
6 8 10
g(x) =
(10, 1)
10 (x)
log
(x, y) (x, y)
Mapping
If there is a negative sign in front of the x term, the graph is reflected in the y-axis. The mapping is
(x, y) (x, y).
The graphs of f (x) = log10 (x) and g(x) = log10 (x) are shown below right.
f (x) = log10 (x)
g(x) = log10 (x)
x-intercept
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
y-intercept
Domain
Range
Vertical asymptote
Mapping
176
R = (0, )
(,
x=0
x=0
(10, 1)
(10, 1)
Asymptote
y x=0
g(x) = log10 (x) f(x) = log10 (x)
1
(10, 1)
(10, 1)
(1, 0)
0)
(x, y) (x, y)
10
2
1
(1, 0)
2
10
WorkeD exaMple 6
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 log10 (3 x) 2, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and stating the
domain, range and transformations. Give exact values or round to 3 decimal places.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = 2 log10 (3 x) 2
Logarithmic graph, f (x) = log10 (x)
Find the vertical asymptote (log10 (0)

undefined).
For the vertical asymptote,

3x=0
If y = 0,
If x = 0, y = 2 log10 (3) 2
= 1.046 (to 3 decimal places)
The y-intercept is 1.046.
Sketch the graph.
2 log10 (3 x) 2 = 0
2 log10 (3 x) = 2
log10 (3 x) = 1
3 x = 101
x = 7
(7, 0)
x
6 4 2 0 2
Asymptote
(0, 2 log10 (3) 2)
x=3
2
f (x) = 2 log10 (3 x) 2
7
The domain is (, 3) and the range is R.
Reflection in the y-axis, dilation 2 units from the

x-axis, vertical translation 2 units down, horizontal
translation 3 units to the right
exercise 4B
1
Find the vertical asymptote of each of the following functions.

a f (x) = log2 (x)
b f (x) = log10 (x)
d f (x) = 5 log2 (x)
e f (x) = log2 (3x)
g f (x) = 3 log10 (2x)
h f (x) = 2 log2 (3x)
c f (x) = 2 log10 (x)

f f (x) = log10 (4x)
Sketch the graph of each of the functions in question 1, showing the intercepts and
asymptotes, and stating the domain and range of each one.
2 We4
3
State the horizontal and vertical translations required to transform f (x) = log2 (x) into the following
functions.
a f (x) = log2 (x + 2)
b f (x) = log2 (x + 1)
c f (x) = log2 (x 3)
d f (x) = log2 (x 4)
e f (x) = 1 + log2 (x 5)
f f (x) = log2 (x 3) + 2
g f (x) = 2 + log2 (x + 1)
h f (x) = 3 + log2 (x + 1)
i f (x) = log2 (x + 3) 2
j f (x) = log2 (x + 1) 2
4 We5 Sketch the graph of each of the functions in question 3, showing the intercepts and asymptotes,
and stating the domain and the range of each one.

5 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions showing intercepts and asymptotes, and stating the
domain, range and the transformation of f (x) = log10 (x).

a f (x) = log10 (x)
b f (x) = 2 log10 (x)
d f (x) = 3 log10 ( x)
e f (x) = 1 log10 (x)
g f (x) = 2 + log10 (x)
h f (x) = 2 log10 (x)
c f (x) = log10 (x)

f f (x) = 1 + log10 (x)
DiGital DoC
doc-9191
Spreadsheet
logarithmic graphs
177
6 Sketch the graph of f (x) = log2 (2x 1), showing intercepts and asymptotes, and stating the domain,
range and transformations of the graph f (x) = log2 (x).
7 We6 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and
stating the domain and range of each one. Give exact values or round to 1 decimal place.
a f (x) = 2 log2 (x) + 3
b f (x) = 3 log10 (x) + 1
c f (x) = log10 (1 x)
d f (x) = log10 (3 x)
e f (x) = 1 2 log2 (x)
f f (x) = 2 5 log10 (x)
g f (x) = 3 log10 (x + 1) 2
h f (x) = 4 log2 (x 2) 1
i f (x) = 1 + 2 log10 (3x)
j f (x) = 3 4 log10 (2x)
8 Each graph in question 7 is a transformation of the graph of f (x) = loga (x), a = 2, 10. State the base of
each graph and the kinds of transformation that have taken place.
9 Sketch the graph of f: R R where f (x) = 3 log2 (2 x) + 1, showing all key features and stating the
domain and range.
10 Sketch the graph of f: [0, 10] R where f (x) = 3 log10 (x + 1) 2, showing key features.
11 MC When the function f (x) = log2 (x + 2) is translated 2 units up and 3 units to the left, the function
becomes:
a f (x) = log2 (x + 4) + 3
C f (x) = log2 (x 1) + 2
e f (x) = log2 (x + 1) + 2
DiGital DoC
doc-9192
WorkSHEET 4.1
B f (x) = log2 (x + 5) + 2
D f (x) = log2 (x + 5) 3

with base e
4C
Graphs of exponential functions with base e are drawn in exactly

the same way as with any other base. The graph of f (x) = ex can be
dilated, translated and reflected in the same way. The graphs of
f (x) = ex, g(x) = 2x and h(x) = 10x are shown at right. The graph of
f (x) = ex is shown in red.
It can be seen that h(x) = 10x is steeper than f (x) = ex and
h(x) = 2x is less steep than f (x) = ex.
y
4
3
2
Features common to all

three graphs
h(x) = 10x
f(x) = ex
g(x) = 2x
(1, e)
(1, 2)
Asymptote
(0, 1)
y=0
x
0
2
1
1. The graphs all cross the y-axis at the point (0, 1).
2. The horizontal asymptote is the x-axis or the line y = 0.
3. The domain is R.
4. The range is R+.
5. They are all increasing functions.
WorkeD exaMple 7
State the transformations of f (x) = ex needed to form the graph of f (x) = 2 e3x 1.
think
1
Write the rule.
f (x) = 2e3x 1
State the dilation. The coefficient of ex gives

the dilation from the x-axis.
The reciprocal of the coefficient of x gives
the dilation from the y-axis.
Dilation by a factor of 2 units from the x-axis
State the translation. The vertical translation is

given by the constant added to the ex term.
178
Write/DraW
Dilation by a factor of 13 units from the y-axis
WorkeD exaMple 8
Sketch the graph of f (x) = ex. On the same set of axes sketch the graph of f (x) = ex 2, marking
the asymptote and y-intercept, and state the transformation, the domain and the range.
Give exact answers.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule for the first graph.
f (x) = ex
Exponential curve
State the horizontal asymptote.
The horizontal asymptote is the x-axis.
If x = 0, y = e0
y = 1 is the y-intercept.
Draw the graph.
f(x) = ex
Asymptote y = 0
(0, 1)
3 2 1 0
2 3
Write the rule for the second graph.
f (x) = ex 2
State the transformation. The horizontal

translation is given by the constant added
to the x term.
The horizontal translation is 2 units to the right.
State the horizontal asymptote, which is the

same as for f (x) = ex.
If x = 0, y = e0 2
y=e 2
=
10
Sketch the graph on the same set of axes.
y
2
(0, 1)
1
e2
f(x) = ex
f(x) = e (x 2)
2
(0, e )
Asymptote y = 0.
(2, 1)
3 2 1 0
11
12
Check the accuracy of your graph by

transforming the point (0, 1) and marking it
on your graph.
State the domain and the range which are the
same for both graphs.
2 3
(0, 1) (2, 1)
For graphs of y = Aekx, k > 0 the coefficient of the ex term shows the dilation of A from the
1
x-axis and the reciprocal of the coefficient of the x term shows the dilation of from the y-axis.
k
1
The mapping is (x, y) ( x, Ay).
k
WorkeD exaMple 9
Sketch the graph of y = 3e2x, marking the asymptote and intercept, and state the transformations,
domain and range.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = 3e2x
Exponential curve
179
Dilation by a factor of 3 units from the x-axis and

dilation by a factor of 12 unit from the y-axis
Find the asymptote, recognising that it is

unchanged by dilation.
Find the y-intercept by making x = 0 or

by multiplying y-values of f (x) = ex by
3. (0, 1) (0, 3)
If x = 0,
y = 3e2 0
=31
=3
so y-intercept is 3.
y
4
2
Sketch the graph.
State the domain and range.
(0, 3)
f (x) = 3e2x
Asymptote y = 0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
The vertical translation is given by the constant added to the ex term. The horizontal translation is given
by the constant added to the x term.
WorkeD exaMple 10
Sketch the graph of f (x) = ex 2 + 1, marking the asymptote and intercept, and
state the transformations, domain and range. Find the y-intercept correct to
2 decimal places.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = ex 2 + 1
Exponential curve
The horizontal translation is 2 units to the right and

the vertical translation is 1 unit up.
Find the asymptote by translating the

asymptote of f (x) = ex up one unit.
If x = 0, y 1.14 (to 2 decimal places)

so the y-intercept is 1.14.
Find another point by translating the

y-intercept of f (x) = ex to the right by
2 units and up by 1 unit.
(0, 1) (2, 2)
Sketch the graph.
y
(0, 1.14) 2
1 0
180
tUtorial
eles-1207
Worked example 10
(2, 2)
Asymptote
y=1
3
f (x) = ex 2 + 1
The domain is R and the range is (1, ).
A reflection in the x-axis is shown by a negative sign before the ex term.

A reflection in the y-axis is shown by a negative sign before the x term.
WorkeD exaMple 11
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 e x, marking the asymptote and intercepts. State the
transformations, domain and range. Give exact answers. Check using a CAS calculator.
think
Write/DraW
x
State the rule.
f (x) = 2 e
Exponential curve
A reflection in the x-axis and a reflection

in the y-axis. The vertical translation is
2 units up.

the asymptote of f (x) = ex up 2 units.
Find the y-intercept by making x = 0 or by

reflecting (0, 1) in the x-axis and translating it up
2 units.
If x = 0,
Find the x-intercept by making y = 0

and solving the equation.
If y = 0,
y=2e 0
=21
=1
or (0, 1) (0, 1) (0, 1)
1
ex
loge (ex) = x loge (e)
=x1
2e x=0
e x=2
1
=2
ex
ex = 12
e x=
loge (ex) = loge 1

2
x=
loge 1
2

so the x-intercept is loge 12 .

7
Sketch the graph.
y
2
(loge( 12 ), 0)
Asymptote
y=2
(0, 1)
0
1
f (x) = 2 e
x
The domain is R and the range is (, 2).
The graphs of f (x) = e2x, g(x) = e2x 1 and h(x) = e2x 2 are drawn below.
y
f(x) = e 2x
g(x) = e 2x 1
h(x) = e 2x 2
(0, 1)
1
(0, e1)
1
(1, 1)
( 12 , 1)
Asymptote
(0, e2) y = 0
x
1
181
f (x) = e2x
g(x) = e2x 1
2 x
=e ( )
h(x) = e2x 2
= e2(x 1)
x-intercept
y-intercept
(0, 1)
0, 1 = 0, e 1
)
(
e
0, 1 = 0, e 2
)
(
e2
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
R+ = (0, )
y=0
y=0
Domain
Range
1
2
y=0
1
2
1 unit to right
unit to right
( , 1)
1
2
(0, 1)
(1, 1)
In summary, transformations can be represented in the following way:

1. Dilation by factor A from the x-axis can be written as y = Af (x), A > 0.
1
2. (a) Dilation by factor from the y-axis can be written as y = f (kx), k > 0.
k
(b) Dilation by factor k from the y-axis can be written as y = f 1k x , k > 0.
( )
3. (a)
(b)
4. (a)
(b)
5. (a)
(b)
Translation of B units up can be written as y = f (x) + B, B > 0.

Translation of B units down can be written as y = f (x) B, B > 0.
Translation of b units to the right can be written as y = f (x b), b > 0.
Translation of b units to the left can be written as y = f (x + b), b > 0.
Reflection in the x-axis can be written as y = f (x).
Reflection in the y-axis can be written as y = f (x).
exercise 4C
base e
Graphs of exponential functions with
1 We7 State the transformations of f (x) = ex needed to form each of the following functions.
a f (x) = e3x
x
3
d f (x) = 2e
g f (x) = 3 e2x
b f (x) = e2x
c f (x) = 4e 2
e f (x) = 1 + ex 2
h f (x) = 1 e3x
f
i
f (x) = 2 + ex + 5
f (x) = 3e2 + x 1
For each of the following examples sketch the graph of f (x) = ex. On the same set of
axes, sketch the graph of the given functions, marking the asymptote and y-intercept, and state the
transformation, the domain and the range. Give exact answers.
a f (x) = ex 1
b f (x) = ex 3
c f (x) = 2ex
x
x
d f (x) = 3e
e f (x) = 1 + e
f f (x) = ex 2
2
x
1
x
g f (x) = e
h f (x) = e
i f (x) = 3 ex
2 We8
DiGital DoC
doc-9190
Spreadsheet
exponential functions
3 We9 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, marking the asymptote and intercept, and
stating the transformations, domain and range. For the intercepts give exact answers or correct to
1decimal place where appropriate.
a f (x) = e3x
b f (x) = e2x
c f (x) = 4ex
1
2
d f (x) = 2ex
e f (x) = e4x
g f (x) = 2e3x
h f (x) = 3e4x
f (x) = 1 e2x
4
Sketch the graph of each of the following, marking the asymptote and intercepts, and stating
the transformations, domain and range. Mark the y-intercepts as exact values.
a f (x) = ex + 3
b f (x) = ex 3
c f (x) = ex + 1
x
x
+
1
d f (x) = e + 2
e f (x) = e
+2
f f (x) = ex + 2 + 1
x
1
x
2
g f (x) = e
+3
h f (x) = e
+5
i f (x) = ex + 2 1
4 We10
182
5 We11 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, marking the asymptote and intercepts,
and stating the transformations, domain and range. For intercepts, give exact answers or correct to
1decimal place where appropriate.
a f (x) = e x
b f (x) = ex
c f (x) = 1 ex
x
x
d f (x) = 2 + e
e f (x) = 1 + e
f f (x) = 1 + ex
x
x
g f (x) = 3 e
h f (x) = 5 e
i f (x) = 2e x
6 Sketch f: R R where f (x) = e2x 3 1, marking all the key features and stating the domain and range.
Write answers correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.

7 Sketch f: [0, ) R where f (x) = ex 2 1, marking all the key features and stating the domain and
range, giving answers correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.

8 If f (x) = ex, sketch the following functions.
a y = f (x) + 1
b y = f (x) 2
e y = 1 f (x)
i y = f (x)
f
j
y = 2 f (x)
y = 1 + f (x)
1
2
c y = 2f (x)
d y = f (x)
g y = f (x + 1)
h y = f (x 2)
9 MC The graph with equation y = e2x + 3 is translated so that the new graph has a horizontal asymptote
of y = 1. The new graph has undergone a translation of:

a 1 unit down
B 2 units down
D 4 units down
e 5 units down
C 3 units down
10 MC An increasing exponential function has a horizontal asymptote of y = 2 and a y-intercept of 4. A
possible equation for this exponential is:

B y = e4x + 2
e y = 2ex + 2
a y = e2x + 4
D y = 2ex + 4
C y = e2x 4
11 The graph shown is modelled by the equation y = 2ex b + B.

a Find the values of B and b.
b If the graph was translated down 1 unit, translated 3 units to the left
and dilated by factor

new graph.
1
2
y
4
3
2
from the x-axis, write the equation of the

2 1
4D
(3, 3)
Asymptote
y=1
0 1 2 3
logarithmic graphs to base e
Graphs of logarithmic functions with base e are drawn in exactly the same way as with any other base.
The function f (x) can be dilated, translated and reflected in the same way.
The graphs of f (x) = log2 (x), g(x) = log10 (x) and h(x) = loge (x) are shown below. The graph of
h(x) = loge (x) is in blue.
f (x) = log2 (x) and h(x) = loge (x) are steeper than g(x) = log10 (x).
Remember h(x) = loge (x) h(x) = ln (x)
y Asymptote
x=0
2
(1, 0)
1
1 0
1
1 2 3 4 5
f(x) = log2 (x)

h(x) = loge (x)
g(x) = log10 (x)
x
Common features
1. The graphs all cross the x-axis at (1, 0) because loga (1) = 0.
2. The vertical asymptote is the y-axis (x = 0) because loga (0) is undefined.
3. The domain is R+.
4. The range is R.
183
WorkeD exaMple 12
State the transformations of f (x) needed to form the graph of f (x) = 2 loge (x 3) + 1.
think
Write
State the rule.
f (x) = 2 loge (x 3) + 1.
State the dilation. The coefficient of loge (x)

gives the dilation from the x-axis.
Dilation is 2 units from the x-axis.

(a) Horizontal translation is given by the
constant added to the x term.
(b) Vertical translation is given by the constant
added to the log term.
Horizontal translation is 3 units to the right.
Vertical translation is 1 unit up.
Dilations do not change the vertical asymptote, the domain or the range of a logarithmic graph. The
x-intercept does change, however.
WorkeD exaMple 13
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3 loge (2x), marking all key features and stating the domain
and range.
think
Write/DraW
Write the rule.
f (x) = 3 loge (2x)
State the basic shape of the curve.
A log graph with basic shape f (x) = loge (x).
State the vertical asymptote, which occurs at

loge (0).
Vertical asymptote is the y-axis.
Find the x-intercept by letting y equal 0.

Solve for x. Divide both sides by 3.
Use loge (x) = a ea = x.
Use e0 = 1.
If y = 0, 3 loge (2x) = 0
loge (2x) = 0
e0 = 2x
2x = 1
x = 12
The x-intercept is 1 .
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3 loge (2x).
y Asymptote
x=0
6
4
2
1 0
2
f (x) = 3 loge (2x)

( 12 ,
1
0)
2 3
The domain is R+, and the range is R.
Translations do not change the shape of the basic graph, only the position. The asymptotes, intercepts
and domain may change but the range stays the same.
WorkeD exaMple 14
Sketch the graph of f (x) = ln (x + 1) 2, marking the vertical asymptote and the intercepts.
think
184
Write/DraW
State the rule.
f (x) = ln (x + 1) 2
Log graph with shape f (x) = ln (x).
Find the vertical asymptote by making

(x + 1) = 0.
x + 1 = 0 for asymptote
so x = 1 is the vertical asymptote.
Find the y-intercept by making x equal to 0.

Remember that ln (1) = 0.
If x = 0, y = ln (0 + 1) 2
= ln (1) 2
= 2
y-intercept = 2.
Find the x-intercept by making y equal to 0.

Use ln (x) = a ea = x.
If y = 0,
Sketch the graph.
ln (x + 1) 2 = 0
ln (x + 1) = 2
e2 = x + 1
x = e2 1
x 6.39
x-intercept 6.39 (to 2 decimal places)
Asymptote
x = 1
y
2
2
2 (0, 2)
(e2 1, 0)
4 6 x
f (x) = ln (x + 1) 2
A reflection of f (x) = loge (x) in the x-axis does not change the graphs asymptote, x-intercept, domain or
range. If there is a y-intercept, the sign changes.
A reflection in the y-axis does not change the vertical asymptote or the range, but the x-intercept and
the domain change.
WorkeD exaMple 15
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2 3 loge (1 x), marking the asymptote and intercepts.
State the domain and range.
think
Write/DraW
State the rule.
f (x) = 2 3 loge (1 x)
Find the vertical asymptote by translating the

line x = 0 one unit to the right or by making
1 x = 0.
Vertical asymptote is x = 1.
Find the y-intercept by making x equal to 0 and

solving the equation.
If x = 0, y = 2 3 loge (1)
=2
Find the x-intercept by making y equal to 0.
If y = 0, 2 3 loge (1 x) = 0
3 loge (1 x) = 2
2
loge (1 x) = 3
tUtorial
eles-1208
Worked example 15
e3 = 1 x
x = 1 e3
x 0.95 (to 2 decimal places)

5
Sketch the graph, remembering that there is a

reflection in both the x- and the y-axes.
y
4
(0, 2)
2
(1 e 3 , 0)
f (x) = 2 3 loge (1 x)
x
2 1 0 1
2 Asymptote
x=1
6
The domain is (, 1) and the range is R.
To sketch a graph by using transformations it is necessary to dilate, reflect and then translate.
185
exercise 4D
1 We12 State the transformations of f (x) needed to form the graph of each of the following.
a f (x) = 5 loge (2x)
b f (x) = 2 loge (4x)
c f (x) = loge (x + 1) 3
d f (x) = loge (x 2) + 1
e f (x) = loge (x)
f f (x) = loge (2x)
g f (x) = 1 loge (x 2)
h f (x) = 2 loge (x + 3)
i f (x) = 3 loge (x + 4) 1
j f (x) = 1 loge (x 4)
k f (x) = 2 loge (1 x) + 3
l f (x) = 3 loge (2 x) 1
Sketch the graph of the following functions, marking all key features and stating the domain
and range. Give exact values.
a f (x) = loge (2x)
b f (x) = loge (3x)
c f (x) = 3 loge (x)
2 We13
DiGital DoC
doc-9191
logarithmic graphs
d f (x) = 2 loge (x)
e f (x) = 2 loge
()
x
3
f (x) = 3 loge (2x)
3 We14 Sketch the graph of the following functions, marking the vertical asymptote and the intercepts.
Give exact answers for a f, otherwise round to 1 decimal place.
a f (x) = 1 + loge (x)
b f (x) = 2 + loge (x)
c f (x) = loge (x 1)
d f (x) = loge (x 2)
e f (x) = loge (x + 2)
f f (x) = loge (x + 3)
g f (x) = loge (x 3) + 2
h f (x) = loge (x 1) + 1
i f (x) = loge (x + 3) 2
j f (x) = loge (x + 1) 2
4 We15 Sketch the graph of the following functions, marking the asymptote and intercepts, and stating
the domain and range. Give intercepts correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
f (x) = loge (x)
b f (x) = loge (x)
c f (x) = 2 loge (x)
f (x) = loge ( 2x)

e f (x) = 3 loge ( 2x)
f f (x) = 2 loge (4x)
f (x) = loge (1 x)
h f (x) = loge (2 x)
i f (x) = loge (2 x)
f (x) = loge (3 x)
a
d
g
j
5 The graph of f (x) = loge (x) undergoes the following transformations. Find the equation of the image of
f (x) in each case.

a Translation of 1 unit to the right.
b Translation of 2 units down.
c Dilation of 5 units from the x-axis.
d Dilation of 3 units from the y-axis.
e Reflection in the x-axis.
f Reflection in the y-axis.
g Reflection in the x-axis and translation of 3 units to the left.
h Dilation of 4 units from the y-axis and translation 1 unit up.
i Reflection in the x-axis, dilation of 2 units from the x-axis and translation of 3 units down.
6 Sketch the graphs of the equations found in question 5, showing the asymptote and intercepts, and
stating the domain and the range. Give intercepts correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
7 State the transformations of f (x) needed to form the graph of f (x) = 2 loge (3x + 6) 1 and sketch the
graph, showing the asymptote and intercepts. Give intercepts correct to 2 decimal places.
8 Sketch the graph of f: (, 1] R where f (x) = 3 loge (2 x), showing key features.
9 MC The graph of y = loge (x) is transformed into the graph of y=5loge(2x) by:
a A dilation of factor 5 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis
B A dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 5 from the y-axis
C A dilation of factor 1 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis
5
1
D A dilation of factor 5 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor from the y-axis
2
1
e A dilation of factor from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 5 from the y-axis.
2
10 MC For the function f (x) = 3 loge (x 2), the vertical asymptote and the coordinates of the
x-intercept are respectively:
a x = 3, (2, 0)
D y = 2, (3, 0)
B x = 2, (3, 0)
e x = 3, (3, 0)
11 MC The function f: [0.5, 6] R where f (x) =

a 0
D 6
B 0.5
e a
C y = 3, (2, 0)
a
is undefined when x is equal to:
logge ( x )
C 1
12 a When the function f (x) = a + b loge (x) is reflected in the x-axis and
translated 2 units to the right, find g(x), the equation of the image of f (x).
DiGital DoC
doc-9193
WorkSHEET 4.2
186
b State the domain and range of g(x) and write it using correct function notation.
c If g(x) is reflected in the y-axis and dilated by factor 4 from the x-axis, write in correct function
notation the equation of h(x), the image of g(x).
Finding equations for graphs of

exponential and logarithmic functions
4e
As with other functions, it is sometimes necessary to be able to determine the equation of an exponential
or logarithmic function from its graph.
If we know points on the curve, we can substitute the values into the most suitable general equation:
1. For an exponential graph the general equation is y = Ae(x + b) + B.
2. For a logarithmic graph the general equation is y = A loge (x + b) + B.
Both of these examples are written with base e but they could be written with any base, for example
y = A 2(x + b) + B or y = A log10 (x + b) + B.
If there are two unknowns, two pieces of information are necessary. The coordinates of two points,
substituted into a general equation, will give two equations and enable two unknowns to be found.
WorkeD exaMple 16
y
4
The equation of the graph shown is of the form f (x) = Aex + B.

Find the values of A and B correct to 2 decimal places and hence
find the equation of the function.
(0, 2)
(2.44, 0)
0 1 x
4 3 2 1
think
1
2
3
4
Use the point on the y-axis and substitute

values into the given equation.
Substitute the coordinates of another point into
the given equation.
Solve simultaneous equations by subtracting
[1] from [2].
Write
For (0, 2):

2 = Ae0 + B
2=A+B
(2.44,
2.44
For
0 = Ae
[1]
0):
+B
[2] [1]:
Find A, rounding the answer correctly.
[2]
2.44
= Ae
A
= A(e 2.44 1)
2
A=
Substitute in [1]: 2 =
e
1
2.19 (to 2 decimal places)
Find B by substituting the exact value of A in

equation [1] or [2] to find B.
2.44
2.44
B=2
e
0.19
Rewrite the original equation, substituting

values for A and B.
1
2
2.44
+B
1
f (x) = 2.19ex 0.19
Note: You can use a CAS calculator to solve

equations [3] and [2].
1
Enter the following into your CAS calculator.
solve (a + b = 2 and a e 2.44 + b = 0, a)
a = 2.190 97
b = 0.190 967
Write down the solutions correct to

2 decimal places.
A = 2.19 and B = 0.19
The horizontal asymptote of an exponential equation gives the vertical translation and hence the value of
B in the general equation f (x) = Aex + B.
187
WorkeD exaMple 17
y
10
The equation of the graph shown is of the form f (x) = aex + b. Find the
values of a and b and hence find the equation of the function.
(0, 5)
3 2 1
think
Asymptote
y=2
0 1
Write
Use the horizontal asymptote to find the value

of b.
The graph of ex has been translated up 2units, so

b= 2.
Substitute the value of b in the equation.
f (x) = aex + 2
Use the y-intercept to find a by substituting in

the given equation.
For (0, 5):

5 = ae0 + 2
ae0 = 3
a=3
Write the equation, using the values of a and b.
f (x) = 3ex + 2
If there are three unknowns, three pieces of information are necessary to solve the equation.
The vertical asymptote of a logarithmic graph gives the horizontal translation and hence the value of b
in the equation y = A loge (x + b) + B. A translation to the left gives a positive value of b and a translation
to the right gives a negative value of b.
WorkeD exaMple 18
y
The equation of the graph shown is of the form
x = 1
y = A loge (x + b) + B. Find the values of A, b and B
5 (0, 5)
and hence find the equation.
0
think
tUtorial
eles-1209
Worked example 18
(2, 0)
1
Write
Use the vertical asymptote to find the value of b.
The graph of f (x) = loge (x) is translated 1 unit to

the left, so b = 1.
Substitute the value of b into the equation.
f (x) = A loge (x + 1) + B.
Use the y-intercept to find an equation.
For (0, 5):

A loge (0 + 1) + B = 5
Simplify using loge (1) = 0.
Substitute the value of B in the equation.
f (x) = A loge (x + 1) + 5
Use the x-intercept to find A.
For (2, 0):

A loge (2 + 1) + 5 = 0
A loge (3) + 5 = 0
A loge (3) = 5
A loge (1) + B = 5
B=5
A=
A
logge ((3)
4.55
(to 2 decimal places)

7
188
Substitute values back into the original equation.
f (x) = 4.55 loge (x + 1) + 5
Finding equations for graphs of

exercise 4e
1 We16 The equation of the graph shown is of the form
f (x) = Aex +B. Find the values of A and B correct to 2 decimal places
and hence find the equation of the function. State the equation of the
horizontal asymptote.
4
2
(1, 4)
(0, 3)
0 1
y=
y
6
2 Find the values of b and B if the general equation of the graph shown is
ex + b
+ B. Give your answers correct to 2decimal places.
(1, 6)
4
2 (0, 2)
x
10.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

y
3 Find the values of A and k if the general equation of the graphshown is
y = Aekx. Give your answers correct to 2decimal places.
0
2 1
(1, 4)
5
10
(2, 10)
y
4
4 Find the values of A and B if the general equation of the
graph shown is y = A
2x
+ B. Give exact answers.
(1, 3)
2
x
3 2 1 0 1 2
Asymptote
(3, 1)
2
y = 19
15
f (x) = a 2x + b. Find the values of a and b and hence

find the equation of the function. Give exact answers.
4
2
(0, 112 )
1 Asymptote
y=1
0 1 2 x
3 2 1
6 MC If the horizontal asymptote is y = 1 and the y-intercept is 2, the
equation for the exponential function of the form y = e x + b + B is:

a y = ex + 1 2
B y = ex + 2 + 1
C y = ex + 1 2
D y = ex 1 2
e y = ex + 1.1 + 1
7 Find the values of b and B if the general equation of the graph shown is
y
y = e x + b + B. Give exact answers.
6
4
(2, 4)
Asymptote
y=3
2
0 1
189
8 Find the values of A and B if the general equation of the graphshown is
y = Aex + B. Give exact answers.
4
(0, 3)
2
0 1 2 x
Asymptote
2
y = 1
3 2 1
y = A loge (x + b) + B. Find the values of A, b and B and hence find the

equation. Give answers correct to 1 decimal place.
10 Find the values of A and k, given that the graph of y = A log10 kx passes
through the points (1, 1) and (3,2). Give your answers correct to 4
decimal places where appropriate.
11 If the horizontal translation is 2 units to the left, the vertical translation
is 3, the graph passes through the point (2, 6), and the equation is of the
form y = A log2 (x + b) + B, find the values of A, b and B.
4F
interaCtiVitY
int-0249
addition of ordinates
y
Asymptote
6
x= 2
(2, 6)
4
2
3 2 1
0 1
Sometimes we need to sketch the graph of a function that can be thought of as the sum of two functions.
For example, the function y = x2 + ex can be thought of as the sum of the functions y = x2 and y = ex.
Such a graph can be drawn by sketching the two individual functions on the same set of axes, then
adding the y-values (ordinates) for each x-value and plotting the resulting points.
This method is convenient to use when we know the basic shape of the individual functions but cannot
recognise the basic shape of the given function. We can sketchboth graphs on the same set of axes, then
plot the resulting points by adding the y-values for each x-value, and hence sketch the new curve.
For example, the graph of y = x2 + ex can be sketched using the addition of ordinates technique,
since the basic shape of the function is not known, but the two individual functions are a basic positive
parabola and a basic exponential curve. The graph of y=ex + 1 can also be thought of as the sum of two
functions, but since we can recognise its shape as the basic exponential curve translated 1 unit up, there
is no need to use the addition of ordinates method.
Note that the sum function can only be defined for the domain over which both of the individual
functions are defined. So the domain of the sum function is obtained by finding the intersection of the
domains of the individual functions. That is, if h(x) = f (x) + g(x), domain h(x) = domain f (x) domain g(x).
Sometimes a function is defined as the difference between two individual functions. We can still
use the method of addition of ordinates to graph such a function, because the second function can
be expressed as the addition of a negative function. That is, h(x) = f (x) g(x) can be written as
h(x) = f (x) + (g(x)).
So if, for example, we need to graph y = x2 ex, we could think of it as y = x2 + (ex). We then would
sketch the basic parabola and the basic negative exponential curves on the same set of axes and use the
addition of ordinates technique to obtain the graph of the original function.
WorkeD exaMple 19
State the domain of f (x) = 3x2 + loge (x).

think
190
Write
Write f (x) as the sum of the two individual

functions g(x) and p(x).
Let f (x) = g(x) + p(x), where g(x) = 3x2

and p(x) = loge (x).
State the domain of g(x).
Domain g(x) = R
State the domain of p(x).
Domain p(x) = R+
State the domain of f (x) by finding the

intersection of the domains of individual
functions.
Domain f (x) = domain g(x) domain p(x)

= R R+
= R+
When sketching the graph by hand, it is important to select wisely the values of x for which the ordinates
should be added. As a guide, good points to select are:
1. the end points of the graph
2. the points of intersection of the graphs
3. the x-intercepts of either of the graphs.
WorkeD exaMple 20
Using the same scale and axes, sketch the graphs of y1 = ex and y2 = e x over the domain [2, 2).
Hence, sketch the graph of y = ex + e x, rounding coordinates to 1 decimal place.

think
1
Sketch y1 = ex by finding the horizontal

asymptote, the y-intercept, and the end points.
DraW

x = 0, y = e0, y = 1
x = 2, y = e2, y = 7.4
x = 2, y = e 2, y = 0.1
y
8
(2, 7.4)
y1 = ex
4
2
(2, 0.1)
(0, 1)
0
2 1
2
On the same axes, sketch y2 = ex by reflecting

y1 in the y-axis and finding the horizontal
asymptote, the y-intercept, and the end points.

y2 = ex
(2, 7.4)
y1 = ex
y
8
(2, 7.4)
6
4
2
(2, 0.1)
(0, 1)
0
2 1
(2, 0.1)
x
Add ordinates at the end point with the lowest

x-value (y = y1 + y2 = ex + ex).
When x = 2,y = e 2 + e2
7.5
Point (2, 7.5)
Add ordinates when the graphs intersect.
When x = 0,
y=1+1
=2
Point (0, 2)
5
Add ordinates at the other end point.
Plot the points (which were obtained by adding

ordinates), and join them to sketch the graph.
It is necessary to label only end points and
intercepts.
When x = 2,
Point (2, 7.5)
x
y2 = e
(2, 7.5)
y 7.5
y
8
6
4
2
2 1
y1 = ex
y = ex + e x
(2, 7.5)
(0, 2)
0 1
191
WorkeD exaMple 21
Given the graphs of f (x) and g(x), sketch the graph of h(x) = f (x) + g(x).
y
f(x)
g(x)
x
0
think
1
Add the ordinates at the LHS end

points of the graph: a large positive
value plus a smaller negative value
should give a smaller positive value.
Mark this point on the axes.
Add the ordinates at the point where

g(x) has the x-intercept and mark
the resulting point on the set of
axes. Note that g(x) = 0 at this point;
therefore f (x)+ 0 = f (x) (that is, if
one of the functions cuts the x-axis,
the sum is equal to the y-value of
the other function).
Add the ordinates at the first point

of intersection of the 2 functions.
Note that at the point of intersection
the value of y is the same for both
functions, so the resulting point is
double the y-value. Mark the point
on the set of axes.
Add the ordinates at the point where

f (x) has the x-intercept and mark the
result on the set of axes.
Add the ordinates at the second

point of intersection of the 2 graphs
and mark the resulting point on the
set of axes.
Add the ordinates at the RHS end

points of the graph: 2 positive
values together give an even larger
positive value.
Join the points with a smooth curve
to produce the graph of h(x).
DraW
1
f(x)
g(x)
g(x)
y
f(x)
g(x)
g(x)
f(x)
f(x)
g(x)
g(x)
h(x)
g(x)
f(x)
f(x)
192
f(x)
WorkeD exaMple 22
Sketch the graph of f (x) = x + x , using addition of ordinates.

think
Write/DraW
State the two individual functions.
State the domain of f (x) by finding

the intersection of the domains of
individual functions.
On the set of axes sketch the graph

of g(x) (a straight line, passing
through the origin and bisecting
the first quadrant) and p(x) (a basic
square root curve). Note that only
the first quadrant is needed, since
the domain is R+ {0}.
The first point of intersection of

g(x) and p(x) is at the origin,
f (x) = 0 + 0 = 0 (that is, f (x) will
also start at the origin). Mark this
point on the set of axes.
Let f (x) = g(x) + p(x), where g(x) = x and p(x) = x

Domain g(x) = R
Domain p(x) = R+ {0}
Domain f (x) = domain g(x) domain p(x)
Domain= R R+ {0}
Domain= R+ {0}
g(x)
p(x)
Add the ordinates at the RHS end

points of the graph and mark the
resulting point on the set of axes.
Sketch the graph of f (x) by joining

the points.
Add the ordinates at the second

point of intersection of the two
graphs and mark the resulting point
on the set of axes.
g(x)
y
g(x)
p(x)
x
p(x)
f(x)
y
g(x)
p(x)
x
Further graphs
The example below shows how to draw the graph of a product function.
WorkeD exaMple 23
Sketch the graph of y = x2ex using a CAS calculator. Show all axis intercepts and any asymptotes.
think
1
Define the function on your CAS calculator.
Write/DraW
f1(x) = x2ex
193
Plot the graph using the graphing function on

your CAS calculator.
f1 (x)
As x , ex 0.
Therefore as x , y 0.
Horizontal asymptote y = 0
Substitute x = 0 into f1(x) to find the x-intercept.

The only x-intercept is at f1(0).
f1(0) = 0 e0 = 0
x-intercept = (0, 0)
Find the y-intercept. The only y-intercept is

when f1(x) = 0.
x2e2 = 0
x2 = 0 or ex = 0
x=0
Not possible
y-intercept = (0, 0)
exercise 4F
1 We19 State the domain of each of the following functions.

a y=x+
1
x
d y = x+2 x
g y=
j
2
x2
( x + 1)2
1
2
b y=3 x x
c y = x2 +
x 1
e y = x2 3x3
y = 2x3
h y = 3x 2 1 x
y = 3(2 x)2 +
1
x3
2
3x
y = 2 3 x 3 x +1
2 MC If f (x) = g(x) + p(x), and if f (x) is defined over the domain [2, 7] and g(x) is defined for x 7, the
domain of p(x) could not be:

a [2, 7]
C [2, 7)
e [2, 15]
B [2, )
D [2, 7.5)
3 We20 Using the same scale and axes, sketch the graphs of y1 and y2 over the given domain. Hence,
sketch the graph of y = y1 + y2, rounding coordinates to 1 decimal place as this is accurate enough for
most sketch graphs. Check all graphs using a CAS calculator.
a y1 = 2ex, y2 = 2ex, [1, 1]
b y1 = 3ex, y2 = 3ex, [1, 1]
c y1 = ex, y2 = x, (2, 2]
d y1 = ex, y2 = x, (2, 2]
x
2
e y1 = e , y2 = x , ( 2, 2)
f y1 = ex, y2 = x2, (2, 3)
4 Using the same scale and axes, sketch the graphs of f (x) and g(x). Hence, sketch the graph of
h(x) = f (x) + g(x), rounding coordinates to 1 decimal place as this is accurate enough for most sketch
graphs. State the domain and range of h(x). Check all graphs using a CAS calculator.
a f (x) = 2 loge(x), g(x) = x
b f (x) = 3 loge(x), g(x) = x
1
2
c f (x) = loge(x), g(x) = 2x
d f (x) = loge(x), g(x) = x
e f (x) = loge(x), g(x) = x
f (x) = 2 loge(x), g(x) = x

1
2
1
2
5 Using the addition of ordinates, sketch the graph of f: [2, 2] R, where f (x) = ex + e x. State the
domain and the range, giving answers to 1 decimal place where rounding is necessary.
6 MC If the domain of y1 is (2, 2] and the domain of y2 is (0, ), the domain of y1 + y2 is:
a (2, )
B [2, )
C (0, )
D (2, 0)
e (0, 2]
194
7 We21 Given the graphs of f (x) and g(x), sketch the graph of h(x) = f (x) + g(x).
y
f(x)
x
f(x)
f(x)
g(x)
g(x)
y
g(x)
g(x)
f(x)
f(x)
g(x)
f(x)
g(x)
8 On the same set of axes sketch the graphs of f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 5x + 6. Use the addition-of-ordinates
method to sketch the graph of y = x2 + 5x + 6.
9 On the same set of axes sketch the graphs of f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x2 1 and hence sketch the graph of
y = x3 + x2 1, using the addition-of-ordinates technique.
10 We22 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, using addition of ordinates. Check your
answers using a CAS calculator.

a y=
x + 2 x
b y = 2x
c y=
x 3 x2
d y=
x +5 + 5 x
11 MC The graph at right is likely to represent the sum of which 2 functions?

a
0
0
D
0
x
0
12 Sketch the graph of y = loge x +
x by sketching the 2 individual functions on the same set of axes

and then adding the ordinates. State the domain of the function. Verify your answer with a CAS
calculator.
13 If f (x) = 3x 3 and g(x) = loge x, sketch the graph of h( x ) = f ( x ) + g( x ), using addition of ordinates.
Check your answer using a CAS calculator.
14 We23 For each of the following, sketch the graph using a CAS calculator. Show all axis intercepts
and any asymptotes. State the domain and range.

a y = x2e2x
b y = x2ex
c y = ex
15 For each of the following, sketch the graph using a CAS calculator. Show all axis intercepts and any
asymptotes. State the domain and range.

a y = x2 loge (x)
b y = x2 loge (3x)
c y = x loge (x)
195

functions with absolute values
4G
x for x 0
The modulus, or absolute value, function is defined as f ( x ) = x =
.
x for x < 0
To obtain the graph of y = f x , the graph of y = f (x), where x 0, is reflected in the y-axis.
The rule of the composite function y = f x , where f (x) = loge (x), x > 0, can be written as:
ge ( x )
log
y = loge x =
ge ( x )
log
ffor
or x > 0
ffor
or x < 0
2
1
2
0
1
2 x
2
3
To obtain the graph of y = f ( x ) , negative y-values of y = f (x) are reflected in the x-axis. The rule
of the composite function y = f ( x ) , where f (x) = loge (x), x > 0, can be written as:
logge ( x )
y = loge( x)
x) =
logge ( x )
f or 0 < x < 1
f or x 1
4
3
2
1
0
4 x
The rule of the composite function y = f x , where f (x) = ex, can be written as:
y
e x for x 0
y = e x = x
for x < 0
e
(0, 1)
2
2 x
The rule of the composite function y = f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = e x k, k R+, can be written as:
y
(e x k ) for x < loge k

y = ex k = x
for x loge k
e k
y=k
(0, |1 k|)
2 x
(loge(k), 0)
196
WorkeD exaMple 24
For the function y = 2 log e x + 2 3 :

a sketch the graph of y = 2 log e x + 2 3, showing any asymptotes
b calculate all axis intercepts both in exact form and correct to 2 decimal places
c state the domain and range.
think
a 1 Sketch the graph of y = 2 loge x + 2 3 ,
x > 2. The graph is not defined when x = 2,

so there is a vertical asymptote at x = 2.
Write/DraW
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 x
7 6 5 4 3 2 110
2
3
Asymptote
x = 2
Reflect y = 2 loge x + 2 3 in the vertical

asymptote at x = 2.
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 x
7 6 5 4 3 2 110
2
3
Asymptote
x = 2
y = 2 loge x + 2 3 as a hybrid function.
2 loge ( x + 2) 3
y=
2 loge ( ( x + 2)) 3
Substitute y = 0 and solve each equation.
2 loge (x + 2) 3 = 0
b 1 To locate the x-intercepts, express
logge ( x + 2) =
for x > 2
for x < 2
3
2
Write the equation in exponential form and

solve for x.
x + 2 = e2
3
x = e2 2
x = 2.481 69
Repeat for the other x-intercept.
2 loge ((x + 2)) 3 = 0

3
logge ( ( x + 2)) =
2
(x
+ 2) = e 2
3
x = 6.481 69
5
Write down the coordinates of the x-intercepts

in exact form and correct to 2 decimal places.
x = e 2 2
2 2, 0 and e 2 2, 0
e
(2.48, 0) and (6.48, 0)
Substitute x = 0 to obtain the y-intercept and

simplify, using the first function in step b 1 .
y = 2loge 0 + 2 3
y = 2loge 2 3
y = 1.613 71
197
c x R\{2}
c 1 State the domain.

2
(0, 2 loge (2) 3)

(0, 1.61)
Write down the coordinates of the y-intercept

in exact form and correct to 2 decimal places.
yR
State the range.
WorkeD exaMple 25
a Sketch the graph of y = e x 1 showing all axis intercepts and asymptotes.

b State the domain and range.
think
tUtorial
eles-1210
Worked example 25
Write/DraW
a 1 Sketch the graph of y = e x 1 .
The graph has a horizontal asymptote at

y = 1.
2
Reflect the negative part (below the x-axis) of

y = e x 1 and the asymptote about the x-axis.
Note that the graph of y = e x 1 now has a

horizontal asymptote at y = 1.
b 1 Substitute x = 0 to obtain the y-intercept and
2
1
2
0
1
Asymptote
y=1
x
2 Asymptote
y = 1
b y = e0 1
simplify.
= 11
=0
Write the coordinates of the y-intercept (which

is also the x-intercept).
The coordinates of the y-intercept are (0, 0).
State the domain.
xR
State the range.
y R+{0}

with absolute values
exercise 4G
1 We24 Sketch the graphs of the following functions, showing all axis intercepts and asymptotes in
exact form. For each graph, state the maximal domain and the range of the function.
b y = loge ( x + 1) 2
c y = log10 3 x + 1
y = 3loge x 2 + 3
2 Sketch the graphs of the following showing all axis intercepts and asymptotes in exact form. For each
graph, state the maximal domain and the range of the function.
a
y = loge ( x 2)
b y = loge (1 x ) 2
y = log10 ( x + 3) + 1
3 Sketch the graphs of the following showing all axis intercepts in exact form. For each graph, state the
maximal domain and the range of the function.

a
y = e x 1 + 4
y = e 4 x 3
y = e
x 1
+2
4 We25 Sketch the graphs of the following showing all axis intercepts and asymptotes in exact form.
For each graph, state the maximal domain and the range of the function.
a
198
y = ex 3
b y = e x 2 + 4
y= e
1 + 2

modelling using graphs
4h
As seen in chapter 3, exponential and logarithmic functions can be used to model real situations.
Graphs of these functions can be used to illustrate the model and make predictions for future changes.
In most cases when modelling real life situations, the domain is restricted to [0, ) because t = 0 when
the model begins.
WorkeD exaMple 26
The population of wombats in Snubnose Gully is increasing according to the equation:

W = 100e0.03t
where W is the number of wombats t years after 1 January 1998.
a Find the initial size of the population.
b Find the population 2 years and 10 years after the number of wombats was first recorded. Give
answers to the nearest whole wombat.
c Graph W against t for 0 t 30.
d Find the expected size of the population in the year 2020.
e Find the year in which the wombat population reaches 250.
think
a 1 State the rule.
Write/DraW
a W = 100e0.03t
Find W when t = 0.
When t = 0, W = 100, since e0.03(0) = 1.
The initial size of the population is

100 wombats.
b 1 Find W when t = 2.
b When t = 2, W = 100e0.03 2
= 100 1.0618
106 (nearest whole number)
After 2 years there are 106 wombats.
Find W when t = 10.
When t = 10, W = 100e0.03 10

= 100 1.3499
135 (nearest whole number)
After 10 years there are 135 wombats.
c 1 The rule w = 100 e0.03t is a standard
increasing, exponential functions.

Determine w(0) and w(30).
2
Sketch the exponential function.
w(0) = 100
w(30) = 100e0.9
= 246.0
w
250
200
150
100
50
0
d 1 Convert the year 2020 to the correct
number of years.
2
Find W by substituting t = 22 into the

equation.
(30, 246)
30
d t = 2020 1998
= 22 years
When t = 22, W = 100e0.03 22

= 193.479
= 193 (nearest whole number)
199
Write the answer as a sentence.
e 1 Let W = 250.
In the year 2020, there are approximately

193 wombats.
e 250 = 100e0.03t
2.5 = e0.03t
Take natural logs of both sides.
loge (2.5) = loge (e0.03t)

0.03t = loge (2.5)
Divide both sides by 0.03.
t=
Evaluate the answer using a CAS calculator.
t = 30.543
t = 31 (nearest year)
Express t = 31 as a year and write the answer

as a sentence.
There will be 250 wombats in the year 2029.
1
loge (2.5)
0.03

using graphs
exercise 4h
1 We26 The population of a species of koala found on Eucalyptus Island is increasing according to the
DiGital DoC
doc-9165
Spreadsheet
Function grapher
equation K = 50e0.04t, where K is the number of koalas t years after 1 January 1998.
b Find the population 2 years and 10 years after the number of koalas was first recorded. Give
answers to the nearest whole number.
c Plot a graph of K against t.
d Use the graph to find the size of the population after 15 years.
2 The population of a species of wallaby found on a reserve is increasing according to the equation
W = 150 1.08t, where W is the number of wallabies t years after records were first kept.
b Find the population 1 year and 5 years after records were first kept. Give answers to the nearest
whole number.
c Plot a graph of W against t.
d Use the graph to find the size of the population after 15 years.
e Use the graph to find how long it would take for the population to double.
3 A student invests $500 with a company that pays interest of 6% compounded continuously. (Interest
paid according to the formula A = A0ert is said to be compounded continuously and r is called the
continuous interest rate.)
a How much money made up the initial investment?
b How much did the student have with the company after 1 year? Give your answer correct to the
nearest 5 cents.
c How much interest did the student have after 5 years? Give your answer correct to the nearest
5 cents.
d Plot a graph of A against t.
e Use your graph to find how much the student would have in the account after 8years.
200
4 The decay of a radioactive element, E, is given by the equation E = E0 e kt, where E is the number of
radioactive nuclei present t days after the experiment begins.
a If 200 radioactive nuclei are present in the element at the beginning of the experiment and there
b
c
d
e
f
are 33 radioactive nuclei present after 10 days, find the value of k correct to 2 decimal places. Use
this rounded value for all working in the other parts of this question.
Find the number of radioactive nuclei, E, present after 1 day and after 5 days.
Plot a graph of E against t.
Use the graph to find how long it would take before 50 radioactive nuclei are left.
Would there ever be no radioactive nuclei left? Give reasons for your answer.
The half-life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.
Use your graph to find the half-life of this element.
5 A hard-boiled egg is placed in water to cool. The cooling process can be modelled by the equation
T T1 = (T0 T1)e kt, where T is the temperature of the egg t minutes after it was placed in the water
and T1 is the temperature of the water. Assume that the temperature of the egg is 98 C when it is first
placed in the 18 C water and it takes 5minutes for it to cool to 38 C.
a Substitute the values of T0 and T1 into the equation and simplify, making T the subject.
b Find the value of k to 3 decimal places.
c Substitute it into the equation.
d Find how long it would take to reach a temperature of 25 C. Give your answer to the
nearest minute.
e Draw a graph of T against t, marking in asymptotes.
f Use the graph to find the temperature after 15 minutes.
g Assuming that the water does not become significantly warmer, use your graph to determine
whether the egg will ever reach the temperature of the water.
6 The population of a species of fish
in Lake Underwater is declining due

to an unknown cause. The number
of fish t weeks after the first dead
fish was found on the surface of the
water can be modelled by the
equation P = A loge (t) + B. One
week after the first dead fish was
discovered, the population was
10 000. The population was 8000
after 5 weeks.
a Find the values of A and
B. Give answers correct
to 2decimalplaces where
appropriate.
b Find how many fish there are after 10 weeks.
c Find how long it would take for the population to be 3000. Give your answer to the
nearest week.
d Sketch a graph of P against t, clearly indicating the asymptote.
e Use the graph to find how many fish there would be after 20 weeks.
7 MC The relationship between m and n is modelled by the equation m = log10 (an + b). The graph is
shown below.
m
2
1
1
The values of a and b are:

a 3 nd
a 2
B 2 nd
a
(4, 1)
(1, 0)
0 1
C 3 and 2
D 1 nd
a
e 1 and 3
201
8 It costs a clothing company $20 to produce a jacket. Production costs are proportional to the number of
jackets produced.
a If the company produces n jackets, write an equation for the companys production costs for the
jackets, $C.
As the company produces more jackets they find that they have to sell them at a lower price. The
companys revenue, $R, is modelled by the equation
R(n) = 2000(1 e 0.1n)

b Show that R(0) = 0.
c According to this model, revenues plateau as costs increase. What is the value that the revenue
approaches?
d On the same axes, sketch the graphs of the cost equation and the revenue equation for 0 n 55.
e Use addition of ordinates to sketch the graph of the profit the company can expect to make from
selling the jackets (profit = revenue cost).
f Write an equation for this profit.
g Use a CAS calculator to find the number of jackets that must be sold in order to maximise the
profits and what that profit would be.
h Use a CAS calculator to find how many jackets the company could make before they began to
make a loss.
i Is this a reasonable model for a company to use? Explain your reasons.
202
Summary
y
For graphs of the form f (x) = ax, where a R+\{1}:
1. The maximal domain is R.
4
2. The range is R+.
3. The x-axis is the horizontal asymptote.
2
4. The y-intercept is 1.
(0, 1)
x
2 1 0 1 2
Reflection:
1. If f (x) = ax is reflected in the x-axis the result is the graph of f (x) = ax. The graph is a
decreasing function instead of an increasing function. The y-intercept changes to (0, 1) and the
range becomes R.
2. If f (x) = ax is reflected in the y-axis the result is the graph of f (x) = ax. All key features stay the
same but the graph is a decreasing function instead of an increasing function.
Translation:
For all of the graphs of the form f (x) = ax + b + B, where b, B R, and aR+\{1}, the maximal
domain is R, the range is (B, ), the horizontal asymptote is y = B and they are all increasing
functions. b translates the graph horizontally, B translates the graph vertically.
Dilation:
If f (x) = Aakx, where A, k R+, the graph of f (x) = ax is dilated by factor A from the x-axis
1
and by factor from the y-axis.
k
Combinations of transformations:
For all the graphs of the form f (x) = A ak(x + b) + B, where b, B R, A, k R+ and a R+\{1},
the maximal domain is R, the range is (B, ), the horizontal asymptote is y = B and they are all
increasing functions. b translates the graph horizontally, B translates the graph vertically and
1
A dilates the graph by factor A from the x-axis, k dilates the graph by factor from the y-axis. If
k
A, k < 0 the graphs are reflected in the x- and y-axes, respectively.
logarithmic functions
For graphs of the form f (x) = loga (x), where a R+\{1}:

y
1. The maximal domain is R+; that is, there are no negative values of x.
2. The range is R.
3. The vertical asymptote is the y-axis so there are no y-intercepts.
4. The graph crosses the x-axis at (1, 0) because loga(1) = 0.
x
0 (1, 0)
Reflection:
1. If f (x) = loga (x) is reflected in the x-axis the result is the graph of
f (x) = loga (x). All key features remain the same but the graph is a
decreasing function instead of an increasing function.
2. If f (x) = loga (x) is reflected in the y-axis the result is the graph of f (x) = loga (x). The vertical
asymptote and the range remain the same but the x-intercept and the domain change.
(a) The graph crosses the x-axis at (1, 0).
(b) The domain is (, 0).
Dilation:
1. The function f (x) = A loga (x) dilates the graph of f (x) = loga (x) by a factor of A from the x-axis.
The vertical asymptote, x-intercept, domain and range remain the same. As A increases, the
graph becomes steeper.
1
2. The function f (x) = loga (kx) dilates the graph of f (x) = loga (x) by a factor from the y-axis.
k 1
the vertical asymptote, domain and range stay the same, but the x-intercept is . As k increases,
k
the graph becomes steeper and the x-intercept becomes smaller.
Translation:
1. The function f (x) = loga(x) + B translates the graph of f (x) = loga (x) vertically, B units. The
vertical axis, domain and range remain the same but the x-intercept changes. There is no change
in the shape of the graph.
203
2. The function f (x) = loga (x + b) translates the graph of f (x) = loga (x) horizontally b units. The
shape and the range remain the same but the vertical asymptote, the x-intercept and the domain
change:
(a) The vertical asymptote becomes x = b.
(b) The graph crosses the x-axis at (1 b, 0).
(c) The domain is (b, ).
Combinations of transformations:
The function f (x) = A loga (x + b) + B has dilation factor A from the x-axis and is translated b units
horizontally and B units vertically. If A < 0 there is a reflection in the x-axis and if x is used there
is a reflection in the y-axis.
A graph of the sum of two functions can be drawn by sketching the two functions on the same set
of axes and then adding the y-values for each value of x.
If h(x) = f (x) + g(x), domain h(x) = domain f (x) domain g(x).
Suitable points at which to add ordinates are:
1. the end points of the graph
2. the points of intersection of the two graphs
3. the x-intercepts of the two graphs.
The technique can be used for the difference of the two functions, if it is rewritten as a sum:
h(x) = f (x) g(x) = f (x) + [g(x)].
Further graphs
Use a CAS calculator to graph the product of two functions or composite functions.
Obtain the equation of any asymptote of the function by considering asymptotic behaviour of the
individual functions.
On your graph, clearly label:
1. asymptotes
2. axis intercepts.
absolute value graphs
x for x 0
The modulus, or absolute value, function is defined as f ( x ) = x =
.
x for x < 0
For y = f x , the graph of y = f (x), where x 0, is reflected in the y-axis.
For y = f ( x ) , negative y-values of y = f (x) are reflected in the x-axis.
204
Chapter review
1 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2(x + 1) 4, showing intercepts and asymptotes, and stating the domain and range.
2 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3 log10 (2x), showing intercepts and asymptotes, and stating the domain and
S ho rt
a n S W er
range.
3 Find the equation of the graph below, given that it is of the form f (x) = Aex + B.
y
4
2
x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2
2 (0, 1)
y = 4
4
5
4 The graphs of f (x) and g(x) are shown below. Sketch the graph of (f + g)(x), using the addition-
of-ordinates technique.
y
g(x)
f(x)
g(x)
f(x)
5 a Use the law loga (mp) = p loga (m) to simplify f (x) = log10 (x2) and hence sketch the graph of the
function f: (0, ) R where f (x) = log10 (x2).

b Sketch the graph over the domain, R, noting that it is now possible to take negative values of x.
6 P = P0e t. If P = 120 when t = 0, find the exact value of P when t = 20.

7 For the function g(x) = 2ex + 1 4:
a sketch the graph of g(x) by finding the equation of any asymptotes and the coordinates of all
intercepts
b determine the rule for g 1(x), and hence state the domain and range of g 1(x).
8 If h(x) = f (x) + g(x) where f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = loge (x), sketch the graph of h(x) = f (x) + g(x). State
the domain and range of h(x).
9 Describe a sequence of transformations that maps the graph of y = f (x) on to the graph of
y = 2f (3 x) + 5.
10 After a protection program for tigers was introduced in a province of
India on 1 January 2006, the population of the tigers is modelled by

T(t) = 50 20.4t, where t is the number of months after the start of the
program. At the same time, the number of elephants in the province is
modelled by E(t) = 400 4 0.1t.

Find:
a the number of tigers and elephants in the province on
1 January 2006
b which of the two animals has the highest numbers in the province
on 1 April 2007
c the date when the population of the tigers will equal the
population of elephants in the province.
If the number of elephants falls below 25, they are at risk of
extinction in this province.
d According to the model, will this happen? If so, when will it
happen?
11 Sketch the graph of y = loge ( x + 3) , showing all intercepts and asymptotes in exact form. State the
maximal domain and the range.
205
M U lt ip l e
C h oiCe
1 The horizontal asymptote for the graph of f (x) = 2x 1 is:

a x=2
B x=1
D y = 1
e y = 2
C y=0
2 The domain and range of the graph of f (x) = 3 10x + 1 are respectively:
a R, [1, )
B R, (1, )
C R, [3, )
e R, R
D R, (3, )
3 The y-intercept for the graph of f (x) = 1 2x is:
a 0
B 1
C 2
D 3
e 4
4 When the function f (x) = log10 (x 1) is translated 2 units up and 1 unit to the left the function becomes:
a log10 (x 2) + 2
B log10 (x 3) + 3
C log10 (x) + 2
D log10 (x + 1) + 2
e log10 (x + 2) + 1
5 The function f (x) = log2 (x + 1) has as its domain:
a (1, )
B [1, )
C (1, )
D [1, )
6 Which of the following graphs best represents the function f (x) = log10 (x 2) + 1?
a
x=2
2
6 4 2 0
2
y
2
x = 2 y
2
2 4
2 4
6 4 2 0
2
4
e
x=2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 4 2 0
2
4
D
x = 2 y
x = 2 y
3 2 1
0 1 2 3 x
7 The graph of f (x) = 2ex + 1 is obtained from the graph of f (x) = ex by:
a a dilation of 2 units from the y-axis and a translation of 1 unit to the left
B a dilation of 2 units from the y-axis and a translation of 1 unit to the right
C a dilation of 2 units from the x-axis and a translation of 1 unit to the left
D a dilation of 2 units from the x-axis and a translation of 1 unit to the right
e a dilation of 1 unit from the x-axis and a translation of 2 units to the right
8 If f (x) = ex, the function in the graph below is:

y
2
(0, 1)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Asymptote
2
y = 2
a 3f (x) + 2
D 2 3f (x)
206
B 3f (x) 2
e 2 + 3f (x)
e R
C 2f (x) + 3
2 4
9 If the horizontal asymptote is y = 2 and the y-intercept is 1, a possible equation for the graphis:
a y = ex + 2
B y = 2ex + 1
C y = 2ex 1
x
x
D y=e 2
e y=2e
10 The vertical asymptote for the graph of f (x) = 3 loge (x 2) + 1 is:
a x = 1
B x=0
C x=1
D x=2
e x=3
11 For the function f: [1, ] R where f (x) = 3 loge (x + 2), the domain and range are respectively:
a (2, ), (0, )
B (2, ), R
C (1, ), R+
+
D [ 1, ), [0, )
e R ,R
12 If f (x) = loge (x + 1), the y-intercept of 2f (x) + 3 is:
a 0
B 1
D 3
e 4
C 2
13 The general equation of the graph shown is y = Aex + B. The values of A and B are:
y
4
(0, 3)
2
0 2 x
Asymptote
2 y = 1
6 4 2
a 3, 1
D 1, 3
B 2, 1
e 4, 1
C 4, 1
14 If f (x) = loge (x + 2) + 1, then f (1) and f (0) are respectively (correct to 2 decimal places):
a 2.10, 1.69
B 2.09, 0.69
C 2.098, 1.693
D 1.10, 1.69
e 2.10, 0.69
15 The domain of {f (x) + g(x)} is:
a dom f dom g
D dom g
B dom f dom g
e R
C dom f
16 If f (x) = g(x) + p(x), and dom g(x) = (, 5] and dom p(x) = (2, ), then the domain of f (x) is:
a ( 2, 5]
B [2, 5)
C [2, 5]
e none of the above

D ( 2, 5)
17 Which of the following shows the graph of y +
y
4
4
D
x+4 +
4x ?
y
4
4 x
4 x
4 x
4
4
4
4 x
18 The decay of uranium-235 is modelled by the equation U = U0ekt, where U is the number of grams
of uranium-235 after t million years. If a 1000 g mass of uranium-235 decays to 907g in 100 million
years, the values of U0 and k are respectively:
a 100, 0.000 976
B 1000, 0.000 976
C 10 000, 0.000 907
e 100, 907
D 1000, 0.000 907
207
e x t enDeD
r e SponS e
1 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2ex 1 + 1, showing all key features. State the domain and the range.
2 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 1 loge (2 x), clearly showing intercepts and asymptotes, and state the
domain and range.
3 By adding ordinates, sketch the graph of f (x) = log10 (2x) + log10 (x). State the domain and the range.
4 N is the number of bacteria in a culture where N = 10 000e0.04t is the formula for the number of bacteria
in the culture after t hours. Find:

a the initial number of bacteria
b the number of bacteria after 10 hours. Give your answer to the nearest thousand.
5 Sketch the graph of y = 4 e x 1 showing all axis intercepts in exact form and any asymptotes. State
the maximal domain and the range of the function.

6 Kerri invested $5000 with a company that pays interest of 5% compounded continuously. To answer
the questions below, use the formula A = A0ert, where A is the amount of the investment, A0 is the
original investment, r is the continuous interest rate and t is the number of years since the money was
originally invested. Round the answer to the nearest 5c.
a How much money did Kerri first invest with the company?
b How much money did Kerri have with the company after 1 year?
c How much did she have after 5 years?
If the company had been paying interest compounded quarterly, the formula used would have been
( )
4t
A = A0 1 + r .
4
d Using this system, how much would Kerri have after 5 years of the investment?
e How long would it take to double the investment? Give your answer in years.
f Which is the better investment? Give reasons.
g What is the difference in the amount of interest after 5 years?
h What would be the difference in 5 years if Kerri had invested $10 000?
7 A local council decided to build a new road along the coast. To make it safer it was decided to design
the road so that it followed the curve represented by the equation:

y = 2 log10 (2x a) + 3 where a > 0.
The grid below shows the road. In each direction, 1 unit represents 1kilometre.
y
Bridge
Ship
4
a If the new section of road goes over the bridge marked on the graph, find the value of a.
b Find the x-coordinate of the point where the road begins. Give the answer correct to 2decimal
places. How far would this be from the vertical axis to the nearest metre?
c What is the shortest distance from the beginning of the road to the coastline if the coastline is on
the vertical asymptote at that point? Give the answer correct to the nearest metre.
d The main highway is along the x-axis. How far is the road from the main highway when it is in
line with the ship marked on the grid? Give the answer in kilometres, correct to 1decimal place.
208
8 The air pressure P in kilopascals (kPa) at a height of x kilometres (km) above sea level may be
modelled by the equation P = aebx.

A mountain climber uses an altimeter to record air pressures at known heights on a climb of
Mount Kosciuszko (height 2.228 km). These pressures are shown in the table below.
x
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
101.3
95.2
89.4
84.0
78.9
a If b is between 0.1 and 0.2, find the value for b (to 3 decimal places) which produces the best
fitting model of the form P = aebx for the above data.

b Use your model to predict the air pressure at the top of Mount Kosciuszko.
9 The graph of the function f (x) = e2x bex + c is shown below.
y
y=6
DiGital DoC
doc-9194
Test Yourself
Chapter 4
(0, 2)
0
a Find the values of b and c.

b Show that the exact values of the x-intercepts are x = loge (2) and x = loge (3).
c Use a CAS calculator to find the coordinates of the turning point. Round answers to 2 decimal
d
e
f
g
h
places.
Find the exact values of the coordinates of the point of intersection of the function and the
horizontal asymptote.
If the function is reflected in the x-axis, fully define the new function g(x) = f (x).
If the function is reflected in the y-axis, fully define the new function, h(x).
If the function is reflected in both the x- and the y-axis, sketch the graph of
the new function, k(x), write its equation and state the domain and the range.
Find the equation of f (2 x) + 1. State the domain and range, rounding to
2 decimal places where appropriate.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
209
ICT activities
Chapter opener
DiGital DoC
exponential and logarithmic graphs. (page 163)
4a
Graphs of exponential functions with any base
tUtorial
We2 eles-1205: Watch how to sketch a graph of an exponential
function. (page 168)
DiGital DoC
Spreadsheet doc-9190: Investigate exponential graphs. (page 170)
4B
tUtorial
We5 eles-1206: Watch how to sketch the graph of a logarithmic
function. (page 175)
DiGital DoCS
Spreadsheet doc-9191: Investigate logarithmic graphs. (page 177)
WorkSHEET 4.1 doc-9192: Sketch graphs of exponentials and
logarithms, identify transformations and determine rules for graphs.
(page 178)
4C
Graphs of exponential functions with base e
tUtorial
We10 eles-1207: Watch how to sketch the graph of
an exponential function and state the transformations.
(page 180)
DiGital DoC
Spreadsheet doc-9190: Investigate the exponential function.
(page 182)
4D
tUtorial
We15 eles-1208: Sketch the graph of a logarithmic function
stating the domain and range using a CAS calculator to check.
(page 185)
210
DiGital DoCS
doc-9191: Investigate logarithmic graphs. (page 186)
WorkSHEET 4.2 doc-9193: Sketch graphs of exponentials and
logarithms and determine points of intersection between graphs.
(page 186)
4e Finding equations for graphs of exponential

and logarithmic functions
tUtorial
We18 eles-1209: Watch how to find the equation of an
exponential given the graph. (page 188)
4F
interaCtiVitY
Addition of ordinates int-0249: Consolidate your understanding of
addition of ordinates using the interactivity. (page 190)
4G exponential and logarithmic functions with

absolute values
tUtorial
We25 eles-1210: Watch a worked example on how to sketch the
graph of an absolute function. (page 198)
4h exponential and logarithmic modelling using

graphs
DiGital DoC
Spreadsheet doc-9165: Invesigate graphs using a function grapher.
(page 200)
Chapter review
DiGital DoC
Test Yourself doc-9194: Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
progress. (page 209)
Answers CHAPTER 4
i Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
exponential anD
loGarithMiC GraphS
y
6
exercise 4a Graphs of exponential

functions with any base
1 a Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
f (x) = 2x
y
2
(0, 5)
3 2 1
f (x) = 10x
y
2
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
01 2 x
3 2 1
c Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
f (x) = 2 10x
y
2 (0, 2)
x
01 2
f (x) = 3 2x
01 2 3
(0, 0.3)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
horizontal asymptote y = 1, domain R,

range (1, )
f (x) = 2x + 1
y
0 1
g Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+

y
8
6
4
(1, 8)
6
4
2
1
(0, 1)
0
1
h Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+

y
8
6
4
2
0.5
f (x) = 102x
(12 ,
10)
4 (1, 0)
3 2 1 0
x
1 2 3 x
(0, 2) y = 3
1
8
horizontal asymptote
y = 0, domain R, range R +
f (x) = 2x 3
0 1

range (3, )
f (x) = 3x 3
y
2
(0, 1)
0 0.5
h y-intercept is , no x-intercepts,
3
2
1 (0, 1 )
8
c y-intercept is 2, x-intercept is 1,
(1, 5)
(0, 3) y = 2
01 2 3
3 2 1
81 )
0 1

range (2, )
f (x) = 3x + 2
y
f (x) = 23x
1
,
81
(4, 1)
(0,
(1, 3)
2 (0, 2) y = 1
b y-intercept is 3, no x-intercepts,
0 1
0.5
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1 )
2
01 2 3 x
no x-intercepts,
horizontal asymptote
y = 0, domain R, range R+
f (x) = 3x 4
y
f (x) = 0.5 10x
(1, 5)
2
(0,
3 2 1
x
g y-intercept is
f Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
2 1
5
(1, 1)
2 a y-intercept is 2, no x-intercepts,
(2, 1.2)
y
(0, 10)
(3, 4)
f (x) = 0.3 2x

range R+
f (x) = 10x + 1
f (x) = 2 2 3
2 (0, 2)
(2, 1)
f y-intercept is 10, no x-intercepts,

x
l Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+ x
2 x
4 (0, 4)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
y
6
e Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
y
6
f (x) = 2 10 2
y
4
k Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+ x
(1, 121) 2
2 1

range R+
f (x) = 2x + 2
(0, 3)
0 1
e y-intercept is 4, no x-intercepts,
4 (0, 4)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
d Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
(2, 0)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
2
(0, 3) y = 4
4
f (x) = 4 23x
2 (0, 2)
(1, 0.2)
2 1
y
6
3 2 1
(0, 1)

range (4, )
y
f (x) = 2x 4
4
2
j Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
b Asymptote y = 0, domain R, range R+
d y-intercept is 3, x-intercept is 2,
(1, 2)
(0, 1)
01 2 x
3 2 1
f (x) = 5 32x
(3, 1)
2
i y-intercept is 6, x-intercept is 2,

range is (8, )
f (x) = 2x + 1 8
y
(2, 0)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
5
(0, 6)
y = 8
211
j y-intercept is 1.01, no x-intercepts,
f y-intercept is 9, x-intercept is 1,

range (1, )
f (x) = 10x 2 + 1

range (, 10)
y
f (x) = 10 10x
y
2 (0, 1.01)
10
(0, 9)
2
(0, 1)
2
4
1
(1, 2
10 )
(0, 3)
2
asymptote y = 2, domain R, range (2, )
f (x) = 2 + 10 x

range (, 0)
f (x) = 2x
y
0
g y-intercept is 3, no x-intercepts, horizontal
3 a y-intercept is 1, no x-intercepts,
0 1
2 1
b y-intercept is
0
1
(0, 1)
2
y
4
y=2
x
(0, 2)
1
(1, 12 )
0 1
2 1
y=1
x
i y-intercept is 0, x-intercept is 0,
horizontal asymptote y = 2, domain is R,

range (, 2)
y
c y-intercept is 1, no x-intercepts,

range (0, )
f (x) = 10 x
y=2
2
(1, 1)
0 1 2
2 1
f (x) = 2 21 x
4
2
1
(1,
10 )
(0, 1)
2 1 0 1 2
j y-intercept is 8, x-intercept is 2,
horizontal asymptote y = 1, domain is R,

range (, 1)

range (0, )
f (x) = 2 x
(1, 2)
(0, 1)
x
e y-intercept is 0, x-intercept is 0,

range (, 1)
f (x) = 1 3x
y
1 0
2
212
y=1
1
4 x
(0, 7)
y-intercept is 7, x-intercept is 0.8.

Horizontal asymptote is y = 5, domain is R,
range is (, 5).
1
7 a Dilation by factor
from the y-axis
f (x) = 1 32 x
f (x) = 2 31 x
y
6 (0, 6)
1
4
from the y-axis
c Dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis

d Dilation by factor 3 from the x-axis
e Reflection in x-axis
f Reflection in y-axis
g Translation of 1 unit up
h Translation of 3 units down
i Translation of 1 unit right
j Translation of 5 units left
8 a 4 units up
b 2 units down
c 2 units to the left
d 3 units to the right
e 3 units down
f 2 units up
g 1 unit to the right
h 2 units to the left
i 5 units up and 1 unit to the left
j 2 units up and 4 units to the right
k 3 units to the right and 4 units down
l 2 units to the left and 3 units down
9 a R, R+, y = 0
b R, (1, ), y = 1
c R, (3, ), y = 3
d R, (, 1), y = 1
e R, (2, ), y = 2
f R, (, 1), y = 1
10 f (x) = 1 2x
11 f (x) = 1 3 2x + 1
12 E
13 B
14 C
15 a 50
b 400
c
p
400
(3, 400)
0 1 2
2 1
(0, 8)
y=1
(2, 0)
0 1
d y-intercept is 1, no x-intercepts,
(0.8, 0)
2 3

range (1, )
f (x) = 1 + 2 x
no x-intercepts,
range (, 0)
f (x) = 10x
y
b Dilation by factor
h y-intercept is 2, no x-intercepts,
1,
f (x) = 5 4 31 x
y=5
(1, 0)
0 1 2 x
2 1
4 x
y=1
0
y = 10
y-intercept is 1 1 , no x-intercepts.
2
Horizontal asymptote is the x-axis, domain
, 0).
is R, range is (
200
(1, 2)
2
0
4 x
y-intercept is 6, no x-intercept.
Horizontal asymptote is the x-axis, domain
is R, range R+.
y
5
f (x) = 3 21 x
2 1
(1, 2)
2
4
0 1 2 x
(0, 112)
(1, 3)
2 1
(0, 50)
0 1 2 3 t
Asymptote y = 0
exercise 4B
any base
1 a y-axis
c y-axis
e y-axis
g y-axis
logarithmic graphs to
b
d
f
h
y-axis
y-axis
y-axis
y-axis
2 a
4 a x = 2 y
y
2
(2, 1)
(1, 0)
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
y
1
(1, 0)
2 4 6
b x = 1
(1, 0)
4 6
y
6
4
2
(1, 0)
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = 5 log2 (x)
R+, R
2 3
4 5 x
2 3
4 5 x
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = 3 log10
(2x) R+, R
2 left
3 right
5 right, 1 up
1 left, 2 up
3 left, 2 down
(1, 0)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5x
2
b
d
f
h
j
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = 2 log2 (3x)
R+, R
1 left
4 right
3 right, 2 up
1 left, 3 up
1 left, 2 down
y
1
(1, 0)
0 x
5 4 3 2 1
1
(4, 2)
(3.25, 0)
x
4
6 8
5 4 3 2 1
(1, 3)
2 (0, 2)
1
1
f (x) = 2 + log2 (x + 1)
Domain (1, ), range R
1
0
Asymptote x = 0
R, R, in y-axis
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R, in x-axis
y
2
Asymptote x = 0
R, R, in y-axis
y
2
(1, 0)
y
x = 13
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R, in x-axis
f (x) = log2 (x 3) + 2
( 23 , 2)
( 13 , 0)
(5.5, 0)
6 8 x
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R, in x-axis
x=3
1
0
(6, 1)
2
x=5
y
2
(1, 0)
01 2 3 4
f (x) = 1 + log2 (x 5)
f
( 12 , 0)
0
1
(5, 3)
3 a
c
e
g
i
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = log10 (4x)
R+, R
( 14 , 0)
1
f (x) = log2 (x 4)
e
(2 12 , 1)
1
0
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = log2 (3x)
R+, R
2 x
y
2
(6, 1)
(5, 0)
0
1
( 23 , 1)
0 ( 1 , 0) 1
3
f (x) = log2 (x + 1) 2
5 a
x=4
1 2 3 4
(3, 0)
2 (0, 2)
f (x) = log2 (x 3)
y
x = 1
1 0
1
(2, 5)
f (x) = log2 (x + 3) 2
(4, 0)
(5, 1)
2
x = 3 y
(1, 0)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
2
(0, 0.4)
x=3
1
0
( 78 , 0)
(1, 1)
f (x) = log2 (x + 1)
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = 2 log10 (x)
R+, R
8 10 x
0 1 2 3 4 x
f (x) = 3 + log2 (x + 1)
i
1 0 1
1
(10, 2)
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
y
1
(0, 3)
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = log10 (x)
R+, R
y
x = 1
4
(0, 1)
f (x) = log2 (x + 2)
8 10 x
Asymptote x = 0
f (x) = log2 (x)
R+, R
(10, 1)
(1, 0)
(1, 1)
2
(10, 0)
x
8 10
213
y
2
(0.1, 0)
0
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R, no
reflection
2
1
(
,
100
(1, 2)
2
(105 , 0)
0 1
(10, 1)1
x
Asymptote x = 0
R, R in x- and
y-axis
2 3
(1, 0)
13
(2 2, 0)
y
2
1
y
5
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
Asymptote x = 2
(2, ), R
y
2
x=3
(0, log103)
(2, 0)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
Asymptote x = 3
(, 3), R
8 10
2 (0, 2)
exercise 4C Graphs of exponential

functions with base e
1
1 a Dilation by factor 3 from the y-axis
1
2
from the y-axis
c Dilation by factor 4 from the x-axis and
by factor 2 from the y-axis
( 2 , 3)
2
d Dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis and
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
(0.24, 0)
e Translation of 2 units to the right and
1 unit up
f Translation of 5 units to the left and
2 units up
1
from the y-axis,
2
3 units up
1
h Dilation by factor 3 from the y-axis,
1 unit up
i Dilation by factor 3 from the x-axis,
translation of 2 units to the left and
1 unit down
g Dilation by factor
0 2
4 6
(5, 1)
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
1 unit to the right

10, reflection in the y-axis, translation of
3 units to the right
2, reflection in the x-axis, dilation by
factor 2 parallel to the y-axis, translation
of 1 unit up
10, reflection in the x-axis, dilation by
factor 5 from the x-axis, translation
2 units up
10, dilation by factor 3 from the x-axis,
translation 1 unit to the left, translation
2 units down
2, dilation by factor 4 from the x-axis,
translation 2 units to the right and
1 unit down
(10, 1.1)
(3.6, 0)
0 2 4
b Dilation by factor
translation of 1 unit up
Asymptote x = 1
(, 1), R
2 a
c 10, reflection in the y-axis, translation of
214
b 10, dilation by factor 3 from the x-axis,
y
2 x=1
(0, 0)
3
4
(3, 1)
y
4
Asymptote x = 0
translation of 3 units up
1 12 3
(10 3 , 0)
3 2 1 0 1 2
Asymptote x = 1
(1, ), R
(2.8, 0)
8 a 2, dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis,

(1, 1)
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
11 B
(1.2, 0)
0
1
(1, 3)
0
10
x=2
5
y
(3.2, 0)
Domain
), range R, dilation by
1
factor 2 from the y-axis, horizontal
1
translation of 2 unit to the right.
0 1 2
( 12 ,
7 a
(0, 2)
y
5
(1.5, 1)
x=2
(, 2), R
0 1
x = 2
1 0 1
2
3
(3.6, 0)
100 80 60 40 20 0
2
1
y
4 (0, 4)
2
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
y
2
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
g x = 1
Asymptote x = 0
R, R, in y-axis
and by factor 3 from the y-axis,

translation 1 unit up
j 2, dilation by factor 4 from the x-axis
and by factor 12 from the y-axis,
translation of 3 units up and reflection in
the x-axis
0 x
5 4 3 2 1
(100, 0)
0)
( 2, 0)
0 1 2 3
(2, 1)
i 2, dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis,
y
2
y
4
f(x) = ex
f(x) = ex 1
2
(0, 1)
(1, 1)
(0, 1e )
x
0
1 2 3
3 2 1
Asymptote y = 0
Translated 1 unit to the right, R, R+
b
y f(x) = ex
4
f(x) = ex 3
2
(0, 1) (0, e3)
(3, 1)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Asymptote y = 0
Translated 3 units to the right, R, R+
3 a
y f(x) = 2ex
4
f(x) = ex
(0, 2)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y f(x) = 3ex
4
f(x) = ex
(0, 3)
2
(0, 1)
3 2 1
Translated 2 units down, R,
(2,
y
f(x) = e2 x
8 (0, e2) f(x) = ex
y
f(x) = e1 x 8
f(x) = ex
2 1
0 1
Asymptote y = 0
Reflected in the y-axis, translated
1 unit to the right, R, R+
i
(0, 1)
2 1
y
4
f(x) = ex
(0, 2)
e
4
(0, 4.72)
Translated 3 units up, reflected in the

x-axis, R, (, 3)
y
2 (0, 2)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y
8
6
4
2
Asymptote y = 0
Dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis
and by factor 1 from the y-axis, R, R+
3
Translation of 1 unit to the left and

2 units up, R, (2, )
f
1
1
y=2
Asymptote y = 0
1
y=3
0 1 2 x
f(x) = 3 ex
y=2
Translation of 2 units up, R, (2, )
(0, 4 )
x
y=1
y
4
(0, e)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
4
(0, 1)
y
4
(0, 3)
y
2
Asymptote y = 0
Dilation by factor 12 from the x-axis,
Asymptote y = 0
Reflected in the y-axis, translated
2 units to the right, R, R+
h
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
(0, 2 )
(0, 1)
0 1
Translation of 1 unit up, R, (1, )
(3, 1)
2 (0, 2)
y
4
2 1
Asymptote y = 0
Dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis, R, R+
(0, 0.05)
Asymptote y = 0
Translation of 3 units to the right, R, R+
y
4
x
1.510.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
y = 2
y
2
1
Asymptote y = 0
Dilation by factor 4 from the x-axis, R, R+
1 2 3
Asymptote y = 0
Translation of 3 units to the left, R, R+
x
1.510.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
0 1 x
3 2 1
2 (0, 2)
(0, 1) 2
10
y
4 (0, 4)
y
20 (0, 20.09)
Asymptote y = 0
1
Dilation by factor 2 from the y-axis, R, R+
2
(0, 1)
f(x) = ex
f(x) = ex 2
3 2 1 0
Asymptote y = 0
4 a
(0.5, e)
(0, 1)
0 0.5
1 0.5
y=1
(0, 1)
01 2 3 x
y
4
Translated up 1 unit, R, (1, )

f
1.5 1 0.5
f(x) = 1 + ex
f(x) = ex
Asymptote y = 0
Dilated by factor 3 from the x-axis,
R, R+
y
(0, 1)
0 0.5 1
Asymptote y = 0
1
Dilation by factor 3 from the y-axis, R, R+
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
(0, 2)
(0, 3)
2
1 0.5
Asymptote y = 0
Dilated by factor 2 from the x-axis,
R, R+
y
4
2
(0, 1)
(0.5, e1.5)
(0, 8.39)
y=1
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Translation of 2 units to the left and

1 unit up, R, (1, )
215
y
6
4
y=3
2
01 2 3
3 2 1
y=5
y=5
(0, 1)
x
1 0
Reflection in the x-axis, translation of

1 unit up, R, (, 1)
y=2
8 a
y
2
y = 1
1 (0, 1)
2 1
0 1
Asymptote y = 0
x
y = 1
y
2 (0, 2)
(0, 0.86)
y
2 (0, 2)
Asymptote y = 0
i
(0, e2)
0 1
[0, ), [0.86, )
Reflection in the y-axis, translation of

(0, 0.95)
(2, 0)
0 1 2
1
1
4
(0, 3)
(1, 2 + e)
2
R, (1, )
Asymptote y = 0
(12 , 0)
0 1 2
2 1
(0, e)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x
1
(1, 1 e)
(0.69, 0)
x
1
y
4
Asymptote y = 0
Reflection in the y-axis, reflection in
the x-axis, dilation by factor 2 from
the x-axis, R, R
y=1
(1, e)
y
2
0
2 (0, 2)
y=2
2
0
Asymptote y = 0
Reflection in the x-axis, R, R
y
1
y=1
(0, 1)
0
0
1
(0, 1)
2
216
y
2
4 (0, 4)
Asymptote y = 0
Reflection in the y-axis, R, R+

the x-axis, translation of 5 units up,
R, (, 5)
2
Asymptote y = 0
e
(ln5, 0)
0 1
y = 1

the x-axis, translation of 3 units up,
R, (, 3)

1 unit down, R, (1, )
(0, 2)
(2, 0)
(0, 2 )
(ln3, 0)
2 1
y=3
(1, e) 2
Asymptote y = 0
y
4
(0, 6.39)
6
3 2 1
Translation of 1 unit up, R, (1, )
5 a
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y=1
Translation of 2 units to the right and

y = 2
2
y
4
(0, 2)
(0.69, 0)
0 1 2 x
2 (0, 2)
(0, 5.14)
01 2 3 4 x
3 2 1
y
4
y
8
6
4
2
2 1
(0, 1)
Reflection in the y-axis, translation of

1 unit up, R, (1, )
Translation of 1 unit to the right and

h
y=1
0 1
y
(1, 1 + e) 4
(0, 2)
(0, 3.37)
y=1
2
9 D
11 a 1,
y=1
0
10 E
b y=ex
exercise 4D logarithmic graphs to

base e
1 a Dilation by factor 5 from the x-axis and
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
2 a
(e1, 0)
x
0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(1, 0)
x
0
2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5
2
Asymptote x = 0
y
(e2, 0)
0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Asymptote x = 0
(, 0), R
y
2
4 a
y
2
(1, 0)
0 1 2
x=1
1
(2, 0)
0
(3, 0)
0 12 3 4 5 6 7x
x = 2
(1, 0)
(0, loge2)
0
2
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
y
4
e
1
2
4
(3.1, 0)
2
y
5
( 2, 0)
2
2
Asymptote x = 0
R, R
(0, loge3)
x=3
2
2
y
1
2
1
( 2 , 0)
x = 3 y
2
(2, 0)
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
y
2
y
2
(1, 0)
0 1 2
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
c
x=2
y
1
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
(6.4, 0)
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
(0, 2)
x
1.510.5 00.5 1 1.5 2
1
(1, 0)
x
1.510.5 00.5 1 1.5 2
1
y
x = 1
3 a
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
( 3 , 0)
(1, 0)
x
1.510.5 00.5 1 1.5 2
1
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
(4.4, 0)
x
3 21 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 (0, 0.9)
(0.5, 0)
x
0
0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Asymptote x = 0
y
1
x = 3 y
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
(1.4, 0)
0
2
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
y
1
(0.5, 0)
x
1.510.5 00.5 1 1.5 2
1
b Dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis and

c
y
4 x=1
(3, 0)
x
0
0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1

Translation of 1 unit to the left and
3 units down
1 unit up
Reflection in the x-axis and in the
y-axis
Reflection in the x-axis and dilation by
factor 1 from the y-axis
2
1 unit up, reflection in the x-axis
2 units up, reflection in the x-axis
1 unit down, dilation by factor 3 from
the x-axis
1 unit up, reflection in the x-axis
Translation of 1 unit to the right and
3 units up, dilation by factor 2 from
the x-axis, reflection in the y-axis
1 unit down, dilation by factor 3 from
the x-axis, reflection in the y-axis
Asymptote x = 0
R, R
217
y
5
1
( 4 , 0)
0
1
translation of 2 units to the left and 1 unit

down
x = 2 y
(1, 2)
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
c
x=1
0 1 2 3
3 2 1
7 Dilation by factor 2 from the x-axis,
2 (0, 2.58)
Asymptote x = 0
R, R
2
(7.39, 0)
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y
0
y
5
(1, 0)
0 0.5 1
1.5
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
(, 1), R
y
2
x=2
(0, 0.69) (1, 0)

3 2 1 0 1 2
(, 2), R
x=2
(3, 0)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
2
y
2
(1, 0)
2 1 0
(0, 0.69)
2
(1, 0)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
2
(, 2), R
j
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
y
2
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
x=3
y
2
(2, 0)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
(0, 1.10)
2
y
2
(1, 0)
x
0
2.52 1.510.5 0.5
2
Asymptote x = 0
R, R
5 a f (x) = ln (x 1)
b f (x) = ln (x) 2
c f (x) = 5 ln (x)
x = 3
3
h
f f (x) = ln (x)
218
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(0.22, 0)
4
6
Asymptote x = 0
R+, R
B=
19
15
1, f (x) = 12 2x + 1
R \{0}
b [0, )
[0, )
d [2, )
R
f R \{3}
R \{1}
h (, 1]
R \{0}
j [1, 3]
2 C
(1, 6.2)
y
6
(1, 6.2)
f(x)
(1, 5.4)
(1, 5.4)
4 (0, 4)
y1 = 2ex
y2 = 2ex 2
(1, 0.74)
(1, 0.74)
(0, 2)
0 0.5 1 x
1 0.5
x
0
2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(2,0)
(1, ), R
R+, R
y
2
32
,
15
2, 3
4, 1
2.9, 2.0, 2.0, y = 2.9 loge (x + 2.0) + 2.0
2.0959, 3
1.5, 2, 3
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
,
2
(1.47, 0)
x=1
4 A=
3 a
0
x + 1
h f (x) = ln
4
i f (x) = 2 ln (x) 3
y
2
exercise 4e Finding equations for

graphs of exponential and logarithmic
functions
1 0.58, 2.42, f (x) = 0.58ex + 2.42, y = 2.42
2 0.84, 0.33
3 1.60, 0.92
1 a
y
2
g f (x) = ln (x + 3)
(0, 2.08)
exercise 4F
(3, ), R
e f (x) = ln (x)
a f: (2, ), g(x) = a b loge (x 2)

b Domain is (2, ) and range is R.
c h(x) = 4a 4b loge (x 2)
2
2 1 0
(0, 1.10) 2
D
B
C
(2, 0)
d f (x) = ln
6 a
9
10
11
12
(, 3), R
2 4 6
(1.45, 0)
(1, 0)
0
0
2
y
(1, 9.3)
(1, 8.2)
f(x) (1, 9.3)

8 (0, 6) (1, 8.2)
6
y1 = 3ex
y2 = 3ex 4
(0, 3)
2
(1, 1.1)
(1, 1.1)
x
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
(2, 7.4) y
y1 = ex 8
6
4
(2, 5.4) y = x 2
2
(2, 2)
1 2
(2, 11.4)
f(x)
(2, e2)
y1
y
10
(2, 4.14)
(2, 4)
(2, 0.14)
y2
(2, 4)
(1, 1)
=x
g(x)
10
5
y2 = x2
x
(1, 1)
0.5
h(x)
g(x)
(1, 1)
(2, 0.6)
y
y = x2 + 5x + 6
h(x)
Asymptote x = 0
Domain R+, range (0.6, )
5
1.5
(1, 0)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x

f(x)
0.5
2
y
(2, 3.76) 4
6 5 4 321 0 1 2
g(x)
y
2
0
y = x3 + x2 1
1
3 2
6 E
2
g(x)
h(x)
h(x)
g(x)
f(x)
x
g(x)
10 a
y= x+ 2x
x
y= 2x
y= x
Asymptote x = 0
Domain R+, range R
b
y
2
h(x)
(1, 1)
x
f(x)
g(x)
h(x)
g(x)
0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

2
f(x) = 3 loge(x)
0 0.5 1 1.5 x
1
5 f(x) = log (x)
e
y
2
1
2
(1, 2 )
0 0.5 1 1.5
(1, 0)
Asymptote x = 0
Domain R+, range R
x
y= x
g(x)
y= x3
h(x)
f(x)
h(x)
g(x)
y = x 3 x2
y = x2
x
h(x)
g(x) = 21 x
f(x) = loge(x)
x
y = 2x
Asymptote x = 0
Domain R+, range R
d
d
e
y = 2x x
h(x)
g(x) = 2x
(1, 2)
1
4
f(x)
y
5
Asymptote x = 0
Domain R+, range R
c
f(x)
7 a
Domain [2, 2], range [1, 3.76]

3
f(x)
(2, 3.76)
f(x)
g(x)
Asymptote x = 0
Domain R+, range [1, )
0 1 2 3 x
y
2
x
f(x)
f(x) = loge(x)
y1 = e (3, e )
2 1
h(x)
(0, 1)
(3, 9.05)
f(x) (3, 9)
(2, 4)
0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

2
(1, 0)
(2, 11.4)
(2, 7.4)
4 a
f(x)
y
2
(2, 2.14)
(2, 2)
(2, 0.14)
x
2
y
(2, 9.4)
f(x) (2, 7.4)
8
y1 = ex
6
4 (0, 1) y = x
2
(2, 0.14) 2
(2, 2)
(2, 1.9)
x
1 2 0 1
2
(2, 2)
h(x)
y
y= 5x
f(x)
g(x)
x
2 5 y= x+5+ 5x
y= x+5
5
11 E
219
12
y = loge(x) + x
4
3
1
( 1 , 0)
3
y= x
y
4
y = loge(x)
1
(0, 2)
x
2
y
x-intercept
f(x)
g(x)
0
y
3
1
Domain (0, ), range ,
e
x-intercept (1, 0)
0.3
0.2
0.1
(0, 0)
4
y
0.6
0.4
0.2
(0, 0)
1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 a
y
10
9
8
7
(0, e1 + 4) 65
4
3
2
1
3 2
3
4
1
(2 + e , 0)
(0, e4 3)
1 1 0
(0, 2)
3
x = 1
1
e2
, 0)
2
Domain R, range [2, )

c
Domain R\{3}, range R
2 a
(1, 1)
(ln (2) 1, 0)
(3.1, 0)
(2.9, 0)
1
(4 + ln (3), 0)
(4 ln (3), 0)
(4, 2)
y (0, log (3) + 1)

10
x=3

y-intercept (0, 1)
(ln (2) 1, 0)
0
2
1
1
(0, 2 e1)
2
3
4
4 a
y
y=3
3
1
1
(0, 2)
1
2e
x-intercept (1, 0)
Domain R, range (, 1]
220

x
1 (0, 1)
(1, 5)
y
2 (1 +
1
(1 e 12 , 0)

Asymptote x = 0
c
y
6 (0, 3loge 2 + 3)
5
4
3
2
1
1 0 1
2
2
1
(2 e , 0)
x=2
Domain (3, ), range [1, )
exercise 4G exponential and logarithmic

functions with absolute values
1 a

Asymptote x = 0
15 a
3 2
x = 3
(0, log10 (3) + 1)
(2, 1)
(f+g)(x)
14 a
1
, 0)
x=1
Domain (, 1), range [0, )
2
3
1
e2
(1
( )
1
,0
3
18e
Domain x > 0
13
1
0
2 (3, 0) 4
x=2
Domain (2, ), Range [0, )
1
2
(ln (3), 0)
e According to the model, no, because the
y
4
(0, 3)
2
1
2
f
y=2
x
1 1 0 1
2
2 (ln (6), 0)
3
5 a
c
e
graph approaches the line E = 0.

4 days
b 0.277
T = 80e kt + 18
d 9 minutes
T = 80e 0.277t + 18
f 19 C
T
Domain R, range
c
20
y=3
(10, 75)
60
(0, 50) (2, 54)
40
2000
P(n)
(20, 1329)
d 475 wallabies
3 a $500
b $530.90
f
g
h
i
e 9 years
c $174.95
(0, 500)
(5, 675)
400
e $810
4 a 0.18
c
E
8 t
b 167, 81
g(x) = 2e x + 1 4
(0, 2e 4)
(1 + loge 2, 0)
55
y = 4
x + 4 1
b g 1(x) = loge
Domain = (
8
4,
), range = R
y
2
(1, 0)
x
2
6 4 2 0
2 (0, 2)
y = 4
4
200
y = h(x)
0 (0.33, 0)
Domain R, range (4, )
(1, 167)
(5, 81)
(10, 33)
y
4
Domain = R+, range = R
(5, 3)
9 Dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis,
0 2 4 6 8 10121416 t
d 7 days
6 120 e 20
7 a
P = 2000 (1 e 0.1n) 20n

23 jackets, profit $1339
100
No. Not enough jackets are made before
profits begin to decrease.
1
0 2
100
20
(55, 1100)
Short anSWer
200
6 8 10
Chapter reVieW
(1, 530.9)
2 4
y
(20, 400)
(10, 2)
(55, 892)
300
600
R = 2000
(55, 1992)
(20, 1729)
400
800
y
2
(1, 0)
0
2
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
500
5 a f (x) = 2 log10 (x)
12 16 18 20 t
12 16
(5, 220)
(1, 162)
(0, 150)
0 4
9 15
g(x)
f(x)
b Teacher to check
d 92 koalas
2 a 150 wallabies
b 162 wallabies, 220 wallabies
c
W
200
12 16
8 a C = 20n
c R 2000
d, e
20
8
y
(f + g) (x)
e 6300
7 C
(15, 92)
0 4
T = 18
P
(1, 10 000)
10 000
(5, 8000)
(10, 7139)
6300
5000

modelling using graphs
1 a 50 koalas
b 54 koalas, 75 koalas
80
never reach 18 C because the line

T = 18 is an asymptote.
6 a A = 1242.67, B = 10 000
b 7139
c 279 weeks
exercise 4h
g(x)
g According to the model, the egg will
(f + g) (x)
f(x)
(5, 38)
(9, 25)
2 1 1 0 1
60
4]
y
5
4
3
(0, 2)
1
4 a
80
40
(,
3 f (x) = 3ex 4
( 2 , 0)
1
Domain R+, range R
reflection in the y-axis, a translation

of 3 units right and a translation of
5 units up
221
10 a On 1 January 2006, there are 50 tigers
and 400 elephants.

b On 1 April 2007, there are 3200 tigers
and 50 elephants.
c The numbers of tigers and elephants is
equal on 1 June 2006 (there are 200 of
each).
d The elephant population is at risk from
1September 2007, as the model predicts
their population will reach 25 on this date.
11
4
2
(0.7, 0) (0, 0.3)
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Domain (, 2), range R

3
f(x)
y = log 2x
y
(1, 0.3)
(2, 0)
1 0
2
3
2 3 4 5
extenDeD reSponSe
y
2
3 2 1
(0, 1.74)
y=1
0 1 2 3 x
Domain R, range (1, )
222
(loge(2), 0) y
(loge(3), 0)
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
A
D
E
D
B
B
MUltiple ChoiCe
B
C
B
D
A
B
1
0.52, 516 metres
16 metres
3.6 kilometres
P = 101.3e 0.125x
76.7 kPa
b = 5, c = 6
x = loge (2) and loge (3)
(0.92, 0.25)
x = (loge (5), 6)
g: R R, g(x) = e2x + 5ex 6
h: R R, h(x) = e 2x 5ex + 6
(0, 2)
(0, 4)
3
2
1
Domain (3, ), range (, 0]

2
5
8
11
14
17
y = log x
x
3 4
7 a
b
c
d
8 a
b
9 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
4 a 10 000
b 15 000
x = 3
D
C
C
D
C
A
1 2
(1, 0)
Domain R+ range R
(0, loge (3))
1
4
7
10
13
16
x=2
3 2 110
2
y = 6
y=3
1 2
(loge (5), 0)
Domain R, range (, 4]
$5000
$5256.35
$6420.15
$6410.20
13.95 years
The first investment, because the interest
is compounded continuously.
g $9.95
h About $20
6 a
b
c
d
e
f
k(x) = e 2x + 5e x 6, domain R,
range (, 0.25]
h y = e 2x + 4 5 x + 2 + 7 or
2(2 x) 5e(2 x) + 7, domain R,
y=e
range [0.75, )
ChapTer 5
Inverse functions
diGiTal doC
doc-9195
10 Quick Questions
ChapTer ConTenTS
5a
5B
5C
5d
Relations and their inverses

Functions and their inverses
Inverse functions
Restricting functions
5a
relations and their inverses
You will recall from Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS that a relation is a set of ordered pairs
that can be graphed or may be described by a rule.
As we have seen, the inverse of a relation can be found by:
1. interchanging the x- and y-coordinates of an ordered pair; for
y
y=x
example, (1, 2) becomes (2, 1)
3
2. reflecting the relation in the line y = xa
(1, 2)
2
3. interchanging x and y in the rule and rearranging the equation to
(2, 1)
(0, 1)
make y the subject; for example, y = x 1 becomes x = y 1,
1
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
giving y = x + 1.
The domain of a relation becomes the range of its inverse
and the range of a relation becomes the domain of its inverse.
The diagram at right shows a set of ordered pairs
A = {(1, 2), (0, 1), (1, 0), (2, 1)}, the line y = x and the inverse
B = {(2, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2)}.
The domain of A is {1, 0, 1, 2} and the range of A is {2, 1, 0, 1}.
The domain of B is {2, 1, 0, 1} and the range of B is {1, 0, 1, 2}.
0 1 2
3 2 1
1 (0, 1)
(2, 1)
inTeraCTiViTY
int-0250
inverse functions
(1, 2)
Using matrices to describe a reflection in the line y = x

In chapter 2, we looked at how matrices can be used to find the image of a point that is transformed
on a plane, or to find the rule for the graph of a relation that undergoes a transformation or series of
transformations.
As the graph of an inverse is the reflection in the line y = x of the original, we can use a matrix to
describe this transformation and find the image of a point on f (x), or the rule of the inverse f 1(x) given
f (x).
0 1 x
The matrix operation that produces a reflection in the line y = x is
.
1 0 y
Finding the image of a point using this method is trivial, as we know that the points on the graph of
an inverse are found by interchanging the (x, y) values of any point on the original. This can be shown as
follows:
The graph of a relation passes through the point (3, 4). Find the image of this point on the graph of
the inverse.
0 1 3
1 0 =
4
ChapTer 5 Inverse functions
223
That is, (3, 4) maps to (4, 3).

A more general application will be to find the rule of the inverse of a relation. This can be done using
matrices but in practice this is unnecessary as it simply involves swapping the variables and rearranging
the new equation.
Again, it is not time effective to employ this method, but it is shown as a demonstration of the
relationship of the inverse graph to its original.
x x 0 1 x y
T =
=
=
y y 1 0 y x
That is, (x, y) maps to (y, x).
Therefore, we can write y = x and x = y, which relates to the practice of reversing the variables to
find the rule of the inverse.
Worked example 1
Sketch the graph of each of the following relations. State the domain and range of each.
a {(3, 1), (1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 5)}
b y = x2 + 2
Think
a 1 Plot each coordinate pair on a set of axes.

2
The domain is the set of first elements of

the ordered pairs.
The range is the set of second elements of

the ordered pairs.
b 1 The relation is a parabola with a minimum
WriTe/draW
y
5
4
3
2
1
Domain
= {3, 1, 1, 3}
321 0
1
1 2 3
Range = [2, )
turning point (0, 2).

2
Sketch the parabola.
The domain is the set of real numbers.
The range is any real number greater than

or equal to 2.
Range
= {1, 1, 3, 5}
y = x2 + 2 Domain = R
(0, 2)
0
Worked example 2
Find the inverse of each relation in Worked example 1. Sketch the graph of each inverse relation,
stating its domain and range.
Think
a 1 Write the original relation.

2
Interchange the x and y elements to

obtain the inverse.
Plot these points on a set of axes.
WriTe/draW
a {(3, 1), (1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 5)}
The inverse is {(1, 3), (1, 1), (3, 1), (5, 3)}
y
3
2
1
11 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
2
3
224
State the domain, which is the set of first

elements of the ordered pair.
Domain = {1, 1, 3, 5}
Range = {3, 1, 1, 3}
State the range, which is the set of second elements

of the ordered pair.
b y = x2 + 2
b 1 Write the original relation.

2
Interchange x and y in the rule.
The inverse is:

x = y2 + 2
Subtract 2 from both sides.
y2 = x 2
Take the square root of both sides to make y the

subject.
The graph of y = x 2 is a sideways parabola

with a turning point (2, 0).
(Use a CAS calculator to verify this graph.)
y= x2
y
y=+
x 2
Sketch the graph of the relation.
State the domain.
Domain = [2, )
State the range.
Range = R
Note: The domain of the original relation is the range of its inverse, and the range of the original relation
is the domain of its inverse.
Worked example 3
For each relation graphed below, sketch the graph and its inverse on the same
axes. Draw in the line y = x.
a
(2, 0) x
(0, 5)
4
(2, 2)
(3, 0) 0
Think
a 1 Copy the graph shown.
y
(2, 4)
(2, 2)
TUTorial
eles-1211
Worked example 3
(1, 4)
draW
Interchange the points (2, 0) and (0, 5) to

(0, 2) and (5, 0), respectively, and mark them on a
set of axes.
(0, 2)
Draw a straight line through each pair of points.
(5, 0)
Draw the line y = x, noting that the inverseis a

reflection of the original function in y = x.
y=x
(2, 0)
(0, 5)
225
b 1 Copy the graph shown.

2
Interchange the points (2, 2), (0, 0), (0, 4) and

(2, 2) to (2, 2), (0, 0), (4, 0) and (2, 2) and mark
on a set of axes.
Draw a circle through the second set of 4 points.
Draw the line y = x, noting that the inverse is a

reflection of the original relation in y = x.
c 1 Copy the graph shown.

2
(0, 4)
(2, 2)
Draw a sideways cubic through the second set

of points.
Draw the line y = x, noting that the inverse is a
reflection of the original function in y = x.
(2, 2)
(4, 0) x
0
2
c
Interchange the points (3, 0), (2, 4), (0, 0) and

(1, 4) to (0, 3), (4, 2), (0, 0) and (4, 1) and mark
them on the same set of axes.
y=x
(2, 2)
y
4
(2, 4)
(1, 4)
y=x
2
(4, 1)
(3, 0)
2
0
2
(0, 3)
(4, 2)
Note: This example shows that the graph of the inverse relation can be obtained by reflecting the graph
of the original relation in the line y = x. Some specific points can be marked and used as a guide;
intercepts are particularly useful. Note also that a relation and its inverse intersect on the line y = x.
how to visualise the graph of an inverse

The following activity can help you to quickly see the shape of an inverse from the graph of a relation.
Make a sketch of the graph of a relation in the right-hand bottom corner of a blank page. This should
be 4 or 5 cm square. You will need to use a pen or a dark pencil for best results.
Fold the corner in to the centre at 45. Keeping the page orientation the same, view the axes through
the paper and you will see the graph of the inverse!
Looking through
paper
Fold in along
this line at 45
Another method is to take the original graph, turn the paper over and rotate 90 until the old y-axis is
at the x-axis and the old x-axis is at the y-axis.
226
exercise 5a
Sketch the graph of each of the following relations. State the domain and range of each.
a {(0, 1), (1, 2), (3, 2), (3, 5)}
b {(8, 7), (5, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1)}
c y=x
d y = 2x 5
e 2x + 4y = 8
2
2
f y = x + 4x
g y=x 1
h y = (x + 1)2
3
i x2 + y2 = 4
j y= x
k y=2
1 We 1
x = 4
diGiTal doC
doc-9251
SkillSHEET 5.1
domain and range
m y = 2x3
2 We 2 Find the inverse of each relation in question 1. Sketch the graph of each inverse relation,
stating its domain and range. (Check your graphs using a CAS calculator.)
The graph of a relation passes through the points (0, 1), (1, 2) and (3, 3). The graph of the
inverse of this relation must pass through the points:
a (2, 1) and (3, 3)
B (0, 1) and (3, 3)
C (0, 1) only
d (1, 2) and (3, 3)
e (3, 3) and (4, 10)
3 mC
diGiTal doC
doc-9165
Spreadsheet
Function grapher
A relation has x-intercepts 2 and 3. The y-intercepts of the inverse of this relation are:
a 2 and 3
B 2 and 3
d 2 and 3
C 2 and 3
e cannot be determined
4 mC
5 We 3
For each relation, sketch the graph and its inverse on the same axes. Draw in the line y= x.
4
3
y
0
1 0
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
0
2 x
2
x
y
2
(1, 3)
(2, 3)
2
4
2 x
(1, 2)
227
5B
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video on inverse
functions.
Recall that a function is a relation which has only one

y
y-value for each x-value. The graph of a function can be
y = f(x)
crossed only once by any vertical line.
To find the inverse of a function, we use the same
procedures that we used for relations in the previous
exercise.
1. The rule for the inverse of a function is obtained by
x
0
either:
(a) interchanging the x- and y-values of its ordered pairs
(b) interchanging x and y in the rule for the function,
then making y the subject.
2. The graph of the inverse of a function is obtained by
Vertical lines cross the curve only once.
either:
(a) interchanging the x- and y-values of its ordered pairs
(b) reflecting the graph of the function through the line y = x
(c) finding the rule of the inverse and graphing the new function.
The domain of a function is the range of its inverse. The range of a function is the domain of its inverse.
Worked example 4
State whether or not each of the following is a function by using the vertical line test.
a y = (x + 1)2 3
b x2 + y2 = 1
c y= 4 +1
x2
Think

2
State the type of graph.
Do a rough sketch and use the vertical line test to

determine if the relation is a function.
WriTe/draW
a y = (x + 1)2 3
A parabola with minimum turning point

(1, 3)
y
0
(1, 3)
b 1
State whether or not it is a function.

Write the equation.
Do a rough sketch and use the vertical line test

to determine if the relation is a function.
(0, 2)
y = (x + 1)2 3 is a function.
b x2 + y2 = 1
A circle, centre (0, 0), radius 1

y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
0
(0, 1)
228
x2 + y2 = 1 is not a function.
c 1 Write the equation.

2
Do a rough sketch and use the vertical test to

determine if the relation is a function.
c y=
4
+1
x2
A hyperbola with asymptotes x = 2 and y = 1

y (x = 2)
(y = 1)
(2, 0) 0 (0, 1)
y=
4
+ 1 is a function.
x2
Worked example 5
For each of the following functions, sketch, on the same set of axes, the graph
of the function, its inverse and the line y = x. State the domain and range for
the function and its inverse.
a y = x2 2x
b y = loge (x + 1)
Think
a 1 Write the original function.
TUTorial
eles-1212
Worked example 5
WriTe/draW
a y = x2 2x
Change it to turning point form by completing the

square.
= x2 2x + 12 12
= (x2 2x + 1) 1
= (x 1)2 1
Determine the turning point of the parabola.
This is a parabola with turning point

(1, 1).
Find the y-intercept by letting x equal 0 and

substituting in the original equation.
If x = 0, y = 02 2(0)
y=0
Find the x-intercepts by letting y equal 0.
If y = 0, x2 2x = 0
Solve the equation by factorising the left-hand

side.
x(x 2) = 0
x = 0 and x = 2
The x-intercepts are 0 and 2.
Sketch the graph of the function.
0
1
x
1 2
(1, 1)
y = x2 2x
Interchange x and y to find the equation of the inverse.
x = (y 1)2 1
Rearrange to make y the subject.
x + 1 = (y 1)2
y 1 = x +1
y = 1 x + 1 which is a sideways
parabola.
229
10
Interchange the x- and y-coordinates of the turning

point and intercepts in the original equation to find
the turning point and intercepts of the inverse.
11
On the original axes, sketch the graph of the

inverse and the line y = x.
(1, 1) becomes (1, 1),

(2, 0) becomes (0, 2) and
the origin remains the same.
y
y=x
y = x2 2x
x
y=1 x+1
12
State the domain and range of the function.
The domain is R and the range is [1, ).
13
State the domain and range of the inverse.
The domain of the inverse is [1, ) and

the range is R.
b y = loge (x + 1)
Write the function.
Find the vertical asymptote using the fact that

loge (0) is undefined.
Vertical asymptote occurs where x + 1 = 0.

Find the x-intercept using loge (1) = 0.
x-intercept occurs where y = 0 or x + 1 = 1.

x = 0 so the x-intercept is 0.
Sketch the graph of the function.
x = 1
y = loge (x + 1)
Interchange x and y to find the equation of the inverse.
x = loge (y + 1)
Rearrange to make y the subject.
ex = y +
Find the horizontal asymptote and intercepts from

the original function.
x = 1 is the original vertical asymptote, so

y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote for the
inverse.
(0, 0) is on both graphs.
On the original axes, sketch the graph of the

inverse and the line y = x.
x=
y = ex 1
y = ex 1
y=x
y = loge (x + 1)
x
y = 1
9
10
230
State the domain and range of the function.
The domain is (1, ) and the range is R.
State the domain and range of the inverse.
The domain of the inverse is R and the

range is (1, ).
Worked example 6
If f(x) = ln (x + 1) + 1:
a find f 1(x)
b draw the graph of f(x) and its inverse f 1(x).
Think
WriTe
a 1 Let y = f (x).
a y = ln (x + 1) + 1
Interchange x and y.
x = ln (y + 1) + 1
Use the solve feature of a CAS calculator.
solve (ln (y + 1) + 1 = x, y)
Write the inverse.
y = ex 1 1
f 1(x) = e x 1 1
Write the answer in the form f (x).
b f1(x) = ln(x + 1) + 1
b 1 On a CAS calculator enter rules for the
f2(x) = e(x 1) 1
original function and its inverse.

2
Use the graphing feature of your CAS

calculator to sketch the two graphs on the
same set of axes.
(x)
y=x
f1(x)
x
exercise 5B
1 We 4 State whether or not each of the following is a function by using the vertical line test.
a y = 2x 1
d
y=
(2 x + 1)2
g y = loge (x + 1) 2
4
1
x+3
b y = 3(x 1)2 + 2
y=
e x2 + y2 = 4
y = 3e(x 2) + 1
y= x +2
2 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions and state the domain and range of each. (Verify that
it is correct using a CAS calculator.)

a (4, 2), (2, 0), (0, 1), (2, 4), (3, 6)}
b 3x + 4y = 12
c f (x) = 5 2x
d f (x) = x2 9
e f (x) = (x + 2)2
g f (x) = x2 + 8x
h f (x) =
x3
2
f
(
x
)
=
4 x2
k
f (x) = loge (2x)
4
x
f (x) = 2ex
f (x) =
Find the inverse of each function in question 2. Sketch the graph and state the domain and
range of each inverse. (Verify using a CAS calculator.)
4 For each function graphed below:
i copy the graph of each function and sketch its inverse on the same axes
ii state the domain and range of f (x)
iii state the domain and range of the inverse of f (x).
diGiTal doC
doc-9252
SkillSHEET 5.2
matching graphs
with equations
3 We 5
b
y=x
f(x)
f(x)
f(x)
diGiTal doC
doc-9196
Spreadsheet
inverse graphs
1
0
x
0
y=x
y=x
231
f(x)
y x=1
f(x)
3
f(x)
3
0
y=x
g
3 x
y=x
y=x
y
f(x)
y=x
f(x)
5
5x
y
y=x
(4, 1)
3
f(x)
y=x
5
j
y=x
y
x = 3
f(x)
6
3 2
(3, 4)
f(x)
2
x
y=x
2
y=x
Questions 5 to 8 relate to the following function.

f : R + R, f ( x ) =
5 mC The range of f (x) is:
a R+
d R
B R
e (, 0]
6 mC The domain of the inverse of f (x) is:

a R
d [0, )
B R
e (, 0]
7 mC The range of the inverse of f (x) is:

a R
d (, 0]
C [0, )
C R+
C [0, )
B R
e R+
8 mC The inverse of f (x) can be defined by:

a y = x2, where x [0, )
C y = x2 where x R
e y=
diGiTal doC
doc-9197
WorkSHEET 5.1
x , where x [0, )
B y = x2, where x R
d y = x2, where x R+
9 We6 For each of the following functions, fully define the inverse.
a f : [2, ) R, f (x) = (x 2)2 3
b f : R R, f (x) = 3e x 1 + 2
5C
inverse functions
A one-to-one function is a function where for each x-value there is only one y-value and vice versa.
The graph of a one-to-one function can be crossed only once by any vertical or horizontal line.
A function that is not one-to-one is many-to-one.
A function will have an inverse that is also a function if and only if it is a one-to-one function. If a
function, f , is one-to-one, then its inverse function is denoted by f 1.

232
Furthermore:
dom f 1 = ran f
ran f 1 = dom f
The graph of f 1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f through the line y = x.
(Note that if f crosses the line y = x at any point, f and f 1 will intersect at that point.)
The maximal domain of a function is the largest domain for which its rule is defined. If a function is
given without its domain specified, then it is understood that the maximal or implied domain is intended.
y
y = f(x)
Horizontal lines
cross the curve
only once.
Vertical lines cross the curve only once.
Worked example 7
1
Consider the function f ( x ) = x + 2 .
a State whether or not it is a one-to-one function, and hence determine if the
inverse function exists.
If the inverse function exists:
b on the same set of axes, sketch f(x), its inverse and the line y = x
c use a CAS calculator to find the points of intersection of f(x) and f 1(x)
d find the maximal domain and range of the original function
e find the domain and range of the inverse function.
Think
TUTorial
eles-1213
Worked example 7
WriTe/draW
1 a basic hyperbola
,
x+2
translated 2 units to the left.
a f (x) =
Write the function.
Find the vertical asymptote by making the

denominator of the fraction equal to 0.
Vertical asymptote occurs where

x+2=0
x = 2
Find the horizontal asymptote remembering there is

no vertical translation.
Horizontal asymptote occurs where

y=0.
Sketch the graph of f (x) and use vertical and

horizontal line tests to decide whether or not f (x) is a
one-to-one function.
x = 2
y
(0, 12)
x
1
f(x) = x + 2
State whether or not the inverse function exists.
f (x) is a one-to-one function, so
f 1(x) exists.
233
b On the same axes sketch f (x), f
b The horizontal asymptote is y = 2.
(x) and y = x.
The vertical asymptote is x = 0.

( 0, 12 ) becomes ( 12 , 0 )
1
The equation is y = x 2.
x = 2
1)
(0,
2
1
y =
x+2
y=x
0
1 , 0)
(
2
1 x 2
y=
x y = 2
c The points of intersection are (2.414,
c Find the points of intersection.
2.414)
and (0.414, 0.414). Note that

these points both lie on the line y = x.
d The domain is R\{2} and the range is
d Find the domain and range of f (x).
R \{0}.
e The domain of the inverse is the range of the original
e The domain of the inverse is R \{0} and
function. The range of the inverse is thedomain of the

original function.
the range is R \{2}.
Functions are either one-to-one or many-to-one.

If a function, f, is not one-to-one but is many-to-one, it is possible to restrict its domain so that the
limited domain is one-to-one and hence the inverse function exists.
Worked example 8
State the largest negative domain of f(x), shown in the figure,
so that f 1(x) exists.
f(x)
(0, 9)
3
Think
234
WriTe
Decide whether f (x) is a one-to-one function.
The parabola can be divided through its axis of symmetry,

x = 3, so that 2 one-to-one functions are formed.
State the domain of the left part of the parabola that is

one-to-one.
f (x) is one-to-one if the domain is

restricted to (, 3].
State the domain of the right part of the parabola that is

one-to-one.
f (x) is also one-to-one if the domain is

restricted to [3, ).
State the largest negative domain of f (x) so that f 1(x)

exists.
f (x) is not one-to-one, because horizontal

lines cut the parabola in 2 places.
The largest negative domain for f 1(x) to

exist is (, 3].
exercise 5C
inverse functions
1 We 7 Consider the following functions.
For each function:

i state whether or not it is a one-to-one function and hence determine if the inverse function
exists.
If the inverse function exists:
ii on the same set of axes, sketch f (x), its inverse and the line y = x
iii use a CAS calculator to find the points of intersection of f (x) and f 1(x)
iv find the maximal domain and range of the original function
v find the domain and range of the inverse function.
a f (x) = 4x + 1
b f (x) = 6x
c f (x) = 5
d f (x) = x2 + 2
e f (x) = (x 3)2
f f (x) = (x + 1)3
2
16 x 2
g f (x) =
h f (x) =
i f (x) = x2 6x + 3
x
j f (x) = e4x 2
k f (x) = 2 loge (x 1)
2 Find: i which of the functions below has an inverse function f
ii f 1(x), if it exists.
1
(x)
1
2
x2
x3
f (x) =
2
f ( x ) = 16 x 2
f (x) = 3ex 2
f (x) = 1 + 2 ln (x)
a f (x) = 4x
b f (x) =
c f (x) = 5 x2
d f (x) = (x 1)2
g f (x) =
x2
j f (x) = 5 ex 2
m f (x) = 2 loge (x 4)
k
n
f (x) = (x + 5)2 28
f (x) = 2ex + 1
l f (x) = loge (3x)
o f (x) = 3 loge (2x + 3)
i
3 Copy and complete the following table.
Function
Inverse of the function
Domain
Range
Domain
Range
R+
[10,
[1, )
[3, 3]
[0, 3]
(0, )
[5, 5]
[0, 8]
g
h
R+
4 mC Consider the function in the figure shown below.

y
a The function would be one-to-one if the domain were restricted to:

a [3, 5]
B [2, 10]
C [1, 3]
b The largest domain that restricts it to a one-to-one functionis:

a (, 4]
B [0, )
C R+
d [0, 4]
e [0, 2.2]
d R
e (, 2]
235
2
+ 1.
( x 3)2
a The function would be one-to-one if the domain were restricted to:
a (3, ]
B [3, )
d (1, )
e [3, )
b The inverse would be a function if the domain of f (x) were:
a [0, 4]
B (1, 4]
d [0, 3)
e [1, )
5 mC Consider the function f ( x ) =
6 mC Consider the function f : S R, f (x) = x2 + 1.
a The maximal domain, S, for f 1(x) to exist is:

a R+
d R+ {0} or R {0}
b For f
a R
B R
e (, 1]
C [2, 4]
C [1, )
to exist, the largest possible positive set, S, is:

B R
C [0, )
d R+
e [1, )
For each function graphed below, state the largest possible domain of f so that f
7 We 8
a
f(x)
y
0
exists.
y
(3, 3)
f(x)
1 0
y
9
f (x)
f (x)
f(x)
C (3, )
f(x)
1
f(x)
0 1
3
f (x)
5d
9 x
9x
0
x=5
f (x)
restricting functions
As we have seen in the previous exercise, functions which are not one-to-one can have their domains restricted
so that they become one-to-one. As a result their inverses will then be functions, that is, f 1 will exist.
Worked example 9
Consider the function fully defined as follows:

f : [ 3, 3] R
R,,
f ( x)
x) = 9 x 2
a Find the largest possible positive domain so that f
b Use this restricted domain to fully define f 1(x).

Think
a 1 Write the function.
exists.
WriTe
a Let y = f (x)
y = 9 x2
236
Square both sides.
Add x2 to both sides.
y2 = 9 x2
x2 + y2 = 9
TUTorial
eles-1173
Worked example 9
State the shape and key features of the graph.
This is the equation of a circle with centre

(0,0) and radius 3.
Describe f (x), remembering that a positive

square root implies the upper part of a
semicircle.
The graph of f ( x ) = 9 x 2 is an upper

semicircle.
Sketch the graph of f (x).
y
3
3
7
State the possible domains if f (x) is one-toone.
State the largest positive domain for f 1(x) to

exist.
f (x) is one-to-one if the domain is [3, 0]

or [0, 3].
1
The largest positive domain for f

is [0, 3].
using dom f
= ran f.
= ran f
= [0, 3]
= dom f
= [0, 3]
Find the domain of f
Find the range of f
Write the function.
y = 9 x2
Find the inverse by interchanging x and y.
Inverse is x = 9 y 2
Make y the subject.
Select the appropriate inverse function.
State the function f 1.
using ran f
dom f
to exist
b If dom f = [0, 3], then ran f = [0, 3].
b 1 Find the range of f(x).

1
= dom f.
ran f
x2 = 9 y2
x2 + y2 = 9
y2 = 9 x2
y = 9 x2
Since ran f
= [0, 3], use y = 9 x 2 .
Therefore the inverse of f with the largest

positive domain is:
1
2
f 1: [0, 3] R, f ( x ) = 9 x
Worked example 10
If f: S R, f(x) = 3(x 1)2 2:
a find the largest positive set, S, for which f 1(x) exists

1
b fully define f and sketch its graph.
Think

2
State the shape and key features of the graph.
WriTe/draW
a y = 3(x 1)2 2
A parabola with turning point (1, 2),

y-intercept (0, 1) and x-intercepts
(0.184, 0) and (1.816, 0)
237
Sketch the graph of f (x).
(0, 1) (0.184, 0) (1.816, 0)

x
0
(1, 2)
State whether or not it is a one-to-one function.
The parabola is not one-to-one so the

domain must be restricted.
State the possible domains if f (x) is to be

one-to-one.
The domain could be (, 1] or [1, ).
State the largest positive domain, set S, for f

exist.
Find the range of f (x).
Find the domain of f
Write the function.
y = 3(x 1)2 2
Interchange x and y and make y the subject.
x = 3(y 1)2 2
x + 2 = 3(y 1)2
x+2
= ( y 1)2
3
x+2
y 1 =
reject the negative
3
solution because the range is [2, ).
to
S = [1, )
b The range is [2, ).
using dom f
= ran f.
The domain of f
y = 1+
5
Fully define the inverse function.
is [2, ).
x+2
3

f 1:[ 2, ) R, f 1 ( x ) = 1 +
x+2
3
key feature of inverse functions

A feature of inverse functions is that by taking the inverse function of a function, or vice versa, the
independent variable (x) is always obtained. That is:
f 1 [ f (x)] = f [ f 1(x)] = x.
The following example illustrates how this works.
Worked example 11
For f : R R, f(x) = x3:
a find f 1(x) and state its range
b find f [ f 1(x)] and f 1[ f(x)] and show that f [ f 1(x)] = f 1[ f(x)] = x.

Think
238
Make y the subject by writing both sides to

the power of 13 and simplifying.
TUTorial
eles-1242
Worked example 11
WriTe
a f(x) = y = x3
Its inverse is x = y3.

1
( y3 ) 3 = x 3
1
y = x3
Write the rule for f 1(x).
Find the range of f 1(x), remembering that ran
f 1 is the same as dom f.
Write your answer in the same form as the question.
Find f ( x 3 ) by replacing x by x 3 in f(x) = x3.
Simplify.
Simplify.
f (x 3 )
=x
f 1[ f ( x )] =
(x3) by replacing x by x3 in f 1 ( x ) = x 3 .
1
( x )] =
1 3
Find f
R R, f 1 ( x ) = x 3
= x 3

[f(x)] by rewriting f(x) as x3.
1
:
b f[ f
Find f
dom f = R
ran f 1 = R
(x)] by rewriting f 1(x) as x 3 .
b 1 Find f [ f
f 1(x) = x 3
f 1( x 3 )
1
= (x3 )3
=x
Compare f [ f (x)] to f
f [ f 1 (x
( x )] =
[ f(x)].
f 1[ f ( x)]
x )] = x
Worked example 12
a Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2 3x + 3, showing the turning point and relevant
intercept(s).
TUTorial
b Find the rule of the inverse by an algebraic method and sketch this graph on eles-1214
Worked example 12
the same set of axes together with the line y = x.
c Is the inverse a function?
d The inverse is a reflection in the line y = x of the original function f(x). Use this information to
find any points of intersection between the original curve and its inverse.
e Find the maximum value of a for f: (, a] R, f(x) = x2 3x + 3 so that f 1(x) exists.

Think
WriTe/draW
a Use a CAS calculator to help in drawing a graph of f (x)
including the relevant points.
y
4
3
2
1
0
b 1 To find the equation of f 1(x), let y = x2 3x + 3.
f (x) = x2 3x + 3
y=x
(1.5, 0.75)
1 2 3 4
b x = y2 3y + 3
2
Use the solve feature of your CAS calculator to

determine the inverse.
Solve (y2 3y + 3 = x, y).
State the inverse.
y=
( 4 x 3 + 3)
or
2
y=
( 4 x 3 3)
2
Write the answer in the form of f 1(x).
f 1( x) =
4x 3 + 3
2
239
Use the calculator to draw the graphs of f (x),
f 1(x) and y = x.
c The inverse is a one-to-many relation and therefore is
not a function.
d 1 Use a CAS calculator to determine the points of
intersection of f(x) and the line y = x.

Note: These are the points of intersection of
f and f 1.
y
4
3
2
1
f(x) = x2 3x + 3
y=x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c The graph of the inverse does not pass the
vertical line test, as it is a one-to-many

relation, and therefore it is not a function.
d Solve (x2 3x + 3 = x).
y
4
3
2
1
f (x) = x2 3x + 3
y=x
(1.5, 0.75)
1 2 3 4
0
2
State the intersections.
e 1 Use a CAS calculator to find the turning point of f (x).
Intersections are (1,1) and (3, 3).

f Min (x2 3x + 3, x)
State the minimum.
Minimum is x = 32 .
Since the domain is (, a] use left half of the

parabola, a = 32 .
Domain is ( , 32 ].
Worked example 13
Let f: R R, f(x) = ex + 1.
a Sketch the graph of f and state its range.
b Find the rule and domain of the inverse. function f 1

1
c Find the rule and maximal domain for y = f( f (x)).
ax
d Find y = f(f 1(2x)) in the form
where a, b and c are constants.
bx + c
Think
a 1 Carefully sketch the graph of f, showing the y-axis
intercept of 2 and the graph approaching the

asymptote y = 1.
WriTe
y
8
6
4
2
y=1
1 20
2x
Range = (1, )
b 1 Interchange x and y to find the inverse equation.
240
by=e
+ 1 is the given function.
x = e y + 1 is the inverse.
y
In order to make y the subject of the equation,

subtract 1 from both sides.
x1=e
Rewrite using a x = y loga ( y) = x .
loge(x
log (x
e
1) = y
1) = y
c f (f 1(x)) = eloge(x 1) + 1
c 1 Form the composite function.
Since the range for the given function was (1, ) then
this becomes the domain of the inverse function.
f 1:(1, ) R, f 1(x) = loge(x 1)
Write the rule for the inverse using

function notation.
=x1+1
=x
Dom f (f 1(x)) = dom f 1(x) = (1, )
Sketch the graph of this composite

function.
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
d 1 Find the rule for f 1(x) and then find

f 1(2x).
Form the composite function f ( f 1(2x)).
exercise 5d
5x
f (x) = ex + 1
f 1(x) = loge(x 1)
f 1(x) = log (x 1)
e
f 1(2x)
= loge(2x 1)
f ( f 1(2x)) = eloge(2x 1) + 1
= eloge(2x 1) 1 + 1
= (2x 1)1 + 1
1
1
=
+
2x 1 1
1 + 2x 1
=
2x 1
2x
1
f ( f (2 x ) =
2x 1
1 We9a Find the largest possible domain(s) of the following functions so that the inverse function
exists. (Use a CAS calculator to sketch the graph if necessary.)

b f : R R, f (x) = 3x2 1
1
c f : R R, f (x) = (x + 3)2 2
d f : R \{0}
} R, f ( x ) = 2 3
x
1
1
} R, f ( x ) =
+1
} R, f ( x ) =
e f : R \{4}
f f : R \ {2}
2
( x 4)
x2
a f : R R, f (x) = x2 + 3
g f : [ 5, 5] R,
R, f ( x)
x ) = 25 x 2
R,, f ( x)
x) = 1 x 2
h f : [ 1, 1] R
i f : [4, ) R, f ( x ) = x 4
k f : R R, f (x) = e x + 2
j
l
diGiTal doC
doc-9253
SkillSHEET 5.3
Function
notation
f : R R, f (x) = x2 2x + 5
f : (5, ) R, f (x) = 2 loge (x 5)
2 We 9b For each function in question 1 use the restricted domain to fully define f
1
(x).
(If there are two possible domains, use the one which is to the right.)
3 mC Use the function f : [0, ) R, f (x) = x2 to answer the following questions.
a Any points of intersection of f (x) and f 1(x) must lie on the line:
a y=0
b f
B y=x
C y = 2x
d y=x+1
e x=0
(x) is correctly defined by:
a f 1 : [0, ) R, f 1(x) = x
f 1: [0, )
f 1: (0, ] R, f 1 ( x ) =
R,
f 1( x)
= x
B f 1 : [0, ) R, f 1(x) = x
d f 1: [0, ) R, f 1 ( x ) = x
1
x2
241
c The range of f
(x) is:
a (, 0]
C R+
B R
d The graphs of f and f
e R
d [0, )
intersect at the point(s):

B (1, 1) only
C (0, 0) and (1, 1)
e (1, 1) and (2,, 14 )
4 Copy each of the following graphs, then on the same set of axes sketch the graphs of y = x and
y = f 1(x).
a (0, 0) and (1, 1)
d (0, 0) and (3, 3)
f(x)
f(x)
3
5
f (x)
0
d
1
h
f (x)
x
f(x)
f(x)
(2, 5)
y
2
f(x)
5 We10 If f : S R, f ( x ) = 3 + x 1, find:
a the largest set, S, for which f 1(x) exists
[2,
f(x)
b f
and sketch its graph.
6 If f :
a] R, f (x) = (x
5, find:
a the largest possible value of a so that f will have an inverse which is a function
b f
4)2
and sketch its graph.
7 We11 For f : R+ R, f ( x ) =
a find f
c find f
:
1
and state its range
b find f [ f
[ f (x)]
d show that f [ f
(x)]
a
b
c
d
9 We12 If g : [b, 8] R, g(x) = 9 x2, find:

a the smallest value of b so that g(x) has an inverse that is a function
b g 1
c the range of g 1(x).

242
(x)] = f 1[ f (x)] = x.
1
:
x2 + 2
sketch the graph of f (x)
state the largest positive domain for f (x) so that f 1(x) exists
1
sketch the graph f (x) on the same set of axes as f (x), using the positive domain
show that f [ f 1(x)] = f 1[ f (x)] = x.

For f : R R, f ( x ) =
10 Given that g( x ) = 3 +
4 x 2 , fully define two inverse functions, g 1, using maximal domains.

11 The Richter scale is used to measure the intensity of an earthquake. The intensity of an earthquake
indicates the violence of the Earths motion. The actual model is a little more complex but simplifies to:
I
R = log10
I0
where I is the intensity of the earthquake, I0 is the initial intensity which equals one and R is the
magnitude of the earthquake on the Richter scale.
The following earthquakes occurred during the first six months of 2011.
Date
Place
Magnitude on Richter Scale
March 11
Tohoku, Japan
9.0
April 7
Honshu, Japan
7.4
February 23
Christchurch, New Zealand
6.3
June 13
Christchurch, New Zealand
6.0
a Calculate the intensity of each of the four earthquakes listed, giving your answers in scientific notation.
b i Compare the magnitudes of the two Japanese earthquakes by setting up a simplified ratio of the
two intensities.
ii Compare the magnitudes of the two New Zealand earthquakes by setting up a simplified ratio of
the two intensities.

iii Compare the magnitudes of the smaller Japanese earthquake and larger New Zealand
earthquake by setting up a simplified ratio of the two intensities.

12 a Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = ex 1, stating the domain and range.
b Find the inverse function, f 1, stating the domain and range. Use function notation to state the
rule for the inverse.
c Sketch the graph of f 1 on the same set of axes used for part (a).
d Find the rule for y = f (f 1(x)) and investigate the conditions under which this composite function
exists.
e If g(x) = 3x, find the rule for g(f
(x)) and investigate the conditions under which this composite

function exists.
f Sketch the graph of y = g(f 1(x)).

g Find the rule for y = g(x) f(x), stating the domain for this function. Sketch the graph of this
function with the assistance of a CAS calculator.
13 For the function f : ( 2, ) R, f ( x ) = loge ( x + 2)
a Sketch the graph of f and state the range of the function.
b Find the rule, domain and range of the inverse function. Sketch this on the same set of axes as
used in part (a).
c Find where these two functions intersect, giving your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
d Find the rule and maximal domain for y = f ( f 1(x)).

14 For the function y = e2x 2ex + 1:
a find where the graph cuts the y-axis
b find where the graph cuts the x-axis algebraically
c find any stationary point(s) and investigate the nature of the point(s).
d sketch the graph of the function, with the aid of a CAS calculator, stating the domain and range
e find the inverse function, stating the domain and range
f find where the graphs of the two functions intersect giving answers correct to 2 decimal places,
where appropriate
g sketch the inverse function on the same set of axes used for part (d).
15 a Sketch the graph of f where f : ( 1, ) R, f ( x ) = 2loge ( x + 1) .
b Find the rule for the inverse function, stating the domain and range. Express the rule of the inverse
using function notation.
c Find the rule and maximal domain for y = f (f 1(x)).

ax
d Find y = f ( f 1(3x)). in the form y =

where a, b and c are real constants.
bx + c
diGiTal doC
doc-9198
WorkSHEET 5.2
243
Summary
relations and their
inverses
A relation is a set of ordered pairs which may be described by a rule.

The inverse of a relation can be found by interchanging the x and y elements.
The graph of a relation and its inverse are reflected in the line y = x.
If the rule for a relation is known, then the rule for its inverse is obtained by interchanging x and y
in the rule and then making y the subject.
The domain of a relation is the same as the range of its inverse and the range of a relation is the
same as the domain of its inverse.
Functions and their

inverses
A function is a relation which has only one y-value for each x-value. The graph of a function can
be crossed only once by a vertical line.
A one-to-one function is a function which has only one x-value for each y-value. The graph of a
one-to-one function can be crossed only once by any vertical or horizontal line.
A function which is not one-to-one is many-to-one.
The rule for the inverse of a relation, or a function, can be obtained by either:
1. interchanging the first and second elements of the ordered pairs
2. interchanging x and y in the rule and making y the subject.
y
Graphing the inverse The graph of the inverse of a relation, or a
function, can be obtained by either:
1
f (x)
1. interchanging the first and second elements of the ordered pairs of
2
the relation or function
(5, 2)
2. reflecting the graph of the relation or function through the line y = x
x
0
5
f(x)
3. using the rule of the relation or function to find the rule of the
inverse and then graphing the inverse.
y=x
The domain and range of a function and its inverse are interchanged.
(2, 5)
The graphs of a function and its inverse intersect on the line y = x.
inverse functions
A function, f (x), which is not one-to-one can have its domain restricted so that f 1(x) exists.
The points of intersection of f (x) and f 1(x) lie on the line y = x.

A function is fully described using the notation
The inverse of a one-to-one function, f (x), is also a function and is denoted by f 1(x).
dom f 1 = ran f
1
ran f = dom f
f 1[ f (x)] = f [ f 1(x)] = x
The implied (or maximal) domain of a function is the largest domain for which the function has
meaning. When the domain is not mentioned, use the maximal domain.
f : X Y, f (x) = rule
where X is the domain and Y is the co-domain.
The graph of f 1(x) is a reflection of f (x) in the line y = x.

1
f [ f (x)] = f [ f 1(x)] = x
244
Chapter review
1 Sketch the graph of the inverse of each of the following relations.
y
S ho rT
a n S W er
b
(4, 4)
2
2
3
2 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions and state its domain and range.
2
a y = 36 x
b f (x) = 2e x 2
3 Using the graph of the functions given below sketch the graph of the inverse of each function.
a
x = 2
b
f(x)
1
2
1 0
y
f(x)
8 x
f(x)
(4, 4)
(1, 4)
4 State the largest possible domain for each of the following functions to be one-to-one.
a f (x) = 3 loge (x +
4)
c f (x) = 5
b g(x) = (x 2)2
1
x2
5 For the following functions:

i Sketch their graphs and, by inspection, define them as one-to-one or many-to-one
functions.
ii For the functions defined in i as many-to-one, define the maximal domain for which the inverse
is a function, stating their domains in formal function notation. If there is more than one
option, choose the right-hand option.
iii Find the rules of their inverses.
iv For all of the one-to-one functions from i and the redefined functions from iii, sketch all these
inverse functions.
a f (x) = 2x 1
b f (x) = 2(x 1)3 + 1
c f (x) = |x2 + x |
d f (x) =
e f (x) = 3ex + 1
g f (x) =
( x + 3)2
2 x 3
2
f (x) =
1
3( x 2)
+1
6 a Sketch the graph of f (x) = loge (x 2) + 1, marking the intercepts and asymptotes and stating the
domain and the range.
b Find the rule for the inverse function.
c If f 1(m) = 3, find the value of m.
d Draw the graphs of y = x and f 1(x) on the same axes as f (x) = loge (x 2) + 1, marking the point
(m, 3) and checking that it is on f 1(x). State the domain and the range.
e Mark the image of (m, 3) on the original graph.
1
7 If g : (, b) R, g(x) = x2 + 5x 1, find the largest value of b for g
to exist.
245
m U lTip l e
C h oiCe
1 A relation has an x-intercept of 4 and y-intercept of 2. The inverse of this relation has an x-intercept
and y-intercept, respectively, of:

B 2, 4
a 4, 2
C 4, 2
d 2, 4
e 0, 0
2 The graph that best represents the inverse of the relation shown in the figure below is:
y
y
0
1
1
0
3 The relation x2 + (y + 1)2 = 16 has an inverse that is:

a a one-to-one function
C a many-to-many relation
e a one-to-one relation
B a many-to-one relation
d a one-to-many function
3 is closest to:
(x), where f ( x ) = 3 x 3,
C 3
d 1.27
e 6
2
+ 3, is closest to:
5 The y-intercept of the inverse function f 1(x), where f ( x ) =
( x 2)
a 43
B no x-intercept
C 34
d 2
e 2
2
+ 3, at:
6 Asymptotes exist on the graph of the inverse function f 1(x), where f ( x ) =
( x 2)
a x = 1 only
B y = 1 only
C x = 3, y = 2
d x = 2, y = 1
e x = 3, y = 2
4
7 The inverse of the relation y =
is:
x2
2
2
2
a y=
B y=
C y=
x
x
x
2
2
d y=
e y=
x
x
4 The x-intercept of the inverse function f
a 1.27
B 6
8 A function has a domain of [0, ) and a range of R+. The domain of its inverse must be:
a R
B R
C R+
d [0, )
e (, 0]
1
is:
1
C R \{0}
d R \{1, 1}
e R+
9 The implied domain of the function, f ( x ) =

a R
246
B R \{1}
x2
Questions 10 to 12 can be answered by considering the function f (x) = 4 ln (x + 3) 2.

10 The maximal domain for f (x) is:
a [3, )
11 dom f
a
R+
B (, 3)
C R \{3}
d (3, )
e R+
B [0, )
C R
d (, 3)
e (3, )
is equal to:
12 The rule for f
is completely described by:
a f 1 : R R, f 1 ( x ) = e 4 3
C f 1: ( , 3) R, f 1 ( x ) =
f 1 : R + R, f 1 ( x ) =
x4
e 2
B
x+4
e 2
d f 1 : R R, f 1 ( x ) =
x+2
4
x+4
e 3
f 1 : R R, f 1 ( x ) = e
13 At which one of the following points is it possible for a function and its inverse to intersect?
a (2, 2)
14 The value of
a
B (1, 2)
f [ f 1 ( 13 )]
C (2, 1)
d (0, 1)
C x
e (1, 2)
is equal to:
1
3
1
3
e 3
15 The function shown in the figure is one-to-one if the domain is restricted to:
a [2, )
[3,
2]
e [0, )
C
B [3, )
f(x)
d (, 2]
16 If f : S R, f (x) = x2 10x + 18, then the largest possible set, S, for f

a (, 0]
B [0, )
C [0, 5]
to exist is:
d [5, 100]
e (, 5]
1 Using a CAS calculator:

a Find the rule for the inverse of the function f (x) = 0.213x2 + 1.127x 2.124.
b Explain why this inverse is not a function.
c Find the value of a, correct to 2 decimal points, for [a, ), the maximal domain of f (x) so that the
ex Ten d ed
r eS p o n S e
inverse is a function. Let this new function be g(x).
d Find the domain and range of f 1(x).
e Solve g(x) = g 1(x) for x, correct to 2 decimal places.

2 The function, f (x), in the figure below is a parabola with a turning point at (0, 4).
y
4
y=x
A
2
Find the function which describes f (x).

Find the coordinates of the point, A.
State the domain and range of f (x).
Sketch the graph of f (x) and its inverse on the same set of axes.
What shape is enclosed between f (x) and its inverse?
i State the domain for which the inverse of f (x) is a function.
ii Give the rule for the inverse of f (x) over this domain.
g i State the domain for which the inverse of f (x) is not a function.
ii Give the rule for the inverse of f (x) over this domain.
a
b
c
d
e
f
247
3 The graph of f (x) = exx2 is shown at right.

a Use a calculator to find the turning points, rounding answers
to 2 decimal places as appropriate.

b State the domain and range of f (x).
c On the same set of axes, sketch f (x), its inverse and the line
y = x. Mark all turning points and asymptotes.
f(x) = exx2
d State the domain and range of the inverse of f (x).

e Use a CAS calculator to solve exx2 = x to find the points of
intersection of f (x) and its inverse.

Find the largest possible negative domain of f (x) so that
f 1(x) exists (that is, the inverse is a function).

g Find the domain of the inverse function.
4 a Use a CAS calculator to draw the graph of f (x) = 6 loge |x 3|.
b Find the value of a for (a, ), the maximal domain of f (x), such that f 1(x) exists. Let this new
function be g(x).
c Solve g(x) = g 1(x) for x, correct to 2 decimal places.
d Consider the function f (x) = a loge (x 3), where a > 0. Let f 1(x) = h(x). Given that
x
a
1
and h ( x ) = e a , find the value of a (correct to 2 decimal places) for which the
f ( x ) =
a
x3
graph of f (x) and its inverse intersect only once.
5 Bacteria share one major characteristic; they divide by simple binary division. The mathematical series
describing their growth is 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, . . . which can be rewritten as 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, . . .
a i Write a mathematical equation relating the number of bacteria present in a colony, N, to the
number of hours, t, after the first division. This division model is only valid for seven days.
ii How many bacteria would be present in the colony after 12 hours?
iii How many bacteria would be present in the colony after 1 day?
iv Sketch the graph of N versus t for the first twelve hours.
b Bacterial growth can be graphed as N versus t, as seen in part (a) (iv) above, since it is exponential
growth. However, because population numbers are so large, it is common practice to plot the
logarithm of the N versus t.
i Explain how this is possible.
(Hint: find the equations relating logarithm of N and t and show that it can be expressed in the
form y = mx + c)
ii Sketch, without the use of a calculator, the graph of loge (N) versus t for one week, i.e.
168 hours. Complete the following table to assist with the sketching.
f
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
diGiTal doC
doc-9199
Test Yourself
Chapter 5
248
t (hours)
loge (N)
0
(2 days) 48
2.8147 10
(4 days) 96
7.9228 1028
(6 days) 144
2.2301 10144
(7 days) 168
3.7414 10168
c Find how long will it take for the number of bacteria in the colony to reach 1.142 1026?
Give your answer in days and hours.

6 For the function f : R R, f ( x ) = 2e x 2
a Sketch the graph of f and state the range.
b Find the rule, domain and range of the inverse function. Express the rule of the inverse using
function notation.
c Find the rule and maximal domain for y = f (f 1(x)).

ax
d Find y = f ( f 1(x)) in the form y =

where a, b and c are real constants.
bx + c
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGiTal doC
inverse functions. (page 223)
5a
inTeraCTiViTY
Inverse functions int-0250: Use the interactivity to consolidate your
understanding of graphs of the inverses of relations. (page 223)
TUTorial
We3 eles-1211: Watch a worked example on how to sketch
relations and their inverses. (page 225)
diGiTal doCS
SkillSHEET 5.1 doc-9251: Practise identifying domain and range.
(page 227)
5B
TUTorial
We5 eles-1212: Watch a worked example on sketching functions
and their relations. (page 229)
diGiTal doCS
SkillSHEET 5.2 doc-9252: Practise making graphs with equations.
(page 231)
Spreadsheet doc-9196: Investigate inverse graphs. (page 231)
WorkSHEET 5.1 doc-9197: Sketch relations, functions and their
inverses. (page 232)
5C
inverse functions
TUTorial
We7 eles-1213: Watch a worked example on sketching graphs of
inverse functions. (page 233)
5d
TUTorialS
We9 eles-1173: Watch a worked example on defining inverse
We11 eles-1242: Watch a worked example on identifying that the
composite functions f [ f 1(x)] = f 1[ f (x)] = x. (page 238)

We12 eles-1214: Watch a worked example on restricting a
function to define an inverse function. (page 239)
diGiTal doCS
SkillSHEET 5.3 doc-9253: Practise using function notation.
(page 241)
WorkSHEET 5.2 doc-9198: Recognise types of functions and sketch
polynomials and power functions. (page 243)
Chapter review
diGiTal doC
249
Answers CHAPTER 5
inVerSe FUnCTionS
exercise 5a
1 a
y = (x + 1)2
1 0
y
5
4
3
2
1
8
x2 + y2 = 4
c
2
2
1
2 0 1
1
2 x
[2,
(1, 1)
2], [2, 2]
R, R
(1, 3)
3
y=x
1 0
(1, 1)
R, R
y = 2x 5
y = 3
x
5
2
5
2
R, R
y=2
2
e
5
y = 2x + 4
5
2
y = 12 x +
R\{0}, R\{0}
y
(1, 3) 3
0 1
y=x
{8, 5, 2, 1}, {1, 1, 2, 7}

c
{1, 1, 2, 7}, {8, 5, 2, 1}
y
7
{0, 1, 3}, {1, 2, 5}
1
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
2
R, [0, )
{(7, 8), (2, 5), (1, 2), (1, 1)}

y
0 123
R, {2}
R, R
e
y
x = 4
2x + 4y = 8
2
0
{4}, R
R, R
m
R, R
y= x+42
y
y
3
y = 2x
y = x2 + 4x
4
(2, 4)
(4, 2)
0 1
[4, ), R
R, R
R, [4, )
y
2 a
(1, 2)
{(1, 0), (2, 1), (2, 3), (5, 3)}
y = x +1
y
y
1
1
0
1
R, [1, )
250
3
2
1
0 12345
y = x2 1
1
x
{1, 2, 5}, {0, 1, 3}
0
1
[1, ), R
5 a
y = 1 x
x = 2
y=x
y=x
y
0
1
y=3
y=x
2
(1, 3)
y=x
(3, 3)
y=x
3
y=
x
0
3
0
4
(3, 1)
[2, 2], [2, 2]

j
y=x
x=3
x2 + y2 = 4
(1, 1)
y = 2
[0, ), R
(1, 1)
3
(3, 3)
(4, 4)
(3, 1)
(3, 1)
x
y
y=x
0 2
4
y=x
0 2
R\{0}, R\{0}
k
x=2
(1, 1)
y=x
y=x
y
y
{2}, R
y=
y=x
y=x
6
(1, 1)
x
2
y=x
y=x
1
0
(2, 1)
1
1
2
y=x
0
0 2
R, R
y
2
R, {4}
m y= 3
y
2
4 2 0
2
4
y=x
1
2
3
3A
4C
251
exercise 5B
1 a
c
e
g
2 a

Function
b Function
Function
d Function
Not a function
f Function
Function
h Function
y
5
2
y = 25 21 x
y
6
R, R
(3, 6)
(2, 4)
R, [ 16, )
2 3
y= x+9
[9, ), R
R, R
(4, 0)
0 x
0 1
(0, 3)
(1, 1 )
1
2
{4, 2, 0, 2, 3}, {2, 0, 1, 4, 6}
4 (2, 0) 0
2
(4, 2)
(4, 16)
(0, 1)
R, R
c
0
x
0
5
R, R+
j
5
2
y= x 2
[0, ), R
R, R
d
3
0 1
3 x
3
2
R, [0, )
f
1 0
(1, 4)
(1, 4)
(6, 3)
(4, 2)
6
y = x + 16 4
[16, ), R
y
h
1
(16, 4)
y
(0, 4)
( 1 , 1)
4x + 3y = 12
252
R, R
0 1
(3, 0) x
y=
R\{0}, R\{0}
R\{0}, R\{0}
{(2, 4), (0, 2),

(1, 0), (4, 2), (6, 3)}
{2, 0, 1, 4, 6}, {4, 2, 0, 2, 3}
0 (1, 0) 4
2 (0, 2)
(2, 4)
4
2
3 a
0
1
4
(4, 1)
[2, 2], [0, 2]

y
(4, 1)
4
y = x
R ,R
2
R,
[9,
R, R
2x
y
3
y = loge ( 2 )
y=x
x = 3
3 2
y = 12 ex
(0, 1 )
2
y
2
ii (1, ), R
iii R, (1, )
y = 4 x2
2
4 a
2
1
4
y=x
x
y=x
ii R, [4, )
iii [4, ), R
d
(1, 4)
(1, 0)
1
4
y=
x
4
x
1
4
(0, )
y=x
5 x
iii
iv
v
b i
( 13 , 13 )
R, R
R, R
one-to-one, f 1 exists
y = 6x
ii
(1, 6)
y=x
(6, 1)
(0, 0)
y=x
(0, 1)
1
( , 0)
4
y
6
1
=
x
6
3
3
ii R, R+
iii R+, R
y=x
ii [5, 5], [5, 0]

iii [5, 0], [5, 5]
inverse functions
ii R, R+
iii R+, R
( x + 3) + 2
1 a i one-to-one, f 1 exists
y
ii
ii R, [1, )
iii [1, ), R
(x) =
y = 4x + 1
1
0 1
exercise 5C
y=x
ii R, R
iii R, R
a f 1 : [3, ) R,
x2
b f 1 : (2, ) R, f 1 = loge
3 +1
(4, 1)
D
A
E
B
5
6
7
8
9
ii R, R
iii R, R
y=x
1 2 3 4 5
ii [ 2, 3), [0, 4)
iii [0, 4), [2, 3)
y=x
y=x
(4, 3)
x=1
y = 4 x2
[0, 2], [2, 2]
32
(3, 4)
4
3
2
y=1
x
y=x
R, R +
k
ii (3, ), R
iii R, (3, )
ii [3, 3], [0, 3]

iii [0, 3], [3, 3]
0
2
R+, R
j
y=x
ii [2, 6], [2, 0]

iii [2, 0], [2, 6]
6 x
iii
iv
v
c i
d i
(0, 0)
R, R
R, R
f 1 does not exist
f 1 does not exist
253
e i f 1 does not exist
f i one-to-one, f 1 exists
y = (x + 1)3
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
y=
x 1
x
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
m f 1(x) =
iii
iv R, R
v R, R
g i one-to-one, f 1 exists
y
ii
o f
(x) = 12 (e3 x 3)
Function
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
None
R \{0}, R \{0}
R \{0}, R \{0}
f 1 does not exist
f 1 does not exist
Domain
R
[1, )
[3, 3]
R
R
R
[5, 5]
R+
R
R
[0, 3]
R+
[10, )
(0, )
[0, 8]
R
R
R
[0, 3]
R+
[10, )
(0, )
[0, 8]
R
7 a (, 0] or [0, )
c
[1,
y=e 2
(,
R+
R, f
: R R, f
R
[1, )
[3, 3]
R
R
R
[5, 5]
R+
c D
d A
(0.17, 0)
(0, 1)
y = 2
+5
6
5
0
1(x)
y=x
x
f (x)
y
f(x)
(0, 3)
(1, 0)
b [3, )
R+
f 1(x)
0
(0, 1)
(3, 0)
y=x
h R or R+
b [0, ) or (, 0]
f(x)
d (0, ), or (, 0)
x=1
y=x
i [4, )
j (, 1]
y = 2 loge (x + 1)
y
3
k R
y=1
iii None
iv (1, ), R
v R, (1, )
2 i a, e, g, i, j, k, l, m, n, o
f 1(x)
y=x
h [1, 0] or [0, 1]
y = e0.5x + 1
(2, 0)
f R\{2}
g [5, 0] or [0, 5]
(0, 2)
254
+ loge (x)
c [3, )
(0.2, 0.2) and (1.99, 1.99)

R, (2, )
(2, ), R
(x) =
x
e2
x4
e (, 4)
ii a f 1(x) =
(x) =
1 a [0, ) or (, 0]
(1, 0)
iii
iv
v
k i
ii
b C
Range
5) or (5, )
exercise 5d
(0, 0.17)
3 a B
f [9, 0] or [0, 9]
g [1, 5] or [5, 9]
y=x
k f
b E
b D
b C
d
e R
4x
j f 1 : [, 4) R, f 1 (x) = 1
Inverse of function
Range
4 a B
5 a C
6 a D
i f 1 : [0, ) R, f 1 (x) = x2 + 4
4 a
Domain
25 x 2
h f 1 : [0, 1] R, f 1 (x) = 1 x 2
l f
+4
( x 1)
e 2
y=x
x = 2 y
x
e2
n f 1(x) =
(2.3, 2.3)
iii
iv
v
h i
i i
j i
ii
x2
y=x
(x) = + 2, where x [0, )
f 1(x) = loge x 1
2
j f 1(x) = 2 + loge (5 x)
k f 1(x) = loge ( x + 2)
3
ex
l f 1(x) = 3
g f
ii
g f 1 : [5, 0] R, f 1 (x) =
e f 1(x) = 2 x
f 1(x)
l (5, )
2 a f 1 : [3, ) R, f 1 (x) =
x3
b f 1 : [1, ) R, f 1 (x) =
x +1
3
c f 1 : [2, ) R, f 1 (x) =
x+2 3
(0, 1) y = x
d f 1 : (3, ) R, f 1 (x) =
1
x+3
1
e f 1 : (1, ) R, f 1 (x) = 4
x 1
1
f f 1 : R\{0} R, f 1 (x) = + 2
x
y=x
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
0
f 1(x)
f
f
13 a and c
8 a
1
2
1(x)
f (x)
(5, 2)
f(x)
(2, 5)
1
2
1
f
1(x)
y
0
(2, 5)
(5, 2)
0 1
f (x)
y=x
4
4 ( x 3)2 or
Graphs intersect at x = 1.15, y = 1.16
b f 1 : R R, f 1(x) = ex 2
d Dom f ( f 1(x)) = dom f 1(x) = R

14 a The graph cuts the y-axis where x = 0;
y = e0 2e0 + 1 = 1 2 + 1 = 0
b A = ex; ex = 1 x = 0
c Local minimum x = 0
d and g
: [3, ) R, f
2
1
(x) = 1 + (x 3)2
1 0.5
0.5
f 1(x)
x+5
f (x)
y=x
10
4
0
x
(31, 2)
10
: R R, f
b x
d Teacher to check
1
(x) = 2
x
c x
1
2
1
g 3x(ex 1)
1
2
y
4
3
15 a
y
4
f 1(x)
5
b f 1 : (1, ) R, f 1(x) = loge(x + 1)

d x
e g( f 1(x)) = g(loge (x + 1)) = 3loge(x + 1)
0.5
For y = e2x 2ex + 1 then dom = R and

ran = R+ {0}
e y = loge ( x + 1)
where dom = R+ {0} and ran = R
b f 1 : [5, 31] R, f 1 (x) = 4
0
1
1.5x
6 a 4
7 a f
0.5
0
1
(2, 31)
y
3
[1, )
5 a
g 1 : [3, 5] R, g 1 (x) = 4 ( x 3)2

11 a
11 March 1 109 = I;
7 April 2.512 107 = I;
23 February 2.000 106 = I;
13 June 1 106 = I
b i Approximately 40 : 1
ii Approximately 2 : 1
iii Approximately 12.6 : 1
12 a and c
y
3
y
5
10 g 1 : [3, 5] R, g 1 (x) =
x=4
9 x
c [0, 8]
f (x)
y=x
b g 1 : [55, 9] R, g 1 (x) =
d Teacher to check
9 a 0
0
f 1(x)
1
2
y=x
1
f(x)
y=4
f 1(x)
b [0, )
y=x
y
3
b f 1 : R R, f 1(x) = e 2 1
c x
d Thus a = 3, b = 3 and c = 1.
255
ChapTer reVieW
iv
y=
ShorT anSWer
( )( )
(x 1)
2
1
3
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 x
0.40.2 0
y=
iii
y = 2 (x 1)3+1
1 a
g i Many-to-one
ii Restrict domain to (3, ).
+1
iv
y=
iii y =
(4, 4)
iv
b
2 a
6
[6, 6], [6, 0]
(.5)
1 2 3 4
6 a
(2, ), R
x=2
y
y = |x 2 + x |
x
2 2.4
0.5
R,
R+
0.2 0
b f 1(x) = ex 1 + 2
y = x + 14 12
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 x
c m=1
R, (2, )
0.5
y=x
d i One-to-one
iii y = x2 6x 7, [3, )
iv
y
1 x
0
1
2
1
(x 1)
3 a
y=
x + 1 1, x 0
1.5
6 x
ii x 0
c i Many-to-one
4 x
1
(x + 3) +1
y
4
+1
2
3 2 1 0
1 3
x 1
(1, 3)
2.4
0
2.4
y = 2
2
y
0
1
4
(4, 1)
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

2
y = x2 6x 7
4
0.5 1 1.5 2 x
e (3, 1)
y=x
y = 2 x 3
iv
x
4 a (4, )
y = 3e x + 1
b (, 2]
c R or R+
iii y =
x +1
2
y
6
iv
y = 2x 1
0
7 6 5 4 3 2 12
4
6
b i One-to-one
x 1 +1
iii y = 3
2
iv
6
mUlTiple ChoiCe
2
1
1 2 3 4 x
y = ln
x1
3
2
iii y = 3( x + 1) + 2
f
8
6
2
y = (3(x + 1)) + 2 4
2
2.4
7 5
f 1
0
5 4 3 2 1
2
4
6
8
f 1
y
4
3
f i One-to-one
y = x +2 1
256
3 2 110
2
3
5 a i One-to-one
(3, 1)
x 1
iii y = loge
3
e i One-to-one
2.4
y
8
(4, 4)
1 B
2 E
3 C
4 D
5 A
6 C
7 A
8 C
9 D
10 D
11 C
12 B
13 A
14 D
15 A
16 E
exTended reSponSe
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
2
y = (3(x 2)) 1
f
1 a y=
852 000 x + 3 079 777 1127

426
b The inverse is not a function because it
is a one-to-many relation (does not pass

the vertical line test).
c a = 2.65
d Domain f 1 ( x ) , [ 3.61, ), range f 1 ( x ) ,
[ 2.65, )
e x = 2.87
2 a f(x) =
b
3x 2
e
f
g
4 a
(0.57, 0.57) and (0,0)

(, 2]
[0, 0.54]
( 43 , 43 )
4
c Domain = [2, 3 ], range = [2, 4]
2 120
4
b
c
d
5 a
y=x
A ( 4 , 4 )
3 3
4 x
(2, 2)
ii f 1 : [2, 43 ) R, where
f 1(x) =
2( x 4)
3
g i [ 4 , 4]
ii Inverse of f (x) is y =
2( x
4)
3
3 a (2, 0.54) and (0, 0)

b R, [0, )
y
6 x
a=3
x = 5.50
a = 4.97
i N = 2t 0 t 168
ii 4096 bacteria
iii When t = 24 then N = 224 = 16 777 216
bacteria.
2x
1
2
3
b Dom f 1 = ran f 1 = (2, )
Ran f 1 = dom f = R
f 1(2, ) R, f 1(x)
1
= loge ( x + 2)
2
c Where dom f(f (x)) = dom f (x) = (2, )

d y=
2x
x+2
2
4
6
8
10 12 t
b i This is of the form y = mk where k is
a constant. When loge(N) is plotted
against t a straight line should result.
ii
f(x) = exx2
y=x
(2, 0.54)
y=0
x
(0.54, 2)
f 1
x=0
d [0, ), R
N
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
f i [2, 3 )
y
3
2
iv
e Heart-shaped
y
10
8 y = 6 ln (|x 3|)
6
4
2
+4
Ln(N)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
32
64
96
128 160 192 t
c It takes 86.5 hours or 3 days and
14.5 hours.
257
Chapter 6
Circular (trigonometric) functions

diGital doC
doc-9200
10 Quick Questions
Chapter ContentS
6a
6B
6C
6d
6e
6F
6G
6h
6i
Revision of radians and the unit circle

Symmetry and exact values
Trigonometric equations
Trigonometric graphs
Graphs of the tangent function
Finding equations of trigonometric graphs
Trigonometric modelling
Further graphs
Trigonometric functions with an increasing trend
revision of radians and the

unit circle
6a
Units: 3 & 4
revision of basic concepts
1u
nit
nit
9. An arc length of a quarter of a circle is
1u
Angles are measured in degrees or radians.

To define a radian we can use a circle which has a radius of one unit.
This circle is called the unit circle. If we take a piece of string which is
the same length as the radius and place it along the circumference of the
circle from S to P to form an arc, then the angle formed by joining S and
P to O, the centre of the circle, measures one radian.
The radius of the circle can be any length and can still be regarded as
a unit. As long as the arc is the same length as the radius, the angle will
always measure one radian.
In general, therefore, a radian is the angle formed at the centre of any
circle by radii meeting an arc which is the same length as the radius of the
circle. Note the following.
1. One radian is written as 1c (or 1 radian can be written as 1).
2. The circumference of a circle is 2 r units in length.
3. If the radius is one unit, as in the case of the unit circle, then the
circumference is 2 units, and the angle at the centre of the circle is
2 radians.
B
4. 2 radians = 360
5. The length of the semicircle from S through A to B is half the
circumference and is units.
6. radians = 180
7. An arc length of r units subtends an angle of 1 radian.
8. An arc length of 2 r units subtends an angle of 2 radians.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
A unit circle
y
A
P
r
S x
A radian
r
2 r
units thatis, and subtends an angle of radians.
2
2
4
Chapter 6 Circular (trigonometric) functions
259
Finding the number of degrees in one radian

Since
we have
c = 180
180
= 57.296 (correct to 3 decimal places)
1c =
Converting radians to degrees

Radians are converted to degrees using the following equation.
1c =
180
Worked example 1
Convert the following to degrees, giving the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
9
a 2c
b 6.3c
c
10
think
a 1 Multiply the number of radians by
Write
180
.
2c = 2
180
360
Simplify where possible.
Write the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
= 114.59, correct to 2 decimal places.
b 1 Multiply the number of radians by
b 6.3c =
Give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
c 1 Multiply the number of radians by

2
6.3 180
= 360.9634
180
.
180
.
= 360.96
c
9 c 9 180
=
10
10
= 162
Simplify by cancelling.
Converting degrees to radians

Degrees are converted to radians using the following equation.
180 = c
1 =
c
180
Worked example 2
Convert the following to radians.

a 2
b 36.35
c 150
think
a 1 Multiply the number of degrees by
Write
.
180
a 2c = 2
=
2
260
Give answer correct to 3 decimal places.
90
180
= 0.035c
b 1 Multiply the number of degrees by

2
.
180
b 36.35 = 36.35
180
= 0.634c
Simplify.
Note: In this example it is not appropriate to
leave your answer in exact form.
c 1 Multiply the number of degrees by
.
180
c 150 = 150
180
150
180
5 c
=
6
=
Simplify, leaving your answer in exact form.
Special cases (degrees to radians)

Note the following special cases.
180 =
90 =
2
60 =
3
45 =
4
30 =
6

Basic definitions of sine, cosine and tangent

Sine and cosine
In the unit circle the vertical distance PR is defined as sine ( ) or

sin ( ) and the horizontal distance OR is defined as cosine ( ) or
cos ( ).
The coordinates of the point P are (cos ( ), sin ( )) where
can be in radians or degrees.
The x-coordinate of P is cos ( ) and the y-coordinate of P is
sin ( ).
Note the following special cases for sin and cos.

sin (0) = 0
sin = 1
2
sin () = 0
sin (2) = 0
sin (0) = 0
sin (90) = 1
sin (180) = 0
sin (270) = 1
sin (360) = 0
sin ()
x
O cos () R
sin ( ) and cos ( )
Special cases (sin, cos)
3
sin = 1
2
P (cos ( ), sin ( ))
cos (0) = 1
cos = 0
2
cos () = 1
sin (2 )
cos ()
cos (0) 0
3
)
sin (
2
3
Special cases
3
cos = 0
2
cos (2) = 1
cos (0) = 1
cos (90) = 0
cos (180) = 1
cos (270) = 0
cos (360) = 1
261
tangent
y
T
Using the unit circle, the vertical distance TS is defined as tan .

TS is the tangent to the circle which intersects with the x-axis
and TOS = .
Using Pythagoras theorem in triangle OPR (figure below),
PR2 + OR2 = OP2.
2 ( ) + cos2 ( ) = 1
So,
sin
From the diagram below, OPR is similar to OTS (angle, angle,
angle).
Special cases (tan)
tan ( )
sin ( )
un
it
sin( )
tan( ) =
cos( )
cos ( ) R
1 unit
Identities
S x
Note the following special cases for tan.

tan (0) = 0
tan (0) = 0
tan is undefined
2
tan (90) is undefined
tan () = 0
tan (180) = 0
It can be seen that tan (90) is undefined because tan (90 ) =
exercise 6a
3
tan is undefined tan (2) = 0
2
tan (270) is undefined tan (360) = 0
sin (90 ) 1
= ,, which is undefined.
cos (90 ) 0
revision of radians and the unit circle
1 We1 Convert the following to degrees, giving answers correct to 2 decimal places.
a 3c
b 5c
c 4.8c
d 2.56c
diGital doC
doc-9201
Spreadsheet
Unit circle
7 c
20
3 c
10
diGital doC
doc-9254
SkillSHEET 6.1
Changing degrees to
radians
5 c
6
correct to 2 decimal places.

b 15
g 235
c 120
h 260
d 130
i 310
3 Evaluate using a calculator. Give answers correct to 3 decimal places.

a sin (0.4)
b sin (0.8)
c cos (1.4)
e tan (2.9)
f tan (2.4)
g sin (75)
i cos (160)
j cos (185)
k tan (265)
4
Evaluate the following.
5 c
4
e 63.9
j 350
d cos (1.7)
h sin (68)
l tan (240)
b sin ()
d cos ()
e tan
tan
2
c cos (2)
g sin (90)
h sin (360)
cos (0)
k tan (270)
a sin (0)
2
cos (180)
Evaluate without using a calculator.

a sin2 (20) + cos2 (20)
b cos2 (50) + sin2 (50)
+ cos 2
d sin2 (2.5) + cos2 (2.5)
e sin 2
2
2
g 2 sin2 () + 2 cos2 ()
h 5 sin2 () + 5 cos2 ()
6 Write the following in order from smallest to largest.

a sin (35), sin (70), sin (120), sin (150), sin (240)
b cos (0.2), cos (1.5), cos (3.34), cos (5.3),
cos (6.3)
262
2 We2 Convert the following to radians. Give exact answers for a, b, c and d. Write other answers
a 5
f 78.82
tan ( )
TS PR
=
OS OR
tan( ) sin( )
=
1
cos( )
Therefore:
tan ( )
tan (240)
c sin2 () + cos2 ()
f
sin 2 + cos2
2
2
15
7 If sin ( ) = 17 and cos ( ) = 17, find tan ( ).

8 If sin (A) = 0.6 and cos (A) = 0.8, find tan (A). Draw a triangle marking in the position of angle A and
possible lengths of the sides.
9 mC
radians is equal to:
3
a 0
B 30
10 mC The expression 1
sin2
C 45
() is equal to:
B cos2 ()
a 1
C cos ()
diGital doC
doc-9255
SkillSHEET 6.2
tangent ratios
d 60
e 90
d tan ()
e tan2 ()
11 The temperature T C inside a shop t hours after 2 am is given by
T = 15 3 cos t
12
Calculate the exact temperature after 4 hours and the temperature to the nearest tenth of a degree
at 9.00 am.
6B Symmetry
exact values
and exact values

Units: 3 & 4
Using the equilateral triangle (of side length 2 units) shown at right, the
following exact values can be found.
sin (30) = sin =

6
sin (60) = sin =

3
1
2
cos (30) = cos = 23

6
1
tan (30) = tan = 3 =
6
3
3
cos (60) = cos = 12

3
tan (60) = tan = 3

3
1
1
Exact values of sine,
cosine and tangent of
30 and 60
2nd quadrant
sin ( ) = sin ( )
cos ( ) = cos ( )
tan ( ) = tan ( )
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Units: 3 & 4
1
Exact values of sine,
cosine and tangent
of 45
3rd quadrant
sin ( + ) = sin ( )
cos ( + ) = cos ( )
tan ( + ) = tan ( )
Topic:
45
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
The unit circle is symmetrical so that the magnitude of sine, cosine and
tangent at the angles shown in each quadrant are the same, but the sign varies.
In the first quadrant sin, cos and tan are all positive.
In the second quadrant only sin is positive.
In the third quadrant only tan is positive.
In the fourth quadrant only cos is positive.
This can be remembered as All Students To Class (ASTC).
45
2
2
the unit circle and symmetry

properties
1st quadrant
sin ( )
cos ( )
tan ( )
60
Using the right isosceles triangle shown, the following exact values can be
found.
sin (45) = sin = 12 = 22

4
cos (45) = cos = 12 =

4
tan (45) = tan = 1

4
30
3
2
AOS:
Do more
Interact
with the unit
circle.
Symmetrical properties
4th quadrant
sin (2 ) = sin ( )
cos (2 ) = cos ( )
tan (2 ) = tan ( )
263
Worked example 3
Without using a calculator, find the value of:

a sin (150)
tUtorial
eles-1182
Worked example 3
5
b cos .
4
think
a 1 Find the equivalent first quadrant angle.
Write
a sin (150) = sin (180 30)
As 150 is in the 2nd quadrant, sine is positive.
= sin (30)
Write the exact value.
b 1 Find the equivalent first quadrant angle using
5 4 .
=
+
4
4 4
b cos
1
2
= cos +
4
4
Decide on the sign required. As it is in the 3rd

quadrant, cosine is negative.
= cos
4
Write the exact value.
2
2
Angles are not restricted to values between 0 and 2 ; that is, the domain is not restricted to [0,2]. If an
angle is greater than 2 radians, it is necessary to subtract multiples of 2 so that the angle is within one
turn of the unit circle. Each 2 radians is a complete turn of the circle.
Worked example 4
If sin (x) = 0.6, cos (x) = 0.8, and x is in the first quadrant, find:
a sin (3 x)
b cos (4 + x).
think
a 1 Write 3 as 2 + that is, one complete
cycle and then the angle x.
Write/draW
a sin (3 x) = sin (2 + x)
= sin ( x)
As it is in the 2nd quadrant, sine is positive.
= sin (x)
Substitute the given value.
= 0.6
b 1 4 = 2 2 that is, two complete cycles
b cos (4 + x) = cos (x)
and then the angle x.

x
264
As it is in the 1st quadrant, cosine is positive.
Substitute the given value.
= 0.8
Worked example 5
If sin ( ) =
12
and < < , calculate cos ( ) and hence find tan ( ).
13
2
think
tUtorial
eles-1183
Worked example 5
Write
Method 1
1
2
3
4
5
Find the length of the third side by using

Pythagoras theorem. Let be the first quadrant
angle corresponding to .
cos ( ) =
adjacent
hypotenuse
132 = 52 + 122
13
5
cos ( ) = 13
is in the second quadrant, therefore cos ( ) is

negative.
opposite
tan ( ) =
adjacent
is in the second quadrant, therefore tan ( ) is
negative.
cos () =
tan ( ) =
tan () =
'
12
5
5
13
12
5
12
5
Method 2
1
Use the rule sin2 ( ) + cos2 ( ) = 1.
sin2 ( ) + cos2 ( ) = 1
Rearrange.
Substitute 13 for sin ( ).
= 1 144
Evaluate.
Take the square root of both sides, remembering

that the answer could be positive or negative.
cos is negative in the 2nd quadrant.
sin( )
Use tan( ) =
to find the value of tan ( ).
cos( )
cos2 ( ) = 1 sin2 ( )
12
169
25
169
cos () = 5
13
Take cos( ) = 135 as

tan( )
< <
2
12
= 13
5
13
tan () =
12
5
Method 3
12
< <
solve sin ( ) = ,
13 2
Ensure your CAS calculator is in radians mode.

Use the solve feature.
Write the exact value of in terms of sin 1.
= sin
To find cos ( ), use the answer from step 2.
cos( ) = cos sin
Record this result.
To find tan ( ), use the answer from step 2.
Write your answer in exact form.
()
1 12
13
1 12
13
1 12
13
5
13
tan( ) = tan sin

=
( ))
( ))
12
13
265
negative angles
AOS:
For negative angles, move in a clockwise direction.

In the dia
gram,
RQ = PR, and
OR = OR, so
T1S = TS
Topic:
An alternative way to find tan ( ) is :
Concept:
Units: 3 & 4
sin ( )
R S
sin ( )
Q
sin ( ) sin ( )
tan ( ) =
=
= tan ( )
cos ( ) cos ( )
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
T1
Negative angles
sin ( ) = sin ( )
cos ( ) = cos ( )
tan ( ) = tan ( )
The diagram shows 0 < <
; however, these relationships are true for all values of .

2
sin (150) = sin (150)
cos 190)
(
= cos (190)
tan 280)
(
= tan (280)
Worked example 6
Find the exact value of:

a sin (135)
b cos (240)
c tan (330).
think
a 1 sin (135) = sin (135)
a sin (135) = sin (135)
135 is in the 2nd quadrant.
= sin (180 45)
Sine is positive in the 2nd quadrant.
= sin (45)
Give the exact value.
b 1 cos (240) = cos (240)
= cos (180 + 60)
Cosine is negative in the 3rd

quadrant.
= cos (60)
135
b cos (240) = cos (240)
240 is in the 3rd quadrant.
135
2
2
c 1 tan (330) = tan (30)
266
Write/draW
240
1
2
c tan (330) = tan (30)
3
3
330
S x
Worked example 7
Find the exact value of:

4
3
a sin
5
.
6
b tan
think
Write
4 4
= sin
3
3
a 1 sin ( ) = sin ( )
a sin
= sin +
4
is in the 3rd quadrant.
3
Sine is negative in the 3rd quadrant.
= sin
3
= sin
3
=
3
2
5 5
= tan
6
6
b 1 tan ( ) = tan ( )
b tan
5
is in the 2nd quadrant.
6
= tan
Tangent is negative in the 2nd quadrant.
= tan
= tan
6
=
1
3
3
3
Complementary angles
Complementary angles add to 90 or radians. Therefore, 30 and 60 are complementary angles.

2
In other words and are complementary angles, and and are also complementary angles.
2
6
3
The sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of its complement. Therefore, sin (60) = cos (30). We say
that sine and cosine are complementary functions.
The complement of the tangent of an angle is the cotangent or cot that is, tangent and cotangent are
complementary functions (as well as reciprocal functions).
1
cot ( ) =
tan ( )
1st quadrant
2nd quadrant
3rd quadrant
4th quadrant
sin = cos( )
2
sin + = cos( )
2
sin = cos( )
sin + = cos( )
cos = sin ( )
2
cos + = sin( )
2
cos = sin( )
3
cos + = sin( )
tan = cot( )
2
tan + = cot( )
2
3
tan = cot( )
tan + = cot( )
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
267
Worked example 8
If sin ( ) = 0.4 and tan () = 0.6, find:
3
a cos +
b tan
+ .
2
tUtorial
eles-1184
Worked example 8
think
Write
a 1 Cosine and sine are complementary
a cos
functions and cosine is negative in the

second quadrant.
2
= 0.4
Substitute the given value for sin ( ).
b 1 Tangent and cotangent are complementary
functions and tangent is negative in the

4th quadrant.
3 + = ( )
cot
2
b tan
tan ( )
1
Substitute the given value for tan ().
Calculate.
= 1.667, correct to 3decimal

places
exercise 6B
diGital doC
doc-9256
SkillSHEET 6.3
rationalising the
denominator
+ = sin( )
2
0.6
Note: Give answers as surds with rational denominators.

1 We3a
Without using a calculator, find the exact values of the following.
a sin (120)
b cos (135)
c tan (330)
d cos (225)
e sin (210)
f tan (150)
g sin (315)
h cos (300)
i tan (225)
j cos (390)
k sin (405)
l tan (420)
Find the exact values of the following.
3
5
a sin
b cos
4
6
2 We3b
4
3
e sin
11
6
h cos
9
cos
4
k sin
5
4
d cos
diGital doC
doc-9201
Spreadsheet
Unit circle
g sin
j
c tan
7
tan
6
5
3
7
tan
4
13
6
7
tan
6
If sin (x) = 0.3, cos (a) = 0.5, tan (b) = 2.4 and x, a and b are in the first quadrant, find the
value of the following.
a sin ( x)
b cos ( a)
c tan (2 b)
d cos ( x)
e sin ( a)
f tan ( + b)
g sin (2 x)
h cos (2 a)
i tan ( b)
j cos (2 + x)
k sin (2 + a)
l tan (2 + b)
m sin (3 x)
n cos (3 + a)
o tan (3 b)
3 We4
268
If sin ( ) =
7
25
and cos( ) =
24
,
25
find tan () and show that sin2 () + cos2 () = 1.

< x < , find cos (x) and hence find tan (x).
2
1
3
, find sin (x) and tan (x).
, and < x <
b If cos( x ) =
2
2
5a
If sin( x ) = 12, and
We5
3
< x < 2 , find cos (x) and tan (x).
2
2
3
, find sin (x) and cos (x).
d If tan( x ) = 3, and < x <
2
6 We6
Find the exact value of the following.
a sin (30)
b cos (45)
c tan (60)
d cos (150)
e sin (120)
f tan (135)
g sin ( 225)
h cos (210)
i tan ( 240)
j cos (330)
k sin ( 315)
l tan (300)
m sin ( 420)
n cos (390)
o tan ( 405)
c If sin( x ) =
, and
Evaluate (sin + cos )2 + (sin cos )2.
Find the exact values of:

b cos
6
3
8 We7
a sin
d cos
4
g sin
6
j
5
cos
3
c tan
4
f
5
tan
6
h cos
4
4
tan
3
13
6
9
tan
4
e sin
3
k sin

Show that cos 2 + sin 2 = 1.
4
4
If sin ( ) = 0.3, cos (x) = 0.7 and tan () = 0.4, find the value of the following.
+
a sin x
b cos
c tan
2
2
2
10 We8
+
2
e sin
+ x
2
h cos
d cos
g sin
j
cos
+
2
11 mC If x =
3 3
2
1
d
2
B
e
12 mC The expression 1 sin 2
d cos 2
2
3
x
k sin
2
tan +
2
tan

2
tan
+
2
3
2
, 3 sin (2x) is equal to:

12
a cos
x
2
3 2
2
is equal to:
2

B sin
2
C sin 2
e 0
269
13
A weight on a spring moves so that its speed, v cm per second, is given by the formula:
t
v = 10 + 2 sin
6
diGital doC
doc-9257
SkillSHEET 6.4
problem solving using
trigonometry
a Find the initial speed.

b Find the speed of the weight after 5 seconds.
c What is the greatest speed that the weight can reach?
14 The height, H, in metres, that sea water reaches up a
particular tree trunk at a Caribbean resort is governed by

the equation:
t
H = 0.4 cos + 0.5,
12
where t is the number of hours past midnight. Find the
height of water up the trunk at:
a midnight
b 8 am
c 8 pm.
6C
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
trigonometric equations
From the general equation sin (x) = a, we can find an infinite number of solutions. An example of this
3
general equation is: sin ( x ) =
.
2
y
sin ( 3 )
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact with
solving equations.
sin ( 3 )
x
.
, because sin =
3
3
2
3
because sine is positive in the second quadrant.

However, we also know that sin =
3
2
2
For this equation there are two solutions between 0 and 2. They are and
.
3
3
(There are no solutions in the third and fourth quadrants because here, sine is negative.)
To find a greater number of solutions we can go around the unit circle as many times as we wish,
finding new solutions each time. Since
One of the solutions is x =
sin 2 + =
3
2
and sin 3 =
3
2
2 7
8
and
, ,
.
3 3 3
3
2
.
We can also go in a negative direction. In the domain [, ] there are only 2 solutions: and
3
3
in the domain [0, 4] there are 4 solutions:
Worked example 9
Find all solutions to the equation cos ( x ) =
2
2
think
270
in the domain [0, 2].

Write/draW
2
2
Write the question.
cos ( x ) =
Find the equivalent angle in the first quadrant,

ignoring the sign.
Basic angle is
.
4
In the 2nd and 3rd quadrants cos (x) is negative.

So write the appropriate values of x in these
quadrants.
Simplify.
2nd quadrant:
x =
4
3rd quadrant:
x = +
4
x=
x
5
3 5
,
4 4
Worked example 10
Find all solutions to the equation sin () = 0.7 in the domain [0, 4]. Give your answers correct to
4 decimal places.
think
a 1 Find the equivalent angle in the 1st quadrant,
ignoring the sign.
Write
a = sin 1(0.7)
The basic angle is:

= 0.7754.
Find in which quadrants sin () is positive.
sin () is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
Find the values of in the 1st and 2nd

quadrants.
= 0.7754, 0.7754
= 0.7754, 2.3662
Since the domain is [0, 4], we need to go

around the circle twice, so add 2 to each of
the first two solutions.
= 0.7754, 2.3662,
0.7754 + 2, 2.3662 + 2
Simplify giving answers correct to

4 decimal places.
= 0.7754, 2.3662, 7.0586, 8.6494, correct to

4 decimal places.
b 1 Ensure if your CAS calculator is in radians mode.
Use the solve function to find .
Write the answer correct to 4 decimal points.
b Solve (sin () = 0.7, ) | 0 4
= 0.7754 or = 2.3662 or = 7.0586 or

= 8.6494 (correct to 4 decimal points)
Worked example 11
Calculate all solutions to the equation 2 sin (2 ) = 3 in the domain 0 360.

think
1
Since the equation contains 2 rather than ,

multiply both end points of the domain by 2.
Simplify the trigonometric equation.
Write
0 360
0 2 720
2sin(2 ) = 3
sin (2 ) =
3
2
Find the first quadrant (basic) angle, ignoring

the negative sign.
Basic angle = 60
Sine is negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.

Find the angles in these quadrants equivalent to
the basic angle.
2 = 180 + 60, 360 60

2 = 240, 300
As the domain has been extended to 720, we

need to go around the circle two times, so add
360 to each of the two initial values.
2 = 240, 300, 240 + 360, 300 + 360

2 = 240, 300, 600, 660
Simplify.
= 120, 150, 300, 330
271
Worked example 12
Calculate the sum of the solutions between 0 and 2 for the equation sin (3x) = cos (3x).
think
Write
Adjust the domain as shown.
Divide both sides by cos (3x).
0 x 2
0 3x 6
sin (3x) = cos (3x)
sin (3 x) cos (3 x)
=
cos (3 x) cos (3 x)
tan (3x) = 1
Find the basic angle.
Basic angle =
Solve for x between 0 and 6. Note that tan is

positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
3x =
Check that all answers are between 0 and

24 8
2 (2 =
=
). They are.
12
4
Calculate the sum of the solutions.
, + , 2 + , 3 + , 4 + , 5 +
4
4
4
4
4
4
5 9 13 17 21
= ,
,
,
,
,
4 4 4
4
4
4
5 9 13 17 21
x= ,
,
,
,
,
12 12 12 12 12 12
Sum of the solutions

5 9 13 17 21
= +
+
+
+
+
12 12 12 12
12
12
66 11
=
=
12
2
General solutions of trigonometric equations
3
where x [0, 2] is x = and x = .
4
4
2
However, if a domain is not specified, there are an infinite number of solutions as multiples of 2 can be
3
added or subtracted indefinitely to and . In this situation a general solution is obtained where the
4
4
solutions are in terms of a parameter, n, where n is an integer (that is, n Z).
The general solution for the first quadrant solution x = becomes x = 2n + , where n Z.
4
4
3
3
The general solution for the second quadrant solution x =
becomes x = 2n + , where n Z.
4
4
3
can be expressed as:
Note that the general solution x = 2n +
4
x = 2n + = (2n + 1) .
4
4
Substituting different integer values of n will give specific solutions, as shown in the table below.
The solution to the equation sin ( x ) =
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video on finding
general solutions
to trigonometric
equations.
n
1
0
1
2
272
, n Z
4
7
x = 2 + =
4
4

x = 0+ =
4 4
9
x = 2 + =
4
4
17
x = 4 + =
and so on
4
4
x = 2 n +
3
, n Z
4
3 5
x = 2 +
=
4
4
3 3
x = 0+
=
4
4
3 11
x = 2 +
=
4
4
3 19
x = 4 +
=
and so on
4
4
x = 2 n +
In general:
If sin (x) = a, then x = 2n + sin 1 (a) and x = (2n + 1) sin 1 (a), where a [1, 1] and n Z.
1
If cos (x) = a, then x = 2n cos (a), where a [ 1, 1] and n Z.
If tan (x) = a, then x = n + tan 1 (a), where a R and n Z.

Worked example 13
Find the general solution of the equation 2 cos ( x ) 1 = 0.

Hence, find all the solutions for x [2, 2].
think
tUtorial
eles-1215
Worked example 13
Write
Write down the general solution for cos (x) = a.
Substitute a =
1
2
into the general

equation and evaluate cos
that it is an exact angle.
recognising
x = 2n cos 1 (a)
x = 2n cos 1
( )
1
2
x = 2n
and x = 2n , n Z.
4
4
Write the two separate solutions and specify

n Z.
x = 2n +
Note the answer from step 2 could be further

simplified by combining the two terms. A CAS
calculator will give the answer in this form.
x=
Substitute n = 1, n = 0 and n = 1 into each of

the general solutions.
n = 1: x =
Write down the solutions for x [2, 2].
x=
8n (8n 1)
=
,nZ
4
4
7
9
and x =
4
4
n = 0: x = and x =
4
4
7
9
and x = 2 + =
n = 1: x = 2 =
4
4
4
4
7
7
, ,
4 4 4
Worked example 14
Find the general solution of the equation 2 sin (2 x ) =

domain 0 x 2.
think
3 and hence find all solutions for x in the
Write
Ensure your CAS calculator is in radian mode.

Use the solve feature of the calculator to find x.
Solve (2 sin (2 x) = 3 , x)
Write the general solution.
x=
Substitute n = 0, n = 1 and n = 2 into each

formula.
6
( 3n + 2 )
x=
3
2
n = 0: x =
or x =
3
6
7
5
n = 1: x =
or x =
6
3
11
8
n = 2: x =
or x =
6
3
State the values of x for 0 x 2 in exact form.
For 0 x 2, x =
( 6n 1) or
2 5 5 11
, , ,
3 6 3 6
273
Alternate methods
5 Using a CAS calculator: specify this domain in
the solve operation.
6
Write your answer in exact form.
Solve (2 sin2 x) =
3 , x)
0 x 2
x=
5
11
2
5
or x =
or x =
or x =
3
6
3
6
Worked example 15
Find the general solution of the equation sin (3x) = cos (3x) and hence find all solutions
for x in the domain 0 x 2.
think
1
Divide both sides by cos (3x).
Write
sin (3 x ) = cos (3 x )
sin (3 x )
=1
cos (3 x )
tan (3x) = 1
Write down the general solution for tan (3x) = a.
3x = n + tan 1 (a)
Substitute a = 1 into the general equation and
evaluate tan 1 (1), recognising that it is an exact

angle.
3x = n + tan 1 (1)
3 x = n +
4
(4 n + 1)
x=
, n Z
12
Divide each side by 3 to solve for x.

4
To find the solutions in the domain

0 x 2, substitute n = 0, 1, 2 . . . into each
of the general solutions.
n = 1:
n = 2:
n = 3:
n = 4:
n = 5:
Write down the simplified solutions for

0 x 2.
12
5
x=
12
9
x=
12
13
x=
12
17
x=
12
21
x=
12
n = 0: x =
x=
5 3 13 17 7
, , ,
,
,
12 12 4 12 12 4
Worked example 16
Find the solutions of the equation cos ( x ) + cos (3 x ) = 12 , x [ 2 , 2 ].

think
274

Use the solve feature, specifing the domain.
Write the answers in numerical form.
Write
1
solve (cos (x) + cos (3x) = , x)
2
2 x 2
x = 5.6549 or x = 2.0944
or x = 0.6283
or x = 0.6283
or x = 2.0944
or x = 56549
exercise 6C
1 We9
Find all solutions to the equations below in the domain [0, 2].
a cos ( ) = 0
b sin( ) =
d sin ( ) = 1
e cos( ) =
1
2
e sin ( ) =
cos( ) =
sin ( ) =
1
2
3
2
Find all the values of between 0 and 360 for which:

1
a sin ( ) = 1
b cos( ) = 2
d cos ( ) = 1
3
2
1
2
3 We10 For each equation below, find all the values of x between 0 and 4. Give answers correct to
4 decimal places.
a cos (x) = 0.6591
c cos (x) = 0.48
b sin (x) = 0.9104

d sin (x) = 0.371
4 Find all the values of x between 0 and 360 for which:

a sin (x) = 0.2686
c sin (x) = 0.5432
diGital doC
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Spreadsheet
trig equations
b cos (x) = 0.7421

d cos (x) = 0.1937
Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.

5
Find the solutions to the following equations in the domain 0 x 2.

b 3 cos (x) = 0
a 2 sin (x) = 1
c 2sin ( x ) =
2 cos( x ) = 1
6 We11 Find the solutions to the following equations in the domain 0 x 360.
Give exact answers where possible, otherwise give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
b 2 sin (2x) = 1
c 2 cos(3 x ) =
2
d 2sin(3 x ) = 3
e sin (3x) = 0.1254
f 3 cos (2x) = 0.5787
1
2 cos( x ) = 0.2751
h
g 4 sin x = 0.913
a cos (2x) = 1
( )
2
7 Find all the solutions between 0 and 2 to the following equations. Give exact answers where possible,
otherwise give answers correct to 4 decimal places.
a 4 sin (x) + 2 = 6
b 3 cos (x) 3 = 0
c cos
x
d sin + 5 = 5.32
e 2 sin (3x) 5 = 4
g 2 cos(2 x ) + 3 = 0
1
3
+ 4 = 4.21
2 cos (3 x ) + 2 = 3
sin 2 x 1 = 0.8039
8 We12 Calculate the sum of the solutions between 0 and 2 for each of the following equations. Give
exact answers for questions a to d. Otherwise give answers correct to 4decimal places.
a sin (x) = cos (x)
3 sin (3 x ) = cos(3 x )
b sin (2x) = cos (2x)
c sin (2 x ) =
e sin (3x) + 2 cos (3x) = 0
3 cos (2 x )
sin (x) + 3 cos (x) = 0
9 A particle moves in a straight line so that its distance, x metres, from a point O is given by the
equation x = 3 + 4 sin (2t), where t is the time in seconds after the particle begins to move.
a Find the distance from O when the particle begins to move.
b Find the time when the particle first reaches O. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Find the general solution of the following equations. Hence, find all solutions for
x 2 for each equation.
10 We13
2
a 2 cos( x ) 3 = 0
b tan ( x ) =
1
3
2 sin ( x ) 1 = 0
11 We14 Find the general solution of the equation 2 sin (2x) 1 = 0. Hence, find all solutions for
x .
12 Find the general solution of the equation 2 cos (3x) 1 = 0. Hence, find all solutions for x .
275
13 We15 Find the general solutions for each of the following equations. Hence, find all solutions for
x [0, 2].
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doc-9203
WorkSHEET 6.1
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
b sin (2x) = cos (2x)
3 sin ( x ) = cos( x )
14 We16 Find the solutions of the equation sin (2 x ) + sin (3 x ) =
c
3
2
3 sin (3 x ) = cos(3 x )
, x [ , ].
6d trigonometric graphs
Graphs of the sine and cosine functions
The graph of the function f (x) = sin (x) is drawn below. It is drawn over the domain [2, 2]. The graph
repeats itself every 2 radians. We say that it has a period of 2. Half the distance between the maximum
and minimum values is 1 so we say that the amplitude is 1.
It is possible to take any value of x for the function f (x) = sin (x), so the domain of the whole
function is R.
The range is [1, 1]. The graph is shown below.
y
1
0.5
3
2 0
22
2
0.5
2 x
y
1
Units: 3 & 4
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Interact with
transformations of
the sine graph.
f(x) = sin (x), 2 x 2
The graph of the function f (x) = cos (x) is the same shape
as the sine graph, but the graph has been translated to a different
position. The period is also 2. The amplitude is 1, the domain is
R and the range is [1, 1]. The graph is shown at right.
0.5
3
2 0
22
2
0.5
2 x
1
f(x) = cos (x), 2 x 2
dilation
y
If we change the amplitude, the distance between the maximum value
2
and the minimum value also changes.
The graph of f (x) = 2 sin (x) is shown at right. The amplitude is 2. The
1
period is still 2. The domain is R and the range is [2,2].
0
3
This graph is a dilation of the basic graph of f (x) = sin (x) by a factor
2 x
2
2
1
of 2 from the x-axis. It has been stretched vertically. Generally, if
f (x) = a sin (x) or f (x) = a cos (x), a is the dilation factor in the direction
2
of the y-axis. The amplitude of the graph is a.
f(x) = 2 sin (x), 0 x 2
If we change the coefficient of x, the period of the graph changes. The
graph of f (x) = cos (2x) from 0 to 2 is shown at right. The amplitude is 1
and the period is . This can be found by dividing 2 by the coefficient of x.
y
2
1
= . The domain is R. The range is [ 1, 1].

In this case
2
0.5
The x-intercepts can be found by solving the equation cos(2x) = 0.
0
3
5
3
7 2 x
3 5 7
4 2
2
4
4
4
2x = , , ,
0.5
2 2 2 2
so
x=
3 5 7
, , ,
4 4 4 4
1
f(x) = cos (2x), 0 x 2
1
This graph is a dilation of the basic graph of f (x) = cos (x) by a factor of 2 from the y-axis. The period
has been halved or the graph has been squashed up.
The decimal approximation for these solutions can be found using a graphing calculator. The graphics
calculator can also be used to check the number and approximate value of the solutions when solving
trigonometric equations.
276
Generally, if f (x) = sin (nx) or f (x) = cos (nx), the graph is dilated
1
2
by a factor of from the y-axis. The period of the graph is
.
n
n
The graph of f (x) = 4 sin (3x) is shown at right. It is drawn from
2
0 to 2. The amplitude is 4 and the period is
. The domain is R.
3
y
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
f (x) = 4 sin (3x), 0 x 2
The x-intercepts are found by solving 4 sin (3x) = 0.

So
sin (3
x) = 0
3x = 0, , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
2
4 5
x = 0, ,
,,
,
, 2
3 3
3 3
2 x
This is an example of a sine graph dilated in both x and y directions. It has a dilation factor of 4 from
1
the x-axis, and of 3 from the y-axis.

Worked example 17
State the period and the amplitude of the graphs of each of the following functions.
a y = 2sin
( x)
1
4
b y=
1
cos(2x )
3
think

2
Find the period of the graph, using the

formula:
2
.
Period =
n
State the amplitude it is the coefficient in
front of the sine function.

2
Find the period of the graph.
State the amplitude. Remember that the

amplitude is always positive, so we need
only the magnitude of the coefficient.
Write
a y = 2sin
( x)
1
4
2
Period =
, n = 14
n
2
4
So period = 1 = 2 = 8
1
4
Amplitude = 2
b y=
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1
cos(2 x )
3
2
, n = 2
n
2
So period =
=
2
Period =
Amplitude =
Units: 3 & 4
Do more
Interact with
transformations of
the cosine graph.
1
3
Worked example 18
Sketch the graph of y = 12 sin (3 ) for one complete cycle stating the amplitude, period and range.
think
1
Write the equation.
Find the period of the graph.
State the amplitude.
Write/draW
1
y = 2 sin (3 )
2
,n=3
n
2
So period =
3
Period =
Amplitude =
1
2
277
Sketch the basic sine shape (one full cycle)

2
1
with the period of
and the amplitude of 2 .
3
1
The scale on the x-axis should be 4 of a
period (to reflect the 4 quadrants),
2
2
= .
4 =
so it is
3
12 6
The minimum value of the function is
1
2
y
1
2
1
2
Range:[
and
, 2 ]
the maximum value is 2, so state the range.
reflection
If the coefficient of the function is negative, the graph is turned upside down, that is, reflected in the
x-axis. This does not alter the amplitude, which is always positive.
y = f (x) is the image of f (x) when reflected in the x-axis.
y = f (x) is the image of f (x) when reflected in the y-axis.
The graph of f (x) = 4 sin (3x) is shown below. You will notice that it is the graph of f (x) = 4 sin (3x)
turned upside down. (The graph of f (x) = 4 sin (3x) is shown on page 277.)
y
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
2

3 3
2 x
f (x) = 4 sin (3x), 0 x 2
2
. The domain is R. The range is [4, 4].
3
2
4 5
,,
,
, 2 .
The x-intercepts are 0, ,
3 3
3 3
1
This graph has a dilation factor of 4 from the x-axis and of 3 from the y-axis.
If the function f (x) = 4 sin (3x) is reflected in the x-axis, the result is f (x) = 4 sin (3x). If we
reflected the graph of f (x) = 4 sin (3x) in the y-axis, the result would still be f (x) = 4 sin (3x), since
sin(3x) = sin (3x).
If we reflect f (x) = 2 cos (3x) in the x-axis, the result is f (x) = 2 cos (3x), but if we reflect it in the y-axis,
the graph does not change. This is because f (x) = 2 cos (3x) is symmetrical about the y-axis.
Check this on a CAS calculator.
The amplitude is 4 and the period is
translation
If we add a constant to the function, the graph is moved up or down
and is said to be translated parallel to the y-axis. The number that is
being added becomes the median value of the function.
The graph of f (x) = 3 cos (2x) + 1 is shown at right. Compared to
f (x) = 3 cos (2x), the graph is shifted 1 unit up. The amplitude is 3,
the period is , the domain is R and the range is [2, 4].
The x-intercepts are found by solving 3 cos (2x) + 1 = 0.
So cos2 x =
1
3
(cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and 3).
()
The basic angle is cos 1 3 = 1.231c.

Remember: Cosine is negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
2x = 1.231, + 1.231, 3 1.231, 3 + 1.231
2x = 1.911, 4.373, 8.194, 10.656 x = 0.955, 2.186, 4.097, 5.328
1
278
y
4
3
2
1
1
2 x
2
f (x) = 3 cos (2x) + 1, 0 x 2
If we add a constant to x, the graph is translated parallel to the x-axis,

y
that is, left or right.
1
The graph of f ( x ) = sin x is the graph of f (x) = sin (x) translated

0.5
units to the right.

0
5
4
2 x
4
4
0.5
0.5
The graph of f ( x ) = sin x + is the graph of f (x) = sin (x)
4
1
translated units to the left.
4
The graph of f ( x ) = sin x +

is shown at right. It is drawn
f ( x ) = sin x + , x 2
4
4
between [, 2].
The amplitude is 1, the period is 2, the domain is R and the range This graph is a translation of the
is [1, 1]. The y-intercept occurs when x = 0.
basic graph of the function
f ( x ) = sin( x ) units parallel to

.
So y = sin 0 + =
4
4
2
the x-axis in a negative direction.

= 0.
The x-intercepts occur when sin x +
3 7
= 0, , 2 x = ,
,
4
4 4 4
3
Note: The graph of sin (x) is the same as the graph of cos ( x ) or cos ( x + ). That is, the sine
2
2
3
graph can be turned into the cosine graph by a translation of units left or
units right. The cosine
2
2
graph can be turned into the sine graph by the opposite translations.
So x +
If we take a general trigonometric function f (x) = a sin n(x b) + c, it has an amplitude of a,

2
a period of
, a horizontal translation of b units and a vertical translation of cunits.
n
y
The graph of f ( x ) = 2cos3 x 1 is shown at right for 0 x 2.
3
1
2
The amplitude is 2, the period is , the domain is R and the range
3
is [ 3, 1].
0
1
This graph is a dilation of the basic graph of f (x) = cos (x) by a factor
1
of 2 from the x-axis and a factor of 3 from the y-axis, along with a
translation of units to the right and 1 unit down.

3
2 x
2
3
Worked example 19
Sketch the graph of y = 5cos x + + 5 for 0 x 2 ; state the period and amplitude.
4
think
Write/draW
Write the equation.
y = 5cos x + + 5
Determine the period.

(The coefficient of x is 1.)
Period =
State the amplitude.
Amplitude = 5
Using a pencil, sketch a basic cosine shape with

the period and amplitude above.
2
= 2
1
y
5
y = 5 cos (x)
2 x
279
Apply the horizontal translation of + (the + sign

means to the left). Again, use pencil. 4
5
3
7
4 2 4 2
Apply the vertical translation of +5 (+ means up).
y = 5 cos (x)
5
6
5 y = 5 cos (x + 4 )
y = 5 cos (x + 4 ) + 5
10
+5
+5
5
+5
+5
y = 5 cos (x + 4 )
+5
3
7
2 4
2 x
5
7
y
10
Erase the pencilled stages.
y = 5 cos (x + 4 ) + 5
2 x
trigonometric graphs
exercise 6d
diGital doC
doc-9258
SkillSHEET 6.5
period and amplitude
of sine and cosine
graphs
1 We17
State the period and amplitude of the graphs of each of the following.
a y = cos (x)
b y = sin (x)
c y = 4 sin (x)
1
d y = 3 cos( x )
g y = 3sin
j
( x)
1
2
e y = 2 cos (3x)
h y = 2cos
( x)
1
3
y = 3 sin (2x)
y=
1
cos(2 x )
3
y = 4 sin (3x)
Sketch the graphs of each of the following for one complete cycle and state the amplitude,
the period and the range.
2 We18
a
diGital doC
doc-9204
Spreadsheet
Sine graphs
diGital doC
doc-9205
Spreadsheet
Cosine graphs
280
y = 3 cos( )
d y = 2 cos (3 )
g y = 4sin
( )
1
2
b y = 4 sin ( )
e y=
1
2
cos(3 )
h y = 3cos
( )
c y = 3 sin (2 )
f
y=
1
3
sin(2 )
1
3
Sketch the graph of the function f:R R where f (x) = 4 cos (3 ) for 0 2. State the
amplitude, period and range.
Sketch the graph of the function f:R R where y = 2 sin (2x) for x . State the amplitude,
period and range.
From the basic graphs of y = sin (x) and y = cos (x), state the horizontal translation and the vertical
translation for each of the following.
+1
+3
a y = sin x +
b y = cos x
3
2
1
c y = 3cos x
d y = 2sin x +
2
3
4
6 Sketch the graphs of the following for one complete cycle stating the amplitude, the period and the range.
a y = sin (x) + 1
b y = cos (x) 1
c y = 2 cos (x) 2
d y = 2 sin (x) + 3
e y = sin (3x) 1
f y = cos (2x) + 1
g y = 3 cos (3x) 2
j
y = 2 cos
( x) 1
y = 2 sin(2 x ) + 3
y = 3sin
( x) + 4
1
2
1
3
7 We19 Sketch the graphs of the following for 0 2. State the period and amplitude.
d y = 2sin
+1
g y = cos3
6
j
f y = 3cos3 +
1
i y = 2sin
e y = 2sin 2 +
2
h y = 2sin 2
a y = sin
c y = 3cos
b y = cos +
y = cos 2 ( ) + 1
Write down the amplitude, period and range of the following graphs.
8
a
y
4
2
3
0

4
2 4
4
2
3 x
y
1
0.5
2
y
4
3
2
1
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
1
y
3
x
2 1 0
2
x
7
h
y
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
1
1.5
y
1
0.5
2 x
0.5
a y = cos (x)
d y = 2 cos (x)
g y = 4 sin (2x) + 1
j
y = 4 sin (3 (x + )) + 1
3 x
State the maximum and minimum values for each of the following.
b y = sin (x)
e y = 2 cos (3x)
h y = cos (4x) 2
4 x
0.5
0
1
y
2
4
c
y
4
k y = 2 sin (3( x + 2 )) + 2
c y = 3 sin (x)
f y = 3 sin (2x)
i y = 2 cos (x ) 3
l
y = 3 cos (2( x 2 )) 4
281
10 Sketch the graphs of the following over the domain [0, 2] and state the period, amplitude and range.
a y = cos (x)
d y=
cos (x)
g y = 1 4 sin (x)
j
b y = sin (x)
e y=
c y = 2 sin (x)
cos (2x)
h y = 2 cos (2x) 2
y = sin (3x)
y=
y = 2 sin (x 2)
1
2
cos3( x + ) + 1
to the left, what is the new equation?

3
12 If the graph of y = 2 cos (3x) 2 is translated to the right and 3 units up, what is the new equation?
4
13 If the graph of y = 3 sin (x ) + 1 is translated to the left and 3 units down, what is the new equation?
3
14 The level of the water in the Banksia River was measured at hourly intervals from midnight and the
results recorded. The graph below right shows the results.
Find:
y
a the amplitude
3
b the period
2
c the maximum height of the river
d the minimum height of the river
1
e at what times the river has maximum height
f at what times the river has a minimum height
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 x
g the equation of the curve which is of the form
Hours
y = A sin (ax) + B.
Water level
11 If the graph of y = sin (x) + 1 is translated
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact with
transformations of
the tangent graph.
6e
The graph of the function f (x) = tan (x) is shown at right.

x = 2
2, 2]. The graph repeats itself
It is drawn over the domain [
y
x = 32
x = 2 x = 32
every radians, so its period is . There are vertical asymptotes
3
through half the period,
2
3
that is, at x = and , so the function is not
1
2
2
defined at these points. Generally, the vertical
0 3
2 32 2
2 x
2
2
1
asymptotes are given by the equation x = (2 k + 1) ,
2
2
where k Z (that is, k = 0, 1, 2 ). Hence, the domain
3
of the tangent function is R \ {x : x = (2 k + 1) , k Z}.

2
Unlike sine and cosine functions, the tangent graph does not
have an amplitude; it extends infinitely up and down, so its range is R.
dilation
Units: 3 & 4
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of this concept.
282
Compared to f (x) = tan (x), the graph of f (x) = a tan (x) is dilated by a
factor of a from the x-axis. Vertical dilation does not affect the period,
domain or range, or the position of the asymptotes or the x-intercepts. In
fact, its effect can be seen only when two graphs are sketched on the same
set of axes. The diagram at right shows the graphs of f (x) = tan (x) and
f (x) = 2 tan (x) over the domain [0, 2]. The graph of f (x) = 2 tan (x) is the
dilation of the basic tangent graph by a factor of 2 from the x-axis. It has
been stretched vertically.
Compared to f (x) = tan (x), the graph of f (x) = tan (nx) is dilated by
1
from the y-axis. Horizontal dilation affects the period
a factor of
n
and domain of the graph, as well as the position of the asymptotes and
x-intercepts.
y = 2 tan (x)
y = tan (x)
y
3
2
1
0
1
32
2
3
x = 2 x = 32
The period of f (x) = tan (nx) is
and the general equation of the

n
, where k Z.
2n
The domain changes to R \ {x : x = (2 k + 1) , k Z}

2n
accordingly. (The range is not affected by the value of n.)
At right is the graph of f (x) = tan (2x). This graph is a
1
dilation of the basic f (x) = tan (x) graph by a factor of 2 from
the y-axis; its period is . As the period has been halved, the
2
resultant graph is compressed horizontally.
x = 4
asymptotes is x = (2 k + 1)
x = 34 x = 54 x = 74
2
1
0
1
2 x
3
7
2 4
2
3
reflection
x = 2 x = 32
If the coefficient a in f (x) = a tan (x) is negative, the graph is reflected in

the x-axis. Reflecting the graph does not affect its period, domain or range,
or the position of the asymptotes. At right is the graph of
f (x) = 2 tan (x). This graph is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph
f (x) = 2 tan (x), shown previously.
translation
2
1
0
1
2
3
If a constant is added to the function, the graph is translated vertically, that

y
is, up or down, parallel to the y-axis. Thus, the graph of f (x) = tan (x) + c
x = 2 x = 32
3
represents a translation of the graph f (x) = tan (x) by c units in the y direction.
2
If c > 0, the graph is shifted up, and if c < 0, it is shifted down. Vertical
translation does not affect the period, domain or range, or the position of the
1
asymptotes. The axial intercepts, however, will change. The diagram at right
0 3 2 x
shows the graph of y = tan (x) + 2. It is translated 2 units up, compared to the
2
2
1
basic graph of y = tan (x).
If a constant is added to x, the graph is translated horizontally,
2
that is, right or left, parallel to the x-axis. Thus, the graph of
3
f (x) = tan (x b), represents a translation of the graph
f (x) = tan (x) by b units in the x direction. If b > 0, the graph is shifted to
the right, and if b < 0, it is shifted to the left. Horizontal translation has no effect on the period or
range, but it does affect the domain and the position of the asymptotes and the axial intercepts.
The diagram below shows the graph of y = tan ( x + ) translated units to the left, compared to the basic
4
4
graph of y = tan (x).
y
x = 54
x = 4
3
2
1
0
1
3
7
2 4
2 x
Having considered each transformation individually, we can now summarise them as follows.
Compared to the basic graph of y = tan (x), the graph of y = a tan [n(x b)] + c is:
dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis
1
dilated by a factor of from the y-axis (and hence has a period of n )
n
reflected in the x-axis if a < 0
translated c units vertically (up if c > 0 and down if c < 0)
translated b units horizontally (to the right if b > 0 and to the left if b < 0).
283
Worked example 20
x
State the period and sketch the graph of y = 2 tan , showing one full cycle.
4
think
1
Write the equation.
Find the period.
Write/draW
x
y = 2 tan
4
1
Period = ; n = 4
n
4
So, period = 1 = = 4
1
4
Sketch the tangent shape with a period of 4.

The graph is dilated by a factor of 2 parallel
to the y-axis, so in comparison to the graph of
y = tan (x), each y-coordinate will be doubled.
The vertical asymptote goes through half of the
period, so it is at x = 2.
x = 2
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
Worked example 21
State the period and sketch the graph of y = tan 2 ( x

think
1
Write the equation.
Find the period.
Using pencil, sketch the basic tangent shape
with a period of .
2
(Since 0 x , we need to show two cycles.)
Remember that the asymptotes are at the middle
of each cycle (that is, halfway through the
period).
) + 1 for 0 x .
4
Write/draW
y = tan 2 x + 1
Period = ; n = 2. so period =
n
2
y
x = 4 x = 34
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
Since we need a negative tangent graph, reflect

the graph in the x-axis.
x = 4 x = 34
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
284
tUtorial
eles-1216
Worked example 21
Translate the graph
units to the right.

4
y
3
x = 4 x = 2
x = 34
1
0
1
2
3
6
Translate the graph 1 unit up.
x = 2 x =
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
7
Erase the pencilled stages to see the final graph.
x = 2 x =
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
exercise 6e
1 We20 State the period and sketch the graphs of each of the following, showing one full cycle.
a y = 4 tan (x)
b y = tan (2x)
c y = tan (3x)
d y = 2 tan (4x)
( x)
x
y = 2 tan
3
x
g y = 3tan
h y = 5 tan (2x)
y=
y=
y = tan
1
4
1
tan(4 x )
2
( x)
1
tan 12
3
2 For each of the following, state:

ii the transformations, compared to the basic graph y = tan (x).
i the period
a y = 2 tan (3x)
d
y = tan
1
2
tan 3 x +
y = 2tan x + + 5
g y=
j
( x) 2
1
4
b y = tan (4x) + 1
e y=
+
2
1
x
h y = 6 2 tan
3
5 tan x
c y = 3 tan (2x) 4
f
i
y = tan 2 x
1
y = tan 4 x 3
12
285
3 We21 State the period and sketch the graphs of each of the following for 0 x .
a y = tan (x) + 2
d y = 2tan x
1
g y = 2 tan
j
4
1
x
f y = 3tan + 1 2
6
3

tan 4 x + + 1
i y=
4
12

c y = tan x +
b y = tan (2x) 3
x 1
2
1
y = tan 4 ( x )

h y = 2tan 2 x +
8

1
1
y = 3 tan 2 x 2
Finding equations of
6F
interaCtiVitY
int-0251
Sometimes it is necessary to be able to find the equation of a trigonometric function from a graph. The
following worked examples illustrate how this can be done.
Worked example 22
The equation of the following graph is in the form y = a sin (nx).

Find the values of a and n. Hence, find the equation of the
function.
y
2
1
0
1
2
think
Write
State the amplitude of the graph.
Amplitude = 2
The coefficient a represents the amplitude. Since

the graph is not reflected in the x-axis,
a is positive.
The graph is not reflected, so a = 2.
State the period of the graph (it is the length of

one full curve).
Period = 4.
Use the formula for the period to find the value

ofn.
Period =
Substitute the values of a and n into

y = a sin (nx) to find the equation of the function.
2
2
, so
= 4 ;
n
n
2 1
n=
=
4 2
1
y = a sin (nx); a = 2, n =
2
1
y = 2sin 2 x
( )
Worked example 23
The graph shown is a trigonometric function of the form

y = a sin (nx) + c. Find the values of a, n and c.
Hence, find the equation of the function.
286
y
2
1
1 0 4
2
3
4
2 x
think
Write
The amplitude (a) is half the distance between

the maximum and minimum values.
y = a sin (nx) + c
1
Amplitude a = (2 + 4) = 3
2
The period is the interval from one point on the

graph to the next point where the graph begins
2
to repeat itself. The period is .
n
The period is
The line through the centre of the graph

is y = 1, so the graph has been translated
down 1 unit.
c = 1
So the equation is y = 3 sin (2x) 1.
2
= , so n = 2.
n
Worked example 24
This graph is a trigonometric function of the form y = c + a cos (nx). Find the values of a, n and c.
Hence, write the equation of the function.
y
3
2
1
0
1
think
1
The amplitude (a) is half the distance between

the maximum and minimum values.
6 x
Write
y = c + a cos (nx)
1
Amplitude a = 2 (3 + 1)
=2
a = 2
We know that the graph is a cosine graph so it

must be inverted; that is, a is negative.
The period is the amount of time taken to

complete the pattern once.
Period =
c represents the vertical translation. This graph

has been translated up one unit.
c=1
The equation of this trigonometric function is in

the form y = c + a cos (nx).
y = c + a cos(nx )
2
=6
n
2
=n
6
so n =
3
c = 1, a = 2, n =
y = 1 2 cos x
3
287
exercise 6F
1 We22 The equations of the following graphs are of the form y = a sin (nx). Find the values of a and n.
Hence, find the equation of each function.

a
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Spreadsheet
Sine graphs
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Spreadsheet
Cosine graphs
y
3
2
1
2
1
0
1
2
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
1
2
2 The equations of the following graphs are of the form y = a cos (nx). Find the values of a and n. Hence,
find the equation of each function.

a
0
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 x

1
3 We23 The equations of the following graphs are of the form y = a sin (nx) + c. Find the values of a, n,
and c and hence write the equation of the function.

a
y
1.5
y
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8x
1
2
1.0
0.5
0
2 x
3
4
5
4 The equations of the following graphs are of the form y = a cos [n(x )]. Find the values of a, n and .
Hence, write the equation of the function.

a
y
4
y
5
2
0
2
5 The equations of the following graphs are of the form y = a sin [n(x + )] + c. Find the values of a, n,
and c. Hence, write the equation of the function.

a
y
1
0
1
2
5

3 2 3 6
2
3
288
7
4
3
5 11
6 3 2 3 6
2 x
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
6 We24 The equations of the following graphs are of the form y = c + a cos (nx). Find the values of a, n
and c. Hence, write the equation of the function.

a
y
4
3
2
1
y
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12x
1
7 mC If the amplitude is 2, the period is 6 and there is a vertical translation of 2, then the equation
of the form y = a sin (nx) + b is:

a y = 2 sin (6x) 2
C y = 2 2sin
B y = 6 sin (2x) 2
x
3
x 2
y = 2sin x 2
e y = 2sin
6
3
8 mC If the period is , the range is [ 2, 4], and the horizontal translation is , the equation for the
4
trigonometric function of the form y = a cos [n(x + )] + b is:

C y = 2cos 3 x + + 1
a y = 3 2cos x + + 1
B y = 3cos 2 x + 1

4
4
4
d
d y = 2cos 3 x + + 1

4
6G
e y = 3cos 2 x

+1
4
trigonometric modelling
In real life there are many examples of periodic behaviour. Sine and cosine functions such as
y = a sin [n(x b)] + c and y = a cos [n(x b)] + c are often used to model this behaviour.
diGital doC
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WorkSHEET 6.2
eleSSon
eles-0092
trigonometric
modelling
Worked example 25
While out in his trawler John North, a fisherman,

notes that the height of the tide in the harbour
can be found by using the equation:
h = 5 + 2 cos t ,
6
where h metres is the height of the tide and
t is the number of hours after midnight.
a What is the height of the high tide and
when does it occur in the first 24 hours?
b What is the difference in height between
high and low tides?
c Sketch the graph of h for 0 t 24.
d John North knows that his trawler needs a depth of at least 6 metres to enter the harbour. Between
what hours is he able to bring his boat back into the harbour?
think
a 1 Write the given equation.
For high tide, find the maximum value of h.
Write/draW

t
6
a h = 5 + 2 cos
For maximum h,
cos t = 1
6
So h = 5 + 2 1 = 7
Alternatively, maximum value =
median + amplitude so h = 5 + 2 = 7.
289
cos t = 1, so
6
t = 0, 2 , 4 , . . .
6
t = 0, 12, 24, . . .
Find when high tide occurs.
A high tide of height 7 m occurs at midnight,

noon the next day, and midnight the next night.
b 1 Find the minimum value of h.
b For minimum h,
cos t = 1
6
So h = 5 + 2 1 = 3
Alternatively, min. value =
median amplitude so h = 5 2 = 3.
Find the difference between high and low

tides.
c Use the information on the previous page to
sketch the graph. Amplitude = 2 vertical shift = 5,

Period = 12.
The difference between high and low

tides is 7 3 = 4 metres.
c
h
6
4
2
0 2 4 6 8 1012 14 16 18 202224 t
d 1 Find t using the equation when h = 6.
d When h = 6,
5 + 2cos t = 6
6
2cos t = 1
6
cos t =
6
1
2
5 7 11
t= ,
,
,
....
6
3 3 3
3
t = 2, 10, 14, 22, . . .
3
Write the answer in words.
exercise 6G
From the graph we can see that John North can

bring his boat back into harbour before 2 am,
between 10 am and 2 pm and between 10 pm
and 2 am the next morning.
1 We25 Competition is severe, so Fred Greenseas decides that he will catch more fish in an inlet several
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Function grapher
290
kilometres east of the place where John North fishes. There is a sandbar at the entrance to the inlet and
t
the depth of water in metres on the sandbar is modelled by the function d (t ) = 6 + 2.5sin
where t
6
is the number of hours after 12 noon.
a
b
c
d
e
What is the greatest depth of the water on the sandbar and when does it first occur?
How many hours pass before there is once again the maximum depth of water on the sandbar?
What is the least amount of water on the sandbar?
Sketch the graph of d for 0 t 24.
Fred Greenseas needs a depth of 7.25 metres to cross the sandbar. Between what hours is he able
to enter and leave the inlet?
2 A student wanting to catch fish to sell at a local market on Sunday has discovered that more fish are in
the water at the end of the pier when the depth of water is greater than 8.5 metres.
The depth of the water (in metres) is given by d = 7 + 3sin t , where t hours is the number of
6
hours after midnight on Friday.
a
b
c
d
e
What is the maximum and minimum depth of the water at the end of the pier?
Sketch a graph of d against t from midnight on Friday until midday on Sunday.
When does the water first reach maximum depth?
Between what hours should the student be on the pier in order to catch the most fish?
If the student can fish for only two hours at a time, when should she fish in order to sell the
freshest fish at the market from 10.00 am on Sunday morning?
3 The mean daily maximum temperature in Tarabon, an experimental town in a glass dome, is modelled
m
by the function T (m) = 18 + 7cos
, where T is in degrees Celsius and m is the number of
6
months after 1 January 2007.
a What was the mean daily maximum temperature in March 2007, and in August 2007?
b What is the highest mean daily maximum temperature in Tarabon? In which months does it
occur?
c What would the mean daily maximum temperature be in February 2008?
d If the pattern continued, how many months would pass before the mean daily maximum
temperature would be the same again as it was in February 2008?
4 The height above the ground of the middle of a skipping rope as it is being turned in a childs game is
found by using the equation h = a sin (nt) + c, where t is the number of seconds after the rope has begun to
turn. During the game, the maximum height the rope reaches is 1.8metres and it takes 2 seconds for the
rope to complete a full turn.
a Find the values of a, n and c and hence write the equation of h in terms of t.
b Sketch the graph of h against t for 0 t 5.
c After how much time from the beginning of the turn will the rope be 25 cm above the ground?
Give your answer correct to the nearest tenth of a second.
y
5 The graph at right shows the path of a small lizard as
it runs over a hill.

a Calculate the height of the hill, in metres, and
hence find the amplitude of the trigonometric
function.
b If the ground was flat, how far would the lizard
run to reach the same spot on the other side of
the hill? Hence, find the period of the function.
6 When Sloane and Michael were riding on a
Ferris wheel, they realised that as the wheel

turned clockwise, the height of their seat in
metres after t minutes could be modelled by
the function h(t) = a b cos (nt).
The graph of h against t is shown for the whole ride.
a State the values of a, b and n.
b Write down the rule for h(t).
c How many times do Sloane and Michael reach
the highest point during their ride and how far
above the ground is it?
d How high are they when the ride begins to move?
e How many minutes pass before they are at this
point again?
f How far above the ground are they after 1 minute?
g If the ride began when the boys were at the
height found in part f, what would the function
become?
h Draw a graph of the new function for the first
6minutes of the ride.
y = 1 cos ( 4 x)
0
h
h = 34
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
h=2
9 12 15 t
291
7 On a summer day the hourly temperature, which can be approximated to a cosine curve, was recorded.
The maximum temperature was 30 C and occurred at 3.00 pm. The minimum temperature was 10 C and
occurred at 3.00 am. The temperature was first recorded at 12midnight, then every hour for 24 hours.
a What is the amplitude of the function?
b What is the period of the function?
c What is the middle value of the function?
d How far has this middle value been translated upwards from the x-axis?
e When do the maximum and minimum temperatures occur?
f Using the above, write an equation that will model this function.
g Check the accuracy of your work by using your equation to find the temperature after 3, 9, 15 and
21 hours.
h What is the temperature at midnight? Give your answer correct to the nearest degree. Check that
your answer makes sense.
6h
Further graphs
Earlier in the book we discussed in detail how to graph the sum and difference offunctions. In this
section we will further apply these techniques to trigonometric functions.
Graphing the sum and difference of functions

The sum (and difference) function is defined over the intersection of the domains of the individual
functions. That is, dom (f (x) g(x)) = dom f (x) dom g(x).
To sketch the graph of the sum function, the method of addition of ordinates can be used. This method
involves sketching the graphs of the individual functions on the same set of axes and then adding their
y-coordinates. This technique is illustrated in the worked example below.
Worked example 26
Using addition of ordinates, sketch the graph of y = sin (x) + cos (x) for the domain [0, 2].
think
1
Sketch the graphs of y = sin (x) and y = cos (x)

on the same set of axes over the required domain.
(Note that both y = sin (x) and y = cos (x) are
defined over [0, 2], so the sum function is defined
over the same domain.)
draW
y
2
1
0
1
2 x
2
2
Moving from left to right, add the y-coordinates of

the two graphs and plot the resultant points. The
3
5 3 7
,
,
,
keypoints are at x = 0, , ,
4 2 4
4 2 4
and 2.
y
2
1
0
1
2 x
2
3
Join the points with a smooth curve.
y
2
1
0
1
2
292
Erase y = sin (x) and (y) = cos (x) to see the

final graph.
y
2
1
0
1
2 x
Note that a difference function can be treated as a sum function where the second additive is negative.
For instance, the function y = sin (x) cos (x) can be viewed as y = sin (x) + (cos (x)). So to obtain the
graph of y = sin (x) cos (x), we can sketch the graphs of y = sin (x) and y = cos (x) on the same set of
axes and add their respective y-coordinates.
Graphing modulus (absolute value) functions

As was discussed previously, to sketch the graph of the modulus function y = | f (x)|, sketch the graph of
y = f (x) and then reflect all sections of the graph that are below the x-axis in the x-axis. The technique is
shown in Worked example 27.
Worked example 27
Sketch the graph of y = |3 cos (2x)| over the domain [0, 2].
think
1
First sketch the graph of y = 3 cos (2x). The

amplitude of this graph is 3 and its period is
2
= . Since the domain is [0, 2], we need
2
to sketch two full cycles.
draW
y
3
2
1
0
1
2 x
2
3
2
Reflect all sections of the graph that are below

the x-axis in the x-axis.
y
3
2
1
0
1
2 x
2
3
3
Erase the sections below the x-axis to see the

final graph.
y
3
2
1
0
1
2 x
2
3
293
Graphing product functions

The product function is defined over the intersection of the domains of the individual functions. That
is, dom (f (x) g(x)) = dom f (x) dom g(x). Some features of the product function can be established by
using the following rules:
1. The x-intercepts of f (x) g(x) occur where either f (x) or g(x) have their x-intercepts.
2. f (x) g(x) is above the x-axis where f (x) and g(x) are either both positive, or both negative.
3. f (x) g(x) is below the x-axis where one of the functions f (x) or g(x) is positive and the other is negative.
The general shape of the graph and the coordinates of the turning points can be found using a CAS
calculator.
Worked example 28
Find the domain and sketch the graph of the product function y = x sin (x). Use a CAS calculator
for assistance.
think
Write/draW
The required function can be viewed as

a product of two functions: f (x) = x and
g(x) = sin (x). The domain of the product
function is equal to the intersection of the
domains of the two individual functions.
Let f (x) = x, dom f (x) = R

Let g(x) = sin (x), dom g(x) = R
dom (f (x) g(x))
= dom f (x) dom g(x)
=R
So the domain of y = x sin (x) is R.

Enter the rule for the function into the
calculator.
f1(x) = x sin(x)
Use the graphing feature to obtain the graph

of f1(x).
Of course the graphs of product functions are not limited to those involving trigonometric functions.
Worked example 29
If f(x) = 2x and g ( x ) =
x + 1 , sketch the graph of f ( x ) g ( x ) = 2 x x + 1.
think
1
Sketch the graphs of f (x) and g(x).
Write/draW
y = 2x
y= x+1
(0, 1)
(1, 0) 0
294
Find the domain of f(x) and the domain of g(x).
Dom f = R and dom g = [1, )
Find the domain of f(x)g(x).
Dom fg = [1, )
Find the x-intercepts of both f and g and hence

find the x-intercepts of the product fg.
x-intercept for f (x) is when x = 0 and f (x) = 0

x-intercept for g(x) is when x = 1 and g(x) = 0
Hence, the x-intercepts for the product are when
x = 0 and x = 1.

negative.
f (x) is negative and g(x) is positive for

x (1, 0), so fg is negative for x (1, 0).

positive.
f(x) and g(x) are both positive for x (0, ), so

fg is positive for x (0, ).
Find the turning point using a graphics

calculator. Round the answer to 2 decimal
places as appropriate.
The turning point is (
Sketch the graph of the product.
, 0.77).
y = 2x x + 1
(1, 0)
(0, 0)
( 32 ,
0.77)
Graphing composite functions

A composite function is formed from two functions in the following way. If f (x) = x + 5 and g(x) = 2x are
two functions, then we combine the two functions to form the composite function g(f (x)) = 2f (x) = 2(x + 5).
That is, f (x) replaces x in the function g(x).
The composite function reads g of f and can be written g f.
Another composite function is f (g(x)) = g(x) + 5 = 2x + 5. In this case, g(x) replaces x in f (x). This
composite function reads f of g and can be written f g.
Composite functions can be rather complex to graph by hand, so a CAS calculator can be used for
assistance when sketching.
Worked example 30
For the pair of functions f(x) = cos (x) and g( x ) = x :

a show that f(g(x)) is defined
b find f(g(x)) and state its domain
c sketch the graph of f(g(x)), using a CAS calculator for assistance.
think
a For f(g(x)) to exist, the range of g must be a subset of the
domain of f. So find both the range of g and the domain

of f to show that this condition is observed.
b 1 Form the composite function, f (g(x)), by substituting
g(x) into f (x).

2
The domain of f (g(x)) must be the same as the domain

of g(x). Since the domain of g(x) is R+ {0}, so is the
domain of f (g(x)).
c 1 Enter the composite function f(g(x)) into a CAS
calculator.
tUtorial
eles-1217
Worked example 30
Write/draW
a f (x) = cos (x); domain of f (x) = R
g( x ) = x : range of g(x) = R+ {0}

Range of g(x) domain of f(x)
f (g(x)) is defined
b f ( g( x )) = cos( x )
Domain of f (g(x)) = R+ {0}
c f1(x) = cos( x )
295
Use the graphing function of a CAS calculator,

sketch the graphs of f (x) = cos ( x ), x 0.
y
1
61.7
2.4
22.2
The graphs of composite functions are not limited to those involving trigonometric functions. This is
demonstrated in the following example.
Worked example 31
For f(x) = x2 2 and g(x) = x4:

a show that both f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) are defined
b find both f(g(x)) and g(f(x)), stating the domain and range of each one
c on separate axes, sketch the graphs of f(g(x)) and g(f(x)).
think
Write
a Show that ran f dom g and that ran g dom f.
a Dom f = R; ran f = [2, ).
b 1 Write f(x).
b f (x) = x2 2
Dom g = R; ran g = [0, ].

Range of f domain of g, so g(f (x)) exists.
Range of g domain of f, so f (g(x)) exists.
Form the composite function f (g(x)) by

substituting g(x) into f (x). Simplify.
f (g(x)) = (x4)2 2
= x8 2
State the domain and range of f (g(x)).
Domain = R, range = [2, ).
Form the composite function g(f (x)) by

substituting f (x) into g(x).
g(f(x)) = (x2 2)4
State the domain and range of g(f (x)).
Domain = R, range = [0, )
c 1 Sketch f (g(x)), rounding x-intercepts to
2decimal places.
c The y-intercept is 2, and the x-intercepts
are 1.09 and 1.09.

y
y = x8 2
(1.09, 0) 0
Sketch g(f (x)).
(1.09, 0)
x
(0, 2)
The y-intercept is 16, and the turning

point is (2, 0).
y
(0, 16)
y = (x2 2)4
0
296
(2, 0) x
Further graphs
exercise 6h
1 We26
Using addition of ordinates, sketch the following graphs for the domain [0, 2].
a y = sin (x) + cos (2x)
b y = cos (x) + sin (2x)
c y = 2 sin (x) + cos (x)
d y = 2 cos (x) + sin (x)
e y = 2 sin (x) + cos (2x)
f y = 2 cos (x) + sin (2x)
g y = 2 sin (2x) + cos (x)
h y = 2 cos (2x) + sin (x)
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SkillSHEET 6.6
2 Apply the addition of ordinates method to sketch each of the following graphs over the domain [0, 2].
Use a CAS calculator to check your answers.

a y = sin (x) + x
b y = cos (x) x
1 2
1
e y = 2sin (4 x ) 8 x 3
d y = cos(2 x ) + 4 x
20
g y = 4 sin (x) 5 loge (x + 1)
h y = 3cos(2 x )
( x + 2)2
c y = 3 sin (x) 2x
f
y = tan (x) 2x2
3 We27 Sketch each of the following graphs over the domain [0, 2].
1 x
2
a y = |sin (2x)|
b y = |2 sin (4x)|
c y = cos
d y = |3 cos (3x)|
e y = | 2 tan (x)|
g y = |1 2 cos (2x)|
h y = |tan (2x) + 3|
y = | 4 sin (x) + 2|
4 Sketch each of the following graphs over the domain [0, 2]. Remember to observe the appropriate
order of transformations.
a y = 3|sin (x)|
c y = 2 cos + 3
2
b y = |2 cos (2x)| + 1
5 We28 Find the domain and sketch the graph of each of the following product functions. Use a CAS
calculator for assistance.

a y = 0.5x sin (x)
b y = (x 1) cos (x)
c y = 3 sin (x) loge (x)
d y = 2cos( x ) x
e y = 8 cos (x) sin (x)
g y = (1.2)x cos (x)
h y=
x
sin
2
y = (4 2x) sin (2x)
2 x
6 We29 For each of the following functions f (x) and g(x), sketch the graph of f (x)g(x).
a f ( x ) = x , g( x ) =
x+2
b f (x) = x 2, g(x) = ex
c f (x) = x 1, g(x) = loge (x)
d f (x) = | x |, g(x) = x2 1
3
e f ( x ) = x , g( x ) =
g f (x) =
x+2
x , g( x ) = 1 x
f (x) = 1 x2, g(x) = ex
h f (x) = x2, g(x) = loge (x)
7 We30 For each of the following pairs of functions:

i show that f (g(x)) is defined
ii find f (g(x)) and state its domain
iii sketch the graph of f (g(x)), using a CAS calculator for assistance.
b f ( x ) = sin(2 x ) and g( x ) =
a f (x) = cos (x) and g(x) = loge (x)
c
f ( x ) = 2sin( x ) and g( x ) =
e f (x) = x2 and g(x) = sin (x)

g
f ( x ) = cos
x2
4
d f (x) =
f
and g( x ) = 2 x 2
x + 2 and g( x ) = 2 cos ( x )
f (x) = 2x and g(x) = cos (2x)
h f ( x ) = 2sin( x ) + 1 and g( x ) =
x 3
8 We31 For each of the following pairs of functions f (x) and g(x):
i state whether f (g(x)) and g(f (x)) are defined
ii for the composite functions that are defined, find f (g(x)) and g(f (x)), stating the domain and
range of each one

iii on separate axes, sketch the graphs of f (g(x)) and g(f (x)) that are defined.
a f (x) = x 2, g(x) = ex
b f (x) = | x| g(x) = x2 1
c f (x) = 1 x2, g(x) = ex
x
e f (x) = e , g(x) = cos (x)
f f (x) = loge x, g(x) = sin (x)
d f ( x ) = x , g( x ) = sin( x )
297
trigonometric functions with an

increasing trend
6i
Consider a trigonometric function where there is an increasing trend, for example, economic growth
cycles, tidal heights due to global warming or increasing seasonal populations. These situations can be
modelled by a function of the form:
y = ax + b + m sin (nx)
where ax + b represents the increasing trend line and m sin (nx) represents the seasonal variation.
Worked example 32
Consider a remote island where global warming has caused the temperature to increase by
0.1degree each month. The mean daily temperature is modelled by the function

T ( m) = 16 + 0.1 m + 6 cos m , where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius and m is the number
6
of months after January 2008.
a Sketch a graph of the function for a five year period from January 2008, using a CAS calculator
for assistance.
b Find the mean daily temperature for March 2009.
c When will the mean daily temperature first reach 23 degrees?
think
a 1 Ensure that your CAS calculator is in radian mode.
Define the function.

2
Set the graphing window to display 5 years,

i.e. 0 x 60 (months). Use the graphing feature to
help sketch the graph.
Write/draW
x
6
a f1 ( x ) = 16 + 0.1x + 6 cos
y
f1(x) = 16 + 0.1x + 6cos .x

6
0
b March 2009 occurs when m = 14. Use a CAS calculator
to determine f 1(14).
c 1 Use a CAS calculator to determine when f 1(x) = 23.
Define f 2(x) = 23.
b f1 (14) =
102
= 20.4
5
c f 2(x) = 23
Determine when f 1(x) = f 2(x).
The first intersection point is

(11.5631, 23).
State the answer.
The first time the temperature reaches

23C will be during the 12th month
after January 2008, that is; during
January 2009. (m = 11.5631).
trigonometric functions with an

increasing trend
exercise 6i
1 We32 A fisherman finds himself stranded on an island, where the mean daily temperature is
increasing as a result of global warming. He finds that the temperature can be modelled by the function

T (m) = 12 + 0.2m + 5cos m , where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius and m is the number
6
of months after January 2008.
a Sketch a graph of the function for a 2-year period beginning with January 2008.
b Find the mean daily temperature for December 2009.
c When will the temperature first reach 18 degrees?
298
2 In a region of country Victoria, a study shows that increased wheat production causes the mouse

population to increase according to the function M = 15000 + 100t 4000 cos t , where M is the
6
number of mice and t is the number of months after July 2008.
a How many mice are being added to the average population per month?
b Draw a graph of this situation for a 5-year period beginning with July 2008.
c How many mice would you expect to be in the region in December 2008?
d When would the mice population first reach 20 000?
3 The value of a particular stock on the market follows a trigonometric model, and inflation causes
the stocks value to have an overall upward trend. The value of the stock can be represented by the

equation V (t ) = 20 + 0.02t + 5sin t , where V is the value of the stock in dollars and t is the
6
number of months after January 2006.
a What is the inflation rate per month?
b What was the initial value of the stock?
c What will be the stocks value after 6 months?
d When will its value first reach $25.50?
299
Summary
revision of radians
and the unit circle
1c = the size of the angle formed where the length of an arc is equal to the radius of the circle.
c = 180
Angles are in radians unless a degree symbol is shown.
180
.
To change radians to degrees, multiply by
.
To change degrees to radians, multiply by
180
Identities
1. sin2 ( ) + cos2 ( ) = 1
sin ( )
2. tan ( ) =
cos( )
Symmetry and exact

values
Exact values can be determined by using the equilateral triangle and the right isosceles triangle
shown below.
3 30
45
45
60
1
180 ()
360 (2)
270
0 (0)
30 6
45 4
60 3
sin ( )
1
2
2
2
3
2
cos ( )
3
2
2
2
1
2
tan ( )
3
3
Undef.
Undef.
90
The unit circle is symmetrical so that the magnitude of sine, cosine and tangent are the same in
each quadrant but the sign varies. All functions (sine, cosine and tangent) are positive in the 1st
quadrant, sine is positive in the 2nd quadrant, tangent is positive in the 3rd quadrant and cosine is
positive in the 4th quadrant.
sin ( ) = sin ( )
sin ( + ) = sin ( )
sin (2 ) = sin ( )
cos ( ) = cos ( )
cos ( + ) = cos ( )
cos (2 ) = cos ( )
tan ( + ) = tan ( )
tan (2 ) = tan ( )
tan ( ) =
tan
( )
Negative angles
sin ( ) = sin ( ), cos ( ) = cos ( ), tan ( ) = tan ( )
Complementary angles add to 90o or radians.

2
The sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of its complement.
The complement of the tangent of an angle is the cotangent.
sin
(
tan (
cos
300
= cos( )
)
) = cot ( )
= sin ( )
sin
(
tan (
cos
+ = cos( )
)
+) =
+ = sin ( )
cot ( )
)
cos ( ) = sin ( )
tan ( ) = cot ( )
sin
3
2
3
2
3
2
= cos( )
sin
3
2
(
tan (
cos
3
2
3
2
+ = cos( )
+ = sin ( )
+ = cot ( )
trigonometric
equations
Given a general equation such as sin x = a, there can be an infinite number of solutions. The
domain is usually restricted and it is important to find all values for x within this domain.
If the domain is given in radians, then the solution(s) to x should be in radians. If the domain is
given in degrees, then the solution(s) to x should be in degrees.
Adjust the domain to match what has been done to the angle in the question.
Sine is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants, cosine is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants and
tangent is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
If sin (x) = a then the general solution is x = sin 1 (a) + 2n and x = sin 1 (a) + (2n + 1), n Z.
1
If cos (x) = a then the general solution is x = cos (a) + 2n, n Z.
If tan (x) = a then the general solution is x = tan 1 (a) + n, n Z.

Find all the solutions within the specified domain by substituting integer values for n into the
general solution.
If the equation is of the form sin (ax) = k cos (ax), divide both sides by cos (ax) to change the
equation to tan (ax) = k.
Sine and cosine graphs

Graphs of the form y = a sin [n(x b)] + c and y = a cos [n(x b)] + c are transformations of
y = sin (x) and y = cos (x).
The amplitude a is a dilation from the x-axis. If a is negative, the amplitude is still positive but the
graph is a reflection in the x-axis.
The vertical translation c is a translation parallel to the y-axis. If c is positive, the graph is
translated c units up, and if c is negative, the graph is translated c units down.
c represents the median value of the function.
The range is [c | a |, c + | a |].
2
The period is .
n
1
The factor n is the horizontal dilation where the graph has been dilated by a factor of from the y-axis.
n
The value b is the horizontal translation or a translation parallel to the x-axis. If b is positive, the
graph is translated b units to the right and if b is negative, the graph is translated b units to the left.
Tangent graphs
The graph of y = tan (x) has the following properties.
y
x = 32 x = 2
x = 2 x = 32
It has no amplitude.
3
The period is .
2
There are x-intercepts at x = . . ., 2, , 0, , 2, . . .
3 3
1
There are vertical asymptotes at x = . . .,
, , ,
,...
2 2 2 2
0 3
2 32 2
2 x
The range is R.
2
2
1
The graph of y = tan (nx) has the following properties.
It has no amplitude.
2
The period is .
3
n
k
There are x-intercepts at x =
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n
(2 k + 1)
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
There are vertical asymptotes at x =
2n
The range is R.
Compared to the basic graph of y = tan (x), the graph of y = a tan [n(x b)] + c is:
dilated by the factor of a from the x-axis
1
dilated by the factor of from the y-axis (and hence has period of )
n
n
reflected in the x-axis if a < 0
translated b units horizontally (to the right if b > 0 and to the left if b < 0)
translated c units vertically (up if c > 0 and down if c < 0).
301
Trigonometric functions can be expressed in the form of y = a sin [n(x b)] + c or

y=a cos [n(x b)] + c.
The amplitude a can be found by halving the distance between the maximum and minimum values.
The period is the interval from one point on the graph to the next point where the graph begins to
2
repeat itself. The period is n .
The vertical shift is c.
The horizontal shift is b.
Further graphs
For the graph of the sum/difference function, dom(f (x) g(x)) = dom f (x) dom g(x). The graph
of the sum/difference function can be obtained by using the addition of ordinates method.
The graph of the modulus function y = | f (x)| can be obtained by sketching the graph of y = f (x) and
then reflecting all of the sections of the graph that are below the x-axis in the x-axis.
For the product function, dom(f (x)g(x)) = dom f (x) dom g(x). Some features of the graph of the
product function are as follows:
the x-intercepts of f (x)g(x) occur where either f (x) or g(x) have their x-intercepts
f (x)g(x) is above the x-axis where f (x) and g(x) are either both positive or both negative
f (x)g(x) is below the x-axis where one of the functions f (x) or g(x) is positive and the other is
negative.
trigonometric
functions with an
increasing trend
These situations can be modelled by a function of the form y = ax + b + m sin (nx), where ax + b
represents the increasing trend line and m sin (nx) is the seasonal variation.
302
Chapter review
1 Convert the following into radians.
a 60
b 30
e 360
f 270
i 225
j 120
c 45
g 150
k 210
S ho rt
a n S W er
d 90
h 300
l 315
2 Find the value of:
2

b sin
4
3
e tan (2)
f sin (120)
i cos (315)
j tan (225)
3 If sin (x) = 0.85 and x is in the first quadrant, find:
a sin ( x)
b sin ( + x)
a cos
6
g cos (135)
4
h tan (30)
c tan
d sin
c sin (2 + x)
d sin (4 x)
4 Find the general solution to the equation 2 cos( x ) 2 = 0 .

5 Find the general solution for 3 sin (2 x ) = cos(2 x ) and hence all solutions for x between 0 and 2.
+ 2 .
4
a State the translations required to form this graph from y = sin (x).
b State the amplitude and period of the transformed trigonometric function.
c Sketch the graph of the transformed function over the domain 0 x 2.
6 Consider the graph of y = 3sin x
7 State the period and sketch the graph of y = tan (2x) + 2.

8 The equation of the graph at right is of the form
y = a sin (nx) + b. Find the values of a, n and b, and hence find

the equation of the function.
9 The depth, d metres, of water in a shallow bay at thours
t
after 9 am is given by d = 5 + 3sin , for 0 t 24 hours.
6
a Sketch the graph of d for 0 t 24 hours.
b At what times will the depth of water in
the bay be 6.5 metres?
c Particular water sports cannot run in the
bay when the depth of water is less than
6.5 metres. At what times of the day (not
night) will the water sports be able to run?
10 Sketch the graph of y = | 2 sin (2x) | over the
domain [0, 2].
y
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
11 On the same set of axes and over the domain
[0, 2], sketch the graphs of:

a y = 2x
b y = sin (x)
c y = sin (x) + 2x.
12 On the same set of axes and over the domain
[0, 2], sketch the graphs of:

a y=x
b y = sin (x)
c y = x sin (x).
13 For the pair of functions f (x) = sin (x) and
g(x) = x2 + 2:
a show that f (g(x)) is defined
b find f (g(x))
c state the domain and range of f (g(x)).
303
m U lt ip l e
C h oiCe
1 What is 320 expressed in radians?

a
2
9
5
18
13 c
expressed in degrees?
6
a 390
B 420
5
equals:
3 The expression sin
3
8
9
4
9
16
9
2 What is
1
2
C 150
d 120
3
2
3
2
e 330
e 1
4 A trigonometric function is given by f : R R, f (x) = 3 cos (2x + ) 1
The amplitude, period, and range of f are respectively:
B 2, , R
C 3, , [4, 2]
a 3, , [ 4, 2]
2
d 2,

, [ 1,3]
2
e 3,
5 When f (x) = 0 the following function f : [0, 2] R, f (x) = 2 sin ( x + ) + 1 has:

1
a 0 solutions
10
11
C 2 solutions
e 4 solutions
[,
] R, f (x) = sin (2x) + cos (2x) has the following x-intercepts:

5 3 7
3
3
,
, ,
,
,
a
B
C
4
4 4 4
2 4
8 8
5 3 7

,
, ,
,
d
e
8
8 8 8
4 4
3
The solution of the equation 4 sin ( x ) = 2 3 between and
is:
2
4
7
2
a
B
C
d
e
6
3
3
3
3
The domain and range of the function

f : [0, ] R, f ( x ) = 4 sin 3 x + 2 is:
, 2 ] [ 4, 4]
a [0, ], R
B [0, ], [2, 6]
C R, R
d [
e [0, ], [2, 4]
3
Using addition of ordinates for the graph of the difference function y = 2 cos (x) 3 sin (x), the value of y
at x = is:
3
1
1+ 3 3
2+3 3
a
B
C
2
2
3
1 3 3
23 3
d
e
2
2
x
The period of the graph of y = tan

is:
3
a
B
C 2
d 3
e 6
3
The graph of the function f : [1.5, 1.5] R, f (x) = a + b cos ( nx) is shown below. The values of a, b,
and n are respectively:
6 The function f :
B 1 solution
d 3 solutions
Max = 3.5
3
2
1
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
1
0.5
x
1.0
1.5
Min = 1.5
2
5
a 1, 2 , 3
304
1, 3 , 2
C 1, 5, 3
d 1, 3 , 3
1,
5
3
,2
12 If 0 c , the x-intercepts of the function f : [0, 2] R, f (x) = b sin (x c) are:
c, 2 c
B , 2
C c, c
+ c, 2 c
e c, + c
13 The position of a particle from a fixed point O is given by the equation x = 2 2 sin ( t). If 0 t 2,
the particle is at the point O when t equals:
a 0
B 2
C 0.5
e 6
e 6
a
d
1 At the South Pole in midsummer on the planet Marus, the red sun of its solar system does not set.
It dips towards the horizon until its lower rim just touches it, then rises until its lowest point is at an
angle of D(t) to the horizontal before sinking again. It continues in this pattern. The angle above the
horizontal can be modelled by the following relation:
D(t) = a b sin n(t + c) where t is the time in hours after midnight and a, b, c and n are positive
constants.
The graph of D(t) for 24 hours is shown on the axes in the figure below.
ex ten d ed
r eS p o n S e
D(t)
10
8
6
4
2
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
a State the values of a, b, c and n and hence write the rule for D(t).
b What would be the angle above the horizon at 6.00 am and at 9.00 pm? Give an exact answer
where possible, otherwise give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

c Use your graph to find at what times the angle to the horizontal is 8. When does the rim of the sun
reach this angle again?

d By using an appropriate equation, check your answer and account for any difference in your two
solutions.
e If a spot on the surface of the sun is 5 above the horizon at midnight, what would be the relation
G(t) that models its path?

2 Nathan and Rachel are competing in the National Ballroom Dancing Championships. The judges are
evenly spaced around the circular dance floor, standing just outside the edge. As Nathan and Rachel
waltz around the circular floor, their distance (in metres) from judge Maya can be described by the
function
d = 10.5 9 cos t , where t is time (in seconds) from the beginning of the dance.
30
a How far is the couple from judge Maya when they start dancing?
b What is the couples maximum distance from the judge?
c Assuming that, while dancing, Rachel and Nathan trace a perfect circle, what is its diameter?
d How long does it take for the couple to complete one full circle around the dance floor?
e What is the couples average speed (in m/s)? Give your answer i in exact form and ii correct
to 2decimal places.
t
f If the duration of the waltz is 2.5 minutes, draw the graph of d = 10.5 9 cos
over the
30
domain, showing the full length of this dance.
g Judge Joseph is positioned further down the dance floor, so that Nathan and Rachel are closest to
him 6seconds after the waltz begins. Write the equation describing the couples distance from
judge Joseph at any time, t, from the beginning of the dance.
h How far is the couple from judge Joseph when they finish the waltz?
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
diGital doC
doc-9207
Test Yourself
Chapter 6
305
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGital doC
circular functions. (page 259)
6a
revision of radians and the unit circle
diGital doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9201: Investigate the unit circle. (page 262)
SkillSHEET 6.1 doc-9254: Practise changing degrees to radians.
(page 262)
SkillSHEET 6.2 doc-9255: Practise working with tangent ratios.
(page 263)
6B
tUtorialS
We3 eles-1182: Watch a worked example on exact values using
degrees and radians. (page 264)
We5 eles-1183: Watch a worked example on determining
trigonometric ratios. (page 265)
We8 eles-1184: Watch a worked example on complementary
angle formulas. (page 268)
diGital doCS
SkillSHEET 6.3 doc-9256: Practise rationalising the denominator.
(page 268)
Spreadsheet doc-9201: Investigate the unit circle. (page 268)
SkillSHEET 6.4 doc-9257: Practise problem solving using
trigonometry. (page 270)
6C
tUtorial
We13 eles-1215: Watch a worked example on determining the
general solution to a trigonometric equation. (page 273)
diGital doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9202: Practise solving trigonometric equations.
(page 275)
WorkSHEET 6.1 doc-9203: Use exact values, solve trigonometric
equations and application questions. (page 276)
6d
diGital doCS
SkillSHEET 6.5 doc-9258: Practise identifying the period and
amplitude of sine and cosine graphs. (page 280)
Spreadsheet doc-9204: Investigate sine graphs. (page 280)
Spreadsheet doc-9205: Investigate cosine graphs. (page 280)
306
6e
tUtorial
We 21 eles-1216: Watch a worked example on calculating the
period of trigonometric functions. (page 284)
6F
interaCtiVitY int-0251
Finding equations of trigonometric graphs: Use the interactivity to
consolidate your understanding of trigonometric graphs.
(page 286)
diGital doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9204: Investigate sine graphs. (page 288)
Spreadsheet doc-9205: Investigate cosine graphs. (page 288)
WorkSHEET 6.2 doc-9206: Sketch trigonometric graphs over given
domains, including composite and absolute value graphs, and
determine the equations of trigonometric graphs. (page 289)
6G
eleSSon eles-0092
Trigonometric modelling: Learn how trigonometry can be used to
model sinusoidal patterns. (page 289)
diGital doC
Spreadsheet doc-9165: Investigate graphs of functions.
(page 290)
6h
Further graphs
tUtorial
We30 eles-1217: Watch how to sketch a composite function using
a CAS calculator. (page 295)
diGital doC
SkillSHEET 6.6 doc-9259: Practise using addition of ordinates to
sketch graphs. (page 297)
Chapter review
diGital doC
Answers CHAPTER 6
CirCUlar (triGonometriC)
FUnCtionS
exercise 6a
unit circle
1 a 171.89
c 275.02
e 63
g 150
revision of radians and the
286.48
146.68
54
225
c
b
12
36
c
e
g
i
3 a
c
e
g
i
k
4 a
c
e
g
i
k
5 a
c
e
g
6 a
b
8
6 a
3
1 a
2
3
2
2
g
2
3
j
2
3
m
2
7 2
8 a
2
2
2
g
2
3
j
2
2
2
1
d
2
1
g
2
2
j
2
2 a
2
1
h
2
k
2
2
1
2
1
k
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
i 1
l
3
3
2 a
c
e
3 a
b
c
d
4 a
b
3
2
h
k
exercise 6C
2
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
3
2
1
+
2
10 a 0.7
d 0.3
g 0.7
j 0.3
11 C
12 D
13 a 10 cm/s
14 a 0.9 m
1 a
2
2
1
g
2
1
j
2
i 1
l
3
2
2
3
b
c
2
3
11 13.5 C, 15.8 C
exercise 6B
9 D
10 B
i 2.4
8 3
f 2.4
c 2 ,
3
e
2
h 0.5
3
3
,
2
3
5 a
7 15
3
91
d
10
g 0.3
c 2.4
c 212.90, 327.10
d 78.83, 281.17
3
2
2
2
1
or
2
2
,1
2
3 1
, 2
2
c
f1
i
3
3
o 1
c 1
3
3
f
i
10
l 1
1 1
1
= + =1
2 2
2
b 0.3
c 2.5
e 0.7
f 2.5
i 2.5
h 0.3
k 0.7
l 2.5
b 11 cm/s
c 12 cm/s
b 0.3 m
c 0.7 m
11
12
13
3
5 7
7
,
b
,
c ,
2 2
4 4
4 4
3
5 7
e
,
2
6 6
90
b 60, 300
60, 120
d 180
45, 135
2.2904, 3.9928, 8.5736, 10.2760
1.1442, 1.9973, 7.4274, 8.2805
1.0701, 5.2130, 7.3533, 11.4962
3.5217, 5.9031, 9.8049, 12.1863
15.58, 164.42
137.91, 222.09
5
3
,
b ,
6 6
2 2
7
4 5
c
,
d ,
4 4
3 3
a 0, 180, 360
b 105, 165, 285, 345
c 45, 75, 165, 195, 285, 315
d 20, 40, 140, 160, 260, 280
e 62.40, 117.60, 182.40, 237.60,
302.40, 357.60
f 39.44, 140.56, 219.44, 320.56
g 26.39, 333.61
h 101.22, 258.78
a
b 0, 2
2
c 2.7184
d 0.9772
5 13 17 25 29
e
, ,
,
,
,
18 18 18 18 18 18
7 9 15 17 23
f
,
,
,
,
,
12 12 12 12 12 12
5 7 17 19
g
,
,
,
12 12 12 12
h 1.2579, 5.0253
3
7
a
b
2
2
16
11
c
d
3
3
e 19.7766
f 6.9266
a The particle is 3 metres from O.
b It takes the particle 1.99 seconds to
reach O for the first time.
11 11
,
, ,
a x=
6 6 6 6
11 5 7
b x=
,
, ,
6
6 6 6
7 5 3
,
, ,
c x=
4
4 4 4
11 7 5
x=
,
, ,
12
12 12 12
7 5 5 7
x=
,
,
, ,
,
9
9
9 9 9 9
7
a x= ,
6 6
5 9 13
, ,
b x= ,
8 8 8 8
5 11 17 25 29 35
c x=
,
,
,
,
,
18 18 18 18 18 18
x = 6.1033, 5.2360, 2.0944,1.5116,
0.1799, 1.0472, 4.1888, 4.7716
5 a
13
2
d

8
3
c
1.12
f 1.38c
4.10c
h 4.54c
5.41c
j 6.11c
0.389
b 0.717
0.170
d 0.129
0.246
f 0.916
0.966
h 0.927
0.940
j 0.996
11.430
l 1.732
0
b 0
1
d 1
Undefined
f Undefined
1
h 0
1
j 1
Undefined
l 0
1
b 1
1
d 1
1
f 1
2
h 5
sin( 240), sin (150), sin (35),
sin (120), sin (70)
cos (3.34), cos (1.5), cos (5.3),
cos (0.2), cos (6.3)
c
3
91
k
l 2.4
2
10
m 0.3
n 0.5
o 2.4
2
2
7 7
49 576 625
24
4
=1
, + =
=
+
25
24 24
625 625 625
b
d
f
h
2 a
b 0.5
3 a 0.3
14
exercise 6d
1 a 2, 1
d 2 ,
1
3
g 4, 3
j
2
,4
3
b 2, 1
2
e
,2
3
h 6, 2
c 2, 4
f , 3
i , 1
307
2 a
h 3, 6, 3 to 3
2
2 2
, 2,
to
3
3 3
y
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
e 1,
y
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
y
0.5
2 3 4 5 6
2
3 4, 3 , 4 to 4
0
2
4
2
4 2, ,
3

2
to 2
g 3,
y
2
c 3, , 3 to 3
y
3
2
1
0

2 1
2
b
2
c
4
d
3
to the left, up 3
5 a
2
d 2,
, 2 to 2
3
y
2
1
0
1
2 1 1
e 12
, 2 to 2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
to the left, down 1
43
2 x
43
g 4, 4, 4 to 4
2
0
2
4
308
2 x
3
2
1
3
2 x
0
1
2
3
4
4 x
0 2 3 4 5 6 x
1
2
3
7 a 2, 1
2 x
y
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
1
1.5
0
3
5
3
7 2
4 2 4
4 2 4
b 2, 1
y
5
4
3
2
1
j 2, 6, 3 to 1
1
0.5
d 2, 2, 1 to 5
y
4
1
2
3
4
5
c 2, 2, 4 to 0
y
0
6
4
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
f 13 , , 13 to 1
i 3, 4, 1 to 7
b 1, 2, 2 to 0
2
, 5 to 1
3
6 a 1, 2, 0 to 2
to the right, down 2
0
1
y
0.6
0.4
0.2
2 x
h 2 , , 2.5 to 3.5
to the right, up 1
y
2
0
1
2
3
y
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
f 1, , 0 to 2
4
2
y
4
0
2
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
b 4, 2, 4 to 4
2
, 2 to 0
3
2 x
y
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
8 a 4, , 4 to 4
c 2, 3
y
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
7
4
9
511

2
6 3 2 6 6
6 3 6 3 6
y
3
2
1
0
y
2
y = 2 sin 2 ( + )
2
3
2
0
1
2
3
0.5
1
1.5
2 x
1 0
1.5
2
2.5
1
2
3
h , 2
y
1
0 3 5 3 7 2

4 2 4
4 2 4
11
12
13
14
0
1
2
2 x
y
1
4
2
2 x
0
2
4
y
3
2
1
b Period =
0 3
5
3
7 2 x
1 4 2
4
4 2 4
2
3
2
f
, 1, 1 to 1
3
c Period =
d Period =
g 2, 4, 3 to 5
2.5
2
1.5
1
e Period = 4
4
2
0
2
2 x
y
2
1
0
1
2
1 0
1.5
2
2.5
y
2
1
0
1
2
0
3
5
3
7 2
4 2 4
4 2 4
y
2
1
0
1
2
j 4, 1
2 x
exercise 6e Graphs of the tangent

function
1 a Period =
y
e , 3, 3 to 3
y = sin (x + ) + 1
3
y = 2 cos 3 (x ) + 1
4
2
y = 3 sin (x
)2
3
a 1
b 12
c 3 metres
d 1 metre
e 3.00 am and 3.00 pm
f 9.00 am and 9.00 pm
x
g y = sin
6 + 2
i 2, 2
4
5 2 x
3 3
y
3
2
1
2

3 3
j 2, 1, 1 to 3
b 2, 1, 1 to 1
2 x
2 x
y
1.5
1
0.5
2 1 1
, , to 1 12
3 2 2
0
0.5
0
1.5
1
0.5
y
1.5
1
0.5
y
3
2
1
2.5
2
1.5
1
2
1
l 3 3 , 4 3
d 2, 3, 3 to 3
2
,1
3
1
2
3
y
2
1
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
c 2, 2, 2 to 2
0
1
2
3
4
f 5,
k 22, 1 2
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
,3
3
d 1, 6, 1 to 1
10 a 2, 1, 1 to 1
h , 2, 4 to 0

, 7 to 3
2
1, 2, 1 to 1
h 1, 2, 1 to 1
1, 1
b 1, 1
c 3, 3
2, 2
e 2, 2
f 3, 3
5, 3
h 1, 3
i 1, 5
j 5, 3
e , 2
9 a
d
g
d 2, 2
1
2
3
b 3, 4, 3 to 3
2
c 2,
, 2 to 2
3
e 3, , 2 to 4
y
2
1
0
1
2
4 x
309
f Period = 3
h i Period = 3
ii Dilated by factor of 12 from the x-axis
y
2
1
0
1
2
g Period = 2
h Period =
0
1
2
3
2 x
y
5
and by factor of 3 from the y-axis;

reflected in the x-axis; translated
6 units up
i i Period =
4
ii Dilated by factor of 14 from the y-axis;
units to the right and

translated
12
1
units
down
3
j i Period =
ii Dilated by factor of 2 from the x-axis;
translated units to the left and

3
5 units up
y
3 a Period =
2 x
2
1
b Period =
1
3
13
ii
b i
ii
c i
ii
d i
ii
e i
ii
f i
ii
g i
ii
310
j Period = 2
2 x
c Period =
Period =
3
Dilated by factor of 2 from the x-axis
and by factor of 13 from the y-axis
Period =
4
Dilated by factor of 14 from the y-axis;
reflected in the x-axis; translated 1 unit
up
Period =
2
translated 4 units down
Period = 2
2 units down
Period =
Dilated by factor of 5 from the x-axis;
units to the left

2
Period =
2
translated units to the right

4
Period =
3
translated units to the left

6
d Period =
3
4
3
4
x =
y
4
3
2
1
b 12 hours
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 t
e 1.00 pm and 5.00 pm, 1.00 am and
5.00 am
h Period =
2.78 x
0
1
8
6
4
2
g Period = 2
1 a 8.5 m, 3.00 pm
c 3.5 m
d d(t)
y
3
2
1
, y = 2 sin ( x)
6
6
a 2, 4, y = 2 cos (4x)
b 2, , y = 2 cos ( x)
3
3
a 12 , 1, 1, y = 12 sin (x) + 1
b 3, , 2, y = 3 sin ( x) 2
4
4
a 4, 2, , y = 4 cos 2(x )
2
2
b 5, 2, , y = 5 cos 2(x )
4
4
a 2, 1,
, 1, y = 2 sin (x + ) 1
3
3
b 3, 1,
, 2, y = 3 sin (x + ) + 2
2
2
a 1, , 3, y = 3 cos ( x)
6
6
b 1, , 2, y = 2 cos ( x)
4
4
D
8 E
exercise 6G
f Period = 6
0
1
2
19

24
b 2,
y
2
1
e Period = 4
13
24
exercise 6F Finding equations of

y
2
1
0
1
2
7
24
0
1
2
3
4
0
2 a i
y
3
2
1
0
1 24
2
3
y
2
1
0
1
2
3
y
1
1 a 3, 2, y = 3 sin (2x)
0
1
2
y
2
1
0
1
2
j Period = 2
y
3
2
1
i Period =
i Period =
2.21 x
x =
0
5 3
7 x
1 8 4 3
8 2
8 4
8
2
3
4
2 a 10 m, 4 m
b d
10
7
4
6 12 18 24 30 36 t
c 3.00 am
d 1.00 am to 5.00 am Saturday, 1.00 pm to
e
3 a
b
c
4 a
b
5.00 pm Saturday, 1.00 am to 5.00 am

Sunday morning
3.00 am to 5.00 am Sunday
18 C, 14.5 C
25 C, December
21.5 C
d 8 months
0.9, , 0.9, h = 0.9 sin ( t) + 0.9
h
2
1.5
1
0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 t
0.5
c 1.3 seconds
5 a 2, 1
6 a
b
c
e
g
h
b 8 m, 8
2
18, 16,
3
2
h(t) = 18 16 cos ( t)
3
5, 34 m
d 2m
3 minutes
f 26 m
2
h(t) = 18 16 cos
(t + 1)
3
y
0
exercise 6h
Further graphs
0
0.5
1
1.5
2 x
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
1
1.5
10
2
3
4
5
0
2
3 2 x
3 a
3
2
2 x
3
2
2 x
3

2
0
1
2 x
y
2
1
y
2
1
0
3 2 x
2
3 2 x

y
1
y
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
y
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
3
2
3
2
3 2 x
2
3
2
2 x
y
0
5
15
20
25
30
35
y
3
2
1
0
1
y
10
8
6
4
2
0
3
2
x
2
2 x
3
2
2 x
y
6
4
2
0
2 x
0
2 x
y
1
y
3
2
1
1
2
x
2
3
2
2
1
y
1.5
1
0.5
2 x
10
1
2
2 a
g 10 C, 20 C, 30 C, 20 C
h 13C
2 x
2
1
f T = 20 10 cos
(t 3) or
12
T = 20 10 cos (t + 21)
12
(t 15)
or T = 20 + 10 cos
12
or T = 20 + 10 cos
(t + 9)
12
0
1
2
2
g
0
1
2
7 a 10
b 24
c 20
d 20
e 3.00 am, 3.00 pm
y
2
1
1
2
e
y
2
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 x
0
1
2
y
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 a
y
2
1
3
2
2 x
3
2
2 x
y
3
2
1
0
311
e Domain: R
y
5
4
3
2
1
4
0
1
(2, 0)
2 x
3
2
y
(5.57, 7.07)
8
6
4 (.61, 2.61)
(2.67, 1.08)
2
2 x
0
2
4
6
3
2
3
2
3
2
(0, 1)
2 x
3
2
0
2 1
2
(3.5, 2.3)
2 x
3
2
2 x
6 a
(1, 0)
0 (0.61, 0.18) x
7 a ii f (g(x)) = cos (loge (x)); domain
f (g(x)) = R+
iii
0
(113 , 1.09)
3
2
2 x
iii
0
1
2
3
4
5
312
2 x
(1, 2.7)
c ii f (g(x)) = 2 sin (
{0}
3
2
(3.29, 3.59)
d ii f (g(x)) =
f (g(x)) = R
(0.65, 1.28)
x=0
iii
0
1
2
(5.6, 2)
3
2
2 x
(4.34, 2)
2cos( x ) + 2 ; domain
y
2
1
2 x
(1, 0)
0 (1, 0)
x
(0.58, 0.38) (0.58, 0.38)
x2
); domain
4
y
2 (2.51, 2)
1
iii
0 (1, 0)
R+
2 x
3
2
(5.55, 1)
f (g(x)) = R
(4.84, 4.69)
d Domain:
y
3
2
1
3
2
(0, 2)
y
2 (0.62, 1)
1
0
1
2
(2, 0) x
2 x
3
2
= R+ {0}
c Domain: R+
(2.13, 1.92)
b ii f (g(x)) = sin (2 x); domain f (g(x))
y (1, 1)
1
0
1
(2, 0)
(3.52, 2.34)
0
1
2
3
4
5
(1, 0) x
(3.32, 1.8)
2 3
2
y
5
4
3
2 (2.03, 0.91)
1
y
3
2
1
1
(0.5, 0.5)
2 x
b Domain: R
y
1 (1.27, .51)
(4.91, 2.41)
h Domain: R (, 2]
(4.05, 3.98)
0
1
2
y
3
2 (2.03, 0.91)
1
y
(2, 3.14)
3
2 (.18, 1.02)
1
2 x
5 a Domain: R
0
1
g Domain: R
c y
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
2
f Domain: R
y
3
2
1
4 2 4
y
3
2
1
0
y
(1.7, 2.7)
0
2
4
0 3 5 3 7 2 x
4 2
4 a
y
4
2
0
1
3
2
2 x
e ii f (g(x)) = (sin (x))2; domain f (g(x)) = R

iii
y
2
1
1 a T(m)
0
1
3
2
(1, 0) 0
y
2
1
g ii f (g(x)) = cos (
(0, 1)
c i Both f (g(x)) and g( f (x)) are
defined.
0
1
(1, 0)
3
2
2 x
x2
); domain f (g(x)) = R
8
Domain is R
Range is ( , 1)
iii
3
2
(5.01, 1)
f(g(x))
g( f (x)) = ex 2
Domain is R
Range is (0, )
ii f (g(x)) = ex 2
Domain is R
Range is (2, )
iii
d
2
5
g
6
2
j
3
Domain is [0, ), Range is [1, 1]
iii y
(0, 1)
y = 2
g(f(x))
e i Both f (g(x)) and g( f (x)) are
defined.
ii f (g(x)) = ecos (x)
Domain is R
1
Range is [ , e]
e
g( f (x)) = cos
Domain is R
Range is [
1,
( , 1 )
e
2
ii f (g(x)) = x 2 1
g( f(x)) = x 2 1
Domain is R
Range is [1, )
Domain is R
Range is [0, )
y
f(g(x))
0
1
(0, 1)
(1, 0) 0
(1, 0)
0
1
(4.8, 1)
g(f(x))
5 10 15 20
2
2
2
2
e 0
2
2
3
3
3
f
2
3
3
2
2
b 0.85
d 0.85
y
5
4
Domain is (0, ), Range is [1, 1]

y
5
3
7
k
6
x-axis, and translated units to the right

4
and 2 units up.
b Amplitude = 3, period = 2
f i Only g( f (x)) is defined.
iii
e 2
3 a 0.85
c 0.85
ii g( f (x)) = sin (loge (x))
4
3
f
2
5
i
4
7
l
4
6 a y = sin (x) is dilated 3 units from the
y
g(f(x))
1]
j 1
(8n + 1) (8n 1)
,
4
4
7 13 19
(6n + 1)
5
,
,
, x =, ,
12 12 12 12
12
b i Both f (g(x)) and g( f (x)) are defined.
60 t
50
(0, e) (2 , e)
f(g(x))
( , 1 )
e
x
0
2
(ex)
iii
(0, 0.14)
0
2 a
(2.47, 1) g(f(x))
( 2, 0)
0
(0.69, 0)
40
d December 2009
b $20
d April 2008
1 a
d i Only g( f (x)) is defined.

ii g( f (x)) = sin ( x )
f(g(x))
30
Short anSWer
8 a i Both f (g(x)) and g( f (x)) are defined.
20
Chapter reVieW
(0, 2.7)
2 x
3
2
10
c 18 964
3 a 0.1%
c $20.12
g(f(x))
c December 2008
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
iii y
2
1
(2.04, 1)
b 20.9 C
2 a 100
b
M
y=1
2 x
domain f (g(x)) = R+ {0}
iii
h ii f (g(x)) = 2 sin ( x 3) + 1;
0
1
(0, 0) x
0
1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 m
g( f (x)) = e(1 x
Domain is R
Range is (0, e)
ii f (g(x)) = 1 e2x
y
2
1
iii
T(m) = 12 + 0.2m + 5 cos (6 m)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
2 x
f ii f (g(x)) = 2cos (2x); domain f (g(x)) = R

iii
exercise 6i trigonometric functions with

an increasing trend
g(f(x))
3
2
1
0
1
3
2
313
y
4
extended reSponSe
11
12
0
2
2
x
8 a = 3, n = 12 , b = 1; y = 3 sin 1
2
y
12
Period =
9 a
0
2
2
18
24
and 2 pm.
314
2 a 1.5 m
b 19.5 m
c 18 m
y = sin x
d 60 s
3
m/s
10
ii 0.94 m/s
e i
y = x sin x
13 a Teacher to check. Show that range
g domain f .
b f (g(x)) = sin (x2 + 2)
c Domain f(g(x)) = R, range f(g(x)) = [1, 1]
mUltiple ChoiCe
2
1
0
y=x
4
12
b 10 am, 2 pm, 10 pm, 2 am

c Water sports may run between 10 am
10
y
6
and 3.32 pm or 15.54 hours after

midnight.
Differences occur due to inaccuracy of
graphical methods.
e D(t) = 10 5 sin (t + 6)
12
y = sin (x)
day.
d 8.27 am or 8.46 hours after midnight
3
2
1 E
2A
3 D
4 C
5 B
6 D
7C
8 B
9 E
10 D
11 A
12 E
13 C
, D(t) = 5 5 sin (t + 6)
12
12
b 5, 1.46
c 8.30 am and 3.30 pm. 8.30 am the next
y = sin (x) + 2x
6
0 3

4 2 4
1 a 5, 5, 6 and
y = 2x
10
f f (m)
19.5
10.5
1.5
0
1
2
30
60
90 120 150 t (sec)
g d = 10.5 9 cos (
(t 6))
30
h 17.78 m

1 Solve the equation log2 (2x 3) log2 (3) = 1 for x.
2 Solve the equation
32x + 3
33
1 mark
= 9 for x.
1 mark
3 The graph of the function f : [2,0] R where f (x) = ex is reflected in the y-axis, translated
S ho rt
a n S W er
30 minutes
2 units to the left then translated 3 units up. (Note the change to the domain.)
a Specify the rule of the transformed graph.
b Determine its exact range.
2 marks
4 The diagram at right shows the graph of y = sin (x)
and a second graph formed by transforming sin (x)

by carrying out dilation(s) followed by
translation(s).
a Write down the transformations (type,
direction and quantity) necessary to create the
second graph.
b Write down the equation of the second graph.
0 /6
y = sin (x)
4 marks
5 Find the exact solutions of the equation sin (3x) cos (3x) = 0 for 0 x .
2 marks
6 Specify the range of the function:
f :[
) R, f ( x ) = 2 tan(2 x ) + 1.
4
2 marks
7 Solve the equation e2x ex = 2 exactly for x.
2 marks
1,
8 For f : [
3] R, where f (x) = x sin (x):
a sketch f
b determine the minimum value of f (x)
c estimate the maximum value of f (x) to 1 decimal place.
1 If y = 2abx 1 + 5, then x is equal to:
y
loga ( 5) + 1
2
a
b
d
y5
+b
2b
y5
a 2
+1
b
loga (
y5
) +1
2
b
2 The solution set of the equation e2x 3ex = 4 over R is:

a {1, 4}
d {loge (1), loge (4)}
B {4}
e {loge (1), loge (4)}
4 marks
m U ltip l e
C ho iC e
y5
+1
2
C
b
12 minutes

one mark.
C {loge (4)}
3 The graph of the function f :[2, 5] R, f (x) = loge (x) is reflected in the y-axis, translated 2 units to the
left then translated 3 units up. The domain of the new graph is:
B [4, 1]
e not defined
a [7, 1]
d [loge (7), loge ( 4)]
C [7, 4]
4 The function f : [1, ) R, where f (x) = x2 + 1 has as its inverse function:
a f 1: R R, where f 1( x ) = x 1
B f 1: [2, ] R, where f 1( x ) =
1
x2 + 1
1
1
e f 1: [ , ) R, where f 1( x ) =
2
x2 + 1
d f 1: R+ {0} R, where f ( x ) =
C f 1: [1, ] R, where f 1 ( x ) =
x 1
x 1
5 The equation a sin (3 ) b = 0 has = 2 as one solution. Which of the following could also be a solution?
a 3 + 6
2
+2
d
3
+2
2
+6
e
3
B
C 2
Exam practice 2
315
6 The graph shown could be the graph of:

y
3a
0
a
a 2a cos
2
B 2a cos
T + a
2
d 2a sin(
( )) + a
T
2
2 + 1)
T
+ a
T
T ( ) + 1)
e a (sin
2
2
C a (cos
7 The graph of y = 3 cos (2x) 1 is shown below. If a and b are two adjacent x-intercepts, b a is equal to:
y
20 minutes
C 3a
1 An extensive study has been made of the population of
316
2a
500
silver-banded lorikeets in an area proposed for a wind farm.
400
The variation in estimated numbers over a number of months is
300
recorded in the graph below. It is suggested that the relationship
200
could be modelled by a sine function of the form
100
P(t) = a sin (b(t + c)) + d, where P is the bird population and
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t is the time in months since estimates commenced.
Months
a What is the amplitude of the sine model (to the nearest
10 birds)?
b What is the period (to the nearest month)?
c What is the mean population (to the nearest 10 birds)?
d After how many months is the population a minimum?
e Determine the values of a, b, c and d in the model P(t) = a sin b(t + c) + d.
f What was the initial bird population when the observations commenced?
g A second researcher conducts observations over a 10-year period at the same time each
year and records the following estimates for the population.
Time (months)
0
60
120
diGital doC
doc-1609
Solutions
exam practice 2
d 2 a
Bird population
e xt ended
r e S p onS e
9 x
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
4 marks
1 mark
Population
500
370
274
She believes that the population can be modelled by an exponential function of the
form Q(t) = Ae kt, where t is the time in months since the first estimate was calculated.
Determine the values of A and k.
h Explain how both researchers results are consistent with the model:
P( x )Q( x )
Population =
.
500
2 marks
3 marks
Chapter 7
Differentiation
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9208
10 Quick Questions
Chapter CONteNtS
7a
7B
7C
7D
7e
7F
7G
7h
7I
7J
Review gradient and rates of change

Limits and differentiation from first principles
The derivative of xn
The chain rule
The derivative of ex
The derivative of loge (x)
The derivatives of sin (x), cos (x) and tan (x)
The product rule
The quotient rule
Mixed problems on differentiation
review gradient and rates

of change
7a
The gradient is a measure of how one quantity changes with respect to another quantity; in other words,
the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another quantity. The gradient (or slope) is the measure
of how the vertical distance (the rise) changes with respect to the horizontal distance (the run). Speed is
the measure of how distance travelled changes with respect to the time taken; another way of saying this
is that speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time.
y
Constant rates
(1, 15)
When the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another quantity does not
change, the rate is constant. If the rate of pay for babysitting is fixed at $15 an hour,
this is a constant rate. This means that a babysitter would be paid $15 for 1 hour
and $150 for 10 hours. A constant rate can be represented graphically by a straight
line.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
(0, 0) x
average rates
An average rate of change is the rate of change over a period of time. A car travelling at 60 km/h is
probably not actually registering that speed at every moment of the distance travelled; more likely,
its speed varies above and below 60 km/h. The average rate of change between two points can be
represented by the gradient of a straight line joining the two points.
y
(0, 0)
(1, 0) x
(1_2, 33_4)
Chapter 7 Differentiation
317
Instantaneous rates
(2, 3)
If the police want to find how fast a car is travelling, they measure the
speed at a particular instant. This is known as instantaneous rate of change.
(1, 0) (1, 0)
Graphically, thisis found by drawing a tangent to the curve at a particular
x
0
(3, 0)
point and finding the gradient of the tangent. If a section of the graph shows
the function is increasing, the gradient of the tangent is positive, and if a
(0.15, 3.08)
section of the graph shows the function is decreasing, the gradient of the
tangent is negative.
For example, for the curve y = (x 1)(x + 1)(x + 3), the gradient is positive when x<2 and when
x > 0.15; the gradient is negative when 2 < x < 0.15; and the gradient is zero when x = 2 and x = 0.15.
Graphing the gradient function from the graph

of a function
Differentiation is the process of calculating the gradient
y
f(x)
function from a given function. It can be used to find the
There is a break in the
gradient of a curve at a particular point and to find the
graph at x = 1(discontinuous),
maximum and minimum values of a function.
so gradient does not exist
Derivatives can be found at a given point if:
at x = 1. That is, gradient
exists for R\{1}.
1. the function is continuous at that point
x
0
2. the function is smooth at that point.
1
A function is continuous if there are no breaks,
jumps or asymptotes on its graph. The gradient
does not exist where the function is not continuous. An
example is shown at right.
A function is smooth if there are no sharp points on its graph.
The gradient does not exist where the function is not smooth. An example is shown below.
y
f (x) is not smooth at x = 2
so gradient does not exist
at x = 2. That is, gradient
exists for R\{2}.
0
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
2
f(x)
The gradient of a function exists wherever the function is smooth and continuous. That is, the gradient
of a function exists at a point providing only one tangent can be drawn at that point. An example is
shown below.
y
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
f(x)
See more
Watch
a video about
differentiable
functions.
The gradient of f(x)

exists for x R as
f(x) is smooth and
continuous.
x
A function is not differentiable where there is a gap, hole or asymptote, a sharp corner or an end point.
Gradient function of straight lines

In general, for straight lines in the form f (x) = mx + c (or y = mx + c), the rule for the gradient is
f (x) = m, that is, a horizontal straight line through y = m.
318
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 1
For the straight line function shown, sketch the graph

of its gradient function.
f(x)
2
thINK
WrIte/DraW
Find the gradient of f (x) using m =
Sketch the graph of y =

gradient.
1
2
rise
.
run
m=
1
2
to represent the
y
1
2
f'(x)
x
Note: The domain of f (x) is R as f (x) is smooth and continuous.
Gradient function of quadratic functions

The gradient function of a polynomial function is also a polynomial function but the degree is reduced
by 1. That is, the gradient function of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is of the form y = mx + c. So the gradient of a
quadratic function is a linear function.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 2
Sketch the graph of the gradient function for the quadratic

function shown and state its domain.
0
thINK
Find when f (x) = 0.
f (x) = 0 when x = 1.
Find when f (x) > 0.
f (x) > 0 when x > 1.
Find when f (x) < 0.
f (x) < 0 when x < 1.
Sketch f (x).
Find where f (x) is smooth and continuous and

hence find the domain of f (x).
WrIte/DraW
f(x)
f'(x)
The domain is R.
319
Gradient function of cubic functions

The gradient function of a cubic is a quadratic function.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 3
For the cubic function shown, sketch the gradient function and state its domain.
tUtOrIaL
eles-1175
Worked example 3
y
f(x)
thINK
WrIte/DraW
Find when f (x) = 0.
f (x) = 0 when x = 3 and x = 1.
Find when f (x) > 0.
f (x) > 0 when x < 3 and x > 1.
Find when f (x) < 0.
f (x) < 0 when 3 < x < 1.
Sketch the graph of the gradient function.
Find the domain by determining where f (x) is

smooth and continuous.
f'(x)
The domain is R.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 4
For the function f (x) shown, state the domain of the gradient function f (x).
y
1 0 2
x
f(x)
thINK
The function is smooth and continuous everywhere

except at x = 1 (discontinuous) and x = 2 (not
smooth).
320
WrIte
The domain = R \{1, 2}.
review gradient and rates of change
exercise 7a
1 We1 For each straight line function shown below, sketch the graph of its gradient function.
y
f(x)
3
1
x
f(x)
2
0
1
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9260
SkillSHEET 7.1
Gradient
positive, negative and
zero
f(x)
y
0
f(x)
y
f(x)
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9261
SkillSHEET 7.2
Gradient function
3
x
0
5
2 MC a The gradient of the line in the graph below is:

a 1
D
B 2
1
2
C 0
y
f(x)
2
0 1
b The graph of the gradient function in the graph above is represented by which of the diagrams
below?
a
f'(x)
f'(x)
y
1
2
0 1
f'(x)
x
0
y
x
f'(x)
f'(x)
0
321
3 We2
Sketch the graph of the gradient function for each quadratic function shown below.
g(x)
g(x)
g(x)
g(x)
0
1
g(x)
4 MC a The gradient of the function shown in the graph below is:

a always increasing
B always decreasing
C decreasing then increasing
D increasing then decreasing
e constant
y
f(x)
b The gradient function for the graph in question 4a is shown by which of the graphs shown below?
a
f'(x)
f'(x)
D
f'(x)
0
f'(x)
5 We3
For each cubic function f (x) graphed below, sketch the gradient function.
x
f(x)
322
f(x)
f'(x)
y
Gradient = 0
f(x)
f(x)
Gradient = 0
f (x)
f(x)
f (x)
y
Gradient = 0
2
6 MC a The figure at right has a positive gradient where:
a 1 < x < 2
B x < 1 only
f(x)
C x > 2 only
D x < 1 and x > 2
e x>0
b The figure above has a negative gradient where:

a x > 1
B x<2
C 1 < x < 2
D x < 1 and x > 2

e x<0
c The graph of the gradient function for the figure above is:
y
y
a
B
f '(x)
y
f '(x)
1 0
1 0
f '(x)
2x
1 0
f '(x)
f '(x)
1 0
1 0
323
7 For each the functions graphed below, state the domain (where applicable) where the gradient:
i is equal to zero
ii is positive
iii is negative
iv does not exist.
a
y
f(x)
1
0
e
g(x)
1 0
f(x)
f
g(x) y
0
1
0
x
f(x)
f(x)
g(x)
Gradient = 0
x
2 0
f(x)
g(x)
x
Gradient = 0
4
g
y
5
1 0
0
y
4
2
2 0
4
f(x)
8 Sketch the gradient function for each function in question 7.

9 We 4 For each function f (x) graphed below and on the top of the opposite page, state the domain of
the gradient function f (x). (Do not sketch the graph of f (x).)
a
y
f(x)
f(x)
2
0
8 x
4
e
3
d
f(x)
f
f(x)
f(x)
1
f(x)
324
f(x)
f(x)
f(x)
2
f(x)
5
Limits and differentiation

from first principles
7B
The limit of a function, f(x), is the value that the function approaches as x approaches a given value.
If the function is continuous at the point in question then the limit exists and can be found by direct substitution.
y
f(x)
Continuous
Units: 3 & 4
1
0
eLeSSON
eles-0093
Limits and
differentiation
from first principles
For example, the limit of f (x) = 3x + 1 as x approaches 1 is denoted as:

lim (33 x + 1).
x 1
In this example f (x) is a continuous function at x = 1. (In fact, it is continuous for all values of x.)
Therefore, the limit is found by direct substitution, that is:
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
lim (33 x + 1)
1) = 33(1)) + 1 = 4.
x 1
If the function is discontinuous at the point in question, then the limit exists if the function is
approaching the same value from the left as it is from the right.
For example:
For example:
y
f(x)
Discontinuous
3
Discontinuous
at x = 2
f(x)
5
3
2 0
0
The limit exists at x = 2, as the function is

approaching 3 from the left and from the right.
Therefore:
lim f ( x ) = 3
x2
The limit does not exist at x = 2, as the function

is approaching 3 from the left and 5 from the right.
That is, if the left-hand limit is not equal to the
right-hand limit, then the limit does not exist.
325
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 5
x2 + 5 x + 6
x 0
x+3
x)
a lim(( x 2 3 x
Evaluate the following limits.
b lim
x 5
thINK
WrIte
a x2 3x is continuous for all values of x.
a 1 Decide whether f (x) is continuous at x=5.
lim ( x 2 3 x)
x ) = 52 3(5)
If so, substitute x = 5 into f (x).

2
x 5
= 10
Evaluate.
b f(x) is continuous except at x = 3 (asymptote).
b 1 Decide whether f (x) is continuous at x=0.
x 2 + 5 x + 6 0 2 + 5(0
55(0)
(0)) + 6
=
x0
x+3
0+3
If so, substitute x = 0 into f (x).
tUtOrIaL
eles-1218
Worked example 5
lim
Evaluate.
6
3
=2
If direct substitution makes the denominator zero, the limit of a rational expression can be evaluated by
first simplifying the expressions and then using direct substitution.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 6
Evaluate lim
x 3
x2 + 5 x + 6
.
x+3
thINK
WrIte
x 2 + 5x + 6
( x + 3)( x + 2)
= lim
3
x
3
x+3
x+3
If the limit cant be found because the denominator

becomes zero, factorise the numerator.
Simplify by cancelling.
= lim ( x + 2), x 3
Substitute x = 3.
= 3 + 2
Evaluate.
= 1
lim
x 3
Note: f(x) does not exist for x = 3, but its limit as x 3 does exist.
Differentiation using first principles

Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
The gradient function is the rule for the instantaneous rate of change of a given function at any point. It
also gives the gradient of the tangent drawn at any point of the given function.
Consider the chord (straight line) PQ to the curve below.
f(x)
Q
y
f(x + h)
f(x + h) f(x)
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
f(x)
Do more
Interact with
first principles.
P
h
x
The gradient of PQ =
x+h
rise f ( x + h) f ( x )
=
run
h
As Q moves along the curve towards P, the value of h gets smaller and smaller. Or as Q gets as close
as possible to P, h 0, and PQ becomes a tangent at P. The gradient of the curve at a point P is the
gradient of the tangent at that point.
326
f ( x + h) f ( x )
, h 0.
h
Finding the gradient this way is known as differentiation from first principles.
Differentiating f (x) gives f (x) or f (x) is the derivative of f (x).
dy
dy
is the derivative of y with respect to x.
Differentiating y gives , or
dx
dx
That is, gradient at point P is f ( x ) = lim
h0
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 7
Find the gradient of the chord PQ drawn to the curve f (x) = x2 + 2 in the diagram.
y
Q [1 + h, f(1 + h)]
P [1, f(1)]
x
0
thINK
Find the gradient and simplify.

rise
Gradient =
.
run
WrIte
f ( x + h) f ( x )
,h0
h
f (1 + h)
h) f (1)
=
h
2
(1 + h)
h) + 2 (12 + 2)
=
h
3 + 2h + h 2 3
=
h
2
2h + h
=
h
h(2 + hh)
=
h
=2+h
The gradient is 2 + h.
Gradient =
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 8
Find the gradient of f (x) = x2 1 at the point where x = 2 by:

a sketching a graph and finding the gradient of the tangent at x = 2
b differentiating using first principles.
thINK
a 1 Sketch the graph of f (x) over a domain which

2
includes the given value of x.

Construct a tangent at the given point on the
curve. (It is difficult to be accurate.)
WrIte/DraW
y
8
7
(3, 6)
6
5
4
3
2
11
1
0 12345
2
3
4
5
(0, 5)
3
327
Find the gradient of this tangent by

rise
evaluating run .
b 1 Find f (x) using first principles.
Gradient of tangent at x = 2 is
11
approximately = 3 23 .
3
f ( x + h) f ( x )
b f ( x ) = lim
,h0
h0
h
( x + h)2 1 ( x 2 1)
h0
h
= lim
x 2 + 2 xh
xh + h 2 1 x 2 + 1
h0
h
2 xh + h 2
= lim
h0
h
h(2 x + h)
= lim
h0
h
= lim
lim (2
(2 x + h)
= lim
h0
= 2x
2
Evaluate f (2) to find the gradient at x = 2.
f (2) = 2(2)
=4
Note: Answer a (3 23 ) is very close to

answer b (4).
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 9
Use first principles to differentiate g(x) = x2 x.

thINK
WrIte
Find g(x + h) and simplify.
g(x + h) = (x + h)2 (x + h)
= x2 + 2xh + h2 x h
Find g (x) using first principles.
g ( x ) = lim
g( x + h) gg(( x )
, h 0,
h0
h
x 2 + 2 xh
xh + h 2 x h ( x 2 x )
= lim
h0
h
2
2
x + 2 xxhh + h x h x 2 + x
= lim
h0
h
2 xh + h 2 h
h0
h
h(2 x + h 1)
= lim
h0
h
= lim
= lim
lim (2
(2 x + h 1)
h0
= 2x 1
Limits and differentiation from

first principles
exercise 7B
1 We 5
Evaluate the following limits.
a lim ( x + 4)
c lim (8 3h)
d lim ( x 2 5)
x2
h0
328
lim (2 p 3)
p 2
x 3
e
g
i
lim ( x 2 + 4 x 3)
lim (10 x + x 2 x 3 )
x 1
x 2
lim ( x 3 5 x + 2)
x 3
x 2 + 5x + 6
x0
x+2
lim
x 2 2x 3
x 1
x3
lim
2 We 6 By first simplifying the rational expression, evaluate the following limits.
3x 2 3x
x 1 x 1
x 2 + 3x
x0
x
b lim
a lim
c
2x 2 + 2x
1 x +1
x2 4
x2 x 2
lim
d lim
x 2 + 3x + 2
x 1
x +1
3
h 8
g lim
h2 h 2
x2 + 4x 5
i lim
x 5
x+5
e
lim
x 2 5x 6
x 6
x6
lim
lim
x 3 + 27
3 x+3
3 Evaluate the following.

a lim (3 x 4)
x 3
d lim
x 1
+4
x+2
x2 9
3 x+3
x2 + x 6
x2
x2
lim
c lim
h3 64
h4 h 4
x3 + 1
h lim
x 1 x 1
x3
e lim
x 2 + 3x
x 3 x 1
g lim
f
i
lim ( x 3 + x 2 6)
x 2
x 2 + 7 x + 12
4
x+4
lim
Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following diagram. Consider the chord PQ drawn to the curve
f (x) as shown.
4 We 7 Find the gradient of the chord PQ drawn to the curve f (x)=x2+ 1 in the diagram below.
y
f(x) = x2+1
Q (2+h, f(2+h))
P (2, f(2))
1
0
5 MC The gradient of the tangent at P in the diagram is:

a h
B 4+h
C 4h
D 4 + h2
e 4
6 a Find the gradient of the chord PQ to the function
f (x) = x(x + 2) if the x-coordinates of P and Q are 1 and 1 + h respectively.

b Hence, find the gradient of the function at P.
7 If the gradient of the chord joining two points on the curve f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3 is
find the gradient of the curve at the point where x = 1.
f (1 + h)
h) f (1)
,
h
8 We 8 Find the gradient of g (x) = 4 x2 at the point where x = 2 by:

a sketching a graph and finding the gradient of the tangent at x = 2
b differentiating using first principles.
9 Find the gradient of h (x) = 2x2 6x at x = 1 by:
a sketching a graph to find the gradient of the tangent at x = 1
b differentiation from first principles.
329
10 MC The gradient of a function f (x) at the point where x = 3 is:
f ( x + h) f ( x )
f (3 + h)
h) f ( x)
x
B lim
h0
h0
h
h
f (3 + h)
h) f (3)
f ( x + h) f ( x )
D
e
h
h
11 We 9 Use first principles to differentiate f (x) if:
a f (x) = 3x + 5
b f (x) = x2 3
d f (x) = (x 4)(x + 2)
e f (x) = 8 3x2
dy
12 Use first principles to find
if:
dx
a y = 9 4x
b y = x2 + 3x
3
d y = x 4x
e y = 5x 2x3
a
lim
7C
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
lim
h0
f (3 + h)
h) f (3)
h
c
f
f (x) = x2 + 6x
f (x) = x3 + 2
c
f
y = 3x2 + 8x 5
y = x2 2x
the derivative of xn
Instead of using the procedure of differentiating from first principles, rules can be applied to find
derivatives. These rules can be derived from first principles and have been looked at in detail in
Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS.
If f (x) = axn then f (x) = naxn 1, where a and n are constants and n is real.
If f (x) = c then f (x) = 0, where c is a constant. (This is because c = x0 and, using the rule, the
derivative of x0 is 0 x 1 or 0.)
dy
= 7 x 6 . If f (x) = 5x4 then f (x) = 20x3.
For example, if y = x7 then
dx
If f (x) = g(x) + h(x) then f (x) = g(x) + h(x), that is, differentiate each term of a function separately.
If f (x) = a g(x), where a is a constant, then f (x) = a g(x).
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 10
Differentiate y = x 4
3 2
x + 7.
2
thINK
WrIte
y = x 4 32 x 2 + 7
Write the equation.
Differentiate each of the three terms separately.
dy
= 4 x 4 1 32 ((2)
2) x 2 1 + 0
dx
= 4x3 3x
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 11
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Find the derivative of:

1
1
a f ( x) = +
x
x
b f ( x) =
thINK
x+ x
.
x2
WrIte
1
1
and
using negative indices.
x
x
Rewrite
Differentiate each term.
a f (x) =
f ( x ) = x 1 + x
f ( x ) = x
=
330
Write the function in the form originally given.
1 1
+
x
x
1 1
x 2
1
x2
1
2
12 x
x
3
2
2
1
2 x3
1
1
2
f (x) =
x+ x
x2
x + x2
x2
Rewrite x using indices.
Separate the function into two terms expressed in

index form.
x x2
= 2+ 2
x
x
Simplify each term.
=x
Simplify f ( x ) .
+x
3
2
3 3 1
x 2
2
3 5
= x 2 x 2
2
1
3
= 2 5
x
2x 2
f ( x ) = 1x
1 1
1
3
x2 2 x5
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 12
If f ( x ) = x 3 2 x 2 +
a f '(x)
8
, use a CAS calculator to find:
x
b f '(2).
thINK
WrIte
a f1(x) = x3 2x2
a 1 Define the function that is to be differentiated.

2
d
8
f1(x) = 3x2 4x 2
x
dx
Use the differentiation feature of a CAS calculator

to find the derivative of the function.
b If f1(x) = 3x2 4x
find f1(2).
exercise 7C
8
x
8
,
x2
b f1(2) = 2
Find the derivative of each of the following.

a y = x6
b y = 3x2
20
d y=x
e y = 4x3
x4
g y = 12 x 3
h y=
3
j y = 8x5
2 We10
Differentiate each of the following.
1
a f (x) = 4x3 + 5x
c y = 5x4
f y = 5x
i
b g(x) = 5x2 + 6x + 1
c h( x ) = 9 +
d h(x) = 4 3x + 6x2 + x3
e g(x) = 7x11 + 6x5 8
g f (x) = 6x + 3x2 4x3
h g( x ) = 7 x 2 4 x +
f (x) =
(x2
2
3
y = 10
f (x) =
x3
5
2x5
x3
+ + 10
5
3
h (x) = (x + 4)(x 1)
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9262
SkillSHEET 7.3
Index laws
+ 2x)(3x 6)
331
3 We11
a
2
x3
5
d 4x 4
g x
1
2
3
4x
1
3
c x3
b 3 x
x3
x+3
x
2
k
5x 2
+ x3
4x +
x 2x 2
i
l
1
+ x2
x
x2 + x3
x
2
+ 3x 2
x
4
n x+x
x 3
4 We12 If f (x) =
10x + 5 find:
a f (x)
5 MC If f (x) = x2 6x then f (4) is equal to:
2x5
B 12
a 8
b f (2).
C 12
D 2
e 16
D 8
e 0
6 MC The value of f (9) if f ( x ) = x 2 + x 2 10 x is:

1
C 12 12
B 18
a 2
1
+ 3 x 8.
x2
5
8 Find the gradient of the curve y = 4 at the point where a x = 2 and b x = 0.
x
1
3
2x x 2 +
9 Find the gradient of f ( x ) = 2x
at the point where x equals:
x
a 1
b 4
c 9.
7 Find g (2) if g( x ) =
10 If g (x) =
x + 4 x , find:
a g (x)
b g(1)
c g (8)
d g (8).
11 Show that the derivative of y = k, where k is a constant, is zero.

12 For each of the following:
i expand the brackets
a (x + 1)2
d (2x + 1)3
ii differentiate the expanded expression

b (x + 1)3
e (3x + 1)2
iii factorise the derivative.

c (2x + 1)2
f (3x + 1)3
13 Using the results of question 12 give the derivative of (ax + b)n in factorised form. (a, b, n are constants.)
7D
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
332
the chain rule
A function which can be expressed as a composition of two simpler functions is called a composite
function. For example, y = (x + 3)2 can be expressed as y = u2 where u=x+ 3.
That is, to obtain y from x, the first function to be performed is to add 3 to x(u=x+3), then this
function has to be squared ( y = u2).
Composite functions can be differentiated using the chain rule. For example, using the previous
function, y = (x + 3)2:
Let u = x + 3, so y = u2.
du
dy
Then
= 1 and
= 2u.
dx
du
dy
and dy = dy du . This is known as the chain rule. It is known as the
dx
dx du dx
chain rule because u provides the link between y and x.
dy
Now
= 2u 1
dx
= 2(x + 3) 1 (replacing u with x + 3)
= 2(x + 3)
The chain rule is used when it is necessary to differentiate a function of a function as above.
But we require
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 13
If y = (3x 2)3 is expressed as y = un, find:

du
dy
a
b
and hence
dx
du
thINK
Express y as a function of u.
Differentiate y with respect to u.
b 1 Express u as a function of x.
dy
using the chain rule.
dx
Replace u as a function of x.
y = (3x 2)3
Let y = u3 where u = 3x 2
dy
= 3u 2
du
u = 3x 2
du
=3
dx
Differentiate u with respect to x.
c 1 Find
tUtOrIaL
eles-1176
Worked example 13
WrIte
dy
.
dx
dy dy du
=
= 3u2 3 = 9u2
dx du dx
= 9(3x 2)2
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 14
If f ( x ) =
1
2 x2
3x
, find f (x). Check your answer using a CAS calculator.
thINK
WrIte
f (x) =
Write the equation.
Express f (x) in index form.
Express u as a function of x.
du
= 4x 3
dx
Find f (x) using the chain rule.
3
dy
= f ( x ) = 12 u 2 (4 x 3)
dx
Replace u as a function of x and simplify.
3x
y = (2 x 2 3 x )
1
2
Let y = u 2 where u = 2x2 3x

dy 1 32
= 2u
du
u = 2x2 3x
=
=
=
Define the function to be differentiated using a CAS

calculator.
f1 ( x ) =
10
Use the differentiation feature of the CAS calculator

to find the derivative of the above function.
f1 ( x ) =
11
Note the answer from a CAS calculator is not

expressed in the same format obtained previously.
2x 2
f ( x ) =
1
2 (4 x
3) (2 x 2 3 x )
(4 x
2(22 x 2
3
2
3)
3
3 xx) 2
3 4x
2 (2
(2 x 2 3 xx))3
1
2 x 2 3x
(4 x
3)
2 x (2 x 33)) x (2 x 3)
(4 x
3)
2 x (2 x 3) x (2 x 3)
333
A quicker way to apply the chain rule when a function can be expressed in index form is as follows.
If f (x) = [g(x)]n then f (x) = n[g(x)]n 1 g (x). That is, differentiate the bracket and then what is
inside the bracket; outside then inside.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 15
Find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 2 x)3.

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
f (x) = (x2 2x)3
Let g(x) equal what is inside the bracket.
g(x) = x2 2x
Find g (x).
g(x) = 2x 2
Use the rule f (x) = n[g(x)]n 1 g(x) to

differentiate f (x).
f (x) = 3(x2 2x)3 1 (2x 2)

= 3(x2 2x)2 [2(x 1)]
= 6(x 1)(x2 2x)2
Simplify f (x) as far as possible.
f (x) = 6(x 1)[x(x 2)x(x 2)]

= 6x2(x 1)(x 2)2
the chain rule
exercise 7D
1 If each of the following functions are expressed in the form y = un, state i u and ii n.
b y=
a y = (5x 4)3
d y=
1
7 4x
3x + 1
c y=
e y = (5x + 3)
1
(2 x + 3)4
4
y = (4 3 x ) 3
2 MC If y = (x + 3)5 is expressed as y = u5 then:

a u = (x + 3)5
B u=x+3
D u=3
If each of the following composite functions are expressed as y = un, find:
3 We13
i
dy
du
du
nd
a
dx
ii
a y = (3x + 2)2
d y=
he
nce
iii
dy
.
dx
1
2x 5
3
f y=
3x 2
b y = (7 x)3
1
(4 2 x )4
e y=
g y = 3(2x2 + 5x)5
j
C u=x
e u = x5
c y=
5x + 2
2
h y = (4x 3x2)
1
y = x +
y = 4(5 6x)
For questions 4, 5 and 6 below, y = x 2 3 x + 2 is expressed as y = un.

dy
4 MC
is equal to:
du
1
a 12 u
D
B u 2
3
1 u2
2
du
is equal to:
dx
a 2x 3
1
1 u2
2
1
2 u
5 MC
334
1
2
x2
3
2
x +1
B x2 3x + 2
e x3
C x2 3x
6 MC Using the chain rule, dy is equal to:
dx
2x 3
a
u
D 2 (2 x 3)
2x 3
x2
1 (2 x
2
3x + 2
x 2 3x + 2
2 u
3)( x 2 3 x + 2) 2
Use the chain rule to find the derivative of the following.

b y = (2x 5)3
c f (x) = (4 3x)5
d y = 3x 2 4
a y = (8x + 3)4
e f ( x ) = ( x 2 4 xx) 3
1
g g( x ) = x
g(x) = (2x3 + x)
1
h y = (x2 3x)
x
1
, find f (x).
4x + 7
8 We 14 If f ( x ) =
9 Use the chain rule to find the derivative of the following.
(Hint: Simplify first using index notation and the laws of indices.)
6x 5
a y=
b f (x) =
6x 5
10 We 15 Find the derivative of:

a f (x) = (x2 + 5x)8
c f (x) =
( x 2 + 22))2
x2 + 2
b y = (x3 2x)2
3
1
( x 3 + 2 x 2 7) 5
d y = (2 x 4 3 x 2 + 1) 2
11 If f (x) = (2x 1)6, find f (3).
12 If g (x) = (x2 3x) 2, find g(2).

13 If f ( x ) =
x 2 2 x + 1,
1 find:
b f (x)
d f (x) when x = 2.
a f (3)
c f (3)
14 Find the gradient of the function h( x ) =
15 Find the value of f (1) if f ( x ) =
3 x 2 + 2 x at the point where x = 2.
3
.
5 4x
16 If f (x) = (2x 1)5 and f (x) = 10 (2x 1)n, find the value of n.
17 If f (x) = (3x + 2)7 and f (x) = a (3x + 2)6 3, find the value of a.
18 If f (x) = (5x 3)10 and f (x) = 10m (5x 3)9, find the value of m.
7e
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9209
WorkSHEET 7.1
the derivative of e x
If f (x) = ex then using first principles:

f ( x + h) f ( x )
f ( x ) = lim
,h0
h0
h
= lim
x+h
h0
ex
e xeh e x
= lim
h0
h
e x (e h 1)
h0
h
= lim
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
eh 1
h0 h
= e x lim
335
eh 1
can be deduced by using a calculator and substituting values of h close to zero.
h0 h
Note that lim
eh 1
h
0.01
0.0001
0.000 001
1.0050
1.000 05
1.000 000
eh 1
= 1.
h0 h
Therefore, f (x) = ex 1
= ex
That is, lim
If f (x) = ex then f (x) = ex.
Note: ex is the only function which has itself as a derivative.

WOrKeD eXaMpLe 16
Differentiate y = e
5x
thINK
WrIte
5x
Write the equation.
y=e
Express u as a function of x and find
du
.
dx
dy
Express y as a function of u and find .
du
Let u = 5x so
dy
dx
Find
du
= 5
dx
dy
= eu
du
y = eu so
dy u
= 5e
dx
5x
= 5e
Worked example 16 shows that if f (x) = ekx then f (x) = kekx.

WOrKeD eXaMpLe 17
Find the derivative of y = e2x + 1.

thINK
WrIte
y = e2x + 1
Write the equation.
du
.
dx
Let u = 2x + 1 so
Express y as a function of u and find
dy
.
du
y = eu so
Find
dy
dx
dy
= eu 2
dx
= 2eu
= 2e2x + 1
du
=2
dx
dy
= eu
du
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 18
Differentiate:
a f (x) = ex(ex 2)
thINK

2
336
Expand.
b f ( x) =
e 2 x 2 e x
.
ex
WrIte
a f (x) = ex(ex 2)
= e2x 2ex
f (x) = 2e2x 2ex
Differentiate.
Factorise in order to leave the answer in the form it

was given.
= 2ex(ex 1)
b f (x) =
e 2 x 2e x
ex
e 2 x 2e x
x
ex
e
Write each term in the numerator over each term in

the denominator.
Divide the numerator of each term by its

denominator using the laws of indices.
= e2x x 2e
= ex 2e 2x
Write your answer in the form it was given.
x x
f (x) = ex + 4e 2x
4
= ex + 2x
e
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 19
3
Find the derivative of y = ex
x.
thINK
WrIte
3
Write the equation.
y = ex
du
.
dx
dy
du
Let u = x3 x so
y = eu so
dy
dx
Find
du
= 3x 2 1
dx
dy
= eu
du
dy
= eu (3 x 2 1)
dx
= (3x2 1)eu
3
= (3x2 1)ex
This example shows that if f (x) = eg(x) then f (x) = g (x) e g (x).
exercise 7e
the derivative of ex
1 We 16
1x
a y = e10x
b y = e3
c y = e4
d y=e x
g y = 6e 2x
e y = 2e3x
h y = 5e0.2x
f
i
2 We 17 Find the derivative of each of the following.

a y = e6x 2
b y = e8 6x
7
2x
d y = 4e
e y = 3e8x + 1
6
9x
g y = 10e
h y = 5e3x + 4
j
x +1
y = 2e 2
k y = 3e
2 x
3
The derivative of y = e3x + 2 is equal to:

a
B (3x + 2)e3x + 2
3x
+
2
e 3xe3x
D 3xe
3 MC
3e3x + 2
4 We 18 Differentiate each of the following.

a f (x) = 2(ex + 1)
b f (x) = 3e2x(ex + 1)
y = 4e 5x
y = 2e 11x
c y = 2e5x + 3
f y = 2e6 5x
i y = 6e 7x
l
x +5
y = 4e 4
C 3e3x
4x
c f (x) = 5(e
+ 2x)
337
d f (x) =
(ex
3e3 x + e
e f (x) =
ex
+ 2)(e + 3)
6 x
h f (x) = 4e5x + 2x2 e

2
2
a y = ex + 3x
b y = ex 3x + 1
2
2
5x
d f (x) = e
e f (x) = e6 3x + x
2 7x
2
4x
2x
3x
g h(x) = 3e
h y = 5e
k g(x) = e(x + 2)
1
3
n h(x) = e(x
6 MC The derivative of 6ex

a
5
3
D 6(x3 5x)ex 5x
3x2
c y = ex 2x
3
f g(x) = ex +33x 2
(2x
+
1)
i y=e
f (x) = e(4 x)
m f ( x ) = e( x +1)
4e 7 x 2e x
e 2x
g f (x) = ex + e2
f (x) =
5x
y=e
3x + 4
+ 3x)2
is equal to:
3
B 6(3x2 5)ex 5x
2
e 6(3x2 5)e3x 5
2
C (3x2 5)ex 5x
7 If f (x) = 5e9 4x, find the exact value of f (2).

2 3x + 2
8 If g (x) = 2ex
, give the exact value of g(0).

3
9 Find the exact value of h(1) if h(x) = 5ex + 2x.
7F
the derivative of log e (x)
The inverse of the function f (x) = ex is f 1(x) = loge (x).

If y = loge (x) then ey = x, as shown in chapter 4, Exponential and logarithmic equations.
Let
x = ey
dx
= ey
dy
dy
1
But
=
dx
dx
dy
dy 1
=
Therefore,
.
dx x
But
ey = x,
dy 1
=
.
dx x
so
That is, if f (x) = loge (x) then f ' ( x) =
1
.
x
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 20
Differentiate y = loge (7x).

thINK
WrIte
y = loge (7x)
Write the equation.
du
.
dx
u = 7x, so
dy
.
du
y = loge (u), so
Find dy .
dx
If f (x) = loge (kx), where k is a constant then f ( x ) =
338
du
=7
dx
dy 1
=
7
dx 7 x
1
=
x
1
.
x
dy 1
=
du u
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 21
Find the derivative of y = 2 loge (3x 4).

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
y = 2 loge (3x 4)
Express u as a function of x.
Let u = 3x 4.
du
=3
dx
y = 2 loge (u)
Find
Replace u with 3x 4.
dy
dx
dy
1
= 2
du
u
2
=
u
dy 2
= 3
dx u
6
=
u
6
=
3x 4
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 22
Differentiate y = loge (x2 + 4x 1).

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
y = loge (x2 + 4x 1)
Let u equal the section in brackets.
Let u = x2 + 4x 1
du
= 2x + 4
dx
Find
Replace u with what is in the brackets.
dy
dx
y = loge (u)
dy 1
=
du u
dy 1
= (2 x + 4)
dx u
2x + 4
= 2
x + 4x 1
This example shows that if f (x) = loge [g(x)] then f ( x ) =
g ( x )
.
g( x )
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 23
Differentiate y = loge (x2 + 5x 2)2.

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
y = loge (x2 + 5x 2)2
Simplify the right side by using log laws.
y = 2 loge (x2 + 5x 2)
339
Express u as a function of x and find du .

dx
dy
du
3
4
Use the chain rule to find
u = x2 + 5x 2, so
du
= 2x + 5
dx
y = 2 loge (u), so dy = 2
du u
dy dy du
dy 2(22 x + 5)
=
=
so
dx du dx
dx
u
dy
.
dx
exercise 7F
2(22 x + 5)
x 2 + 5x 2
the derivative of loge (x)
1 If y = loge (4x) is expressed as y = loge (u), then find:
du
dx
dy
d
dx
a u
c
dy
du

a y = loge (10x)
b y = loge (5x)
d y = loge (6x)
e y = 3 loge (4x)
x
x
g y = loge
h y = loge
2
3
2 We 20
c y = loge (x)
f y = 6 loge (9x)
i
x
y = 4 loge
5
2x
y = 5loge
3
3 MC The derivative of loge (8x) is:

a 8
B 81 x
8
x
1
x
e loge (8)
4 MC To differentiate y = loge (3x + 7) using the chain rule:

a u would be used to represent:
a 3x + 7
b
a
D
B 3x
dy
du
and
are respectively:
du
dx
1
and 3x + 7
u
1
and 3
u
dy
Hence
is equal to:
dx
a 3
D
1
3x + 7
C loge (x)
D loge (3x)
1
and 3x
u
C 3 and
e x
1
3x
e 1 and 3
1
x
3
e
x
B
3
3x + 7

a
d
g
j
y = loge (2x + 5)
y = loge (8x 1)
y = loge (4 7x)
y = 4 loge (12x + 5)
b
e
h
k
y = loge (6x + 1)
y = loge (3 5x)
y = 6 loge (5x + 2)
y = 7 loge (8 9x)
6 We 22
Differentiate the following.
a y = loge (3x4)
b y = loge (x2 + 3)
d y = loge (x2 2x3 + x4)
340
e y = loge
2x + 1
c y = loge (3x 4)
f y = loge (2 x)
i y = 8 loge (4x 2)
c y = loge (x3 + 2x2 7x)

f
y = loge
3 4x
y = loge (5 x + 2) 3
loge (2
(2 3 x ) 5
h f ( x ) = log
f (x) = loge (3x 2)4
k f (x) = loge (5x + 8)
7 We 23 Differentiate each of the following.

a y = loge (x2 + 1)2
c y = loge (x2 2x + 3)3
1
f ( x ) = loge
x + 3
2
f ( x ) = loge
4 + 3 x
b y = loge (3 x2)2
d y = loge (x2 + 4x + 4)3
8 MC Using the chain rule the derivative of f (x) = loge (x2 5x + 2) would be:
a
x2
1
5x + 2
1
x (2 x 5)
5
5x + 2
2x 5
x 2 5x + 2
C 2x 5
x2
9 Find the gradient of the function f (x) = 6 loge (4 3x) when x = 1.

10 If g(x) = 3 loge (3x + 5) find the value of g(0).
11 Find the exact value of f (2) if f (x) = 3x2 + 4 loge (x2 + x).
12 If y = eloge (x), find:
dy
dx
b the exact gradient when i x = 1 ii x = 2 iii x = 4 iv x = 10. Can you explain this result?
a
13 If f (x) = eloge (x ), find:

a f (x)
b the exact value of:
i f (1)
2
ii f (5)
iii f (2).
the derivatives of sin (x), cos (x)

and tan (x)
7G
The derivatives of sin (x), cos (x) and tan (x) can be found by differentiation from first principles, but are
beyond the requirements of this course.
The derivatives of sin (x) and cos (x) can be shown by drawing the graphs of the gradient functions.
The domain of each of these functions is R, but we will use only part of that domain.
Consider the graph of f (x) = sin (x), domain [0, 2] shown at right.
y
3
f (x) = 0 when x = ,
(
, 1)
2 2
2
3
f (x) < 0 when < x <
0
2 x
2
2
3
( 3
, 1)
2
< x < 2
f (x) > 0 when 0 < x < and
2
2
By sketching the graph of the gradient function, we can see that it is y = cos (x).
y
1
Similarly, by sketching the graph of the gradient function of y = cos (x),

we can see that the derivative of y = cos (x) is y = sin (x).
The derivative of tan (x) can be found using the quotient rule
y
(which appears later in this chapter).
If f (x) = sin (x) then f (x) = cos (x).
1
If f (x) = cos (x) then f (x) = sin (x).
1
0
, which can be written
If f (x) = tan (x) then f ' ( x ) =
2 ( x)
1
cos
s
2 (x).
as sec
0
1
2 x
y = cos (x)
y = sin (x)
2 x
341
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 24
Find the derivative of y = sin (5x).

thINK
WrIte
Method 1:
1 Write the equation.
y = sin (5x)
du
.
dx
Let u = 5x so
du
=5
dx
dy
.
du
y = sin (u) so
dy
= cos((u)
du
Find
Replace u with 5x.
dy
dx
dy
= 5cos(u)
dx
= 5 cos (5x)
Method 2: Technology assisted

6
Ensure the CAS calculator that your are using is in

radians mode.
Define the function that is to be differentiated.
f 1(x) = sin (5x)
Use the differentiation feature of your CAS calculator

to find the derivative of the function.
f 1(x) = 5 cos (5x)
Worked example 24 shows that if f (x) = sin (ax), then f (x) = a cos (ax). Similarly, if f (x) = cos (ax),
then f (x) = a sin (ax).
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 25
Find the derivative of y = tan (3x).

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
y = tan (3x)
du
Express u as a function of x and find .
dx
Let u = 3x so
du
=3
dx
Express y as a function of u and find dy .

du
y = tan (u) so
dy
= secc 2 (u)
du
Find
dy
3
= 3 sec 2 (u) or
dx
coss2 (u)
dy
dx
= 3 sec 2 (3 x ) or
This example shows that if f(x) = tan (ax), then f (x) =
3
coss2 ((33 x )
a
or a sec2(ax).
cos2 ax
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 26
Differentiate y = cos (x2 + 2x 3).

thINK
342
Write the equation.
WrIte
y = cos (x2 + 2x 3)
du
.
dx
Let u = x2 + 2x 3 so
tUtOrIaL
eles-1185
Worked example 26
du
= 2x + 2
dx
3
4
5
Express y as a function of u and find dy .

du
dy
Find
dx
Replace u with the part in brackets in the rule and
simplify.
y = cos (u) so
dy
= sin(u)
du
dy
= si
sinn u (2 x + 2)
dx
= 2(x + 1) sin (x2 + 2x 3)
This example shows that the chain rule can be applied as follows.
If f (x) = sin [g(x)] then f (x) = g(x) cos [g(x)].
If f (x) = cos [g(x)] then f (x) = g(x) sin [g(x)].
g' ( x )
If f (x) = tan [g(x)] then f ' ( x ) =
coss2 [ g( x )]
= g(x) sec2 [ g(x)].
the derivatives of sin (x), cos (x)

and tan (x)
exercise 7G
1 We 24
a y = sin (8x)
b y = sin (6x)
d y = sin
c y = sin (x)
x
3
e y = sin
2x
y = sin
3
b y = cos (2x)
a y = cos (3x)
c y = cos
x
x
e y = cos
4
8
d y = cos
3 We 25
a y = tan (2x)
b y = tan (4x)
c y = tan
x
3
2x
y = cos
5
3x
4
x
5
d y = tan
4 MC a The derivative of sin (6x) is:

a 6 cos (6x)
D 6 cos (6x)
B 6 cos (x)
C 6 sin (x)
1 cos(6 x )
6
b The derivative of cos (4x) is:

a 4 sin (4x)
D 4 cos (4x)
c The derivative of sin (4x) is:

a 4 cos (4x)
D 4 cos (4x)
d The derivative of cos (8x) is:

a 8 cos (8x)
D 8 sin (x)
B 4 sin (x)
e 4 sin (4x)
C 4 sin (x)
B 4 cos (x)
e 4 sin (4x)
C 4 cos (4x)
B 8 sin (8x)
e 8 sin (x)
C 8 sin (8x)
e The derivative of tan (7x) is:
x
7
1
coss2 ((77 x )
D sec2 (7x)
1
7
a 7 tan
C 7 sec2 (7x)
sec(( x )
5 We 26 If y = sin (4x + 3) is expressed as y = sin (u), find:
dy
du
b
du
dx
6 If y = cos (3x + 1) is expressed as y = cos (u), find:
dy
du
a
b
du
dx
a
dy
dx
dy
dx
343

b y = sin (6 7x)
3x + 2
d y = sin
e y = 5 sin (2 x)
4
a y = sin (2x + 3)
c y = sin (5x 4)
f
8 Differentiate each of the following.

a y = cos (3x 2)
b y = cos (4x + 7)
d
2 x + 3
y = cos
3
c y = cos (6 5x)
e y = 4 cos (10 x)
9 Differentiate each of the following.

a y = tan (2x + 1)
b y = tan (8 x)
y = 6 cos (2x)
c y = tan (5x 2)
e y = 3 tan (x)
d y = tan (2(x + 1))
10 Find the derivative of each of the following.

a cos (x2 4x + 3)
b sin (10 5x + x2)
2
d cos (x + 7x)
e tan (4x x2)
c sin (ex)
f tan (x2 + 3x)
1
cos
x
l 3 cos [loge (10x)]
x
o 2cos
4
h sin (e4x)
g cos [loge (x)]

j
3x
y = 4sin
8
sin [loge (2x 1)]
k cos (2e3x)
m 4 tan (x3 + 2x2)
8 tan
3x
p cos (x2 + 2x) + sin (3x 9)

11 If f (x) = 3 sin (x2 + x), find f (1) (answer correct to 3 decimal places).
12 Find the gradient of the curve g (x) = 2 cos (x3 3x) at the point where x = 0.
13 For each of the following functions find:
i f (x) nd
a
ii the exact value of f .
a f (x) =
7h
esin (x)
b f (x) =
ecos (x)
6
c f (x) = loge [sin (x)]
d f (x) = loge [cos (x)]
the product rule
Any function which is a product of two simpler functions, for example,

Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
f (x) = (x + 2)(x 5)
or
f (x) = (x2 5x + 6) sin (3x + 5)
can be differentiated using the product rule of differentiation.

Although the first example can be expanded and then differentiated, the second example cannot and
therefore can be differentiated only using the product rule.
product rule
If y = uv then
dv
du
d
dy
= u
+v .
dx
dx
dx
Or if f (x) = u(x) v(x) then f (x) = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).

WOrKeD eXaMpLe 27
If y = (3x 1)(x2 + 4x + 3) is expressed as y = uv, find:

du
dv
dy
dy
dv
du
=u +v .
a u and v
b
and
c
using
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
thINK

2
344
Identify u and v, two functions of x which are

multiplied together.
WrIte
a y = (3x 1)(x2 + 4x + 3)
Let u = 3x 1
and
v = x2 + 4x + 3.
b 1 Differentiate u with respect to x.

2
du
=3
dx
dv
= 2x + 4
dx
Differentiate v with respect to x.
c 1 Apply the product rule to find
dy
.
dx
dy
dv
du
=u
+v
dx
dx
dx
= (3x 1)(2x + 4) + (x2 + 4x + 3) 3

2
= 6x2 + 10x 4 + 3x2 + 12x + 9

= 9x2 + 22x + 5
Expand and simplify where possible.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 28
Find the derivative of y = loge (4x) sin (3x 2).

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
y = loge (4x) sin (3x 2)
Identify u and v.
Let u = loge (4x) and let v = sin (3x 2).
Find
du
dv
and
.
dx
dx
du 1
=
dx x
Find
dy
using the product rule.
dx
Simplify wherever possible.
dy
1
= log
loge ((44 x ) 3cos(3 x 2)
2) + ssin(33 x 2)
2)
dx
x
1
= 3log
3loge (4 x ) cos(3 x 2)
2) + sin(33 x 2)
x
exercise 7h
dv
= 3cos
3cos(3
3c
os(
(33 x 2)
dx
the product rule
1 We 27 If y = (x + 3)(2x2 5x) is expressed as y = u v, find:
du
dv
and
dx
dx
2 We 28
Find the derivative of:
3
a y = 4x loge (6x)
a u and v
3 MC
The derivative of f (x) =
dy
dy
dv
du
=u
+v .
using the product rule,
dx
dx
dx
dx
b g (x) = (3x 2) loge (2x).
x2
a f (x) = 2x cos (2x)

C f (x) = 2x sin (2x) + x2 cos (2x)
e f (x) = 2x sin (x) + 2x2 cos (x)
sin (2x) is:

B f (x) = 4x cos (2x)
D f (x) = 2x sin (2x) + 2x2 cos (2x)
4 Use the product rule to differentiate each of the following.

a y = x cos (x)
b y = 3x sin (x)
c y = (5x 2) ex
d y = e3x (2 11x)
e y = x5 cos (3x + 1)
f y = 2x3 loge (7x)
g y = e 2x loge (2x 5)
h y = 8 tan (5x) loge (5x)
y = 5 cos (2x) sin (x)
k f (x) = e4x 3 loge (6x)
1
cos(6 x )
m f (x) =
x
o f (x) = 2x 3 sin (2x + 3)
2
q f (x) = (x + e3x)(4 e 3x)
4x
y = sin cos(( x )
3
f (x) = 4e 5x sin (2 x)
n f (x) =
xe
3x
p f (x) = e 2x loge (3x2 + 5)

r f (x) = (x2 6)(2 + 3x x2)
5 If f (x) = (2x + 1) loge (x + 3), find the exact value of f (1).

345
6 Find g(0) if g(x) = 5e2x cos (4x).

7 Find the value of f (2) if f (x) = (x2 + 2) sin (4 3x) (answer correct to 3 decimal places).
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9210
WorkSHEET 7.2
8 If g (x) = (6x + x2) ex 3, find the exact value of g(2).

9 Find the exact value of f () if f (x) = (3 x) tan (2x).
7I
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
the quotient rule
The quotient rule is used to differentiate functions which are rational expressions (that is, one function
divided by another). For example,
f (x) =
x 2 6x + 3
5x + 2
or
f (x) =
e3 x + 8
.
cos (66 x )
Quotient rule
du
dv
u
dy v dx u dx
If y = then
.
=
v
dx
v2
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Or if f ( x ) =
v ( x )u ( x ) u( x ) v ( x )
u( x )
then f ( x ) =
.
v( x )
[ v ( x)]
x 2
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 29
u
3 x
is expressed as y = , find:
2
v
x + 4x
du
dv
a u and v
b
and
dx
dx
If y =
thINK

2
c 1
WrIte
a y=
Differentiate v with respect to x.

dy
Apply the quotient rule to obtain .
dx
3 x
x2 + 4x
Let u = 3 x and v = x2 + 4x.
Identify u and v.
b 1 Differentiate u with respect to x.
dy
.
dx
du
= 1
dx
dv
= 2x + 4
dx
c dy =
dx
=
2
dy
where possible, factorising the
dx
final answer where appropriate.
Simplify
=
=
346
du
dv
u
dx
dx
v2
( x 2 + 4 x)
x ) 1 (3 x )(2 x + 4)
( x 2 + 4 xx))2
x2
4 x (12 + 2 x 2 x 2 )
( x 2 + 4 xx))2
x2
4 x 12 22xx + 2 x 2
( x 2 + 4 xx))2
x 2 6 x 12
( x 2 + 4 xx))2
x 2 6 x 12
x 2 ( x + 4) 2
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 30
Find the derivative of f ( x ) =
2 e3 x
.
cos(2 x 3)
thINK
tUtOrIaL
eles-1219
Worked example 30
WrIte
2e3 x
cos (22x 3)
Write the equation.
f (x) =
Identify u(x) and v(x).
Let u(x) = 2e3x.

Let v(x) = cos (2x 3).
Differentiate u(x) and v(x) with respect to x.
u(x) = 6e3x
v(x) = 2 sin (2x 3)
Apply the quotient rule to obtain f (x).
f ( x ) =
exercise 7I
1 We 29 If y =
a u and v
b
v ( x )u ( x ) u( x ) v ( x )
[ v ( x)]
x 2
cos (22x 3) 6e3 x 2e3 x [ 2 sin (2 x 3)]

[cos (2 x 3)]2
6e3 x cos (2x 3) + 4e3 x sin (2 x 3)

[cos (2xx 3)]2
2e3 x [3 cos (2 x 3) + 2 sin (2 x 3)]

coss2 ((22 x 3)
the quotient rule
u
x+3
is expressed as y = , find:
v
x+7
du
dv
and
dx
dx
du
dv
dy
dy v dx u dx
c
using the quotient rule,
.
=
dx
dx
v2
u( x )
x 2 + 2x
2 If f ( x ) =
is expressed as f ( x ) =
, find:
v( x )
5x
a u(x) and v(x)
b u (x) and v (x)
c f (x) using the quotient rule.
sin ( x )
3
f (x) = tan (x) can be written as f ( x ) =
. If u(x) = sin (x) and v(x) = cos (x), use the quotient
cos ( x )
1
rule to show that the derivative of tan (x) is
.
coss2 ( x )
4 We 30
a
2x
x2 4x
4x 7
10 x
g
j
sin (22 x )
cos (22 x )
4x
2
x + 3x 2
h
k
x 2 + 7x + 6
3x + 2
e2 x
x
logge ( x + 1)
x2 + 2
2x3 + 7x
e5 x
cos ( x )
ex
3x 2
logge ((44 x )
i
l
e3 x + 2
cos (22 x )
x2 5
x
347
e 3x
3x + 8
4 loge (8 x )
x 2 2x
2 cos (3 2 x )
3e 2 7 x
q
2
x
x+3
2
8 3x
5 MC If h( x ) =
then h(x) equals:
x
9x 2 8
8 9x 2
a
B
2
x
x2
p
3x 2
x2
3x 2
sin( x )
x
e2 x
2x 3
3x 2
+8
x2
+8
sin (44 x )
is:
4x + 1
4(44 x + 1) cos ( x ) 4 sin (4 x )
f ( x ) =
(4 x + 1)2
4(44 x + 1) cos (4x)
x ) 4 sin (44 x )
f ( x ) =
4x + 1
4 sin (4x ) 4(4 x + 1) cos (44x )
f ( x ) =
(4 x + 1)2
6 MC The derivative of f ( x ) =
a
C
e
cos (33 x 2)
then g(x) is equal to:
ex
3e x sin (3 x 2) e x cos (3 x 2)
a
e2 x
(4 x + 1) cos (4 x ) 4 sin (4 x )
(4 x + 1)2
4(44 x + 1) cos (4 x)
x ) 4 sin (44 x )
D f ( x ) =
(4 x + 1)2
B
f ( x ) =
7 MC If g( x ) =
e x cos (3 x 2)
2) + 3e x cos (3 x 2)
e2 x
3e x
8 If y =
dy
cos(2 x )
find
when x = 0.
3
x
dx
e
10 Find the exact value of g(5) if g( x ) =
7J
e x
sin (3 x 2)
2) e x cos (3 x 2)
e2 x
3e x
sin (3 x 2) e x cos (3x 2)

ex
sin (3 x 2) e x cos (3 x 2)
e2 x
9 Find the gradient of the function f ( x ) =
INteraCtIVItY
int-0252
Mixed problems
on differentiation
2 x 3x 2
at the point where x = 1.
logge ((33 x + 4)
4 loge (2 x )
.
3x
Problems on differentiation may involve any combination of chain, product and quotient rules.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 31
For each of the following decide which rule of differentiation, that is, chain, product or quotient
rule, would be useful to find the derivative.
logg e ( x )
2
a
b (x2 5x)6
c (x2 + 2x 3) cos (2x)
d ex + 3x
sin ( x )
thINK

2
348
u
It is of the form , that is, a rational function.
v
WrIte
a y=
logge ( x )
sin ( x )
Quotient rule
b y = (x2 5x)6

2
It is a composite function of the form u6,

where u = x2 5x.
c y = (x2 + 2x 3) cos (2x)
c 1 Write the equation.

2
It is of the form u v, that is, the product of

two functions.
Product rule
d y = ex2 + 3x
d 1 Write the equation.

2
Chain rule
It is a composite function of the form eu,

where u = x2 + 3x.
Chain rule
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 32
Find the derivative of y = 2x3 cos (x2 + x).

thINK
WrIte
Write the equation.
y = 2x3 cos (x2 + x)
Decide which rule to use and identify u and

v to apply the rule.
Use the product rule.

u = 2x3 and v = cos (x2 + x).
du
= 6x 2
dx
v is a composite function, so differentiate

v with respect to x using the chain rule.
Apply the product rule to find
v = cos (x2 + x)
Let w = x2 + x.
dw
= 2x + 1
dx
v = cos (w)
dv
= sin( w)
dw
dv dv dw
=
dx dw dx
dv
= ( ssin(
in(w))(2 x + 11)
So
dx
= (2x + 1) sin (x2 + x)
dy
dv
du
=u
+v
dx
dx
dx
= 2x3[(2x + 1)] sin (x2 + x) + cos (x2 + x) 6x2
dy
.
dx
= 2x3(2x + 1) sin (x2 + x) + 6x2 cos (x2 + x)

= 2x2[3 cos (x2 + x) x(2x + 1) sin (x2 + x)]
Derivatives involving the absolute value function
x if x 0
Consider the absolute value function, f ( x ) = x =
.
x if x < 0
As discussed earlier, the graph of f (x) = |x| is continuous for all x and has
a cusp (sharp point) at x = 0.
1 iff x > 0
The derivative of f (x) = x, f (
.
( x ) =
1 iff x < 0
In order for the derivative to be defined at x = 0 for a function f (x), the limit as x approaches 0 from
m f '( x ) , and the limit as x approaches 0 from the right, written as lim
m f ' ( x ), must be
the left, written as lim
x0
x0
equal.
349
This is not the case, as lim

m f ' ( x ) = 1 and lim
m f ' ( x ) = 1. Thus, the function f (x) = x is not
x0
x0+
differentiable at x = 0 and the graph of y = f (x) has open circles at x = 0 as shown below.
y
1
x
The chain rule is used to differentiate the composite function f (x) = h(g(x)), to give f (x) = g(x) h(g(x)).
x) > 0
1 iff g( x)
Hence, for f (x) = h(g(x)), where h (x) = x, then f '( x ) = g' ( x )
.
x) < 0
1 iff g( x)
Note the derivative is a hybrid function and the domain is obtained by examining the graph of the
function y = g(x).
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 33
For the function: f (x) = x2 4x:

a find the derivative
b sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x) on the same set of axes.
thINK
a 1 As f (x) = x2 4x is a composite function,
tUtOrIaL
eles-1220
Worked example 33
WrIte/DraW
apply the chain rule to find the derivative,

f (x) where g(x) = x2 4x and h(x) = x.
f (x) = h(g(x))
f (x) = g (x) h(g(x))
1 iff x 2 4 x > 0
f ( x ) = 2 x 4
2
1 iff x 4 x < 0
2 x 4 if x 2 4 x > 0.
f ( x ) =
2
2 x + 4 if x 4 x < 0
y
4
3
2
1
To determine the domain of the derivative,

consider the graph of the function
g(x) = x2 4x. From the graph, x2 4x > 0
if x < 0 or x > 4 and x2 4x < 0 if 0 < x < 4.
0
1
1
2
3
4
3
350
2 x 4 if x < 0 orr x > 4

f ( x ) =
2 x + 4 if 0 < x < 4
Write the derivative with the correct

domain.
b 1 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 4x .
Sketch the graph of the derivative,

2 x 4 if x < 0 orr x > 4
f ( x ) =
2 x + 4 if 0 < x < 4
For the graph of y = f (x), put open circles
at x = 0 and x = 4 as the derivative is not
defined at these points.
1 2 3 4 5x
f'(x) = 2x 4, x > 4
10
8
6
4
f(x) =x2 4x 2
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
4
f '(x) = 2x + 4, 0 < x < 4
6
8
f '(x) = 2x 4, x < 0
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 34
For the function f (x) = sin (x) for x [0, 2]:

a find the derivative
b sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x) on the same set of axes.
thINK
WrIte/DraW
As f (x) = |sin (x)| is a composite

function, apply the chain rule to find
the derivative, f (x) where g(x) = sin
(x) and h(x) = |x|.
f (x) = h(g(x))
f (x) = g (x) h(g(x))
1 if sin( x ) > 0
f ( x ) = cos( x )
1 if sin( x ) < 0
x) > 0
cos(( x ) if sin( x)
f ( x ) =
x) < 0
cos(( x ) if sin( x)
To determine the domain of the

derivative, consider the graph of the
function g(x) = sin (x) for x [0, 2].
From the graph, sin (x) > 0 if
0 < x < and sin (x) < 0 if < x < 2.
Write the derivative with the correct

domain.
Sketch the graph of f (x) = |sin(x)| for

x [0, 2].
y
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
3
2
cos(( x ) if 0 < x <

f ( x ) =
cos(( x ) if < x < 2
b
y
f(x) =sin (x)
Sketch the graph of the derivative,

cos ( x ) if 0 < x <
f ( x ) =
cos ( x ) if < x < 2
For the graph of y = f (x), put open circles
at x = 0, x = and x = 2 as the derivative
is not defined at these points.
exercise 7J
0.5
0
0.5
1
3
2
f '(x) = cos (x), 0 < x < f '(x) = cos (x), < x < 2
1 We31 For each function given below, state which rule of differentiation would be used to find the
derivative, that is, chain (C), product (P) or quotient (Q).

a f (x) = loge (8x)
4x
cos ( x )
g h(x) = cos (x2 4x)
d h( x ) =
3x + 7
4x2
x 2 + 9x 8
f g( x ) =
logge ( x )
i g(x) = loge [sin (x)]
b f (x) = 3x sin (x)
c g( x ) =
e g(x) = e5x sin (x)

x
h f (x) = e
loge (5x)
x
2
ge ( x )
j f (x) = sin2 (x)
k h( x ) = x
l f ( x ) = log
e
m g(x) = ecos (x)
n f (x) = tan (x)
2 Using the appropriate rule find the derivative of each function in question 1.
3 We 32 Find the derivative of each of the following. (Note that more than one rule will need to be
applied in some cases.)

5x
a y=e
cos (4x 7)
b y=
x 2
3x + 1
c y = loge (x + 1)3
d y = cos (x2 6x)
e f (x) = ex cos (2x)
f (x) =
sin (22 x )
cos (22 x )
351
g f (x) =
i
1
sin ( x )
h y = loge [sin (3x)]
y = 4e3x2 5x + 2
f (x) = (x 1)(x2 + 5x + 3)
(2 x + 3)5
l g( x ) =
x3 5
n y = cos2 (3x)
sin ( x 4 )
p f (x) =
x2
j
k g(x) = ex(x2 + 3)
4x
m f (x) = e
cos (4x 3)
o y = loge [cos (3x)]

q f (x) =
s y=
cos (22 x )
sin (22 x )
loge
( x)
x
f (x) = [loge (5x 1)]4
x + 3
y = sin
x 2
3
u f (x) =
3x5
logge ( x 2 )
v g( x ) =
x2
x f (x) = 3 cos2 (x) + e 7x x3
cos (2x + 1)
w y = ex sin (x)
x
y f (x) = 3 sin (6x) + loge (5x2) 4e 2
z h (x) = cos3 (x)
4 We 33 For the following functions:

a f (x) = x2 1
b f (x) = x2 + 2x
i find the derivative
ii sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x) on the same set of axes.
5 We 34 For the following functions:
a f (x) = sin (2x) for x [0, ]
b f (x) = cos (x)for x [0, 2]
i find the derivative
ii sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x) on the same set of axes.
352
Summary
review gradient
and rates of change
The gradient of a function exists wherever the graph of the function is smooth and continuous.
If the gradient of a function, f (x), is zero at x = a, then the graph of its gradient function, f (x), will
have an x-intercept at x = a.
When the gradient of a function is positive, the graph of the gradient function is above the x-axis
and when the gradient of a function is negative, the graph of the gradient function is below the
x-axis.
A polynomial function has a gradient function which is also a polynomial function, but its degree
is reduced by one.
A function is smooth if there are no sharp points on its graph.
A function is continuous if the graph can be drawn without lifting pen from paper.
The graph of the gradient function is a graph of the gradients of all the points of the original
function.
The gradient of a horizontal line is 0.
The gradient of a vertical line is undefined.
Limits and
differentiation from
first principles
The gradient of a chord (secant) or the average rate of change is given by:
f ( x + h) f ( x ) .
h
A limit is the value that y approaches as x approaches a given value.
A limit exists if the function is approaching the same value from both left and right.
The gradient of the tangent to a curve at a point P is the gradient of the curve at P and is
f ( x + h) f ( x )
given by lim
.
h0
h
dy
For a function y = f (x), its derivative is expressed as either
or f (x).
dx
The gradient at a point P on a curve is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point.
If f (x) = axn then f (x) = nax n 1, where a and n are constants.

If f (x) = c then f (x) = 0, where c is a constant.
If f (x) = ag(x) where a is a constant then f (x) = ag(x).
If f (x) = g(x) + h(x) then f (x) = g (x) + h (x). Differentiate each term separately.
the chain rule
The chain rule of differentiation is:
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
A short way of applying the chain rule is:
If f (x) = [g(x)]n then f (x) = n[g(x)]n 1 g(x).
the derivative of ex
the derivative of
loge (x )
If f (x) = ex then f (x) = ex.

If f (x) = ekx then f (x) = kekx.
If f (x) = aekx + c then f (x) = akekx + c.
If f (x) = aeg(x) then f (x) = g (x) ae g(x).
1
If f (x) = loge (x) then f (x) = x .
1
If f (x) = loge (kx) then f (x) = x .
g ( x )
If f (x) = loge [g(x)] then f (x) =
.
g( x )
353
the derivatives of
sin (x ), cos (x ) and
tan (x )
If f (x) = sin (x) then f (x) = cos (x).

If f (x) = cos (x) then f (x) = sin (x).
1
If f (x) = tan (x) then f (x) =
= sec2 (x).
cos 2 ( x )
If f (x) = sin (ax) then f (x) = a cos (ax).
If f (x) = cos (ax) then f (x) = a sin (ax).
a
If f (x) = tan (ax) then f (x) =
= a sec2 (ax).
2
cos (ax )
If f (x) = sin [g(x)] then f (x) = g (x) cos [g(x)].
If f (x) = cos [g(x)] then f (x) = g (x) sin [g(x)].
g ( x )
If f (x) = tan [g(x)] then f (x) =
= g (x) sec2 [g(x)].
cos2 [ g( x )]
the product rule
The product rule of differentiation states:

dy
dv
du
1. if y = u v, then
=u
+v
dx
dx
dx
2. if f (x) = u(x) v (x) then
f (x) = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).
the quotient rule
The quotient rule of differentiation states:

du
dv
u
dy v dx u dx
1. if y = then
.
=
v
dx
v2
u( x )
2. if f ( x ) =
then
v( x )
f ( x ) =
v ( x )u ( x ) u( x ) v ( x )
[ v ( x)]
x 2
Summary of derivatives:
f (x)
f (x)
axn
naxn 1
[g(x)]n
ng(x)[g(x)]n 1
ex
ex
ekx
kekx
eg(x)
g(x)eg(x)
loge (x)
1
x
loge (kx)
1
x
loge [g(x)]
g ( x )
g( x )
sin (ax)
cos (ax)
tan (ax)
a cos (ax)
a
sin (ax)
a
coss2 (ax )
(= a sec2 (ax))
354
Chapter review
1 The graph of a cubic function is shown below.
S hO rt
a N S W er
1 0
1 2 3
f(x)
2
3
4
Sketch the graph of its gradient function.

h 3 + 2h 2 + 4 h
Find lim
.
h 0
h
a Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 + 2x using first principles.
b Hence find the gradient at the point where x = 1.
x3
a Find the gradient function if g( x ) =
4x .
3
b Find the gradient of g (x) when x = 3.
3x 4 x 3
If h( x ) =
+ 3 x , find:
2
4
a h (x)
b i h(1)
ii h(2).
3
6 If y = (4 x + 1) 2 , find the gradient when

7 Find the derivative of
8 Differentiate f (x) =
a x = 2 and
b x = 1.
x2 + 4 .
e2x 1.
9 a Find f (x) if f (x) = e x .

2
b What is the value of x when f (x) = 0?
dy
if y = loge (2x3 4).
dx
11 The tangent to the curve f (x) = loge (ax 1) when x = 2, has a gradient of 1. Find the value of a.
10 Find
12 Find f (x) if f (x) = 3 sin (2x) and hence find f (2).

13 Find f (x) if f (x) = tan (5x).
14 Find f (x) if f (x) = tan (2x2 3).
15 If y = 3x2 loge (6x), find
dy
.
dx
cos(( x 2 )
.
x
17 Differentiate esin (2x).
16 Find f (x) if f ( x ) =
18 Find the derivative of y = f (x) where f (x) = x2 2x .

19 Find the derivative of y = f (x) where f (x) = sin (x) for x
, .
2 2
M U LtIp L e
C hO IC e
1 The graph of f (x) is shown below.

y
f(x)
355
The graph of its gradient function is:

y
x
0
y
4
0
2 For the function g(x) graphed below, the gradient function g(x) is defined over the domain:
y
B R \{1}
D R \{1, 4}
a R
C R \{4}
e [1, 4]
0 1
x 2 2x 8
is:
x4
x4
3 The value of lim

a undefined
B 0
C 1
D 4
e 6
C 6
D undefined
e 6
5x
is:
x +1
x3
4 lim
x 3
B 22
a 22
5 The derivative of f (x) =
+ 3x is:
a
2x + 3
B 4x2 2x + 3
2
D 12x x + 3
e 4x2 2x
1
6 The derivative of g( x ) = 2 2 x is:
x
1 2
2 2
a
B
x
x
x3
x
4x3
x2
12x2
2 2
x
x
7 The derivative of (2x + 5)6 is:

a 6(2x + 5)5
D 12(2x + 5)5
8 The derivative of
1
is:
4x 9
B
D 4 4x 9
6x
then
a 30e 6x
D 30e 6x 1
10 If y = e4x + 7 then
a 4e4x + 6
D 4e4x + 7
dy
is equal to:
dx
dy
is:
dx
x3
C 12x2 2x
x3
1
x
1
3
x2
B 12x(2x + 5)5
e 12(2x + 5)4
a 2 4x 9
9 If y = 5e
356
(4 x 9)3
C 6x(2x + 5)5
4
3
(4 x 9) 2
2
4x 9
B 6e 6x
7x
e 5e
C 5e 6x 1
B e4x + 6
e 4e3x + 7
C e4x + 7
11 The derivative of loge (3x 2) is:
1
3x 2
1
D
3(33 x 2)
1
3x
3
e
3x 2
C 1
12 The derivative of 2 loge (x2 + x) is:
2(22 x + 1)
x2 + x
2x
D
x2 + x
a
13 If y = cos (8x) then
dy
is:
dx
a 8 sin (8x)
D 8x sin (8x)
14 If y = 2 sin (2x + 3) then

a 4x cos (2x + 3)
D 4 cos (2x)
2(22 x + 1)
x
4x
e
x2 + x
2x + 1
x2 + x
B sin (8x)
e sin (8x)
C 8 sin (8x)
B 4 cos (2x + 3)
e 2 cos (2x + 3)
C 4 cos (2x + 3)
dy
is equal to:
dx
15 If f (x) = tan (6 5x), then f (x) is equal to:

a
coss2 (6 5 x )
5
coss2 (6 5 x )
C sec2 (6 5x)
e 5 cos2 (6 5x)
D 5 cos2 (6 5x)
16 If f (x) = x2 e2x then f (x) is equal to:

a 2xe2x + 2x2e2x
D 2xe2x 2x2e2x
B 2xe2x
e 2xe2x + x2e2x
C 4xe2x
17 If g (x) = 2x loge (3x) then g(x) must be:

a 2 loge (3 x ) +
2
3
B 2 loge (3x) + 2
D 2 loge (3 x )
2
3
e 2 loge (3x) + 6x loge (3x)
18 The derivative of
a
4x 5
( x 2)2
2x + 1
is:
x2
B
D 4x 5
(x
2)2
C 2 loge (3x) + 6x
4x 3
( x 2)2
2(22 x 1)e 4 x
x3
( x 2)2
e4 x
19 The derivative of 2 is:
x
4
x
2(11 2 x )
( x 2)e
B
a
3
x3
x
2
4
x
4
x
x e 2e
2e 4 x
D
e
4
x
x3
2
5
20 If g(x) = (x + 3x 7) then g(x) is equal to:
a 5(x2 + 3x 7)4
C 5(2x + 3)4
e (x2 + 3x 7)4
B (2x + 3)(x2 + 3x 7)4

D 5(2x + 3)(x2 + 3x 7)4
21 The derivative of sin (x) cos (x) is:

a 2 sin (x) cos (x)
B sin2 (x) cos2 (x)
C sin2 (x) + cos2 (x)
D cos2 (x) sin2 (x)
sin2
(x)
cos2
(x)
357
e X t eNDeD
r e SpONS e
1 A section of a roller-coaster ride follows part of the curve with the equation y =
shown below.
1
(x3
200
+ 3300 x 2 ),
28 20
12
a For what values of x (domain) is the gradient:

i zero?
ii positive?
iii negative?
b Sketch the gradient function.
c Use the graph of the gradient function to find the value of x where
d
e
f
g
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic: 1 & 2
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9211
Test Yourself
Chapter 7
358
the gradient is steepest over the domain [25, 10].

dy
Find .
dx
Find the gradient where x equals:
i 25
ii 10
iii 10.
Does this verify your answer to part c? Briefly explain.
What is the highest point reached by the roller-coaster? (Give your answer in metres.)
2 Consider the functions f ( x ) = 2 x and g(x) = x2 + 1.

a State the domain and range for each function.
b Find the composite functions:
i f (g(x))
ii g(f (x)).
c State the domain and range for f (g(x)) and g(f (x)).
d Find:
d
( f ( g(
g x )).
dx
d
( g( f ( x ))
ii
dx
e Evaluate:
i f (g(2))
ii g (f (2))
i
4 x 2 , x 2
4
3 Consider the function f ( x ) = 2 x 4, 2 < x < 5 .

x 1, x 5
a Sketch the graph of f (x).

b For what values of x is f (x) discontinuous?
c For what values of x is f (x) not differentiable?
d Find f (x).
e Sketch the graph of f (x).
ICT activities
Chapter opener
DIGItaL DOC
differentiation. (page 317)
7a
review gradient and rates of change
tUtOrIaL
We3 eles-1175: Watch how to sketch a gradient function.
(page 320)
DIGItaL DOCS
SkillSHEET 7.1 doc-9260: Practise identifying positive negative and
zero gradients. (page 321)
SkillSHEET 7.2 doc-9261: Practise sketching the gradient function
given the original function. (page 321)
7B
Limits and differentiation from first principles
7G
the derivatives of sin (x), cos (x) and tan (x)
tUtOrIaL
We26 eles-1185: Watch a worked example on using the chain
rule to differentiate trigonometric functions. (page 342)
7h
the product rule
DIGItaL DOC
WorkSHEET 7.2 doc-9210: Differentiation of mixed expression
involving the product, quotient and chain rules. (page 346)
7I
the quotient rule
tUtOrIaL
We30 eles-1219: Watch a worked example on how to use the
quotient rule. (page 347)
7J
eLeSSON eles-0093
Limits and differentiation from first principles. Watch an eLesson on
related rates of change (page 325)
INteraCtIVItY int-0252
Differentiation: Consolidate your understanding of differentiation.
(page 348)
tUtOrIaL
We5 eles-1218: Watch how to evaluate limits. (page 326)
tUtOrIaL
We33 eles-1220: Watch a worked example on how derivatives of
an absolute value function. (page 350)
7C
DIGItaL DOC
SkillSHEET 7.3 doc-9262: Practise using index laws. (page 331)
7D
the chain rule
tUtOrIaL
We13 eles-1176: Watch a worked example on using the chain
rule. (page 333)
Chapter review
DIGItaL DOC
DIGItaL DOC
WorkSHEET 7.1 doc-9209: Sketch gradient functions, identify where
the derivative exists, evaluate limits, apply first principles and
differentiation rules to determine derivatives. (page 335)
359
Answers CHAPTER 7
DIFFereNtIatION
exercise 7a review gradient and

rates of change
f '(x)
g'(x)
4 a
5 a
b A
y
0
f '(x)
y
1
f '(x)
f '(x)
f '(x)
y
0
0
1
c
d
f '(x)
5
2
f'(x)
f '(x)
x
f '(x)
f '(x)
g'(x)
y
f '(x)
f '(x)
g'(x)
g'(x)
bC
2 a
3 a
8 a
x = 2 and x = 3
( , 2) (3, )
x=2
n/a
x = 1 and x = 2
ii ( , 1) (2, )
iii (1, 2)
i i n/a
iii (0, )
j i n/a
iii (0, )
i
iii
g i
iii
h i
1 a
g'(x)
f '(x)
x
2 0
f '(x)
g'(x)
360
f '(x)
g'(x)
x
g'(x)
3
f '(x)
6 a D
b C
7 a i Not applicable (n/a)
iii n/a
b i n/a
iii R
c i x = 1
iii (1, )
d i x=4
iii (, 4)
e i x=0
iii R\{0}
c E
ii R
iv n/a
ii n/a
iv n/a
ii ( , 1)
iv n/a
ii (4, )
iv n/a
ii n/a
iv n/a
2
y
1 0
g'(x)
ii
iv
ii
iv
(2, 3)
n/a
R\{2}
n/a
iv
ii
iv
ii
iv
n/a
( , 0)
x=0
( , 0)
x=0
0
1
9 a
c
e
g
i
R\{2}
R
R\{3}
R\{2}
R\{5}
R\{0}
R\{1, 2}
R\{0}
R\{2}
R\{5, 4}
exercise 7B
Limits and differentiation

from firstprinciples
1 a 6
c 8
b 7
d 4
f 14
e 6
g 24
h 3
i 2
2 a 3
b3
c 2
d 4
e 1
f 7
g 12
h 27
i 6
3 a 5
c 5
b 6
d 53
e 48
f 10
g 9
h 0
i 1
5 E
4 4+h
6 a h
b 0
74
8 a Approx. 4
b 4
9 a Approx. 10
b 10
10 C
11 a 3
b 2x
c 2x + 6
f 3x2
d 2x 2
e 6x
12 a 4
b 2x + 3
c 6x + 8
d 3x2 4
e 5 6x2
f 2x 2
the derivative of x n
dy
dy
b
= 6x5
= 6x
dx
dx
dy
dy
d
= 20 x 3
= 20 x19
dx
dx
dy
dy
f
= 5
= 12 x 2
dx
dx
dy
dy 3 2
h
= 4 x3
= x
dx 3
dx 2
dy
dy
j
=0
= 40 x 4
dx
dx
f ( x) = 12x2 + 5 b g( x) = 10x + 6
3
h( x) = 5 x2
h( x) = 3 + 12x + 3x2
g( x) = 77x10 + 30x4
f ( x) = 2x4 + x2
f ( x) = 6 + 6x 12x2
g( x) = 14x 4
h( x) = 2x + 3
j f ( x) = 9x2 12
6
b 3
x4
2 x
1
1
d 5x 4
2
exercise 7C
1 a
c
e
g
i
2 a
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
3 a
c
3x 3
1 + 2x
4x
2
2
+ x
3
4
5x 3
8 a
5
8
9 a
32
10 a
2 x
g ( x) =
1
2
3x 3
u2
4
u5
1
e i
2 u
3
f
i
iii
h i
iii
i
4x 4
2
( x 2)( x 2 4 x ) 3
3
2(6x2 + 1)(2x3 + x)3
1
15
61 + 2 x
x
x
h (2x 3)(x2 3x) 2

2
g
b 43
9 a
(4 x + 7)3
3
(6 x
d 412
10 a
b
ii 2x + 2
ii 3x2 + 6x + 3
d
ii 8x + 4
ii 24x2 + 24x + 6
ii 18x + 6
ii
81x2
ii
ii
ii
ii
+ 54x + 9
3x(4x2 3) 2 x 4 3 x 2 + 1
ii 3
ii 1
iii 6(3x + 2)
iii 3(7 x)2
ii 2
iii
ii 2
iii
5)2
8
(4 2 x )5
5
iii
2 5x + 2
9
iii
2(3 x 2) 2
7
12 500
or 0.014
11 37 500
x 1
13 a
d 1
x 2 2x
+1
14 4
1 a
d
g
2 a
d
g
ii 3
ii 3
3
2u 2
15u4
ii 4x + 5
15(4x + 5)(2x2 + 5x)4
2u 3
ii 4 6x
4(2 3x)(4x 3x2)3
x2 1
6u5
ii
x2
15 9
17 7
exercise 7e
1
2
4
1
6
ii 5
8x7(2x + 5)(x + 5)7

2x(3x2 2)(x2 2)
3x 2 + 4 x
16 4
(2 x
b 3x x 2 + 2
3
5) 2
5( x 3 + 2 x 2 7) 5
the chain rule

ii 3
2x + 3
7 4x
5x + 3
4 3x
2 B
3 a i 2u
b i 3u2
c 467 54
+4
i 5x 4
i 3x + 1
i
i
i
i
53
15
b 8716
1
412
11 Teacher to check
12 a i x2 + 2x + 1
iii 2(x + 1)
b i x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1
iii 3(x + 1)2
c i 4x2 + 4x + 1
iii 4(2x + 1)
d i 8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1
iii 6(2x + 1)2
e i 9x2 + 6x + 1
iii 6(3x + 1)
f i 27x3 + 27x2 + 9x + 1
iii 9(3x + 1)2
13 na(ax + b)n 1
c
d
e
f
6
x3
b 150
6 C
1 a
b
1
6( x 2 1) x +
x
iii
2
x
j
i 16u 5
ii 6
5
iii 96(5 6x)
4 C
5 A
6 B
7 a 32(8x + 3)3
b 6(2x 5)2
3x
c 15(4 3x)4
d
3x 2 4
b Undefined
exercise 7D
3
x2
4 a 10x4 10
5 D
1
34
1
+ 2x
x2
3
x2
3
j
4x2
l 1
m x 2 4 3x 4
f '(x)
b
d
f
h
j
1
x
2
k
x
2 x
y
1
f '(x)
10e10x
x
e
12e 2x
6x
6e 2
8e7 2x
90e6 9x
x
e2
18 5
the derivative of e x
b
e
h
b
e
h
+1
3 A
4 a 2ex
c 20e 4x + 10
e 6e2x 7e 7x
x
g e
x
1 3
e
3
3x
c
f
i
c
f
i
6e
e0.2x
6e8 6x
24e8x + 1
15e3x + 4
x
22e
10e5x + 3
10e6 5x
42e7x
x
+5
l e 4
2
k e 3
b
d
f
h
x
1 4
e
4
20e 5x
11x
9e3x + 6e2x
3ex 2e x
36e9x 2ex
20e5x + 4x
2
b (2 x 3)e x 3 x 1
2
5 a (2 x + 3)e x +3 x
d 5e 2 5 x
2( x 1)e x 2 x
3
6 3 x + x 2
e (2 x 3)e
f 3( x 2 + 1)e x +3 x 2
2
2
g 3(8 x 7)e 4 x 7 x h 10(1 + 3 x )e1 2 x 3 x
2
i 6(2 x + 1)2 e(2 x +1)

k
2( x
+ 2) 3 e( x + 2)
4
j 4(4 x )3 e(4 x )
e( x +1) 3
3e 3 x + 4
m
2
3( x + 1) 3
2 3x + 4
2
2
n 2x(2x + 3)(x + 3)e( x +3 x )
l
361
6
7
8
9
20e
2
6e
25e 3
exercise 7F
1 a
4x
1
2 a
x
3
e
x
4
i
x
3 D
4 a A
5 a
c
e
f
h
j
6 a
c
e
g
i
k
7 a
c
the derivative of log e (x)

1
1
b4
c
d
u
x
1
1
1
b
c
d
x
x
x
6
1
1
f
g
h
x
x
x
5
j
x
bD
6
6x + 1
8
d
8x 1
i
k
b
d
f
h
j
l
b
d
or
7
7x 4
4 7x
16
2x 1
63
8 9x
2x
x2 + 3
4 x3 6x 2 + 2x
x 4 2x3 + x 2
2
4x 3
3
5(3 x 2)
12
3x 2
3
4 + 3x
4x
2
x 3
6
x+2
9 18
7
9
5
11
1
15 3
1 loge ( x )
e
12 a
or 1
x
b i 1
ii 1
iii 1
iv 1
The gradient is always 1 since e loge ( x ) = x.
2 loge ( x 2)
e
13 a
or 2x
x
b i 2
ii 10
iii 4
exercise 7G
the derivatives of sin (x),

cos (x) and tan (x)
1 a 8 cos (8x)
b 6 cos (6x)
362
1
3
1
8
x
sin
3
x
sin
8
2
5 a
c
6 a
c
7 a
2 sec (2x)
x
1
sec2
5
5
A
D
C
cos (u)
4 cos (4x + 3)
sin (u)
3 sin (3x + 1)
2 cos (2x + 3)
5 cos (5x 4)
102 cos (2 x)
c
c C
1
2
3 a
cos (x)
cos x
2
2 a 3 sin (3x)
2
2x + 5
3
3x 4
5
5
or
3 5x 5x 3
1
1
or
2 x
x2
30
5x + 2
48
12 x + 5
4
x
3x 2 + 4 x 7
x3 + 2x 2 7x
1
2x + 1
5
3(5 x + 2)
1
x+3
10
5x + 8
4x
2+
x 1
6( x 1)
( x 3)( x + 1)
8 E
10
4 a
c
e
3
2x
cos
3
f 3
b 2 sin (2x)
d
x
sin
4
2x
f 25 sin
9 a
c
e
10 a
b
c
d
e
f
b 4 sec ( 4x)
b E
d B
1
2
i sin (x) ecos (x)
b 4
exercise 7h
b 3
1 a
3x + 2
d 3 cos
3x
f 32 cos

1
2
b
2
cos (8 x )
cos (2 x + 1)
5
2
d
cos2 (5 x 2)
cos2 (2( x + 1))
3
cos2 ( x )
2(2 x) sin (x2 4x + 3)
(2x 5) cos (10 5x + x2)
ex cos (ex)
(2x + 7) sin (x2 + 7x)
4 2x
cos2 (4 x x 2 )
2x + 3
cos2 ( x 2 + 3 x )
3
2
6x2 + 2x 15
4x2 + 12x2 loge (6x) or 4x2 (1 + 3 loge (6x))
3x 2
b
+ 3 loge (2x)
x
3 D
4 a cos (x) x sin (x)
b 3 sin (x) + 3x cos (x)
c 3ex + 5xex
d 5e3x 33xe3x
e 5x4 cos (3x + 1) 3x5 sin (3x + 1)
f 6x2 loge (7x) + 2x2
2e 2 x
g 2e 2x loge (2x 5) +
2x 5
40loge (5 x ) 8 tan (5 x )
h
+
cos2 (5 x )
x
i 5 cos (2x) cos (x) 10 sin (2x) sin (x)
c
2a
4
3
4x
4x
cos cos (x) sin sin (x)
3
3
e4 x 3
x
l 20e 5x sin (2 x) 4e 5x cos (2 x)

cos (6 x )
6 sin (6x )
m
3
x
2 x
4e4x 3 loge (6x) +
e 3x
3 xe 3 x
2 x
1
1
sin
x
x2
2
j
cos (loge (2x 1))
2x 1
k 6e3x sin (2e3x)
3
l sin (loge (10x))
x
4 x (3 x + 4)
m
cos2 ( x 3 + 2 x 2 )
ii
the product rule

u = x + 3, v = 2x2 5x
du
dv
= 4x 5
=1,
b
dx
dx
b 7 cos (6 7x)
2
cos ( x )
c i
or cot (x)
ii 3
sin ( x )
1
sin ( x )
d i
or tan (x) ii
cos ( x )
3
3x
d 43 sec2
sin (loge (x))

x
h 4e4x cos (e4x)
g
24
3x
5 cos2
5
x
sin
4
p 2(x + 1) sin (x2 + 2x) + 3 cos (3x 9)
12 0
11 3.745
1
3e
3 2
13 a i cos (x) esin (x)
ii
e or
2
2
sin (4x + 7)
2x + 3
c 5 sin (6 5x)
d 23 sin
3
e 402 sin (10 x) f 12 sin (2x)
8 a
sin (3x 2)
x
d 13 cos

6x4 sin
2e2x
q
r
8x + 12e3x 2xe 3x + 3 x 2e
4x3 + 9x2 + 16x 18
loge (3x2 + 5) +
5 4 + 2 loge (4)
7 17.279
26
e
9 6 2
8
(2x + 3) + 4x 3 cos (2x + 3)
6 10
6 xe 2 x
3x 2 + 5
3 x
exercise 7I
the quotient rule

u = x + 3, v = x + 7
4
du
dv
dy
= 1,
=1
b
c
=
dx
dx
dx ( x + 7)2
1 a
u(x) = x2 + 2x, v(x) = 5 x

u(x) = 2x + 2, v(x) = 1
2 10
x + x + 10
c f ( x ) =
(5 x )2
3 Check with your teacher.
2
4 a
( x 4)2
2 a
b
b
c
d
e
f
3x 2 + 4 x 4
(3 x + 2)2
(sin(
x ) + cos( x ))
ex
33
(10 x )2
e 2 x (2 x
1)
2
g
cos2 (2 x )
j
k
l
m
n
(3 cos (2 x ) + 2 sin (2 x ))
cos2 (2 x )
4( x 2
+ 2)
( x 2 + 3 x 2)2
10 x 3
+ 6 x 2 35 x + 7
e5 x
3x 2 + 5
2 x3
9( x
+ 3)e 3 x
(3 x + 8)2
4[ x 2 2( x 1)loge (8 x )]
x 2 ( x 2)2
x cos ( x ) 2 sin ( x )
2x 2
4[ x sin (3 2 x ) cos (3 2 x )]
x3
3e 2 7 x (7 x + 22)
q
( x + 3)2
p
r
5D
7E
j
k
l
x 2 + 2 2 x ( x + 1)loge ( x + 1)
h
( x + 1)( x 2 + 2)2
i
3 x (2 loge (4 x ) 1)
(loge (4 x ))2
x2
3x + 2
exercise 7J Mixed problems

differentiation
1 a C
b P
d Q
e P
g C
h P
j C
k Q
m C
n Q
1
2 a
x
b 3 (sin (x) + x cos (x))
3 x 14
c
4x3
4 (cos ( x ) + x sin ( x ))
d
cos2 ( x )
5x
e e (5 sin (x) + cos (x))
4( x 2)e 2 x
(2 x 3)2
6 D
8 3
15
9 Does not exist as f ( x) =
0
4 (1 loge (10))
10
75
m
n
3 a
b
on
c
f
i
l
Q
Q
C
C
x (2 x + 9)loge ( x ) x 2 9 x + 8
x (loge ( x ))2
2(2 x) sin (x2 4x)
1
e x ( loge (5x))
x
cos( x )
or cot (x)
sin( x )
2 sin (x) cos (x)
3x
ex
1
2 x loge ( x )
sin (x) ecos (x)

1 or sec2 (x)
cos2 ( x )
5x
e [5 cos (4x 7) + 4 sin (4x 7)]
3x + 8
2 (3 x + 1)3
3
x +1
d 2(3 x) sin (x2 6x)
e ex (cos (2x) 2 sin (2x))
2
f
cos2 (2 x )
cos( x )
g
sin 2 ( x )
c
3cos(3 x )
h
sin(3 x )
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
4(6 x 5) e3 x 5 x + 2
3x2 + 8x 2
ex (x2 + 2x + 3)
(4 x 3 9 x 2 50)(2 x + 3)4
( x 3 5)2
4e4x [cos (4x 3) + sin (4x 3)]
6 cos (3x) sin (3x)
3sin(3 x )
cos(3 x )
2
2(2 x 4 cos ( x 4 ) sin ( x 4 ))

x3
2
q
sin 2 (2 x )
p
20[loge (5 x 1)]3
5x 1
1 2 loge ( x )
s
2x 2
5
x+3
t
cos
( x 2)2
x2
u 3x4 [5 cos (2x + 1) 2x sin (2x + 1)]
r
( )
3 4 loge x 32
2x3
w (sin (x) + x cos (x)) ex sin (x)
x 6 cos (x) sin (x) 7e 7x 3x2

v
2
2e 2
x
z 3 sin (x) cos2 (x)
2 x , x < 1 or x > 1
4 a i
2 x , 1 < x < 1
y 18cos(6x ) +
ii
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
f(x) =x2 1
f '(x) = 2x, x > 1
5 4 3 2 110
f '(x) = 2x, x < 1 2
3
4
f '(x) = 2x, 1< x < 1
2 x + 2, x < 2, x > 0
2 < x < 0
b i
2 x 2,
ii
7
6
f '(x) = 2x + 2,
5
2
f (x) =x + 2x
x>0
4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3
5 4 3 2 1 10
2 f '(x) = 2x 2,
3 2 < x < 0
4
5
f '(x) = 2x + 2, x <2
2cos(2 x ), 0 < x <
2
5 a i
2cos(2 x ), < x <
2
ii
y
2
1
0
1
2
f(x) =sin (2x)
3
4
f '(x) = 2 cos (2x), 0 < x <

2
f '(x) = 2 cos (2x), < x <
2

3
< x <
sin( x ), 0 < x < ,
2 2
b i
3
sin( x ),
<x<
2
2
363
ii
f '(x) = sin (x), 3 < x 2

2
f(x) =cos (x)
y
1
4x
or 4x sec2 (2x2 3)
cos2 (2 x 2 3)
15 3x + 6x loge (6x)
14 f (x) =
16
0
3
2
f '(x) = sin (x), 0 < x <

2
f '(x) = sin (x), < x 3

2
2
Chapter reVIeW
ShOrt aNSWer
2 x 2 sin( x 2 ) cos( x 2 )
x2
2 a Domain f (x) = [0, ), range f (x) = [0, )
Domain g(x) = R, range g(x) = [1, )
b i 2 x +1
ii 4x + 1
c Domain f (g(x)) = R, range f (g(x))
2
= [2, )
Domain g(f(x)) = [0, ), range g(f (x))
= [1, )
2x
17 2 cos (2x) esin (2x)
2 x 2,
x < 0, x > 2
18 f ( x ) =
2 x + 2, 0 < x < 2
d i
ii 4
cos( x ), 0 < x <
2
19 f ( x ) =
cos( x ),
<x<0
e i
3 a
x
f '(x)
2 4
3 a
4 a
3x2 + 2
x2 4
5 a
6x3 +
8 1
4
6 a
7
3
4
18
x
x2
b5
b5
x2 3
ii 48
b6 5
1
5
9
13
17
21
B
A
A
C
B
D
10
3
7
11
15
19
E
D
E
A
C
4
8
12
16
20
C
B
A
A
D
1 a i
ii
iii
b
x = 20 and x = 0
(28, 20) (0, 12)
(20, 0)
y
dy
dx
2 xe x 2
25
b x=0
3x 2
28 20
c x = 10
0 1012 x
dy 3 x
=
( x + 20)
dx 200
e i 1.875
ii 1.5
iii 4.5
f Yes, the largest absolute value of the
gradient is 4.5, that is, the steepest
section.
g 30.24 m (at x = 12)
d
ii 4
y
0
3 2 1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
b x=5
c x = 2 and x = 5
+4
x3 2
11 a = 1
12 f (x) = 6 cos (2x), f (2) = 6
5
13 f (x) =
or 5 sec2 (5x)
cos2 (5 x )
364
D
C
D
C
E
eXteNDeD reSpONSe
8 2e2x 1
9 a
2
6
10
14
18
4
5
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
MULtIpLe ChOICe
1 0
x2 + 1
2x, x < 2
2<x <5
d f ( x ) = 2,
1,
x >5
e
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
3 2 1
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6
Chapter 8
Applications of differentiation
diGital doC
doc-9212
10 Quick Questions
Chapter ContentS
8a
8B
8C
8d
8e
8F
8G
Equations of tangents and normals

Sketching curves
Maximum and minimum problems when the function is known
Maximum and minimum problems when the function is unknown
Rates of change
Related rates
Linear approximation
8a
Units: 3 & 4
equations of tangents and normals
As we have seen, a tangent to a curve is a straight line that

touches the curve at a given point and whose gradient
represents the gradient of the curve at that point. A normal to
a curve is a straight line passing through the point where the
tangent touches the curve and is perpendicular (at right
angles) to the tangent at that point.
f(x)
Tangent
Point of tangency
Normal
x
1
(as the product
If the gradient of the tangent to a curve is m, then the gradient of the normal is
1).
m
of the gradients of two perpendicular lines equals
The equation of a straight line passing through the point (x1, y1) and having a gradient of m is:
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch
a video about
tangents and
normals.
y y1 = m(x x1).
The gradient of the tangent at x = a is f (a).
1
.
Therefore the gradient of the normal is
f (a)
The equation of the tangent at x = a is y f (a) = f (a)(x a) and
the equation of the normal is
1
( x a).
y f (a) =
f (a)
f(a)
0
Do more
Interact
with tangents.
f(x)
(a, f(a))
a
Worked example 1
Find the equation of the tangent to y = x3 2x + 3 at the point (1, 2).

think
Write
Write the equation.
Find
dy
.
dx
y = x3 2x + 3
dy
= 3x2 2
dx
Chapter 8 Applications of differentiation
365
dy
where x = 1 to find the gradient of
dx
the tangent where x = 1.
Evaluate
At x = 1,
dy
=32
dx
=1
So gradient of tangent is 1.
Substitute (1, 2) for (x1, y1) and m = 1 into the

rule for the equation of a straight line:
y y1 = m(x x1).
Equation of tangent at the point (1, 2) is

y 2 = 1(x 1)
y2=x1
Rearrange the rule to a simple form.
y=x+1
Worked example 2
Find the equation of:

a the tangent
b the normal to the curve with the equation y = 3 loge (2x) at x = 1.
think
Write
Write the equation.
y = 3 loge (2x)
Evaluate y when x = 1.
At x = 1, y = 3 loge (2)
Find
dy
.
dx
dy 3(2)
=
dx
2x
3
=
x
dy
when x = 1 to obtain the
dx
gradient of the tangent at x = 1.
a 1 Evaluate
Determine the equation of the tangent at

(1, 3 loge (2)).
b 1 Evaluate the gradient of the normal
which is
dy
dx
1 We1
366
dy 3
=
dx 1
=3
So gradient of tangent is 3.
a At x = 1,
Equation of tangent is
y 3 loge (2) = 3(x 1)
= 3x 3
y = 3x 3 + 3 loge (2)
b Gradient of normal is
1
.
3
Determine the equation of the normal at

(1, 3 loge (2)).
exercise 8a
diGital doC
doc-9213
Spreadsheet
tangent and normal
tUtorial
eles-1221
Worked example 2
Equation of normal is
y 3 loge (2) = 31 (x 1)
3y 9 loge (2) = 1(x 1)
= x + 1
x + 3y = 1 + 9 loge (2)
1 + 9 loge (2) x
y=
3
3
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 + x at the point (2, 6).
Find the equations of the tangent to the curve y = x2 + 5x 6 at the points where it crosses the x-axis.
3
4
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 3x2 5x + 4 at the point where x = 1.
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 12 x2 + 3x 7 at the point where it crosses the y-axis.
5 We2 For each of the following functions, find the equation of:
i the ngent
ta
ii the normal at the given value of x.
b y = x3 6x, x = 2
a y = x2 + 1, x = 1
d y = (x 1)(x2 + 2), x = 1
g y = x(x + 2)(x 1), x =
j y = e2x, x = 0
e y=
x, x = 4
h y = 3x2 + 4x, x = 0
k y = e3x + 2, x = 1
n y = sin (2x), x =
3
x3
m y = loge (2x + 3), x = 0
,x=0
4
6 mC If y = (2x + 3)4 then at the point (1, 1)
a the equation of the normal is:
a y + 4x 3 = 0
B 8y + x 7 = 0
d y + 2x + 8 = 0
e 2y x = 0
1
,x=2
x
f y = 2 x + 3, x = 3
i y = 2x3 + x2 6x + 2, x = 1
l y = loge (x), x = 2
x
o y = 3 cos , x =
2
c y=
p y = sin 2 x +
C y 4x + 5 = 0
b the value of x where the gradient of the tangent is parallel to the x-axis is:
a
d
3
1
3
1
3
2
3
3
2
7 Find the equation of the tangent to f (x) = x2 + 4x + 1 which is parallel to the line y=2x+3.
x2 + 1
at x = 0.
x2 1
9 Find the equation of the normal to y = x sin (x) at x = .

2
10 Find the equation of the normal to y = loge (x + 2) which is parallel to the line with equation
y + 3x 5 = 0.
8 Find the equation of the tangent to y =
11 Find the equations of the tangent and normal for each of the following curves.
a f (x) = x2 + 1 at x = a
c f (x) = e x at x = 2a.
x at x = a
4x
12 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve f (x) = e that is perpendicular to the line x + 8y = 16.
13 The graph of y = x has a normal with equation y = 8x + b, where b is a real constant. Find the value of b.
8B
b f (x) =
diGital doC
doc-9214
WorkSHEET 8.1
Sketching curves
When the graphs of polynomial functions are being sketched, four main characteristics should be featured:
1. the basic shape (whenever possible)
2. the y-intercept
3. the x-intercept(s)
4. the stationary points.
Stationary points
A stationary point is a point on a graph where the function momentarily stops rising or falling; that is, it
is a point where the gradient is zero.
y
x
Function stops falling
and rises after this point.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with stationary
points.
or
0
Units: 3 & 4
x
Gradient = 0 where function
stops rising momentarily,
then continues to rise again
after this point.
367
The stationary point (or turning point) of a quadratic function can be found by completing a perfect
square in the form y = (x + h)2 + k. In this case the stationary point is (h, k). For cubics, quartics or
higher-degree polynomials there is no similar procedure. Differentiation enables stationary points to be
found for most polynomial functions where the rule is known.
The gradient function of a function f (x) is f (x).
Stationary points occur wherever the gradient is zero.
f (x) has stationary points when f (x) = 0
or
y has stationary points when
dy
= 0.
dx
The solution of f (x) = 0 gives the x-value or values where stationary points occur.
If f (a) = 0, a stationary point occurs when x = a and y = f (a). So the coordinate of the stationary
point is (a, f (a)).
types of stationary points

Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
There are four types of stationary points.

1. A local minimum turning point at x = a.
If x < a, then f (x) < 0 (immediately to the left of x = a, the gradient
is negative).
If x = a, then f (x) = 0 (at x = a the gradient is zero).
If x > a, then f (x) > 0 (immediately to the right of x=a, the gradient
is positive).
2. A local maximum turning point at x = a.
If x < a, then f (x) > 0.
If x = a, then f (x) = 0.
If x > a, then f (x) < 0.
The two cases (1 and 2) can be called turning points because the
gradients each side of the stationary point are opposite in sign (that is,
the graph turns).
The term local turning point at x = a implies in the vicinity ofx = a,
as polynomials can have more than one stationary point.
3. A positive stationary point of inflection at x = a.
If x < a, then f (x) > 0.
If x > a, then f (x) > 0.
That is, the gradient is positive either side of the stationary point.
f(x)
f '(x) > 0
f '(x) < 0
0
f '(x) = 0
x
y
a
f(x)
y
Gradient = 0
f'(x)
4. A negative stationary point of inflection at x = a.

If x < a, then f (x) < 0.
If x > a, then f (x) < 0.
In cases 3 and 4 above the word stationary implies that the gradient is
zero.
368
f(x)
Gradient = 0
Not all points of inflection are stationary points.

y
or
0
Gradient 0
When determining the nature of stationary points it is helpful to complete a gradient table, which
shows the sign of the gradient either side of any stationary points. This is known as the first derivative test.
Gradient tables are demonstrated in the examples that follow.
Worked example 3
a Find the stationary points and their nature for the function
f (x) = x3 + 5x2 8x 12.

b Show that the curve passes through (1, 0).
c Find the coordinates of all other intercepts.
d Hence, sketch the graph of f (x).
think
a 1 Write the rule for f (x).
tUtorial
eles-1222
Worked example 3
Write/draW
a f (x) = x3 + 5x2 8x 12
Differentiate f (x) to find f (x).
f (x) = 3x2 + 10x 8
Find all values of x where f (x) = 0.
For stationary points 3x2 + 10x 8 = 0

(3x 2)(x + 4) = 0
2
x=3
4
Find the value of f (x) for each value of

x where f (x) = 0.
or
x = 4
When x = 23 , f ( 23 ) = (23 )3 + 5( 23 )2 8(23 ) 12

= 14 22
27
so ( 2 , 14 22 ) is one stationary point.
3
77
When x = 4,
f (4) = (4)3 + 5(4)2 8(4) 12
= 36
so (4, 36) is another stationary point.
5
Complete a gradient table to determine the

nature of the stationary points.
State each stationary point and its nature.
Gradient table:
x
2
3
f (x)
Slope
Therefore (4, 36) is a local maximum

stationary point and ( 2 , 14 22 ) is a local
3
27
minimum stationary point.
369
b Show that f (1) = 0.
b f (1) = (1)3 + 5(1)2 8(1) 12
c 1 To find the x-intercepts, factorise f (x) by long
c As f (1) = 0 then (x + 1) is a factor of f (x)
division, or by another appropriate method,

knowing that (x + 1) is a factor of f (x).
= 1 + 5 + 8 12
=0
Therefore f (x) passes through (1, 0).
and
f (x) = (x + 1)(x2 + 4x 12)

= (x + 1)(x + 6)(x 2)
Solve f (x) = 0.
x-intercepts:
(x + 1)(x + 6)(x 2) = 0
x = 1 or 6 or 2
State the coordinates of the x-intercepts.
The x-intercepts are (1, 0), (6, 0) and (2, 0).
Evaluate f (0) to determine the y-intercept.
State the coordinate of the y-intercept.
d Sketch the graph of f (x) showing all intercepts
f (0) = (0)3 + 5(0)2 8(0) 12

= 12
The y-intercept is (0, 12).
d
and stationary points.
(4, 36)
f(x)
(6, 0)
(2, 0) x
(1, 0)
(0, 12)
)
( 23 , 14 22
27
Worked example 4
Sketch the graph of g(x) = x2(4 x2), clearly indicating all stationary points and intercepts.
think
Write/draW
Write the rule for g(x).
g(x) = x2(4 x2)
Expand g(x) to make it easier to differentiate.
g(x) = 4x2 x4
Differentiate g(x).
g(x) = 8x 4x3
Solve g(x) = 0.
For stationary points,

g(x) = 0
8x 4x3 = 0
4x(2 x2) = 0
x = 0 or x2 = 2
x=0
Find g(x) for each value of x where g(x) = 0.
x = 2 or 2
or
When x = 0, g(0) = 0
When x = 2 , g( 2 ) = 4( 2 )2 ( 2 )4
=4
When x = 2,
g( 2) = 4( 2)2 ( 2)4
=4
Therefore the stationary points are ( 2 , 4), (0, 0)
and ( 2 , 4).
6
370

Gradient table:
x
g(x)
Slope
+
/
+
/
2
0
State the stationary points and their nature.
Therefore ( 2 , 4) is a local maximum stationary

point.
(0, 0) is a local minimum stationary point.
( 2, 4) is a local maximum stationary point.
Solve g(x) = 0 to determine the x-intercepts.
x-intercepts: When g(x) = 0,

x2(4 x2) = 0
x2 = 0 or x2 = 4
x = 0 or x = 2 or 2
The x-intercepts are (2, 0), (0, 0) and (2, 0).
Find g(0) to determine the y-intercept.
y-intercept: When x = 0,
g(0) = 02(4 02)
=0
The y-intercept is (0, 0).
10
Sketch the graph of g(x).
( 2, 4)
( 2, 4)
(2, 0)
(0, 0) 0
(2, 0)
x
g(x)
Worked example 5
If f (x) = x3 + 4x2 3x 7:
a sketch the graph of f (x)
b state the values of x where f (x) is i increasing and ii decreasing.
think
a 1 Write the rule for f (x).
Write/draW
f (x) = x3 + 4x2 3x 7
Differentiate f (x) to find f (x).
f (x) = 3x2 + 8x 3
Solve f (x) = 0 to find the x-intercepts

of f (x).
x-intercepts: When f (x) = 0,

3x2 + 8x 3 = 0
(3x 1)(x + 3) = 0
x = 1 or 3
3
The x-intercepts of f (x) are ( 1 , 0) and (3, 0).

3
Evaluate f (0) to find the y-intercept of f (x).
Sketch the graph of f (x) (an upright

parabola).
y-intercept: When x = 0,
f (0) = 3
so the y-intercept of f (x) is (0, 3).
y
f '(x)
1
3
3
b
i f (x) increases where f (x) > 0. Byinspecting
the graph of f (x) deduce where f (x) is

positive (that is, above the x-axis).
ii f (x) decreases where f (x) < 0. Byinspecting
the graph of f (x), deduce where f (x) is

negative (that is, below the x-axis).
b i f (x) > 0 where x < 3 and x >
increasing where x <
ii f (x) < 0 where 3 < x <
where 3 < x <
1
.
3
1
3
so f (x) is
and x > 1 .
3
1
3
so f (x) is decreasing
371
Worked example 6
Consider the function f ( x ) = ( x + 3)( x a) 2 , where a is a positive real constant.

a Find f (x).
b Find the coordinates of the stationary points.
c Determine the nature of the stationary points.
d Find the value of a in exact form if the straight line with equation y = 5x + 15 intersects y = f (x)
at the maximum turning point.
think
a 1 Using a CAS calculator define f (x).

2
Determine the derivative of f (x) using the

differentiation feature of your CAS calculator.
b 1 To determine the stationary points first find
the x-values by solving for f (x) = 0.
Write the value(s) of x.
Substitute the x-values from step 2 into f (x)

to find the y-coordinates of the stationary
points.
c 1 To determine the nature of the stationary
points, let a = 1 (as a is given as a positive

real constant).
Substitute a = 1 into the answer found
previously to obtain the stationary points.

State the stationary points and their nature.
State the stationary points and their nature in

terms of a.
d 1 The maximum turning point lies on the
straight line y = 5x + 15.

Substitute the coordinates of the turning
point into the equation and solve.
372
Determine the values of a.
Select for the appropriate value of a given

that f (x) is a positive function.
Write
a f (x) = (x + 3)(x a)2
d
(f (x)) = (x a)(3x a + 6)
dx
b Solve ((x a)(3x a + 6) = 0, x)
x=
a6
or x = a
3
3
a 6 4(a + 3)
=
f
3
27
f (a) = 0
1 6 4(1 + 3)3
and (1, 0)
27
,
c
3
5 256
and (1, 0) are the stationary points.
,
3 27
f (x)
Slope
(1, 0) is a local minimum turning point.

is a local maximum turning point.
5 , 256
3 27
(a, 0) is a local minimum turning point and

a 6 4(a + 3)3
is a local maximum turning
3 ,
27 point.
a 6
4(a + 3)3
+ 15, a
= 5
3
27
d Solve
3(
5 + 2)
or
2
a = 3 or
a=
a=
3( 5 2)
2
a=
3( 5 2)
2
exercise 8B
1 We3
a
d
g
j
m
Sketching curves
Find the stationary points and their nature for each of the following functions.
y = 8 x2
f (x) = 4x 2x2 x3
y = 5 6x + x2
y = 3x4 8x3 + 6x2 + 5
h(x) = 12 x3
b
e
h
k
n
f (x) = x3 3x
g(x) = 4x3 3x4
f (x) = x3 + 8
g(x) = x(x2 27)
g(x) = x3(x 4)
c
f
i
l
g(x) = 2x2 8x
y = x2(x + 3)
y = x2 x + 6
y = x3 + 4x2 3x 2
2 We3 Sketch the graph of each function in question 1, clearly indicating all stationary points.
3 a We3 Find the stationary points of the function f (x) = x3 2x2 7x 4 and state their nature.
b Show that the graph passes through (4, 0).
c Give the coordinates of all other intercepts and hence sketch the graph of f (x).
4 a Find the stationary points, and their nature, for the curve y = x3 x2 16x + 16.
b
Show that the graph passes through (1, 0) and give the coordinates of all other intercepts.
c Sketch the graph.
5 a We3 Find the stationary points of the function g(x) = x4 4x2 and state their nature.
b Find the coordinates of all the intercepts.
c Sketch the graph of g(x).
6 a
b
c
d
If y = x4 6x2 + 8x 3, find each stationary point and its nature.

Show that the point (1, 0) lies on the curve.
Find all other intercepts.
Sketch the graph.
7 a If y = x4 + x3 5x2 6, find each stationary point and its nature.

b Find the y-intercept.
c Sketch the graph without finding the x-intercepts.
8 We4 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, clearly indicating all stationary points and
intercepts.
a f (x) = x4 x2
c g(x) = x3 + 3x4
e h(x) = x3 4x2 11x + 30
g f (x) = x4 2x2 + 1
i g(x) = x3 + 9x2 + 24x + 20
b
d
f
h
j
f (x) = x3 3x2
g(x) = x3 4x2 + 4x
h(x) = x(x + 3)(x 5)
f (x) = x(x2 + 1)
h(x) = (x2 1)3
9 mC If f (x) < 0 where x > 2 and f (x) > 0 where x < 2, then at x = 2, f (x) has a:
a local minimum
C point of inflection
e gradient of 2
B local maximum
d discontinuous point
10 mC The function f (x) = x3 + x2 8x 3 has stationary points when x is equal to:

4
a 2 and
B 3 only
d 3 and
4
3
11 mC The graph of y =
C 2 only
e 0 and 2
x4
x3
has:
a a local maximum where x = 0

B a local minimum where x = 0
C a local minimum where x = 3

4
d a local maximum where x = 3

4
e a local maximum where x = 4
12 mC A quadratic function has a turning point (2, 1) and a y-intercept of (0, 9).
The equation must be:

a y = (x 2)2 + 9
C y = (x 2)2 + 1
e y = 2(x 2)2 + 1
B y = (x 1)2 + 8
d y = 2(x 2)2 + 9
373
13 The graphs of f (x) are shown below. Find all values of x for which f (x) has stationary points and state
their nature.
a
f '(x)
f '(x)
f '(x)
y
f '(x)
y
f '(x)
0 1
f'(x)
14 Show that f (x) = x2 4x + 3 is decreasing for x < 2 and increasing for x > 2.
i sketch f (x) and, hence, state the values of x where
15 We5 For each of the following functions

f (x) is ii increasing and iii decreasing.
a f (x) = 1 x3 + 2x2 + 2
3
b g(x) = x3 + 2x2 7x 5
c h(x) = x4 + 4x3 + 4x2
16 If y = f (x) has the following properties then sketch its graph.
f (x) = 0 if x = 2 and x = 3
diGital doC
doc-9263
SkillSHEET 8.1
review of derivatives
other than polynomials
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch
a video about
maximums and
minimums.
374
f (x) < 0 if 2 < x <
f (x) > 0 for all other x
17 If f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx has stationary points at x = 2 and x =

a the value of a and b
b the nature of the stationary points.
4
3
, find:
18 If f (x) = x4 + ax2 + b has a stationary point (1, 4), find:

a a and b
b the other stationary points
c the nature of each stationary point.
19 We6 Consider the function f ( x ) = (b x )( x +

where b is a positive real constant.
a Find f (x).
c State the nature of the stationary points when b > 1.
d Find the equation of the tangent at x = 2.
e If the maximum turning point occurs at x = 4, find the value of b.
2)2
20 We6 Consider the function f ( x ) = ( x + b) (2 x 1) where b is a positive real constant.

a Find f (x).
c Find the equation of the tangent to the curve when x = 2.
d Find the value of b in exact form if the straight line with equation y = 4x 2 intersects
2
y = f (x) at the minimum turning point.
maximum and minimum problems

when the function is known y
Local
8C
In many practical situations the maximum or minimum

value of a quantity is desired. For example it is important
for manufacturers or business operators to minimise the
costs involved in running their businesses. Equally, it is
just as important to maximise their profits.
A graph is always useful and helps us to find
approximately where a maximum or minimum occurs.
Maximum
maximum
Local
minimum
x
Minimum
As we have seen, local maximum and/or minimum stationary points occur where the derivative
is zero.
dP
If P = f (x) then a local maximum and/or minimum may exist where
= 0.
dx
To decide whether a solution is a maximum or a minimum the first derivative test must be applied
(by setting up a gradient table).
A graph of the function could be sketched if it is not difficult, to
y
ensure that the maximum or minimum value is applicable.
The function f (x) has a limited domain of [1, 5].
f(x)
The maximum value occurs at the point where x = 4.
The minimum value, however, is not at x = 2 but at the end point x = 5.
This example shows that the derivative test on its own is not always
x
0 1 2 3 4 5
reliable for finding maximum or minimum values and a graph is
sometimes necessary.
Solving maximum and minimum problems

When finding the maximum/minimum value of f (x) the following steps are taken.
1. Find f (x) (to obtain the gradient function).
2. Solve for x where f (x) = 0 (to find the values of x where the maximum or minimum occur).
3. Apply the first derivative test as a check. Also, sketch the graph of f (x).
4. Check end points if domain is restricted.
5. Substitute the appropriate value of x into f (x) to obtain the maximum or minimum.
Worked example 7
The population of a colony of birds at any time,

t months, after observation began can be modelled
by the function:
t
P(t) = 400 te 5 + 600 ,

where P is the number of birds.
Find:
a the initial population
b when the largest number of birds is reached
c the maximum number of birds.
think
a 1 Write the rule for P(t).

2
The initial value occurs when t = 0 and

is P(0).
b 1 Find P(t) using the product rule.
Write
a P(t) = 400te
b P(t) = 400te
=
Solve P(t) = 0.
+ 600
P(0) = 400(0)e0 + 600

= 0 + 600
= 600
So the initial population of birds is 600.
t
5
t
5
+ 400t (
t
t
400e 5 80te 5
t
80e 5 (5 t)
1
5
)e
t
5
+0
For maximum and/or minimum, P(t) = 0

80e
t
5
(5 t) = 0
t = 5 (as 80e
t
5
cannot equal 0)
375
Check that it is a maximum using the first

derivative test.
Gradient table:
t
10
P(t)
Slope
Therefore the maximum population occurs

after 5 months.
c Evaluate P(5) to find the maximum number
of birds.
c P(5) = 400(5)e
5
5
+ 600
= 2000e + 600
= 735.8 + 600
= 1335.8
Therefore the maximum number of birds
is approximately 1335 (as it does not
reach 1336).
1
Worked example 8
The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line from the origin at any
1
time, t, is given by x(t) = 3 t3 4t2 + 12 t + 1, 0 t 7.
Find the maximum and minimum displacement.
think
Write
tUtorial
eles-1177
Worked example 8
t3
4t2 + 12t + 1
3
Write the rule.
x(t) =
Find x(t).
x(t) = t2 8t + 12
Solve x(t) = 0.
For maximum and/or minimum,

t2 8t + 12 = 0
(t 2)(t 6) = 0
t = 2 or t = 6
Test for maximum and minimum using the

first derivative test.
Gradient table:
x
x(t)
Slope
When t = 2 a local maximum occurs and when t=6

a local minimum occurs.
5
Evaluate x(2) to find the local maximum.
x(2) = 13 (2)3 4(2)2 + 12(2) + 1

= 8 16 + 24 + 1
3
= 11 3
2
so a local maximum occurs at (2, 11 3 ).

6
Evaluate x(6) to find the local minimum.
x(6) = 13 (6)3 4(6)2 + 12(6) + 1

= 72 144 + 72 + 1
=1
so a local minimum occurs at (6, 1).
376
Sketch the graph of x(t) over the domain

[0, 7] to test that the maximum and
minimum have been found.
Evaluate x(0) and x(7) to see if the end

points give a smaller or larger value.
This graph indicates

x
that we have to find the
value of x at the end
points in case they
produce larger
0
or smaller values than
the stationary points do.
x(t)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t
x(0) = 1 which is equal to the local minimum above.

x(7) = 13 (7)3 4(7)2 + 12(7) + 1
1
= 1143 196 + 84 + 1
1
=3 3 which is between the local maximum and

minimum above.
2
Therefore the maximum displacement is 11 3 units
from the origin and the minimum displacement is
1unit from the origin.

when the function is known
exercise 8C
1
For each of the following, write the expression for the derivative indicated.
a C = 5x 2x2 + 10,
dC
dx
b P = n3 + 2n2 5 n ,
dV
dh
dM
e M = k loge 3k,
dk
1
c V = 4 h4 3 h3,
d h = t3 + 2e t,
f
L = t2 +
dP
dn
dh
dt
dL
4
2 cos (t),
dt
t
Questions 2 and 3 refer to the following information.

The function Q = n3 3n2 + 5, 0 n 5, is graphed at right.
2 mC The minimum value occurs where n equals:

a 2
d 2
B 0
e 5
C 1
3 mC The maximum value occurs where n is equal to:

a 0
d 1
B 2
e 1
0
C 5
The profit, $P per week, of a small manufacturing company is related to the number of
workers,
n,
by:
1
P = 2 n3 + 96n + 600
4 We7
Find:
a the number of workers needed for maximum profit per week
b the maximum profit per week.
5
The cost, $C, of producing x-metre lengths of a certain tow rope is:
C = 15 x2 8x + 100 per rope, x > 0.
What is the length of the cheapest tow rope that can be produced?
6 We8 The number of people, P, visiting a certain beach on a particular day in January depends on the
number of hours, x, that the temperature is below 30 C according to the rule P = x3 12x2 + 21x + 105
where x 0.
Find the value of x for the maximum and minimum number of people who visit the beach.
377
7 The number of rabbits, N, which feed on a particular farmland on any night can be modelled as
N = 13 x3 + 5x2 + 75x + 500 where x is the average overnight temperature in C and 5 x 25. Find:
a the temperature for the minimum and maximum number of rabbits
b the minimum and maximum number of rabbits that will be found on the farmland.
8 The velocity, v cm/s, of an engines piston t seconds after the engine is started is approximated by
v = 0.8 sin (2t).

a Find the minimum velocity and the time it first occurs.
b Find the maximum velocity and the time it first occurs.
9 The length of a snake, L cm, at time t weeks after it is born is modelled as:
t
L = 12 + 6t + 2 sin , 0 t 20.
4
Find:
a the length at i birth and ii 20 weeks
b R, the rate of growth, at any time, t
c the maximum and minimum growth rate.
10 The population of cheetahs, N, in a national park in Africa since 1 January 1986 can be modelled as
t
N = 100te 12 + 500 where t is the number of years.

a When does this model predict that the maximum population will be reached?
b What is the maximum population of cheetahs that will be reached?
c How many cheetahs will there be on 1 January in i 2010 and ii 2070?
11 In the same park as in question 10 the number of elephants, N, since 1 January 1986 is modelled as
t
N = 100 + 4t + 400e 10 .
Find:
a the minimum number of elephants predicted
b when this minimum will occur.
12 The profit, $P, per item that a store makes by selling n items of a certain type each day is
P = 40 n + 25 200 2n .
a Find the number of items that need to be sold to maximise the profit on each item.
b What is the maximum profit per item?
c Hence, find the total profit per day by selling this number of items.
13 The weight (in kg) of a bodybuilder t months after starting a training program is
W = 5t 20 loge (t + 1) + 90, 0 t 15.

a Find the weight of the bodybuilder at the start of the program.
b Find the minimum weight obtained and how many months it takes to reach it.

when the function is unknown
8d
When solving maximum and/or minimum problems when the function is not given directly, a rule for
the function must be obtained from the given information. This rule should have the quantity being
maximised or minimised in terms of one variable only. Sometimes a diagram will assist in establishing
the rule. Then solve the problem using differentiation.
These steps should be followed.
1. Draw a diagram if appropriate.
2. Identify the quantity to be maximised or minimised.
3. Express this quantity in terms of one variable only.
4. Solve f (x) = 0.
5. Verify it is a maximum or minimum using the first derivative test.
6. Sketch a graph to confirm the maximum or minimum found.
7. Answer the question that has been asked.
378
The following formulas may be useful in problem solving:

Area of circle
A = r2
Curved surface area of a cylinder
S = 2 rh
Surface area of a sphere
S = 4 r2
Volume of a sphere
V = 43 r 3
Volume of a cylinder
V = r2h
Volume of a cone
V = 13 r 2 h
1
V = 3 Ah , where A is the area of the base
Volume of a right pyramid
d = ( x 2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
Distance between two points
Worked example 9
The sum of two positive numbers is 10. Find the numbers if the sum of their squares is a
minimum.
think
Write
Let one number be x and the other number

be y. Form an equation.
Let x = 1st number and y = 2nd number.

x + y = 10
Express y in terms of x.
So y = 10 x
Write an expression for S(x), the sum of

thesquares of x and y, in terms of x only.
Find S(x).
S(x) = 4x 20
Function has a stationary point when S(x) = 0.
Find x for minimum S by solving S(x) = 0.
4x 20 = 0
4x = 20
x=5
Verify that it is a minimum by the first

derivative test.
Gradient table:
S(x) = x2 + y2
= x2 + (10 x)2
= x2 + 100 20x + x2
= 2x2 20x + 100
P(t)
Slope
So x = 5 gives a minimum for S.

8
Find y.
When x = 5,
y = 10 5
=5
State the two numbers.
Therefore, the two numbers which give a

minimum of their squares are both 5.
Note: The actual sum was not asked for in this example.
379
Worked example 10
A cuboid container with a base length twice its width is to be made with 48 m2
of metal.
8 2x
, where x is the
a Show that the height is given by the expression h =
x 3
width of the base.
b Express the volume, V, in terms of x.
c Find the maximum volume.
think
a 1 Draw a diagram of a cuboid.
tUtorial
eles-1178
Worked example 10
Write/draW
2x
x
2
3
Let x be the width of the base and hence

express length in terms of x.
Calculate the total surface area (TSA) of the
cuboid in terms of x and h only.
Let x = width and h = height

so length = 2x.
Express h in terms of x.
As TSA = 48 m2
4x2 + 6xh = 48
6xh = 48 4x2
48 4 x 2
h=
6x
48 4 x 2
=
6x 6x
8 2x
h=
x 3
b 1 Find the volume, V, in terms of x and h.

2
Express the volume in terms of x by

substituting for h.
TSA = 2[2x(x) + 2x(h) + x(h)]

= 2(2x2 + 3xh)
= 4x2 + 6xh
b V = x(2x)h
8 2x
V(x) = 2x2
x 3
= 16x
c 1 Solve V(x) = 0.
Verify that x = 2 gives a maximum.
4x3
3
c V(x) = 16 4x2 = 0 for maximum or minimum
4x2 = 16
x2 = 4
x = 2 or 2 (reject 2 as width cannot be
negative)
Gradient table:
x
1
V(x)
+
Slope
/
2
0
The maximum volume is achieved when x=2 m.

3
Substitute x = 2 into the rule for V(x) to

obtain the maximum volume.
V(2) = 16(2)
= 32 32
3
4(2)3
3
= 32 10 2
3
= 21 1
3
Therefore the maximum volume is 2113 m3.
380
Worked example 11
Find the minimum distance from the straight line with equation
y = x 4 to the point (1, 1).
y
1
0 1
4
think
y=x4
P (1, 1)
4
Q (x, y)
Write
The minimum distance between a straight line

and a point is a perpendicular line from a point
on the straight line, Q (x, y) to the point P (1,1).
Let Q be the point on the line with coordinates(x, y).
From the given rule for the straight line, find y

in terms of x.
As Q is on the line y = x 4 then Q is (x, x 4).
Find the distance, d(x) between P and Q in

terms of x only using the formula for the
distance between 2 points.
d(x) = ( x 2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2
= ( x 1)2 + ( x 4 1)2
= ( x 1)2 + ( x 5)2
= x 2 2 x + 1 + x 2 10 x + 25
= 2 x 2 12 x + 26
Differentiate d(x) using the chain rule.
1
d
(2 x 2 12 x + 26) 2
dx
= 2 (4x 12)
=
5
Solve for x where the derivative equals zero.
(2 x 2 12 x + 26) 2
4 x 12
2 2 x 2 12 x + 26
For maximum or minimum,

4 x 12
=0
2 2 x 2 12 x + 26
4x 12 = 0
4x = 12
x=3
Verify that x = 3 gives a minimum.
Gradient table:
x
Derivative
Slope
3
0
4
+
/
So x = 3 gives the minimum distance.

7
d(3) = 2(3)2 12(3) + 26
Evaluate d(3) to obtain the minimum distance.

The exact answer is 8 and 2.828 is an
approximate answer.
= 18 36 + 26
d= 8=2 2
or
2.828
Therefore the minimum distance is 2 2 units

or approximately 2.828 units.
381

when the function is unknown
exercise 8d
1 We9 The sum of two positive numbers is 10. Find the numbers if their product is amaximum.
2 The sum of two positive numbers is 8. Find the numbers if the sum of the cube of one and thesquare of
the other is a minimum.

3 A rectangular frame is to be made from a piece of wire 120 cm long.
a If the width is x cm, show that the length is 60 x.
b Find an expression for the area of the rectangle in terms of x.
c Hence, find the dimensions for maximum area.
d Find the maximum area.
4 Find the area of the largest rectangular paddock that can be enclosed
Length
with 400 metres offencing.

5 Cylindrical, cardboard postal tubes are made with the restriction
that the sum of the length and the circular circumference are 120cm.
What should the dimensions be for maximum volume?
Circumference
6 The frame of a container in the shape of a cuboid is shown at right.
If it is to be made with a total length of 18 metres of steel edging, find:

a the value of L in terms of x
b the expression for the volume in terms of x only
c the length of each edge for maximum volume
d the maximum volume.
2x
x
7 We10 A cuboid with a square base is to be made with 200 cm2 of
material.
50 x
a Show that the height, h =
, where x is the side length of the base.
x 2
b Express the volume, V, in terms of x.
c Find the maximum volume (to the nearest unit).
8 A window frame is in the shape of a semicircle joined to a rectangle.
Find the maximum area of a window using 300 cm of framework.

50 cm
9 A rectangular sheet of cardboard, 50 cm by 40 cm, is to have square
corners cut out so it can be folded into a rectangular tray.

Find the maximum volume possible for such a tray.
40 cm
10 A bushwalker can walk at 5 km/h through clear land and 3 km/h through bushland. If she has to get
from point A to point B following a route indicated at right, find the value of x so that the route is
covered in a minimum time.
distance
(Note: time =
)
B
speed
Clear
Bush
3 km
x
2 km
11 The cost of running a train at a constant speed of v km/h is C = 50 +

a Find the time taken for an 800 km journey in terms of v.
b Hence, find an expression for the cost of an 800 km journey.
c Find the most economical speed for this journey.
382
v2
dollars/hour.
1000
12 Find the side length of the largest cube which can fit inside a sphere of diameter 24cm.
24 cm
x
13 A cylinder of cheese is to be removed from a spherical piece of cheese of radius 8 cm. What is the
maximum volume of the cylinder of cheese? (Express the answer to the nearest unit.)
8 cm
14 We11 Find the minimum distance from the line y = 2x + 3 to the point (1, 0).
y
y = 2x + 3
3
Minimum distance
y
(1, 0)
2
15 Find the minimum distance from the parabola y =
y = x2
diGital doC
doc-9215
WorkSHEET 8.2
x2
to the point
(5, 0). (Express the answer to the nearest hundredth.)
(5, 0)
5 x
8e
rates of change
P (x1, f (x1)) and Q (x2, f (x2)) are two points on the function with
rule y = f (x) as shown in the diagram.
The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval x [ x1, x2] is equal to the gradient of the straight line
(or chord) PQ.
Average rate of change =
=
y
y = f(x)
Q (x2, f(x2))
change in f ( x )
change in x
f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 )
x 2 x1
interaCtiVitY
int-0253
rates of change
P (x1, f(x1))
0
x1
The instantaneous rate of change is the rate of change at a

specific point.
dy
The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x is given by the derivative .
dx
dy
If
> 0, then y is increasing as x increases (gradient is positive).
dx
dy
If
< 0, then y is decreasing as x increases (gradient is negative).
dx
x2
Note: Rates of change are often calculated with respect to time, but not always. If you are required to
find the rate of change with respect to some quantity other than time then the quantity must be stated. If
this quantity is not stated then the rate of change is taken as being with respect to time.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
383
Worked example 12
a Find the rate of change of the surface area of a melting ice cube with respect to its side length (x).
b What is the rate of change when x = 2 cm? (Assume that the ice cube remains in the shape of
acube.)
think
Write
a 1 Express the surface area, S, of the cube in
terms of its side length, x.

dS
.
dx
dS
= 12x
dx
Find
Place a negative sign in front of the rate as

the ice cube is melting (that is, the rate is
decreasing).
b 1 Substitute x = 2 into
a S = 6x2 (total surface area of a cube)
dS
.
dx
State the solution.
dS
= 12x because the surface area is
But
dx
decreasing.
b When
x=2
dS
= 12(2)
dx
= 24
Therefore, the rate of change of the surface area

when x = 2 cm is 24 cm2/cm (it is decreasing at
a rate of 24 cm2/cm).
Worked example 13
The number of mosquitoes, N, around a dam on a certain night can be

modelled by the equation
N = 100 loge (2t + 1) + 5t + 1000
where t equals hours after sunset.
Find:
a the initial number of mosquitoes
b the average rate of change in the first 4 hours
c the rate of change at any time, t
d the rate of change when t = 4 hours.
think
a 1 Write the rule.

2
Find N when t = 0.
b 1 Find N when t = 4.
384
tUtorial
eles-1223
Worked example 13
Write
a N = 100 loge (2t + 1) + 5t + 1000
When t = 0,
N = 100 loge (2 0 + 1) + 5 0 + 1000
= 100 loge 1 + 1000
= 100 0 + 1000
= 1000
The initial number of mosquitoes is 1000.
b When t = 4,
N = 100 loge (2 4 + 1) + 5 4 + 1000

= 100 loge (9) + 20 + 1000
= 1020 + 100 loge (9)
= 1020 + 219.7
= 1239.7
that is, 1239 mosquitoes (as the number has not
reached 1240).
The average rate of change in the first

4 hours
1239.7 1000
=
40
239.7
=
4
Calculate the average rate between t= 0 and

f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 )
t = 4 using
.
x 2 x1
= 59.93 mosquitoes per hour.

c Differentiate N with respect to t, to find
dN
.
dt
dN 100 2
+5
=
2t + 1
dt
=
d Find
dN
when t = 4.
dt
200
+5
2t + 1
d When t = 4 the rate of change is:
dN
200
+5
=
dt 2 4 + 1
=
200
9
+5
= 22 9 + 5
2
= 27 9 mosquitoes per hour.
exercise 8e
rates of change
In the following exercise, use a CAS calculator to assist with any graphing.
1 Express the following in simplest mathematical notation.
a The rate of change of volume, V, with respect to radius, r.
b The rate of change of surface area, S, with respect to height, h.
c The rate of change of area, A, with respect to time, t.
d The rate of change of cost, C, with respect to distance, x.
e The rate of change of intensity, I, with respect to pressure p.
f The rate of change of velocity.
2
diGital doC
doc-9264
SkillSHEET 8.2
review of rates
of change
Find the rate of change of the area, A = r2, of an increasing circular oil spill with respect to
the radius, r.
b What is the rate of change when r = 10 metres?
We12 a
3 a Find the rate of change of the volume, V = 4 r3, of a deflating spherical balloon with respect to the
radius, r.
b Hence, find the rate when r = 5 cm.
4 A sugar cube dissolves in a cup of tea. Find the rate of decrease of its surface area, S, when side
lengths, x, are 0.5 cm.

5 The height of a projectile t seconds after being fired is h = 10 + 20t 5t2 metres.
a Find the rate of change of height after
i 1 second and ii 3 seconds.
b Explain the difference between these two answers.
6 The volume of water (in litres) which has flowed through a swimming pool filter t minutes after
starting it is V =
1
(30t3
100
t ) where 0 t 90.
4
a At what rate is water flowing through the filter at any time, t?
dV
over the domain [0, 90].
dt
c When is the rate of flow greatest?
b Sketch a graph of
385
7 A particle moves in a straight line so that its displacement from a point, O, at any time, t, is
x = 3t 2 + 4 .
Find:
a the velocity as a function of time
b the acceleration as a function of time
c the velocity and acceleration when t = 2.
8 If a particle is moving in a straight line so that its displacement from the origin at any time, t, is
x = t3 12t2 + 36t, find:

a the velocity
b the time and displacement when the velocity is zero
c the acceleration when the velocity is zero.
9 We13 The number of people with the flu virus, N, in a particular town t days after a vaccine is
introduced is N = 3000 500 loge (8t + 1).

How many people are infected in the town before the vaccine is introduced?
Find the average rate of change over the first 5 days.
Find the rate of change of the number of people in the town infected with flu.
Find the rate of change after 5 days.
a
b
c
d
10 mC If V = t3 2t2 + 8 t , where V is in m3 and t is in hours

a the rate of change of V with respect to t when t = 4 is:
a 48 m3/h
d 34 m3/h
B 32 m3/h
e 20 m3/h
C 28 m3/h
b the average rate of change from t = 1 to t = 4 is:

2
3
1
3
a 13 m3/h
B 10 m3/h
d 101 m3/h
e 0 m3/h
C 3 m3/h
11 mC Temperature, T C, is related to height, h metres, by T = h2 + 4eh.

a The rate of change, C/m, at h = 0 is:
a 0
d 4e
B 4
e 1
C 4e
a 16 + 4e4
d 8 + e4
B 16 + e4
e 8 + 16e4
C 8 + 4e4
a 1 + e4
d 4 + e4
B e4
e 3 + e4
C 12 + 4e4
b The rate of change, C/m, at h = 4 is:
c The average rate of change between h = 0 and h = 4 in C/m is:
12 The height of water (in metres) at the entrance to a bay t hours after high tide is:
Find:
t
H = 10 + 2 cos .
12
a the rate of change of H at any time, t

b the rate of change of H at:
i 6 hours
ii 15 hours
iii 20 hours after high tide
c the minimum and maximum value of H and the time when they first occur after the initial high tide.
13 The value of an antique ornament t years after being purchased is A = 2000e 0.1 t dollars.
a Find the value of the antique.
i when purchased and
ii 3 years after purchase.
b Hence, find the average rate of change of value in the 3 years since purchased.
c Find the rate of change of value 3 years after purchase.
14 The amount of chlorine in a jug of water t hours after it was filled from a tap is C =
in millilitres. Find the rate of decrease of chlorine 9 hours after being poured.
386
20
, where C is
t +1
15 The graph at right shows the price of the shares of a particular
Price ()
company over a period of time.

Use the graph to estimate the answers to the following
questions.
a Estimate the share price when t = 5.
b State the time interval over which the share price was
decreasing.
c Find the average rate of change of the share prices over the
entire period shown on the graph.
d Estimate the rate of change of the share price at t = 11.
e What was the maximum share price over the period shown?
f When was the share price at its lowest value?
180
16 The graph at right shows how the velocity of a car varies over a
period of time.
Use the graph to estimate the answers to the following
questions.
a Estimate the velocity of the car at t = 12.
b Estimate the acceleration of the car at t = 5.
c State the time intervals over which the car is accelerating.
d What was the average rate of change of velocity of the car
over the interval [4, 8]?
170
160
150
140
130
120
0
10 12 14 16 t (months)
v (m/s)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
8F
10 12 14 16
t (s)
related rates
When two variables are both functions of a third variable, we may need to use related rates to solve the
dx
dy
problem. For example, we may need to find
when given . In such instances we would need to use
dt
dt
dx dx dy
the chain rule:
=
.
dt dy dt
When solving problems involving related rates, the following steps may be helpful:
1. Draw a diagram where appropriate. Sometimes two or more diagrams may be necessary.
2. Identify the variables.
3. Identify which rate is given and which rate is required.
4. Use the chain rule to connect the required and given rates.
5. Find an equation, or relationship, that connects the variables if not given.
6. Differentiate the equation.
7. Substitute into the chain rule and simplify.
8. Answer the question noting correct units.
Tools for finding relationships:
similar triangles
Pythagoras theorem
right-angled triangle trigonometry
sine and cosine rules.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video about related
rates.
Worked example 14
An ice cube is melting at a constant rate of 2 cm3 per hour. At what rate is the
side length of the cube changing when the side length is 1.2 cm?
think
1
We are given the rate of change of volume with

respect to time. Write it using appropriate notation.
Since the volume is decreasing, the rate is negative.
Write
dV
= 2
dt
tUtorial
eles-1224
Worked example 14
eleSSon
eles-0094
related rates
387
dx
when x = 1.2
dt
State the rate of change that needs to be found.
Need to find
Use the chain rule to connect the rate that we

need to find with the one that is given.
dx dx dV
=
dt dV
dt
We do not know dx . To find it, we need the rule

dV
that connects x and V, that is, the rule that connects
the side length of the cube with its volume. So
write the formula for the volume of the cube.
Vcube = x3, where x is the length of the side.
Differentiate.
dV
= 3x2
dx
dx
Reciprocate both sides to obtain dV .
dx
1
= 2
dV 3 x
1
dx
Substitute 3 x 2 for dV and (2) for dv
dt into the
chain rule and simplify.
dx
1
= 2 (2)
dt 3 x
=
8
We now have the formula that allows us to find

the rate of change of the side length for any value
of x. To find the rate of change when length
is 1.2cm, simply substitute 1.2 for x into this
State the answer, adding appropriate units.
2
3x 2
So when x = 1.2,
2
dx
=
dt 3 (1.2)2
=
25
54
When the side length of the cube is 1.2 cm, its

25
length is changing at a rate of
cm/h.
54
Worked example 15
An empty inverted right circular cone has a radius of 4 cm and a height of 20 cm. Water
is being poured in at a constant rate of 0.1 cm3/second. Find the rate at which the depth
of the water is increasing at the instant the depth is 6 cm. Give your answer correct to
2decimal places.
think
1
Draw a diagram showing half the cross-section at

any depth, h cm.
Write/draW
4 cm
r cm
20 cm
h cm
388
Identify the variables.
Depth of the water, h cm

Radius, r cm, of surface of the water
Time, t seconds
Volume, V cm3
Identify the given rate.

Identify the required rate.
Use the chain rule to connect the rate that we

need to find with the one that is given.
Find a rule that connects volume, V with the

depth of water, h.
Use similar triangles to connect r and h.
Rewrite the formula with the two variables

V and h.
dV
= 0.1 cm3/second
dt
dh
when h = 6 cm.
Find
dt
dh dh dV
=
dt dV dt
1
V = r 2h
3
r
4
=
h 20
h
r=
5
1 h 2
V = h
3 5
V=
Differentiate V with respect to h.
3
h
75
dV 3 2
=
h
dh 75
dV 2
= h
dh 25
dh
by taking reciprocals of both sides.
dV
Substitute into the Chain Rule and simplify.
Obtain
dh
25
=
dV h 2
dh dh dV
=
dt dV dt
dh
25
=
0.1
dt h 2
dh 2.5
=
dt h 2
Substitute h = 6 cm to find the required rate of

change.
State the answer with appropriate units.
exercise 8F
dh
2.5
=
dt 62
dh
= 0.02 cm/second (correct to 2 decimal places)
dt
The depth of water is increasing at a rate of
0.02 cm/second when the depth is 6 cm.
related rates
1 We 14 A gym fitness ball is being inflated such that its volume is increasing at a constant rate of
5cm3 per second. At what rate is the radius of the ball changing when the radius is 34 cm?
2 A particle moves along a path that can be described using the Cartesian equation y = 3x3 2x + 1.
dy
dx
= 3 when x = 5, find
at that moment.
dt
dt
3 The surface area of a cube is decreasing at a constant rate of 9 cm2/s. Find the rate at which the sides of
the cube are decreasing when the sides are 1.5 cm long.
If
4 A spherical balloon is being deflated and its radius, r cm, is decreasing at a constant rate of 5 cm/min.
At what rate is its volume, V cm3, decreasing when the radius of the balloon is 4 cm?
389
5 A bowl is being filled with water at a rate of 12 cm3/s. The volume, V cm3, of water in the bowl is
5
given by V = 8h 2 where the depth of water in the bowl is h cm. Find the rate at which the depth of
water in the bowl is increasing when the depth is 9 cm.
6 The radius of a circular puddle of water is increasing at a rate of 2.5 cm/s. Find the exact rate at which
the area is increasing at the instant the radius is 12 cm.

7 mC A cylinder with radius of 4 m is being filled with water. If the rate of change of the depth of the
1
m/s, the rate of change of volume, in m3/s, in the cylinder is:
8
1
1
1
a
B 2
C 2
d
108 2
2
water is
e 2
8 We15 An inverted right circular cone is filled with liquid. The cone has a radius of 3 m and
height of 7 m. The liquid flows from the apex of the cone at a constant rate of 0.6 m3/min. Find
the rate at which the depth of the liquid is dropping, correct to 2 decimal places, when the depth
of the liquid is 2 m.
9 The upper end of an 8 m ladder rests against a vertical wall with the lower end on the horizontal ground.
The lower end of the ladder slips along the ground away from the wall at a rate of 6 m/s. Find the rate at
which the upper end of the ladder is moving the instant the ladder is 4 m from the wall.
10 A stainless steel cylindrical tank of radius 6 m is being filled with milk at a constant rate of 1.5 m3/min.
At what rate is the level of milk rising? Give your answer in terms of .
11 A sand timer consists of two cones joined at the apex. Each cone has height h, radius r and an angle at
the apex of 60.

a Express the radius of the top cone in terms of its height. Give your answer in exact form.
b Write the volume of the top cone as a function of its height.
c When the timer is turned over, the sand starts pouring from the top cone into the bottom one at a
1
cm3/s. Find the rate of change of the depth of the sand in the top cone when the
constant rate of 32
depth is 0.8 cm.
8G
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
linear approximation
It is useful to be able to find how much a small change in the independent variable affects the dependent
variable. For example, how will a small increase in the radius of a circle affect the area of a circle?
This concept can be illustrated graphically.
y
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
y = f(x)
y = f(x + h) f(x)
x
=h
Consider the function y = f (x) as shown with the points A (x, f (x)) and B (x + h, f (x + h)).
f ( x + h) f ( x )
. If h is very small, the gradient of the chord is very
The gradient of the chord AB =
h
close to the gradient of the tangent at the point A (x, f (x)).
f ( x)
f ( x + h) f ( x )
h
h f ( x ) f ( x + h) f ( x )
f ( x + h) f ( x ) + h f ( x )
390
The formula f ( x + h) f ( x ) + h f ( x ) is called the linear approximation formula.

Alternatively, if a small change in y, y, corresponds to a small change in x, x, then
y x
dy
where y f ( x + h) f ( x ).
dx
dy y
.
dx x
If y is the small change in a quantity, y, the percentage change (or error) in y is given by
h f ( x )
y
or
100%.
100%
f (x)
y
Worked example 16
Use the approximation formula, f (x + h) f (x) + hf (x), with f (x) = x2 and x = 1 to find an
approximate value of (1.01)2.
think
Write
Write f (x), f (x), x and h.
f (x) = x2, f (x) = 2x, x = 1 and h = 0.01
Find x + h and hence f (x + h).
x + h = 1.01 and f (x + h) = (x + h)2 = 1.012
Write the formula and hence find the value

of 1.012.
f (x + h) f (x) + hf (x)
1.012 12 + 0.01 2
1.012 1.02
Worked example 17
A circular metal disc is being cooled. If the radius is decreased from 10 cm to 9.8 cm, find
correct to 2 decimal places:
a the approximate change in the area
b the percentage change in the area.
think
Write
a 1 Write the relationship between area and
radius.
a A(r) = r2
Write A(r), r and h.
A(r) = 2r, r = 10 cm, h = 0.2
Write the approximation formula and

substitute.
A(r + h) A(r ) + hA(r )

A(9.8) A(10) 0.2 A(10)
Change in A A(9.8) A(10)
0.2 20
State the answer with correct units.
Area decreases by 12.57 cm2 correct to

2 decimal places.
b 1 Write the change in area as fraction of the
original area, expressing as a percentage.

2
State the answer.
exercise 8G
A 0.2 20
=
100%
A
10 2
= 4%
Area is decreased by approximately 4%.
1 We16 Use the approximation formula, f (x + h) f (x)h + f (x), with each of the following.
a For f (x) = x3 and x = 1, find 1.013.
b For f (x) = x2 and x = 1, find 0.9992.
c For f (x) = 5x2 and x = 1, find 5 0.992.
d For f (x) =
x and x = 1, find 1.001.

391
2 If a spherical balloon has a radius of 5 cm, find the increase in volume of the balloon when the radius
expands by 0.02 cm.

3 A circular disc has a radius of 10 cm. Find the percentage increase in its area if the radius is increased
by 2%.
4 We17 An isosceles triangle has its equal sides of length 10 cm
with an included angle of as shown in the diagram at right.

If changes from 60 to 61, find, correct to 2 decimal places:
10 cm
10 cm
a the approximate area of the triangle when = 61
b the approximate increase in the area, A, of the triangle.
5 mC If f (x) = x2 and x = 3, an approximate value of (2.9)2 is given by:
a f (3) + 0.1 f (3)
B f (2.9) + 0.1 f (2.9)
C f (3) f (2.9)
d f (2.9) 0.1 f (2.9)
e f (3) 0.1 f (3)
6 The volume, V cm3, of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure, P atmospheres, of a gas, that is,
k
where k is a constant (that depends on the mass of the gas and the temperature). If the pressure
P
of the gas increases from 2 atmospheres to 2.25 atmospheres, find the approximate change in the
volume of the gas in terms of k. Hence find the corresponding percentage change in the volume.
2
7 Find the approximate change in x as y decreases from 2 to 1.5 if f ( x ) =
.
x4
8 The length of a rectangle is four times its width. If the width increases by 5%, find the corresponding
percentage change in the perimeter and area of the rectangle.
V=
392
Summary
Stationary points
A function f (x) has stationary points wherever its derivative f (x) = 0.

If f (a) = 0, then f (x) has a stationary point (a, f (a)) which is:
1. a local minimum turning point if:
for x < a, f (x) < 0
and x > a, f (x) > 0.
2. a local maximum turning point if:
for x < a, f (x) > 0
and x > a, f (x) < 0.
3. a positive stationary point of inflection if:
for x < a, f (x) > 0
and x > a, f (x) > 0.
4. a negative stationary point of inflection if:
for x < a, f (x) < 0
and x > a, f (x) < 0.
equations of tangents
and normals
The gradient of the tangent at x = a to the curve y = f (x) is f (a).

1
The gradient of the normal at x = a to the curve y = f (x) is
.
f (a)
The equation of a straight line with gradient m and passing through the point (x1, y1) is:
y y1 = m(x x1)
maximum and
minimum problems
When solving maximum or minimum problems follow these steps.

1. Draw a diagram if appropriate.
2. Identify the quantity to be maximised or minimised (say, f (x)).
3. Express the quantity in terms of one variable only (say x).
4. Solve f (x) = 0.
5. Verify it is a maximum or minimum using the first derivative test.
6. Sketch a graph to confirm the maximum or minimum found.
7. Answer the question.
rates of change
dy
The instantaneous rate of change of y = f (x) at x = x1 is found by evaluating f (x1) (or finding
dx
where x = x1).
The average rate of change of y = f (x) between x = x1 and x = x2 is:
f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 )
.
x 2 x1
related rates
To solve a problem involving related rates, use the chain rule, for example
f ( x + h) f ( x ) + hf ( x )
dy
y x
dx
y
Percentage change:
100%
y
dx dx dy
=
.
dt dy dt
393
Chapter review
S h ort
anS Wer
1 Determine the stationary points and their nature for the function f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 36x + 5.
2 Sketch the graph of y = x2(4 x2), clearly indicating all stationary points and intercepts.
3 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 6 3x + 2x2 x3 at the point where x = 1.
4 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3 loge (x2) (x 0) which is parallel to the line
y 3x 7 = 0.
5 Find the equation of the normals to the curve y = x +
line 3y + 4x 10 = 0.
1
at the point where the normals are parallel to the
x
6 The number of bees, N, in a hive can be modelled by the function N = 2t(50 t) + 180 where t is the
number of days the hive has existed. What is the maximum number of bees in the hive?
7 The area of a certain triangular shape is:
2x 2
,x>6
3 (x 6)
where x is the length of the base of the triangle.
a Find the value of x for minimum area.
b Hence, find the minimum area.
A=
mUlt ip l e
Ch oiCe
1 The graph of y = (x + 2)3 has:

a 1 turning point
d 2 points of inflection
B 2 turning points
e 0 stationary points
C 1 point of inflection
2 The graph of x3 + 2x2 + x 2 has:

a
B
C
d
e
2 points of inflection
1 point of inflection
1 turning point and 1 point of inflection
3 turning points
2 turning points
3 The graph of 1 x3 4x2 9x + 5 has a local maximum turning point at:

3
a (1, 9 3 )
B (9, 20)
2
3
C (9, 18)
1
3
d (1, 10 )
e (1, 7 )
4 If the graph of g(x) has the following properties:

i g(x) = 0 if x = 3, 1 and 4
ii g(x) < 0 if x < 3 and 1 < x < 4
iii g(x) > 0 for all other x then the graph of g(x) could be:
y
a
y
g(x)
g(x)
0 1
01
4
g(x)
g(x)
01
g(x)
x
3
01
5 The equation of a line with a gradient of 2 and passing through the point (1, 3) is:
a y = 2x + 5
d y = 2x 5
394
B y = 2x
e y=x+1
C y = 2x 1
6 The equation of the tangent to the curve y = x (x + 2)(x 1) at the point where x = 1 is:
a yx+1=0
d y+x1=0
B yx+3=0
e yx1=0
C y+x+3=0
a 3y + x 7 = 0
d y 3x 3 = 0
B 3y x + 7 = 0
e y + 3x 9 = 0
C y 3x 9 = 0
7 The equation of the normal to the curve y = 3ex + 2 at the point where x = 2 is:
8 The tangent to the curve y = 2 loge (3 2x) at the point where x = 1 intercepts with the y-axis at the
point where y equals:
a 1
B 3
d 2
C 0
e 4
9 The graph of f (x) shown at right indicates that the graph of f (x) has:
a
B
C
d
e
a turning point at x = 2 and x = 4

a turning point at x = 2 and point of inflection at x = 4
a turning point at x = 4 and point of inflection at x = 2
3 stationary points
2 points of inflection at x = 4 and x = 2
f '(x)
Questions 10 and 11 refer to the following information. The volume of liquid in a container varies with
time according to the rule V = 1 + t2et, where t is in hours and V is in thousands of litres, and 0 t 40.
10 The minimum value of V occurs when t equals:
a 1 hour
B 2 hours
C 0 hours
d 3 hours
e 40 hours
11 The maximum volume, to the nearest tens of litres,is:
a 1450
B 1540
C 1390
d 1360
e 1630
Questions 12 to 16 follow from the isosceles triangle below which has a perimeter of 40 cm.
12 The value of y in terms of x is:

a 40 2x
d 20 2x
B 20 x
e x2
C 40 x
13 The height of the triangle in terms of x is:

a
400 40 x
B 20
400 40 x + x 2
14 The area in terms of x is:
d
a
(20 x) 400 40 x
d x 400 40 x
40 x
400 40 x + 2 x 2
40 x
2
B x 400 40 x + x
2
C 2 x 400 40 x + x
e 2 x 400 40 x
15 The maximum area of the triangle is obtained if x equals:

2
3
a 6 cm
B 10 cm
d 5 cm
10 2
5
C 20 cm
cm
16 Therefore, the maximum area possible is:

a 50 2 cm2
B 64 cm2
C 32 5 cm2
40 3
9
400 3
9
395
17 The average rate of change of the function f (x) = x4 3x3 + 5x between x = 1 and x = 3 is:
a 15
B 6
C 12
d 4
1
2
e 16
18 An iceberg in the shape of a cube is slowly melting. The rate of change of the surface area of the
iceberg in m3/m when the side length is 40 metres is:

a 480
C 720
B 240
e x tended
r e S p onS e
d 480
1 Consider the cone with a slant side of 10 cm shown at right.

a Show that the height, h, is 100 r 2 .
1
b Show that the volume of the cone is V = r2 100 r 2 .
3
c Hence, find the maximum volume.
2 The number of bacteria present in a lasagne, t minutes after it is placed in a
396
e 240
10 cm
h
r
microwave to heat up, can be modelled by N = 3000e 0.5t, where t > 0.
a Find the initial number of bacteria.
b Find the rate of change of bacteria after being in the microwave for 10 minutes.
The height above the ground of a person on a ferris wheel at any time, t, seconds after the ride has
t
started is h=5.4 4 cos metres.
15
a Find the initial height of the person above ground level.
b Find the height after 5 seconds.
c Hence, find the average rate of change of height during the first 5 seconds.
d Find the rate of change of height at t = 5.
Lena is walking in the park. The graph at right shows her
d (m)
displacement from the park entrance over a period of time.
700
a Estimate Lenas displacement from the park entrance
600
at t = 20.
b Find Lenas average velocity over the interval [20, 30].
500
c What was Lenas maximum displacement from her
400
starting point?
300
d Estimate Lenas velocity at t = 15.
200
A manufacturing company is required to produce
cylindrical cans (for tuna) of volume 50 cm3. Tinused to
100
produce the cans costs 40 cents per 100cm2.
a Find the area of tin required, A, in terms of the
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 t(min)
0
radius, r.
b Find the radius of the can (to the nearest tenth) for minimum area.
c Hence, find the minimum area (to the nearest tenth).
d What is the cost of tin to produce 10 000 such cans?
A small manufacturing company needs to order new cardboard boxes for
packaging their product. Each box is to be in the shape of a prism with a
w
square end and is to have a volume of 27 000 cm3. To hold each box together,
tape is used all around the box as shown in the diagram at right.
w
l
a Express the length of the box (l) in terms of its width (w).
b Write the formula for the total area of cardboard (A) in terms of w.
c Find the dimensions of the box which uses the least amount of cardboard.
d Write the formula for the total length of the tape (L) in terms of w. (Ignore the width of the tape
and any overlaps.)
e Find the dimensions of the box that uses the least amount of tape.
f The cardboard used to make the boxes costs 0.01 cents per square centimetre, and the tape can be
purchased at $0.50 per metre. Write the formula for the total cost (in cents) of the package (that
is, the cost of the cardboard and tape) in terms of w.
g Find the dimensions of the box with the minimum total cost.
h Find the minimum total cost to the nearest cent.
7 The cross-section of a pencil head when it is first placed
y = 4x
in a sharpening device is shown at right.
Pencil
The gradient of the tangent at point A is 4.
head
The equation of the pencil head is y = 4x2.
Ifthe x- and y-axes are as indicated and all distances are
Tangent
B
A
in centimetres, find:
a the coordinates of points A and B
x
0
b the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 4x2 at point A
C
c the coordinate of point C
d the minimum distance from the pencil head to point C
e the length of the pencil head if it starts at the point where the normal at point A meets the y-axis.
8 The population of rabbits on a particular island t weeks after a virus is introduced is modelled by
P= 1200e 0.1t, where P is the number of rabbits.

Find:
a the time taken for the population to halve (to the nearest week)
b the rate of decrease of the population after:
i 2 eweks nd
a
ii 10 weeks.
After 15 weeks the virus has become ineffective and the population of rabbits starts to increase
again according to the model
P = P0 + 10(t 15) loge (2t 29)
where t is the number of weeks since the virus was first introduced.
Find:
c the value of P0
d the population after 30 weeks
e the rate of change of the population after i 20 weeks and ii 30 weeks
f how many weeks the population takes to get back to its original number.
9 After washing the kitchen floor, Alex put his favourite mop flat against the wall
and left it there. A few minutes later, the mop starts to slide down the wall. Let h
be the height of the top end of the mop above the floor and let y be the horizontal
h
distance of the bottom end of the mop from the wall at any time, t.
a If the mop is 1.2 m tall, express y in terms of h.
b If the top end of the mop slides down with a constant speed of 5 cm per
second, find the speed (in terms of h) with which the bottom end of the mop
y
moves away from the wall.
c Find the speed with which the bottom end of the mop moves away from the wall when the top of
the mop:
i is 0.8 m from the floor
ii has slid down by 20 cm.
d Find the speed with which the bottom end of the mop moves away from the wall 6 seconds after
the top of the mop started sliding down.
10 Consider the function f ( x ) = ( x 3)( x + 2a)2 where a is a positive real constant.
a Find f (x).
c Determine the nature of the stationary points.
d Find the equation of the tangent at x = 2.
e Find the x-intercept of the tangent.
11 Consider the function y = (x2 a)2 where a R.
dy
a Find
at x = 2.
dx
b Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at x = 2 in terms of a.
c Hence find the x-intercept of the tangent line in terms of a.
d A straight line with equation y = 2x + 1 passes through the x-intercept of the tangent line. Find
the value of a.
e Using the value of a found previously, what is the equation of the tangent line?
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic: 1 & 2
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
diGital doC
doc-9216
Test Yourself
Chapter 8
397
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGital doC
applications of differentiation. (page 365)
8a
tUtorial
We2 eles-1221: Watch a worked example on finding equations of
tangents and normals. (page 366)
diGital doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9213: Investigate tangents and normals. (page 366)
WorkSHEET 8.1 doc-9214: Find stationary points and their nature and
equations of normals and tangents. (page 367)
8B
Sketching curves
tUtorial
We3 eles-1222: Watch a worked example on sketching curves
and finding stationary points. (page 369)
diGital doC
SkillSHEET 8.1 doc-9263: Practise differentiating expressions other
than polynomials. (page 374)
8C maximum and minimum problems when the

function is known
tUtorial
We8 eles-1177: Watch a worked example on applications of
maximum and minimum problems. (page 376)
8d maximum and minimum problems when the

function is unknown
tUtorial
We10 eles-1178: Watch a worked example on maximising
volume. (page 380)
398
diGital doC
WorkSHEET 8.2 doc-9215: Apply differentiation skills to a variety of
problems. (page 383)
8e
rates of change
interaCtiVitY
Rates of change int-0253: Consolidate your understanding of
applying differentiation techniques by riding and rolling. (page 383)
tUtorial
We13 eles-1223: Watch a worked example on application of rates
of change and average rates of change. (page 384)
diGital doC
SkillSHEET 8.2 doc-9264: Practise identifying rates of change.
(page 385)
8F
related rates
eleSSon eles-0094
Related rates: Learn about using differentiation for related rates.
(page 387)
tUtorial
We14 eles-1224: Watch a worked example on using related rates
to determine an instantaneous rate of change. (page 387)
Chapter review
diGital doC
Answers CHAPTER 8
appliCationS oF
diFFerentiation
2 a
exercise 8a equations of tangents and

normals
1 y = 5x 4
2 At (6, 0) y + 7x + 42 = 0 and at (1, 0)
y = 7x 7
3 x+y=3
4 x + 3y + 21 = 0
5 a i y = 2x
ii x + 2y = 5
b i y = 6x + 16
ii x + 6y = 22
c i x + 4y = 4
ii 2y = 8x 15
d i y = 7x + 1
ii x + 7y + 43 = 0
e i 4y = x + 4
ii 4x + y = 18
f i 3y = x + 6
ii y + 3x = 12
g i x+y=1
ii y = x + 3
h i y = 4x
ii x + 4y = 0
i i y = 2x 3
ii x + 2y + 1 = 0
j i y = 2x+ 1
ii x + 2y = 2
1
1
k i y = 3e x + 4e
ii ex + 3y = 3e 1 e
l i 2y = x 2 + 2 loge (2)
ii y + 2x = 4 + loge (2)
m i 3y = 2x + 3 loge (3)
ii 3x + 2y = 2 loge (3)
3
n i x+y=
+
2
3
3
ii y = x +
2
3
o i 3x + 2y = 3
ii 3y = 2x 2
2
p i y = 2x +
ii x + 2 y = 1
2
6 a B
b C
7 y = 2x
8 y = 1
9 x+y=
10 3x + y = 3 + loge (3)
11 a ytangent = 2ax a2 + 1,
x
ynormal =
+ a2 + 32
2a
x
a
b ytangent =
,
+
2 a 2
2 ax + a (2a + 1)
ynormal =
c ytangent = 4 ae
4 a2
x+e
4 a2
(1 8a 2 ),
y =8
y
b
(1, 2)
y=
x2
x+6
y y = 3x4 8x3 + 6x2 + 5

+ve point
of
inflection
(1, 6)
0
x2
f(x)
1 0
( 12, 6 14)
(0, 5)
Minimum
(1, 2)
g(x)
g(x)
(3, 54)
x
(3, 54)
)
( 23 , 1 13
27
(2, 8)
f(x)
y
(3, 16)
(0, 0)
(0, 12)
y
(2, 4)
g(x)
y = x3 + 4x2 3x 2
)
( 13 , 2 14
27
(1, 1)
(2, 8)
1 2
2
+ e 4 a + e4 a
2
12 y = 8x + 2(1 loge (2))
13 b = 132
ynormal =
y
(8, 0)
h(x)
y = x2 (x + 3)
g(x)
2
4 ae 4 a
(0, 0)
0 (0, 0)
exercise 8B
Sketching curves
(0, 8) a local max.
(1, 2) a local max., (1, 2) a local min.
(2, 8) a local min.
d (2, 8) a local min., ( 23 , 1 13
27 ) a local max.
e (0, 0) a positive point of inflection, (1, 1)
a local max.
f (2, 4) a local max., (0, 0) a local min.
g (3, 4) a local min.
h (0, 8) a positive point of inflection
i ( 1 , 6 1 ) a local max.
4
2
j (0, 5) a local min., (1, 6) a positive point
of inflection
k (3, 54) a local max., (3, 54) a local min.
14
l (3, 16) a local max., ( 1 , 2 27 ) a local min.
3
m (0, 12) a negative point of inflection
n (0, 0) a negative point of inflection,
(3, 27) a local min.
1 a
b
c
(3, 27)
y = 5 6x + x2
3 a (1, 0) a local max., (2 1 , 18 14

)
27
5 (0, 5)
a local min.
c (1, 0), (4, 0), (0, 4)
(1, 0)
0
(5, 0) x
(3, 4)
y
f(x)
4 x
f(x)
)
(2 13 , 18 14
27
(0, 8)
y
(1, 0)
1 0
22
4 a (2, 36) a local max. and (2 2 , 14 27 ) a
3
local min.
b (4, 0), (1, 0), (4, 0) and (0, 16)
399
c (2, 36) y
d
y =
x3
x2
d x = 5 a local min., x = 2 a positive point
g(x)
16x + 16
( 23 ,
of inflection
5
1
)
27
e x = 3 a local max., x = 0 a local min.,
16
4
x = 2 a local max.
f x = 1 a local max., x = 5 a local min.
(2, 0)
14
f '(x) = 2x 4
)
(2 23, 14 22
27
5 a ( 2 , 4) a local min., (0, 0) a local max.,
(1, 36)
( 2 , 4) alocal min.
b (2, 0), (0, 0) and (2, 0),
g(x)
2 x
( 2, 4)
f ( x) < 0 if x < 2 and f ( x) > 0 if x > 2
( 2, 4)
(2, 27) a local min., (1, 0) a positive

point of inflection
)
1422
27
ii x < 4 and x > 0

iii 4 < x < 0
b i
y
f(x)
g'(x) = 3x2 + 4x 7
h No stationary points
(2, 18) a local min., (0, 6) a local max.,
(1 14 , 9 107
256 ) a local min.
b (0, 6)
2 13
(1, 0) (1, 0)
(2, 27)
0 3
f '(x) = x2 + 4x
1 (0, 1)
(1, 0)
3
y = x4 6x2 + 8x 3
h(x)
(3, 36)
15 a i
y
(123 ,
c (1, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 3),
7 a
)
(3 23 , 14 22
27
6a
(0, 0)
h(x)
f(x)
(1, 2)
ii x < 2 3 and x > 1
Not a zero
gradient
2 1
3
iii
0 1
y = x4 + x3 5x2 6
<x<1
c i
h'(x) = 4x3 + 12x2 + 8x
(1, 2) 2
x
0 (0, 6)
8 a
(2, 18)
)
(1 14 , 9107
256
(0, 0)
ii 2 < x < 1 and x > 0

iii x < 2 and 1 < x < 0
( 1 , 14)
( 1 , 14)
(2, 0)
16
1 x
2
y
f(x)
(1, 0)
0
1
(1, 0)
1
(0, 1) 1
9
10
11
12
13
(2, 4)
y
g(x)
13
( 14,
(0, 0)
0
1

)
256
B
A
C
E
a x = 3 a local min., x = 0 a local max.

b x = 2 a local max., x = 1 a local min.,
x = 4 a local max.
c x = 2 a negative point of inflection,
x = 3 a local min.
f(x)
h(x)
2
(0, 0)
20
(4, 4)
400
2 1
g(x)
y
f(x)
An example of
the answer.
17 a a = 1 and b = 8
4
b At x = 3 a local max. and at x = 2
a local min.
a = 2 and b = 5
(1, 4) and (0, 5)
(1, 4) a local min., (0, 5) a local max.
and (1, 4) alocal min.
19 a (x + 2)(3x 2b + 2)
18 a
b
c
2(b 1) 4(b + 2)3

,
and (2, 0)
3
27
c (2, 0) is a minimum turning point
when b > 1.
2(b 1) 4(b + 2)3
is a maximum
3 ,
27
turning point.
d y = 8(b 4)x + 32
e b=7
20 a f (x) = 2(x + b)(3x + b 1)
(2b + 1)3
1 b
and (b, 0)
,
3
27
c y = 2(b + 2)(b + 5)x (b + 2)(b + 14)
b
d b=
3 2 1
as b > 0
2
exercise 8C
maximum and minimum

problems when the function is known
dC
1 a
= 5 4x
dx
5
dP
b
= 3n 2 + 4 n
n
2
dn
dV
= h 3 2h 2
dh
dh
d
= 3t 2 2e t
dt
dM
e
= 1 + loge (3k )
dk
dL
4
f
= 2t 2 + 2 sin ( t )
dt
t
D
3 C
a 8 workers
b $1112
20 metres
x = 1 hour for max. and x = 7 hours for min.
a x = 5 C for min. and x = 15 C for max.
b Minimum is N = 291 rabbits (round
down) and maximum is N = 1625 rabbits.
3
a Minimum v = 0.8 cm/s when t =
4
b Maximum v = 0.8 cm/s when t =

4
a i 12 cm
ii 132 cm
t
b R=6+
cos
4
2
+ 12
12
, min. =
c Max. =
2
2
a 1 January 1998
b 941 cheetahs
c i 824
ii 507 (round down)
a 232 elephants
b Approx. 1 January 2009
a 75
b $50
c $3750
a 90 kg
b Approx. 77.3 kg after 3 months
c
2
4
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
exercise 8d
maximum and minimum

problems when the function is unknown
1 Both numbers are 5.
2 2 and 6
3 b A = 60x x2
c Length and width are each 30 cm.
d Max. area is 900 cm2.
4 10 000 m 2
40
cm (or 12.73 cm),
length = 40 cm, circumference = 80 cm

a L = 4.5 3x
b V = 9x2 6x3
c Edges are 1 m, 1.5 m and 2 m, for max.
d V = 3 m3
b V = 50x 12 x3
c 192 cm3
6301.1 cm2
Approx. 6564 cm3
x = 1.5 km
800
hours
a
v
b C = 40 000 v 1 + 0.8 v
c 223.61 km/h
Approx. 13.86 cm
1239 cm3
5 units
4.06 units
5 Radius =
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
exercise 8e
dV
1 a
dr
dC
d
dx
rates of change
dS
dA
b
c
dh
dt
dI
dv
e
f
dp
dt
dr
13
14
15
16
exercise 8F
related rates
3
5
1
cm/s
2
4624
223
3 0.5 cm/s
4 320 cm3/min
1
5 45
cm/s
6 60 cm2/s
c t = 60 min
7 a v=
b a=
3t
1
(3t 2 + 4) 2
c
10 a
11 a
12 a
75
cm/s
cm
/s
512
1 a 1.03
b 0.998
c 4.9
d 1.0005
2 2 cm3 or about 6 cm3
3 4%
4 a 43.74 cm2
b 0.44 cm2
5 E
k
; 12.5% decrease in volume

16
7 h 14
8 5% increase in perimeter, 10% increase in
area
3t
Chapter reVieW
3t 2 + 4
Short anSWer
12
1 (3, 86) a local max. and (2, 39)
3
(3t 2 + 4) 2
3
c v = 1.5, a = 16
8 a
b
c
9 a
1
m/min
24
h3
b V=
9
10
h
3
exercise 8G
6
90
8 0.26 m/min
11 a r =
b V
2
m/h
12
3
m/h
12
c Min. H = 8 m at t = 12 hours and max.
H = 12 m at t = 24 hours
a i $2000
ii $2378.22
b 126.07 $/year
c 68.65 $/year
0.2 mL/h
a 150 cents
b (8, 13)
2
c
d 15 cents/month
3
e 175 cents
f t = 13
a 7 m/s
b 0.4 m/s2
c (0, 6) and (9, 16) d 0.2 m/s2
9 2 3 m/s
b 100 cm3/cm
dr
4 6 cm2/cm
5 a i 10 m/s
ii 10 m/s
b When t = 1 the projectile is rising but
when t = 3 it is falling.
dv
1
6 a
(90t2 t3)
=
dt 100
60
ii
iii
3 a dV = 4 r 2
m/h
6
7 B
b 20 m2/m
2 a dA = 2 r
b i
a local min.
y
( 2, 4)
v = 3t 2 24t + 36
t = 6 x = 0 and t = 2 x = 32
a = 12 and 12
3000
b 371.4 people/day
dN
4000
d 97.56 people/day
=
dt
8t + 1
D
b A
B
b C
c E
dH
t
sin
=
dt
6
12
( 2, 4)
(0, 0) 0
2 x
y = x2 (4 x2)
3
4
5
6
7
2x + y = 6
y = 3x 6 + 3 loge (4)
8x + 6y + 31 = 0 and 8x + 6y = 31
1430 bees
b 16 sq. units
a x = 12 units
401
mUltiple ChoiCe
1
5
9
13
17
C
D
C
A
B
2
6
10
14
18
E
D
C
D
D
3
7
11
15
A
A
B
A
4
8
12
16
extended reSponSe
2000 3
cm3
27
2 a 3000
b Approx. 10.11 bacteria/min
3 a 1.4 m
b 3.4 m
c
2 3
m/s
15
b 40 m/min
d 20 m/min
c 0.4 m/s
4 a 300 m
c 700 m
100
5 a A = 2r +
r
c A = 75.1 cm2
d $3005
2
402
b 3 r 2 100 r 2
b r = 2 cm
27000
w2
108000
w
w = l = 30 cm (that is, a cube with side
length of 30 cm)
54 000
L = 10w +
w2
w = 22.10 cm; l = 55.26 cm
27000
1080
+ 5w +
C = 0.02w2 +
w
w2
w = 23.74 cm; l = 47.91 cm
223 cents
A is (0.5, 1) and B is (0.5, 1)
y = 4x 1
c (0, 1)
1 cm
e 1.125 cm
7 weeks
i 98.25 rabbits/week
ii 44.15 rabbits/week
P0 = 267 (round down)
782 rabbits
i 33 rabbits/week
ii 44 rabbits/week
39 weeks
b A = 2w2 +
10 2 r 2 = h
1 a
D
E
B
E
6 a l=
f
g
h
7 a
b
d
8 a
b
c
d
e
f
2
9 a y = 14 400 h
dy
=
dt
5h
cm/s
14 400 h 2
c i 4.47 cm/s
ii 7.54 cm/s
d 5.67 cm/s
10 a f (x) = (x + 2a)(3x + 2a 6)
b
2(a 3) 4(2a + 3)3
,
and ( 2a, 0)
3
27
c (2, 0) is a local minimum turning point.
2(a 3) 4(a + 3)3

,
3
27
is a local maximum turning point.
d y = 4(a 6)(a 1)x + 4(a 1)(3a + 7)
3a + 7
,0 , a 1, a 6
e
a6
11 a
b
c
d
e
dy
= 8(4 a)
dx
y = 8(4 a)x (4 a)( a + 12)
a + 12
x=
8
a = 8
y = 96x 48
ChapTer 9
Integration
diGiTal doC
doc-9217
10 Quick Questions
ChapTer ConTenTS
9a
9B
9C
9d
9e
9F
9G
9h
9i
9J
Antidifferentiation
Integration of ex, sin (x) and cos (x)
Integration by recognition
Approximating areas enclosed by functions
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Signed areas
Further areas
Areas between two curves
Average value of a function
Further applications of integration
9a
Units: 3 & 4
As we have seen, the process of differentiation enables us to find the gradient of a function. The reverse
process, antidifferentiation (or integration), will find the function for a particular gradient.
Integration has wider applications including calculation of areas, volumes, energy, probability and
many more quantities in science and business.
d
d
Note that dx f ( x ) means differentiate f (x) with respect to x; that is, dx f ( x ) = f ( x ).
So f (x) is the antiderivative of f (x), denoted as f ( x ) = f ' ( x ) dx
where means antidifferentiate, or integrate, or find an indefinite integral and dx indicates that the
integration of the function is with respect to x.
d
(ax + c) = a, where a and c are constants
Since
dx
a dx = ax + c
Since
d ax n + 1
= ax n
dx n + 1
ax n + 1
+ c, n 1.
n +1
In the expression above, the term c is used to denote a constant. In the antiderivative of a function,
there are an infinite number of possibilities for c. However, when we are finding an antiderivative, we set
c to zero. That is, finding an antiderivative means let c = 0, or do not add on the c.
For example, the antiderivative of 3x2 + 4x + 5 is x3 + 2x2 + 5x + c. An antiderivative of 3x2 + 4x + 5 is
3
x + 2x2 + 5x.
then
ax n dx =
properties of integrals
Since d is a linear operator, so too is .. Therefore,

dx
[ f ( x ) g( x )] dx = f ( x ) dx g( x ) dx.
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
antidifferentiation
then
AOS:
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
ChapTer 9 Integration
403
That is, each term can be integrated separately, and
k f ( x ) dx = k f ( x ) dx .
That is, a constant factor of the function can be taken to the front of the integral.
So [af ( x ) bg( x )] dx = a f ( x ) dx b g( x ) dx .
Worked example 1
Antidifferentiate each of the following, expressing answers with positive indices.

3
a 2x7
b 4x 3
c
x
Think
a 1 Integrate by rule; that is, add 1 to the index
WriTe
and divide by the new index.

2
Simplify.
b 1 Integrate by rule.
2
Simplify.
Express the answer with a positive index.
c 1 When a square root is involved, replace it
with a fractional index.

2
2 x 7 dx =
4x
2x8
+c
8
x8
+c
4
dx =
4x
+c
= 2x 2 + c
2
= 2 +c
x
c
3
3
dx = 1 dx
x
x2
= 3 x
Bring the x to the numerator and change the

sign of the index.
1
2 dx
3x 2
Integrate by rule.
Simplify.
= 6x 2 + c
Write the answer in the form it was given.
=6 x +c
1
2
+c
Worked example 2
Find the following indefinite integral.

(x. 1)(3x + 5) dx
Think
404
WriTe
( x 1)(3x + 5) dx = (3x 2 3x + 5x 5) dx
Expand the expression.
Collect like terms.
= (3 x 2 + 2 x 5) dx
Integrate each term separately.
Simplify each term.
= x 3 + x 2 5x + c
3x 3 2 x 2
+
5x + c
3
2
integration of (ax + b)n where n 1

By applying the chain rule for differentiation:
d
(ax + b)n + 1 = a(n + 1)(ax + b)n
dx
so
a(n + 1)(ax + b)n dx = (ax + b)n + 1 + c
or
a(n + 1) (ax + b)n dx = (ax + b)n + 1 + c
(ax + b)n dx =
or
(ax + b)n + 1
+c
a(n + 1)
Worked example 3
Antidifferentiate 4(5x 2)3 by using ( ax + b) n dx =

Think
( ax + b) n + 1
+ c.
a( n + 1)
WriTe
4(5x 2)3 dx = 4 (5x 2)3 dx
Express as an integral and take 4 out as a

factor.
Apply the rule where a = 5 and n = 3.
Simplify the antiderivative by cancelling the

fraction.
= 5(5x 2)4 + c
integration of
Since
then
1
x
d
1
loge ( x ) =
x
dx
1
x dx = loge ( x ) + c, where x > 0
or
4(5 x 2)4
+c
5(4)
dx = loge x + c.
Worked example 4
Antidifferentiate 4 .
7x
Think
1
WriTe
=
2
7 x dx = 7 x dx
Take 47 out as a factor.
4
7
x dx
= 47 loge x + c
Integrate by rule.
integration of (ax + b )
This can be done by applying the chain rule for differentiation:

d
a
loge (ax + b) =
, where a and b are constants.
dx
ax + b
405
Multiplying both sides by 1 gives

a
1 d
a
1
loge (ax + b) =
a dx
ax + b a
1
ax + b
1
1
dx = loge (ax + b) + c,
ax + b
a
=
So
where ax + b > 0
1
(ax + b) dx = a loge ax + b + c.
1
so
1
Note that the a in the fraction a is the derivative of the linear function ax + b.
Worked example 5
Antidifferentiate
5
.
2x + 3
Think
1
Express as an integral and take 5 out as a

factor.
Integrate by rule where a = 2.
WriTe
2 x + 3 dx = 5 2 x + 3 dx
=
5
loge 2 x + 3 + c
2
Worked example 6
Find
6x + 5
dx.
x2
Think
WriTe
6x + 5
6x 5
dx = 2 + 2 dx
x
x2
x
Express as separate fractions.
Simplify each fraction.
= (6 x
Integrate each term separately by rule.
= 6 loge x +
Simplify leaving the answer with positive

indices.
= 6 loge x 5 x
+ 5 x 2 ) dx
= 6 loge x
5x
1
1
+c
+c
5
+c
x
Worked example 7
Find the equation of the curve g(x) given that g(x) = 3 x + 2 and the curve passes through (1, 2).
Think
406
WriTe
Write the rule for g(x).
g(x) = 3 x + 2
Rewrite g(x) in index form.
g(x) = 3 x 2 + 2
g(x) =
3x 2 + 2 dx
Express g(x) in integral notation.
Antidifferentiate to obtain a general rule for g(x).
= 3 x 2 32 + 2 x + c
Simplify.
3x 2 2
3 + 2x + c
=
1
g(x) = 2 x 2 + 2 x + c
6
Substitute coordinates of the given point into g(x).
Find the constant of antidifferentiation, c.
State the rule for g(x) in the form that it is given.
As g(1) = 2, 2(1) 2 + 2(1) + c = 2

2+2+c=2
so c = 2
3
g(x) = 2 x 2 + 2 x 2
= 2 x3 + 2x 2
Worked example 8
If a curve has a stationary point (2, 3), and a gradient of 2x k, where k is a constant, find:
a the value of k
b y when x = 1.
Think
a 1 The gradient is
gradient.
WriTe
dy
so write the rule for the
dx
dy
= 0 (as stationary points occur when
dx
the derivative is zero) and substitute the
value of x into this equation.
dy
= 2x k
dx
For stationary points,
dy
= 0 , so 2x k = 0
dx
Let
2(2) k = 0 as x = 2
3
b 1 Rewrite the rule for the gradient function,

using the value of k found in a above.
2
4 k = 0 so k = 4
Solve for k.
Integrate to obtain the general rule for y.
dy
= 2x 4
dx
y = (2 x 4) dx
= x2 4x + c
Substitute the coordinates of the given point

on the curve to find the value of c.
Since curve passes through (2, 3),

3 = 22 4(2) + c
3=48+c
c=7
State the rule for y.
So y = x2 4x + 7
Substitute the given value of x and calculate y.
When x = 1,
y = (1)2 4(1) + 7
=4
407
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
The relationship between the graph of an

antiderivative function and the graph of the
original function
f (x) is the antiderivative of f (x) and is written as f ( x ) = f ( x ) dx.
f (x) is the gradient function of the antiderivative function f (x).

The graph of the antiderivative function f (x) can be derived from the graph of f (x) and results in a
family of curves. For example, if f (x) = 1 then the antiderivative function is f (x) = x + c, where c can
take any real value.
Sketching the antiderivative function from the graph of the original function
1. The general shape of the graph of the antiderivative function can be determined from the graph of a
polynomial function by increasing the degree by one. For example, if f (x) is a quadratic function,
then f (x) is a cubic function.
2. The x-intercepts of f (x) become the turning points on the graph of f (x).
3. When f (x) is above the x-axis, the gradient of f (x) is positive.
4. When f (x) is below the x-axis, the gradient of f (x) is negative.
Worked example 9
Sketch the graph of the antiderivative function from the graph of the gradient
function f (x) shown.
f(x)
(1, 0)
(2, 0)
0
(0, 1)
Think
WriTe/draW
State the shape of the antiderivative function.
The antiderivative function will be a positive

cubic function.
Find the x-intercepts of the gradient function,

f (x), and hence find the x-coordinates of the
turning points.
There are x-intercepts when x = 2 and when

x = 1, so f (x) has turning points when x = 2 and
x = 1.
Find when the given graph, f (x), is above the

x-axis and hence find when f (x) has a positive
gradient.
f (x) is above the x-axis when x < 2 and when

x > 1, so f (x) has a positive gradient when x < 2
and when x > 1.
Find when the given graph, f (x), is below the

x-axis and hence find when f (x) has a negative
gradient.
f (x) is below the x-axis when 2 < x < 1, so f (x)

has a negative gradient when 2 < x < 1.
Sketch the curve.
The graph could be any of the family of graphs

formed by vertical translations of the graph
shown.
f(x)
408
rules to remember
1.
d
f ( x ) = f ( x )
dx
2. f ( x ) =
f ( x ) dx
3. a dx = ax + c
ax n + 1
+ c, n 1
n +1
5. [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx = f ( x ) dx g( x ) dx
4. ax n dx =
6. k f ( x ) dx = k f ( x ) dx
7. (ax + b)n dx =
(ax + b)n + 1
+ c, n 1
a(n + 1)
1
dx = loge x + c, x 0 or x 1 dx = loge x + c
x
1
1
1
dx = loge ax + b + c or (ax + b)1 dx = loge ax + b + c
9.
ax + b
a
a
8.
exercise 9a
1 We1
a x
e 5x 2
i
x4
5
2
m x3
q
9
x2
2 We2
antidifferentiation
Antidifferentiate each of the following, giving answers with positive indices.

b x4
c x7
d 3x5
4
f 2x
g 6x
h 2 x
4
3
x
x
x
j
k
l
2
3
3
3
5
p 3
o x 7
n 4x 4
x
10
6
8
s
r
t
x
x6
(x x )
Find the following indefinite integrals.
(2 x + 5) dx
(3x 2 + 4 x 10) dx
(10 x 4 + 6 x 3 + 2) dx
( 4 x 5 + x 3 6 x 2 + 2 x ) dx
( x 3 + 12 x 2 ) dx
( x + 3)( x 7) dx
( x 2 + 4)( x 7) dx
x ( x 1)( x + 4) dx
x 2 dx + x dx + 2 dx
x 2 + x + 2 dx
( x 2 + x ) dx + 2
5( x 2 + 2 x 1) dx
3 mC ( x 2 + x + 2) dx is equal to:
a x 2 dx + x + 2
d x 2 + ( x + 2) dx
g
4 mC
x ( x + 3) dx is equal to:
x dx ( x + 3) dx
B x ( x + 3) dx
x dx + ( x + 3) dx
C ( x + 1) x dx
( x 2 + 3x ) dx
n
5 We3 Antidifferentiate each of the following by using (ax + b) dx =
a
e
i
m
(x +
(6x + 5)4
4(8 3x)4
6(4x 7) 4
3)2
b (x
f 3(4x 1)2
j 3(8 9x)10
n (3x 8) 6
5)3
c
g
k
o
2(2x + 1)4
(4 x)3
(2x + 3) 2
(6 5x) 3
(ax + b)n + 1
+ c.
a(n + 1)
d 2(3x 4)5
h (7 x)4
l (6x + 5) 3
p 10(7 5x) 4
409
3( x + 2)4 dx is equal to:

3 + ( x + 2)4 dx
3 dx ( x + 2)4 dx
6 mC
a
d
B
e
3 dx + ( x + 2)4 dx
( x + 2)4 3 dx
C 3 ( x + 2)4 dx
7 We4, 5 Antidifferentiate the following.
x dx
7 x dx
i
m
x dx
x + 3 dx
x + 5 dx
3x + 2 dx
3 + 2x
dx
2
4 3x dx
a 6
6 + 7 x dx
5x dx
x + 3 dx
5x + 6 dx
5 x dx
3x dx
x + 4 dx
2 x 5 dx
6 11x dx
5 2 x dx
x + 5 dx is equal to:
8 mC
x + 5 dx
6 dx
( x + 5) dx
(3x + 1)5 dx
e
h
5x 2 2 x + 3x
( x + 5) dx
6 dx x + 5 dx
6 dx + x + 5 dx
6 10 x dx
4(2 x 5)5 dx
( x + 4)2
dx
2x
( x 5)( x + 3)
dx
x3
x2 + x4
dx
x
(2 x + 7)
dx.
x
10 For the following mixed sets, find:
9 We6 Find
diGiTal doC
doc-9265
SkillSHEET 9.1
Substitution and
evaluation
x 4 + 2 x + x dx
2 x + 1 dx
3(4 x + 1)
x+
dx
2
dx
3 x
x 2 + 2x 1
dx
x
1
3
dx
3x 2 + 2 x 1
dx
x2
10 x + 2 x 4
dx
x3
11 We7 Find the equation of the curve f (x) given that:

a f (x) = 4x + 1 and the curve passes through (0, 2)
b f (x) = 5 2x and the curve passes through (1, 1)

2
c f (x) = x + 3 and the curve passes through (1, 4)
d f (x) = x +
e f (x) =
1
x3
x and f (4) = 10
3 x 2 + 50 and f (8) = 100
1
2 x and f (1) = 5
x
g f (x) = (x + 4)3 and the curve passes through (2, 5)
h f (x) = 8(1 2x) 5 and f (1) = 3

1
i f (x) = (x + 5) and the curve passes through (4, 2)
8
j f (x)
(x) =
and f (3) = 7
7 2x
12 We8 If a curve has a stationary point (1, 5), and a gradient of 8x + k, where k is a constant, find:
a the value of k
b y when x = 2.
f
410
f (x) =
kx + x ,
where k is a constant, and a stationary point (1,2). Find:
x2
b g(x)
c g(4).
13 A curve g(x) has g( x ) =

a the value of k
14 We9 Sketch the graph of the antiderivative functions from each of the following graphs.
a
c
b
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
(2, 0)
(0, 3)
(0, 2)
(0, 1)
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
(0, 1)
(0, 0)
( 12 , 0)
0
0 (1, 0)
(0, 1)
g
f (x)
(2, 0) (0, 0)
(1, 0)
9B integration of ex , sin (x) and cos

integration of the exponential function e x
(x)
d x
(e ) = e x
dx
e x ddxx = e x + c
Since
then
d kx
(e ) = kke kx , where k is a constant
dx
and
or
Therefore,
ke kx dx = e kx + c
k e kx dx = e kx + c.
c
1
e kx ddx = k e kx + c.
Worked example 10
Antidifferentiate each of the following.
e 5x
4x
a 3e
b
c (e x 1)2
4
Think
a 1 Integrate by rule where k = 4.

2
Simplify.
WriTe
3e 4 x
+c
4
3
= 4 e4 x + c
a 3e 4 x d
dx =
411
b 1 Rewrite the function to be integrated so that the
coefficient of the e term is clear.
5 x
4 e 5 x ddx
dx =
1 5 x
4e
Integrate by rule where k = 5.
Simplify the antiderivative.
1
e
= 20
c 1 Expand the function to be integrated.

2
+c
5 x
+c
(e x 1)2 dx = (e2 x 2e x + 1) dx
1
= 2 e 2 x 2e x + x + c
Integrate each term by the rule.
integration of trigonometric functions

d
[sin(ax )] = a cos(ax )
and
dx
1
sin(
ax
)
dx
=
cos(ax ) + c
Since
d
[cos(ax )] = a sin(ax ) it follows that
dx
1
cos(ax ) dx = a sin(ax ) + c
Worked example 11
Antidifferentiate the following.

a sin (6x)
b 8 cos (4x)
x
2
c 3 sin
Think
WriTe
1
6 cos(6 x ) + c
a Integrate by rule.
sin(6 x ) dx =
b 1 Integrate by rule.
8 cos(4 x ) dx = 4 sin(4 x ) + c
= 2 sin (4x) + c
Simplify the result.
c 1 Integrate by rule.
x dx =
2
3sin
3
1
2
x
cos + c
2
x
= 6cos + c
2
Simplify the result.
Worked example 12
Find [2 e4 x 5sin(2 x ) + 4 x] dx .
Think
1
Integrate each term separately.
WriTe
[2e4 x 5sin(2 x ) + 4 x ] dx
= 42 e 4 x
412
Simplify each term where appropriate.
5
2
cos(2 x ) + 42 x 2 + c
= 12 e 4 x + 52 cos(2 x ) + 2 x 2 + c
exercise 9B
integration of ex, sin (x) and cos (x)
Antidifferentiate each of the following.

b e4x
1 We10
a e2x
e 5e5x
i
3e6x
x
d e
e6 x
2
7e4x
8e2x
k e3
n 3e
m 3e 2
3x
c ex
x
3
2e3 x
3
0.1e 4
e x e x
p
2
l
o e x + ex
2 Find an antiderivative of (1 + ex)2.

3 Find an antiderivative of (ex 1)3.
4 Find an antiderivative of x3 3x2 + 6e3x.
5 mC If f (x) = e2x + k and f (x) has a stationary point (0, 2), where k is a constant, then:
a k is equal to:
a e
b f (1) is equal to:

a e2 1
B e2
C 1
d 1
e e
1
2
B e +2
1 2
1
C 2e + 2
d e4
1
e 12
Antidifferentiate the following.
6 We11
a sin (3x)
b sin (4x)
e sin (2x)
cos (3x)
x
4
2 sin x
2x
3
r 6 cos
sin (3x)
m 3 sin
u 5 sin (x)
7 We12 Find:
d
g
4sin(6 x )
3
x
k sin
3
x
o 4 cos
4
cos (x)
[sin( x ) + cos( x )] dx
sin( 2x ) cos(2 x ) dx
3sin(2x ) + 2cos(3x ) dx
cos(2 x )
3
h 8 cos (4x)
3x
4
x
v 3cos
2
q 4 sin
c cos (7x)
x
cos
2
x
cos
2
7x
t 3 cos
4
2 sin 5 x
2
x
w 2cos
3
sin
4 x

[sin(2 x ) cos( x )] dx
[cos(4 x ) + sin(2 x )] dx
[4cos(4 x ) 13 sin(2 x )] dx
[5x + 2sin( x )] dx
[3e6 x 4sin(8 x ) + 7] dx .
8 Find the antiderivative of e4x + sin (2x) + x3.

9 Find an antiderivative of 3x2 2 cos (2x) + 6e3x.
10 Antidifferentiate each of the following.
3
a x
1
+ e2 x
2x + 3
b x2 + 4 cos (2x) ex
1
x
+ e 4 x + cos
3x 2
5
e 3 sin
x 2 cos x e 5x
2
3
c sin
f
x + e 2x (3 x 1)4
3
x
x + 2 x 2 sin + 5
3
11 In each of the following, find f (x) if:
a f (x) = cos (x) and f = 5

2
b f (x) = 4 sin (2x) and f (0) = 1
x
x sin x
f ( x ) = 3 cos and f ( ) = 9 2
d f ( x ) = cos
4
4
2 and f (2) = 2.
dy
x
= sin + k , where k is a constant, and y has a stationary point (3, 4), find:
12 If
6
dx
a the value of k
c y when x = 6.
c
413
13 A curve has a gradient function f (x) = 4 cos (2x) + ke x, where k is a constant, and a stationary point
(0, 1). Find:

a the value of k
b the equation of the curve f (x)
c f correct to 2 decimal places.

6
integration by recognition
9C
As we have seen, if d [ f ( x )] = g( x )
dx
g( x ) dx = f ( x ) + c, where g( x ) = f ( x ).
then
This result can be used to determine integrals of functions that are too difficult to antidifferentiate, via
differentiation of a related function.
Worked example 13
a Find the derivative of the function y = (5x + 1)3.

b Use this result to deduce the antiderivative of 3(5x + 1)2.
Think
TUTorial
eles-1187
Worked example 13
WriTe
a 1 Write the function and recognise that the
chain rule can be used.

2
Let u equal the function inside the brackets.
Find
du
.
dx
Express y in terms of u.
Find
Write the chain rule.
Find
Replace u with the expression inside the

brackets and simplify where applicable.
a y = (5x + 1)3
Let u = 5x + 1
du
=5
dx
y = u3
dy
.
du
dy
= 3u 2
du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
dx
b 1 Since
du
dx dx = y + c1, express the relationship
dy
= 3u 2 5
dx
= 15(5x + 1)2
b
15(5x + 1)2 ddxx = (5x + 1)3 + c1
in integral notation.
2
dy
Remove a factor from
so that it resembles
dx
the integral required.
5 3(5 x + 1)2 dx = (5 x + 1)3 + c1
Divide both sides by the factor (5) in order to

obtain the integral required.
1)3 + c ,
3(55x + 1)2 ddxx = 15 (5x + 1)
c1
5
Therefore, the antiderivative of
where c =
3(5x + 1)2 is 1 (5x + 1)3 + c.

5
Note that the shorter form of the chain rule below can be used to differentiate.
x n then f ( x ) = ng( x )[ g( x )]n 1 .
If f ( x ) = [ g( x)]
414
Worked example 14
a Differentiate e x .
3
b Hence, antidifferentiate 6x2 e x .

3
Think
WriTe
a 1 Write the equation and apply the chain rule to
y=e
differentiate y.
x3
Let u = x3
Let u equal the index of e.
Find
Express y in terms of u.
Find
dy
.
du
dy
= eu
du
Find
dy
using the chain rule and replace u.
dx
dy
= 3 x 2e u
dx
= 3 x 2e x
du
.
dx
b 1 Express
2
du
= 3x 2
dx
y = eu
dy
dx
3 x 2e x
dx = e x + c1
3
2 3 x 2e x dx = 2e x + 2c1
3
Multiply both sides by a constant (2) to obtain

6 x 2e x
dx = 2e x + c, where c = 2c1.
3
Therefore, the antiderivative of 6 x 2e x is

2e x + c .
3
Note that the shorter form of the chain rule below can be used to differentiate.
If y = e f ( x ) then
dy
= f ( x ) e f ( x ) .
dx
Worked example 15
a Find the derivative of sin (2 x + 1) and use this result to deduce the antiderivative of 8cos (2 x + 1).
b Differentiate loge(5x2 2) and hence antidifferentiate
Think
a 1 Define f (x).
x
.
5 x2 2
WriTe
a f (x) = sin (2x + 1)
Differentiate using f (x) = g(x) cos [g(x)]

where f (x) = sin [g(x)].
Express f (x) using integral notation.
Multiply both sides by whatever is necessary

(4), for it to resemble the integral required.
4 22cos(22 x + 1) ddxx = 4 sin (2 x + 1) + c
Write the integral in the form in which the

question is asked.
1) + c
8cos(2 x + 1) ddxx = 4sin(2 x + 1)
b 1 Define f (x).
2
g( x )
Differentiate using f ( x ) =
where
g( x )
f (x) = loge [g(x)].
f (x) = 2 cos (2x + 1)

1) + c1
2cos(2 x + 1) ddxx = sin(2 x + 1)
The antiderivative of 8 cos (2x + 1) is

4 sin (2x + 1) + c.
b f (x) = loge (5x2 2)
f ( x ) =
10 x
5x 2 2
415
Express f (x) using integral notation.
Take out a factor (10), so that f (x) resembles

Divide both sides by the factor (10) to obtain

the required integral.
10xx
5x 2 2 dx = loge
10
5 x 2 2 + c1
x
dx = loge 5 x 2 2 + c1
5x 2 2
x
5x 2 2 dx = 101 loge
5x 2 2 + c
The antiderivative of
x
is 1 logg 5 x 2 2 + c.
5 x 2 2 10 e
Worked example 16
Differentiate x cos (x) and hence find an antiderivative of x sin (x).

Think
WriTe
Let y = x cos (x)
Write the rule.
Apply the product rule to differentiate xcos(x).
Express the result in integral notation. (Do not

add c, as an antiderivative is required.)
in( x )] ddxx = x cos(( x )

[cos( x ) x sin(x
Express the integral as two separate integrals.
cos( x ) ddxx x sin(

sin(xx ) ddxx = x cos( x )
cos(
Simplify by integrating. (Do not add c.)
Make the expression to be integrated the

subject of the equation.
Simplify.
dy
= x [sin (x)] + [cos (x)](1)
dx
= x sin (x) + cos (x)
= cos (x) x sin (x)
sin( x ) x sin(x
in( x ) ddxx = x cos( x )
x sin( x ) dx = x cos( x ) sin( x )

x ) dx = sin(
sin(x
in( x ) x cos( x )
x sin( x)
Therefore, an antiderivative of x sin (x) is

sin (x) x cos (x).
Worked example 17
a Show that
5x + 1
4
= 5
.
x+1
x+1
b Hence, find
5x + 1
dx .
x+1
Think
WriTe
a Use algebraic long division to divide the
a x + 1 5x + 1
5x + 5
4
numerator into the denominator.
b 1 Write the expression using integral notation.
416
So
5x + 1
4
= 5
x +1
x +1
5x + 1
4
dx = 5
x +1
x + 1
4
dx
x +1
Express as two separate integrals.
= 5 dx
Antidifferentiate each part.
= 5 x 4 loge x + 1 + c
exercise 9C
For each of the following find the derivative of the function in i and use this result to deduce
the antiderivative of the function in ii.
a i (3x 2)8
ii 12(3x 2)7
b i (x2 + 1)5
ii 5x(x2 + 1)4
1
2
2x 5
c i
ii
d i 4x + 3
ii
2x 5
4x + 3
1
4x
e i (x2 + 3x 7)4
ii (2x + 3)(x2 + 3x 7)3
f i 2
ii
x 1
( x 2 11))2
2 mC The derivative of (x + 7)4 is 4(x + 7)3.
a Therefore, the antiderivative of 4(x + 7)3 is:
a (x + 7)4 + c
C 4(x + 7)4 + c
B 14 (x + 7)4 + c
d 3(x + 7)4 + c
e 12(x + 7)4 + c
3
b The antiderivative of (x + 7) is:
a (x + 7)4 + c
C 4(x + 7)4 + c
B 14 (x + 7)4 + c
d 3(x + 7)4 + c
e 12(x + 7)4 + c
6
3 mC If the derivative of (2x 3) is 12(2x 3)5, then 6(2 x 3)5 dx is:
a 2(2x 3)6 + c
B 4(2x 3)6 + c
C (2x 3)6 + c
1
6
6
d 6(2x 3) + c
e 2 (2x 3) + c
1 We13
4 We14
For each of the following differentiate i and hence antidifferentiate ii.
a i e4x 5
ii 2e4x 5
b i e6 5x
c i ex
ii x e x
d i ex x
ii 10e6 5x
ii (1 2 x )e x x
For each of the following find the derivative of the function in i and use this result to deduce
the antiderivative of the function in ii.
a i sin (x 5)
ii cos (x 5)
b i sin (3x + 2)
ii 6 cos (3x + 2)
c i cos (4x 7)
ii sin (4x 7)
d i cos (6x 3)
ii 3 sin (6x 3)
e i sin (2 5x)
ii 10 cos (2 5x)
f i cos (3 4x)
ii 2 sin (3 4x)
20
12 x
ii
ii
g i loge (5x + 2)
h i loge (x2 + 3)
5x + 2
x2 + 3
x2
ii
i i loge (x2 4x)
x2 4x
We16
Differentiate i and hence find an antiderivative of ii.
2[ x cos( x ) sin( x )]
sin( x )
b i
ii
a i x cos (x) + 2 sin (x)
ii x sin (x)
x
x2
c i e x sin (x)
d i x sin (x)
ii x cos (x)
ii 3e x [sin (x) + cos (x)]
e i x ex
ii x ex
For each of the following differentiate i and use this result to antidifferentiate ii.
3x 2 + 2
x 3 + 2 x ii
ii 6x5(1 3x)(2 3x)5
a i (2x 3x2)6
b i
x3 + 2x
3x 2
1
3x 2
dx.
We17
a Show that
=3+
.
b Hence, find
x 1
x 1
x 1
5x + 8
2
5x + 8
dx.
a Show that
=5
.
b Hence, find
x+2
x+2
x+2
5 We15
8
9
10
a Show that
11 a Show that
12
8x 7
5
=4+
.
2x 3
2x 3
6x 5
4
= 3+
.
3 2x
3 2x
8x 7
b Hence, find
2 x 3 dx.
b Hence, find
3 2 x dx.
6x 5
If y = loge[cos (x)]:
a find
dy
.
dx
b Hence, find tan ( x ) d

dxx.
417
13 Differentiate
14
cos(( x )
1
and hence find an antiderivative of 2 .
sin( x )
sinn ( x )
Differentiate loge (3x2 4) and hence find an antiderivative of
x
.
4
3x 2
15 Differentiate sin (ax + b) and hence find an antiderivative of cos (ax + b). (Here, a and b are constants.)
16 Differentiate cos (ax + b) and hence find an antiderivative of sin (ax + b). (Here, a and b are constants.)
17 Differentiate eax + b and hence find an antiderivative of eax + b. (Here, a and b are constants.)
diGiTal doC
doc-9218
WorkSHEET 9.1
18 Antidifferentiate each of the following.

a sin (3 x + 1)
b cos (1 4 x)
d sin
n 2+
x
3
e 3 cos
c e x + 3
x + 5
2
cos (x)esin (x)
approximating areas enclosed

by functions
9d
inTeraCTiViTY
int-0254
approximating areas
enclosed by functions
There are several ways of finding an approximation to the area between a graph and the x-axis. We will
look at two methods:
1. the left rectangle method
2. the right rectangle method.
The left rectangle method

Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
areas.
Do more
Interact with
Consider the area between the curve f (x) shown at right, the x-axis and the
y
f(x)
lines x = 1 and x = 5.
If the area is approximated by left rectangles of width 1 unit then the top
left corner of each rectangle touches the curve at one point.
So,
the height of rectangle R1 is f (1) units
and
the area of R1 = 1 f (1) square units (area of a rectangle
R1 R2 R3 R4
= height width).
Similarly,
the area of R2 = 1 f (2) square units,
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
the area of R4 = 1 f (4) square units.
Therefore, the approximate area under the graph between the curve f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1 to
x = 5 is 1[ f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4)] square units, (the sum of the area of the four rectangles).
If the same area was approximated using rectangle widths of 0.5 there would be 8 rectangles and the
sum of their areas would be:
0.5[ f (1) + f (1.5) + f (2) + f (2.5) + f (3) + f (3.5) + f (4) + f (4.5)] square units.
From the diagram it can be seen that the left rectangle approximation is less than the actual area under
the curve.
Worked example 18
Find an approximation for the area between the

curve f (x) shown and the x-axis from x=1 to
x=3 using left rectangles of width 0.5 units.
The graph shown has the equation f (x) = 0.2x2 + 3.
f(x)
TUTorial
eles-1186
Worked example 18
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x

Think
1
418
Write the number of rectangles and their width.
WriTe
There are 4 rectangles of width 0.5 units.
Find the height of each rectangle (left) by

substituting the appropriate x-value into the f (x)
equation.
h1 = f (1) = 0.2(1)2 + 3 = 3.2

h2 = f (1.5) = 0.2(1.5)2 + 3 = 3.45
h3 = f (2) = 0.2(2)2 + 3 = 3.8
h4 = f (2.5) = 0.2(2.5)2 + 3 = 4.25
Area equals the width multiplied by the sum of

the heights.
Area = width (sum of heights of

4 rectangles)
= 0.5(3.2 + 3.45 + 3.8 + 4.25)
= 0.5(14.7)
Calculate this area.
State the solution.
= 7.35
The approximate area is 7.35 square units.
The right rectangle method

Consider the area between the curve f (x) shown at right, the x-axis and the
y
f(x)
lines x = 1 and x = 5.
If the area is approximated by right rectangles of width 1 unit then the top
right corner of each rectangle touches the curve at one point.
So,
the height of R1 is f (2) units
and
the area of R1 is 1 f (2) square units.
R1 R2 R3 R4
Similarly,
the area of R3 = 1 f (4) square units
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
the area of R4 = 1 f (5) square units.
Therefore, the approximate area between the curve f (x), the x-axis and the
lines x=1 to x = 5 is (R1 + R2 + R3 + R4) = 1[ f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5)] square units.
If the same area was approximated with upper rectangle widths of 0.5 units, the sum of their areas
would equal:
0.5[ f (1.5) + f (2) + f (2.5) + f (3) + f (3.5) + f (4) + f (4.5) + f (5)] square units.
From the diagram it can be seen that the right rectangle approximation is greater than the actual area
under the curve.
For an increasing function, left rectangle approximation actual area right rectangle
approximation.
For a decreasing function, left rectangle approximation actual area right rectangle
approximation.
Worked example 19
Find an approximation for the area in the diagram in worked example 18 using right rectangles
of width 0.5 units. f (x) = 0.2x2 + 3
Think
WriTe
Find the number of rectangles and the height of

each one (from left to right).
There are 4 rectangles:

h1 = f (1.5) = 0.2(1.5)2 + 3 = 3.45
h2 = f (2) = 0.2(2)2 + 3 = 3.8
h3 = f (2.5) = 0.2(2.5)2 + 3 = 4.25
h4 = f (3) = 0.2(3)2 + 3 = 4.8
Area is the width of the interval multiplied by the

sum of the heights.
Area = 0.5(3.45 + 3.8 + 4.25 + 4.8)
Calculate the area.
State the solution.
= 0.5(16.3)
= 8.15
The approximate area is 8.15 square units.
419
It can be seen that the left rectangle approximation (7.35 units) is less than the right rectangle
approximation (8.15 units).
If the area is divided into narrower strips, the estimate of the area would be closer to the true value,
which is 7.7333 . . .
Worked example 20
With width intervals of 1 unit, calculate an approximation for the area between the graph
of f (x) = x2 + 2 and the x-axis from x = 2 to x = 3 using:
a left rectangles
b right rectangles
c averaging of the left and right rectangle areas.
Think
1
Sketch the graph of f (x) over a domain which

exceeds the width of the required area.
Draw the left and right rectangles.
WriTe/draW
y = x2 + 2
2
2 1
0 1 2 3 x
= Left rectangles
= Right rectangles
Calculate the height of the left rectangles

by substituting the appropriate values of
x into the equation for f (x). Note the two
rectangles to the right and left of the origin
have the same height and are equal in area.
Find the area by multiplying the width by

the sum of the heights.
Calculate the height of the right rectangles

by substituting the appropriate values of x
into the equation for f (x).
Find the area by multiplying the width by

the sum of the heights.
c Find the average by adding the area of the left
rectangles and right rectangles and dividing by 2.
a Left rectangle heights:
f (2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6
f (1) = (1)2 + 2 = 3
f (0) = 02 + 2 = 2
f (1) = 12 + 2 = 3
f (2) = 22 + 2 = 6
Area = 1(6 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 6)
= 20
Using left rectangles, the approximate area is
20 square units.
b Right rectangle heights:
f (1) = 3 (from above)

f (0) = 2
f (1) = 3
f (2) = 6
f (3) = 32 + 2 = 11
Area = 1(3 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 11)

= 25
Using right rectangles, the approximate area is
25 square units.
20 + 25
2
= 22.5
The approximate area is 22.5 square units when
averaging the left and right rectangle areas and
using widths of 1 unit.
c Average of the areas =
Note that this average is between the area of the left rectangles and the area of the right rectangles and is
2
closer to the actual area, which is 21 3 .
420
approximating areas enclosed

by functions
exercise 9d
1 We18 Find an approximation for the area between the curve f (x)
at right and the x-axis from x= 1 to x = 5 using left rectangles of width

2 units.
2 Find an approximation for the area between the curves below and
the x-axis, from x=1 to x = 5, by calculating the area of the shaded
rectangles.
y
(3, 3)
3
(1, 2)
2
(5, 4)
4
2
f(x)
f(x)
f(x)
y = x2
1 2 3 4
7 (2, 7)
4
(1, 4)
3
0 1 2 3 4 5x
3 mC Consider the graph of y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 4 at right.

a The width of each rectangle is:
a 1 unit
d 4 units
(3, 12)
12
0
(4, 19)
19
(1, 2)
0 1
B 2 units
e varying
C 3 units
b The height of the right-most rectangle is:

a 9 units
d 12 units
B 4 units
e 1 unit
c The area between the curve y =
C 16 units
and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 4 can be

approximated by the area of the left rectangles as:
a 20 sq. units
B 14 sq. units
C 18 sq. units
d 15 sq. units
e 30 sq. units
4 We19 a Find an approximation for the area in the diagram at right
using right rectangles of width 1 unit.
b A better approximation for the area under this curve can be found by
averaging the right and left rectangle areas. State this approximate value.
5 Find an approximation for the area between the curves below and the x-axis, from
x=1 to x=5, by calculating the area of the shaded rectangles.
a
y
(1, 8)
8
7
5 f(x)
x2
y
11
10
(1, 8) (3, 8)
(2, 11)
8
7
y
(4, 10)
10
9
6
4
0
(3, 9)
y
4
g
f(x)
(1, 4)
f(x)
(2, 6)
1 2 3 4 5
(5, 5)
f(x)
(3, 3)
0 1
y
7
(1, 7)
(4, 7)
(2, 5)
(1, 4)
1
2 3 4 5
5
4
(3, 2)
1 2 3 4
f(x)
0
(4, 7)
x
5 f(x)
0 1 3
y = x2
d
(3, 10)
f(x)
x
421
6 We20 With width intervals of 1 unit calculate an approximation for the area between the graph of
f (x) = x2 + 4 and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 4 using:

y
y = x2 + 4
2 3 4
a left rectangles
b right rectangles
c averaging of the left and right rectangle areas.
7 Find the approximate area between the curves below and the x-axis, over the interval indicated, by
calculating the area of the shaded rectangles. Give exact answers.

a
1 2 3 4
x = 1 to x = 4
y = (x 4)2
1 2 3 4 5 6
x = 2 to x = 6
y
y = ex
x
1 0 1 2
x = 1 to x = 2
y = x2+ 3x + 8
f(x) =
1 3
3x
y = loge(x)
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
x = 1 to x = 5
f
3x2 + 8x
0 1 2 3 4 5
x = 1 to x = 5
f(x) = x2 4x
3 2.52 1.51 0
x = 3 to x = 1
x = 2 to x = 6
2 3 4 5 6
x
y = x3 6x2
8 Calculate an approximation for the area between the graph of y = x(4 x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1
and x = 4, using interval widths of 1 unit and:
a left rectangles
b right rectangles
c averaging the left and right rectangle areas.
9 Calculate an approximation for the area under the graph of y = x2 4x + 5 to the x-axis between x=0
and x = 3, using interval widths of 0.5 units and:

a left rectangles
b right rectangles
c averaging the left and right rectangle areas.
10 Find an approximation for the area under the graph of y = 2x between x= 0 and x = 3, using interval
widths of 1 unit, by averaging the left and right rectangle areas.
422
The fundamental theorem

of integral calculus
9e
Consider the region under the curve f (x) between x = a and x = b, where
f (x) 0 and is continuous for all x [a, b].
Let F (x) be the function that is the measure of the area under the curve
between a and x.
F (x + h) is the area under the curve between a and x + h and
F (x + h) F (x) is the area of the strip indicated on the graph.
The area of the strip is between the areas of the left and right rectangles;
that is, f (x)h < F (x + h) F (x) < F (x + h)h
F ( x + h) F
F(( x )
or f ( x ) <
< f ( x + h), h 0 (dividing by h).
h
As h 0, f (x + h) f (x)
F ( x + h) F
F(( x )
lim
= f (x)
or
h 0
h
that is, F (x) = f (x) (differentiation from first principles).
F (x) =
Therefore,
Units: 3 & 4
y
y = f(x)
a
x x +h b
F(x)
F(x + h) F(x)
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
f ( x ) dx
that is, F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x)
f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
or
but when x = a,
f ( x ) dx = F (a) + c
= 0 (as the area defined is zero at x = a)

c = F
F((a).
or
f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) F (a)
f ( x ) dx = F (b) F (a).
Therefore,
and when x = b,
That is, the area under the graph of f (x) between x = a and x = b is F (b) F (a).
f ( x ) dx is the indefinite integral, which represents the general antiderivative of the function being
integrated.
This is the fundamental theorem of integral calculus and it enables areas under graphs to be calculated
exactly. It applies only to functions that are smooth and continuous over the interval [a, b].
It can be stated as area =
f ( x ) dx
x ba [do not add c as F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x)]

= [ F ( x)]
= F (b) F (a)
a and b are called the terminals of this definite integral and indicate the domain over which the integral
is taken.
b
f ( x ) dx is called the definite integral because it can be expressed in terms of its terminals a and b,
which are usually real numbers. In this case the value of the definite integral is a real number and not a
function.
The function being integrated, f (x), is called the integrand.
properties of definite integrals

Definite integrals have the following five properties.
a
1.
3.
a k f ( x ) d x = k a
5.
f ( x ) dx = 01
b
b
f ( x ) dx =
f ( x ) dx
b f ( x ) dx
2.
a f ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx + c
4.
a [ f ( x ) + g( x )] dx = a
f ( x ) dx , a < c < b
f ( x ) dx +
a g( x ) dx
diGiTal doC
doc-9266
Investigation
definite integrals
423
Worked example 21
Evaluate the following definite integrals.

a
0 (3 x 2 + 4 x 1) dx
1 (2 x + 1)3 dx
Think
a 1 Antidifferentiate each term of the integrand
and write in the form [ F ( x )]ba .
TUTorial
eles-1188
Worked example 21
WriTe
0 (3x 2 + 4 x 1) dx
= [ x 3 + 2 x 2 x ]30
Substitute values of a and b into F (b) F (a).
= [33 + 2(3)2 3] [03 + 2(0)2 0]
Evaluate the integral.
= 42 0
= 42
b 1 Express the integrand with a negative power.
1 (2 x + 1)3 dx = 1 4(2 x + 1)3 dx

2
4(2 x + 1) 2
=
2 2 1
Antidifferentiate by rule.
1
3
(2 x + 1) dx = 2(2 x + 1)2
= (2 x + 1) 2
1
2
Express the integral with a positive power.
Substitute the values of a and b into

F (b) F (a) where a = 1 and b = 2.
Evaluate the definite integral.
1
=
2
(2 x + 1) 1
1 1
= 2 2
5 3
1
1
+
25 9
16
=
225
=
Worked example 22
Find the exact value of each of the following definite integrals.

1
2
x dx
a sin
b (e3 x e 3 x ) dx
6
0
Think
a 1 Antidifferentiate the integrand, writing it in
the form [ F ( x )]ba .
Substitute values of a and b into F (b) F (a).
WriTe
x
x
sin dx = 6 cos
6
= 6 cos 6 cos
6
6
= 6 cos 6 cos
3
6
1 3
= 6 6
2 2
= [ 3] [ 3 3]
= 3+ 3 3
424
b 1 Antidifferentiate the integrand, using [ F ( x )]ba .

2
Substitute values of a and b into F (a) F (b).
Evaluate.
0 (e3 x e
3 x
) dx
1
= 13 e3 x + 13 e 3 x
0
1 3 1 3 1 0
= 3 e + 3 e 3 e + 13 e 0
= 13 e3 + 13 e
= 13 (e3 + e
2
3
2)
Worked example 23
k
If 8 x dx = 36, find k.
0
Think
1
WriTe
k
0 8 x dx = [4 x 2 ]0k
Antidifferentiate the integrand, using [ F ( x )]ba.
So [4 x 2 ]0k = 36
2
Substitute the values of a and b into F (a) F (b).
Simplify the integral.
Solve the equation.
[4k2] [4(0)2] = 36
4k2 0 = 36
4k2 = 36
k2 = 9
k= 9
k = 3 or 3
Sigma notation
An alternative notation for the definite integral of f (x) for x [a, b]
is the sigma notation (meaning the sum of).
Divide the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals with the ith
subinterval of width xi and height f (xi), i [1, n]. The area of the
rectangle formed by the ith subinterval is Ai = f (xi) xi.
n
As n , xi 0 and Ai f ( x ) dx .
1
So
f ( x ) dx = lim
x0
y = f(x)
(xi, f(xi))
f (xi ) xi .
i =1
Worked example 24
The interval [1, 3] is divided into n equal subintervals by the points x0, x1, . . . xn 1, xn, where
1 = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn 1 < xn = 3. Let x = xi xi 1 for i = 1, 2, . . . n.
n
(6 xi2 x).
x 0
Rewrite as a definite integral and thus evaluate lim
i =1
Think
WriTe
n
Recognise the alternate notation for the definite

integral.
(6 xi2 x ) = 1 6 x 2 dx
x0
Evaluate.
1 6 x 2 dx = 2 x 1
lim
i =1
3 3
= 2 27 2 1
= 54 2 = 52
425
The fundamental theorem of

integral calculus
exercise 9e
diGiTal doC
doc-9267
SkillSHEET 9.2
Subtracting
function values
Evaluate the following definite integrals.
1 We21
a
d
0 x 2 dx
1
dx
x2
1 (4 x 2 + 2 x 6) dx
2 4(2 3x )3 dx
(6 2 x + x 2 ) dx
+ 5x 2
dx
x
6
dx
8 3x
3 2x3
( x 3 + 3 x 2 2 x ) dx
4 ( x 3 + x 4) dx
0 2( x + 4)4 dx
0 (2 x 7)3 dx
1 5x dx
dx
1 (3e6 x + 5x ) dx
1 ( x + e 2 ) dx
2 3 sin (4 x ) dx
cos (2 x ) dx
2 7 cos 2 dx
1 [ x 2 + 3 6 sin (3x )] dx
e4 x
2
sin
0
( x ) dx
2 sin
(3x ) dx
x
3 cos dx
6
x
p 2 + sin dx
0
4
m
3 If
()
f ( x ) dx = 6, find the value of
4 mC Given that
a
1 (3x 2 + 2 x 2 ) dx
4 3
1 3(5x 2)4 dx
1 2 x 2 3x
x dx
dx
1
dx
2x 5
2 e 3 dx
4
1 4e 2 x dx
3 (e2 x e 2 x ) dx
0 5 sin ( 4) dx
22 8 cos (4 x ) dx
2 4 cos(3x ) dx
1 x + 3 cos ( 2) dx
1 3 f ( x ) dx.
1 [ f ( x ) + 1] dx is equal to:
B 10
C 11
d 19
e 22
C 5
d 6
e 0
5 f ( x ) dx is equal to:
a 6
B 5
5 Evaluate the following.

3
(t 2 4t ) dt
0 2 cos (3t ) dt
()
0 e 4 cos (2 x ) dx
1 [3 sin (2 x ) e
1 t
10
sin x dx
4 3
6 We23 If
7 If
3 ( x 2 2 x ) dx
1 f ( x ) dx = 6,
a 16
426
Find the exact value of each of the following definite integrals.
2 We22
2
0 x 3 dx
dt
k
0 (2 x + 3) dx = 4, find k.
0 3x 2 dx = 8, find k.
3 x
] dx
3 dp
( p 3) 2
2
8
dm
f
1 4m 3
8 If
1 x dx = loge (9), find k.
9 If
0 e 2 dx = 4, find the value of a.
a x
k cos (2 x ) dx = 4 , find the value of k given that 0 < k < 2 .

6
11 Given that f ( x ) dx = 8, evaluate the following.
2
2
6
6
a 2 f ( x ) dx
b f ( x ) dx
c [3 f ( x ) 3] dx
6
2
2
10 If
2 [ f ( x ) + 2 x ] dx
mC The interval [1, 3] is divided into n equal subintervals by the points x0, x1, . . . xn 1, xn,
where 1 = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn 1 < xn = 3. Let x = xi xi 1 for i = 1, 2, . . . n.
12 We24
Then lim
x0
( xi3 x )
is equal to:
i =1
x4
3
C x 3
d 20
e 26
dx
1
4
13 mC The interval [0, 3] is divided into n equal subintervals by the points x0, x1, . . . xn 1, xn, where
0 = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn 1 < xn = 3. Let x = xi xi 1 for i = 1, 2, . . . n.
a
3 x3 dx
Then lim
x0
( xi2 x ) is equal to:

i =1
a 9
x3
dx
3
C x 3
3 x 2 dx
e 27
Signed areas
9F
When calculating areas between the graph of a function f (x) and the x-axis using the definite integral
b
a f ( x ) dx , the area is signed; that is, it is positive or negative. If f (x) > 0, the region is above the x-axis;
if f (x) < 0 it is below the axis. We shall now examine these two situations and look at how we calculate
the area of regions that include both.
y
region above axis
Units: 3 & 4
y = f(x)
If f (x) > 0, that is, the region is above the x-axis, then f ( x ) dx > 0, so the
a
value of the definite integral is positive.
b
For example, if f (x) > 0, then the area = f ( x ) dx.
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
region below axis
AOS:
0
b
If f (x) < 0, that is, the region is below the x-axis, then f ( x ) dx < 0, so the
a
value of the definite integral is negative.
b
b
For example, if f (x) < 0, then the area = f ( x ) dx or f ( x ) dx , as the
a
a
region is below the x-axis or
a
area = f ( x ) dx (reversing the terminals changes the sign).
y = f(x)
a
b
x
Therefore, for areas below the x-axis, ensure that the area has a positive value.
(Areas cannot be negative.)
Combining regions
For regions that are combinations of areas above and below the x-axis,
each area has to be calculated by separate integrals one for each area
above and one for each area below the x-axis.
For example, from the diagram,
Area = A1 + A2
However,
y = f(x)
A1
a
0 A
2
a f ( x ) dx = A1 A2 , because the areas are signed.

427
To overcome this difficulty we find the correct area as:

b
Area =
or
or
f ( x ) dx
a f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx +
a f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx +
(= A1 A2 = A1 + A2 )
f ( x ) dx.
Note: When calculating the area between a curve and the x-axis it is essential that the x-intercepts are
determined and a graph of the curve is sketched over the interval required. The term |x| means that we
should make the value of x positive even if it is negative.
Worked example 25
a Express the shaded area as a definite integral.

b Evaluate the definite integral to find the shaded area, giving your
answer as an exact value.
Think
1
dx
x
a Area =
b 1 Antidifferentiate the integrand.
b Area = loge x
1
Evaluate.
State the solution as an exact answer.
WriTe
a Express the area in definite integral notation where
a = 1, b = 4 and y > 0.
y = x1
= [loge (4)] [loge (1)]

= loge (4) 0
= loge (4)
The area is loge (4) square units.
Worked example 26
Calculate the shaded area.
Think
y = x2 4x
1
WriTe
3
Area = ( x 2 4 x ) dx
Express the area in definite integral notation,

with a negative sign in front of the integral as the
region is below the x-axis (y < 0).
Antidifferentiate the integrand.
= [ 13 x 3 2 x 2 ]13
Evaluate.
= [( 13 (3)3 2(3)2 ) ( 13 (1)3 2(1)2 )]

= [(9 18) ( 13 2)]
= [ 9 ( 1 23 )]
= [ 9 + 1 23 ]
= ( 7 13 )
= 7 13
4
428
3 4
State the solution.
The area is 7 3 square units.
Worked example 27
a Express the shaded area as a definite integral.

b Calculate the area.
2
Think
2 (x 3 4 x) dx 0 (x 3 4 x)
a Area =
the area below the x-axis as an integral. For the area

below the x-axis, take the negative of the integral
from 0 to 2.
WriTe
a Express the area above the x-axis as an integral and
b 1 Antidifferentiate the integrands.
y = x3 4x
b Area = 14 x 4 2 x 2 14 x 4 2 x 2
2
dx
2
0
= ( 14 (0)4 2(0)2) ( 14 (2)4 2(2)2)
Evaluate.
( 14 (2)4 2(2)2) ( 14 (0)4 2(0)2)
Simplify.
State the solution.
= [0 (4 8)] [(4 8) 0]
= 4 (4)
=8
The area is 8 square units.
Worked example 28
a Sketch the graph of y = ex 2 showing all intercepts and using exact
values for all key features.
TUTorial
eles-1189
Worked example 28
b Find the area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 2.
Think
a 1 Find the x-intercept by letting y=0 and
WriTe/draW
a When y = 0, ex 2 = 0
ex = 2
solving for x.
Find the y-intercept by letting x=0.
Note the vertical translation and hence

sketch the graph showing the appropriate
horizontal asymptote and intercept.
Shade the region required.
b 1 Express the area above the x-axis as an
integral and the area below the x-axis as

an integral. Subtract the area below the
x-axis from the area above the x-axis.
2
Antidifferentiate the integrands.

x = loge (2) (or approximately 0.69)
so the x-intercept is loge (2).
When x = 0,
y = e0 2
=12
= 1
so the y-intercept is 1.
y y = ex 2
0
1
b Area =
loge2
x
2
y=2
loge (2)
loge (2) (e x 2) dx 0
(e x 2) dx
loge (2)
= [e x 2 x ]2loge (2) [e x 2 x ]0
429
Evaluate.
(Remember: eloge (a) = a)
= [e2 2(2)] [eloge (2) 2 loge (2)]

[[eloge (2) 2 (loge (2)] [e0 2(0)]]
= [e2 4] [2 2 loge (2)] [[2 2 loge (2)]
[1 0]]
Simplify.
= e2 4 2 + 2 loge (2) 2 + 2 loge (2) + 1

= e2 7 + 4 loge (2)
State the solution.
exercise 9F
The area is [e2 7 + 4 loge(2)] or approximately

3.162 square units.
y
Signed areas
y=x
1 Find the area of the triangle at right:

a geometrically
b using integration.
y
3
2 Find the area of the triangle at right:
a geometrically
b using integration.
3 We25a Express the following shaded areas as definite integrals.

y
y
a
b
y = 2x
4
01
y
y = 3x2
1 0
y
0
h
y = ex
1 2
y
y = x2
y = x3 9x2 + 20x
x
y=4x
y = x3 4x2 4x
y
2
y = 2 sin (2x)
2x
y=e
0
0
1
y
3
y=3x
y = cos (3x)
1
0
4 We25b Evaluate each of the definite integrals in question 3 to find the shaded area. Give your answer
as an exact value.
5 For each of the following, sketch a graph to illustrate the region for which the definite integral gives the
area.
a
e
430
0 4 x dx
4
x dx
b
f
1 (6 x ) dx
0
2e x
dx
c
g
1 x 2 dx
4
loge
(2x ) dx
d
h
1 (4 x 2 ) dx
3 sin (2 x ) dx
6 We26 Calculate each of the shaded areas below.

y
y
a
b
y = 4 2x
y=x2
0
1 0
y y = x2 4
2
y
e
x
y = x3 + 2x2 x 2
y
1
h
0
0 1 x
y = 1 x2
g
y = x3
1
2
y
y = sin (x)
x
0
2x
y = e
y = ex
3
y = f(x)
y = 2 cos (2x )
7 mC a The area between the graph, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 1 is equal to:
1
y
2
a
C
1 f ( x ) dx
0
1 f ( x ) dx
2 f ( x ) dx
2 f ( x ) dx
1
e f ( x ) dx
2
b The area between the graph, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 3 is equal to:
a
C
e
0 f ( x ) dx + 0
f ( x ) dx
2
1
0
3
2 f ( x ) dx 0 f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx +
f ( x ) dx
2 f ( x ) dx
2
f ( x ) dx
8 We27a Express the following shaded areas as definite integrals which give the correct area.
a
c
b
y
y
y
g(x)
f(x)
0
5 4 2
f(x)
0 1
3 2
0 2
x
h(x)
g(x)
2 3
431
9 mC Examine the graph shown below.

y
y = x3 2x2 5x + 6
a The area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 2 and x = 1 is equal to:
1
a 1712 sq. units
B 154 sq. units
3
d 154 sq. units
e 10 sq. units
1
C 1712 sq. units
b The area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 1 and x = 3 is equal to:
2
a 6 sq. units
1
C 5 3 sq. units
B 2 sq. units
2
3
d 5 3 sq. units
e 6 sq. units
c The area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 2 and x = 3 is equal to:
5
a 10 12 sq. units
B 114 sq. units
d 12 sq. units
e 2112 sq. units
C 22 12 sq. units
10 We28 Sketch the graph of the curve y = x2 4, showing all intercepts and using exact values for all
key features. Find the area between the curve and the x-axis:
b from x = 2 to x = 4
a from x = 0 to x = 2
11 Sketch the graph of the curve y =
and the x-axis between the lines:

a x = 2 and x = 0
x3
x2
c from x = 0 to x = 4.
2x, showing all intercepts. Find the area between the curve
c x = 2 and x = 1.
b x = 0 and x = 1
12 Sketch the graph of the curve y = 1 + 3 cos (2x) over [0, ]. Find the exact area between the curve and
diGiTal doC
doc-9219
WorkSHEET 9.2
the x-axis from:
3
a x = 0 to x =
b x=
to x = .
4
4
13 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x 1 and find the area between the curve and the x-axis and the lines x = 2
and x = 3. Give both an exact answer and an approximation to 3 decimal places.
14 Find the exact area between the curve y = 1 , the x-axis and the lines x = 12 and x = 2.
x
15 Find the exact area bounded by the curve g(x) = ex + 2, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 3.
9G Further areas
areas bound by a curve and the x-axis
For graphs with two or more x-intercepts, there is an enclosed region
(or regions) between the graph and the x-axis.
The area bound by the graph of f (x) and the x-axis is:
y = f(x)
a f ( x ) dx (negative because the area is below the x-axis) or a f ( x ) dx .
The area bound by the graph of g(x) and the x-axis is:
b
c g( x ) dx a g( x ) dx
or
a g( x ) dx + c g( x ) dx
Note: Wherever possible it is good practice to use sketch graphs to assist in

any problems involving the calculation of areas under curves.
432
y = g(x)
Worked example 29
a Sketch the graph of the function g(x) = (3 x)(2 + x).

b Find the area bound by the x-axis and the graph of the function.
Think
a 1 Determine the type of graph by looking at
the number of brackets and the sign of the

x-terms.
WriTe/draW
a g(x) = (3 x)(2 + x) is an inverted parabola.
Solve g(x) = 0 to find the x-intercepts.
For x-intercepts, g(x) = 0

(3 x)(2 + x) = 0
x = 3 and x = 2.
Sketch the graph.
The x-intercepts are 2 and 3.
b 1 Shade the region bound by g(x) and the x-axis.
x
3
y = g(x)
2 0
Express the area as an integral.
Evaluate.
Area =
2 (6 + x x 2 ) dx
= [6 x + 12 x 2 13 x 3 ]3 2
1
= [6(3) + 2(3)2 3(3)3]

1
[6(2) + 2(2)2 3(2)3]

9
= (18 + 2 9) (12 + 2 + 3 )
1
= 13 2 (7 3)
1
= 13 2 + 7 3
5
= 20 6
4
State the solution.
The area bound by g(x) and the x-axis is 20 6

square units.
Worked example 30
a Find the x-intercepts of y = sin (2x) over the domain [0, 2].
b Calculate the area between the curve, the x-axis and x = 0 and x = .
Think
a 1 To find the x-intercepts, let y = 0.

2
Solve for x over the given domain.
b 1 Pick the x-intercepts that are between the
given end points of the area.

2
State the regions for which it is necessary to

calculate the area.
WriTe
a For x-intercepts, y = 0
sin (2x) = 0
2x = 0, , 2, 3, 4, etc.
3
x = 0, , , ,2
2
2
bx=
is the only x-intercept between 0 and .

2
Area =
2 sin(2x ) dx
0
sin(2x ) dx
2
433
= [ 12 cos (2x )] 2 + [ 12 cos(2x )]
Evaluate the absolute value of the integral for

each region.
= [ 12 cos( ) ( 12 cos(0))]
+ [ 12 cos(2 ) ( 12 cos( ))]

= [ 12 ( 12 )] + [ 12 ( 12 )]
= 1 + 1
4
Add the result to give the total area.
State the solution.
=1+1
=2
Worked example 31
a Differentiate loge (x2 1).

b Hence, find an antiderivative of
x
.
x2 1
x
c Find the area between the graph of
, the x-axis, x = 2 and x = 3, giving your answer correct
2
x 1
Think
WriTe
a 1 Let y equal the expression to be differentiated.

2
Express u as a function of x in order to apply

the chain rule for differentiation. (Let u equal
the function inside the brackets.)
Find
Write y in terms of u.
Find
dy
.
du
Find
dy
dx
dy
dx dx = y + c, express the relationship
Let y = loge (x2 1).

Let u = x2 1.
du
= 2x
dx
du
.
dx
b 1 Since
dy
Remove a factor from
so that it resembles
the integral required. dx
Divide both sides by the factor in order to
obtain the required integral.
y = loge (u)
dy 1
=
du u
So
dy 1
= 2x
dx u
2x
= 2
x 1
2x
x2 1
2
dx = loge x 2 1 + c
x
dx = loge x 2 1 + c
1
x2
x2 1
dx = 12 loge x 2 1 + c
An antiderivative of
c 1 Find the x-intercepts.
(For
434
x
= 0, the numerator = 0.)
x2 1
c For x-intercepts,
x
is 1 log x 2 1 .
1 2
x2
x
=0
x2 1
x=0
Area =
If the x-intercepts are not between the

terminals of the area, find the area by
evaluating the integrand.
2 x 2 1 dx
3
= 12 loge x 2 1 2
= 12 loge (32 1) 12 loge (22 1)
= 12 loge (8) 12 loge (3)
= 12 loge (83)
=
3
The area is 12 loge (83) or approximately

0.49 square units.
State the solution.
exercise 9G
()
8
1
2 loge 3
Further areas
In the following exercise give all answers correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate, unless
otherwise stated.
1 We29 i Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
ii Find the area bound by the x-axis and the graph of each function.
a f (x) = x2 3x
b g(x) = (2 x)(4 + x)
2 Find the area bound by the x-axis and the graph of each of the following functions.
a h(x) = (x + 3)(5 x)
b h(x) = x2 + 5x 6
2
c g(x) = 8 x
d g(x) = x3 4x2
e f (x) = x(x 2)(x 3)
f f (x) = x3 4x2 4x + 16
3
2
g g(x) = x + 3x x 3
h h(x) = (x 1)(x + 2)(x + 5)
3 mC The area bound by the curve with equation y = x2 6x + 8 and the x-axis is equal to:
B 6 23 square units
a 1 13 square units
d 3 square units
1 1
3
C 12 square units
square units
4 mC The area between the curve at right, the x-axis and the
lines x = 3 and x = 4 is equal to:
a
C
e
3 f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx
3 f ( x ) dx + 2 f ( x ) dx
4
2
2 f ( x ) dx 3 f ( x ) dx
0 2
4
y = f(x)
3 f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x ) dx
5 mC The area between the curve y = x2 x 6, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 4 is equal to:
a 2 65 square units
d
2 43
square units
B 23 square units
e
4 12
C 5 square units
square units
6 For each of the following:

i sketch the graph of the curve over an appropriate domain, clearly labelling any x-intercepts in the
interval required
ii find the area between the curve, the x-axis and the lines indicated below.
a y = 3 3x2, x = 0 and x = 2
c y=
x2
, x = 1 and x = 2
e y = e2x, x = 2 and x = 0
and x =
6
3
and x =
i y = sin (3x), x =
2
6
g y = 2 sin (x), x =
2
, x = 1 and x = 3
x
d y = x3 4x, x = 2 and x = 1
b y=
y = ex, x = 0 and x = 2
x
h y = cos , x = and x = 2
2
2
f
y = x x , x 0, x = 0 and x = 4
435
7 We30 For each of the following functions:

i find the x-intercepts over the given domain
ii calculate the area between the curve, the x-axis and the given lines.
Use sketch graphs to assist your workings.

a y = x 4x1, x 0, x = 1 and x = 3
b y = sin (x) cos (x), x [0, ], x = 0 and x =
c y = e x e, x = 0 and x = 3
1
d y = x 2 , x 0, x = 12 and x = 2
x
x
e y = e 2 , x = 2 and x = 2
f y = x4 3x2 4, x = 1 and x = 4
g y = (x 2)4, x = 1 and x = 3
8 Find the exact area of the region enclosed by the x-axis, y = e3x and the lines x = 1 and x = 2.
9 Find the exact area of the region enclosed by the x-axis, y = cos (x) and the lines x=
10 Find the area bound by y = (x 1)3, the x-axis and the y-axis.
5
.
and x =
3
6
1
showing all asymptotes and intercepts.
( x 3)2
b Find the area under the curve between x = 1 and x = 1.
11 a Sketch the graph of y =
12 a Give the equation of the asymptotes for the function f (x) = (x + 2)3.
b Find the area between the curve, the x-axis, x = 1 and x = 1.
13 Find the area bound by the curve y = 3 e2x, the x-axis, x = 2 and x = 0. (Find the x-intercepts first.)
14 Find the area bound by the curve y = 4 sin (2x), the x-axis, x =
x-intercepts first.)
and x = . (Check the
15 We31 a Differentiate x loge (x). (x > 0)

b Hence, find an antiderivative of loge (x).
c Find the area bound by the graph of loge (x), the x-axis, x = 1 and x = 4 giving exact answers.
16 a Differentiate loge (x2 + 2).
b Hence, find an antiderivative of
x
.
x2 + 2
, the x-axis, x = 1 and x = 1.
x
+2
17 a Find the area between the graph of y = x2, the x-axis, x = 0 and x = 2.
b Use this result to calculate the area between the graph, the y-axis
and the line y=4.
c Find the area between
x2
y = x2
(2, 4)
0
18 Find the exact area of the shaded region on the graph y = e2x below.
y
y = e2x
0 2
19 Find the shaded area below. (Hint: It is easier if you use symmetry.)
y
y = 2 sin (x)
20
a The area of the region bounded by the y-axis, the x-axis, the curve y = 2ex and the line x = k,
where k is a positive real constant, is
3
2
square units. Find k.
b The area of the region bounded by the y-axis, the x-axis, the curve y = sin (2x) and the line x = k,
where k is a positive real constant, is 1 square unit. Find k.

436
9h
areas between two curves
Consider the area between two functions, f (x) and g(x), over an interval [a, b]. The approach used
depends on whether the curves intersect or do not intersect over this interval.
Units: 3 & 4
if the two curves f (x) and g(x) do not intersect

over the interval [a, b]
f(x)
a
a
b
= a [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx.
The brown shaded area =
f ( x ) dx
g( x ) dx
g(x)
0 a
Note: The lower function is subtracted from the higher function to ensure a
positive answer.
Topic:
Concept: 10
Here, we may look at three circumstances: when the region is above the x-axis, when it is below the
x-axis, and when it crosses the x-axis.
region above x-axis
AOS:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video about areas
between curves.
region below x-axis
Again, the lower function is subtracted from the higher function to ensure a
positive answer.
b
Brown shaded area = [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx , as f (x) is above g(x) over the
a
interval [a, b].
region crosses x-axis

Shaded area =
b
f(x)
g(x)
Do more
Interact
with areas between
curves.
f(x)
g(x)
a [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
Worked example 32
a State the definite integral that describes the shaded area on the graph
y = 2x + 1
at right.
y=x
b Find the area.
0
Think
a 1 State the two functions f (x) and g(x).
a f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x
Subtract the equation of the lower function

from the equation of the upper function and
simplify.
f (x) g(x) = 2x + 1 x
=x+1
Write as a definite integral between the given

values of x.
Area =
=
WriTe
b 1 Antidifferentiate.
0 [ f ( x ) g( x )]
2
0 ( x + 1) dx
b Area = [ 12 x 2 + x ]20
= [ 12 (2)2 + 2] [ 12 (0)2 + 0]
= (2 + 2) (0)
=4
State the area.
437
Worked example 33
a Find the values of x where the functions y = x and y = x2 2 intersect.

b Sketch the graphs on the same axes.
c Hence, find the area bound by the curves.
Think
WriTe/draW
a y = x and y = x2 2
a 1 State the two functions.

2
Find where the curves intersect.
Solve for x.
b Find the key points of each function
and sketch.
For points of intersection:

x = x2 2
2
x x2=0
(x 2)(x + 1) = 0
x = 2 or x = 1
b For y = x,
when x = 0, y = 0
y = x2 2
when x = 2, y = 2
(2, 2)
y=x
when x = 1, y = 1
Line passes through (0, 0),
x
0
(1, 1)
(2, 2) and (1, 1)
2
For y = x 2,
when x = 0, y = 2
Hence the y-intercept is 2.
Parabola also passes through (2, 2) and (1, 1).
c Let f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 2, since f (x) > g(x) over the
c 1 Define f (x) and g (x).
interval [1, 2]
2
1 [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
2
= 1[ x ( x 2 2)] dx
2
= ( x x 2 + 2) dx
1
Area =
Write the area as a definite integral

between the values of x at the
points of intersection.
Antidifferentiate.
= [ 12 x 2 13 x 3 + 2 x ]21
= [ 12 (2)2 13 (2)3 + 2(2)] [ 12 ( 1)2 13 ( 1)3 + 2( 1)]

= (2 83 + 4) ( 12 + 13 2)
= (3 13 ) (1 16 )
= 3 13 + 1 16
= 4 12
State the area.
The area is 4 12 square units.
if the two curves intersect over the interval [a, b]

If c1 and c2 are the values of x where f (x) and g(x) intersect over the interval [a,b],
the area is found by considering the intervals [a, c1], [c1, c2] and [c2, b] separately.
For each interval, subtract the lower function from the higher function.
So the shaded area equals:
c1
c2
a [ g( x) f ( x)] dx + c
[ f ( x ) g( x )] dx +
g(x)
c [ g( x) f ( x)] dx
2
a c1 0
c2
Therefore, when finding areas between two curves over an interval, it must
f(x)
be determined whether the curves intersect within that interval. If they do, the
area is broken into sub-intervals as shown above.
As with areas under curves, sketch graphs should be used to assist in finding areas between curves.
If sketch graphs are not used, the absolute value of each integral, for each sub-interval, should be
taken to ensure the correct value is obtained.
438
Worked example 34
a Find the values of x where the graph of the functions f (x) =
4
and
x
TUTorial
eles-1190
Worked example 34
g(x) = x intersect.
b Sketch the graphs on the same axes. Shade the region between the
two curves and x = 1 and x = 3.
c Find the exact area between f (x) and g(x) from x = 1 to x = 3.
Think
WriTe/draW
a f (x) =
a 1 State the two functions.
4
, g (x) = x
x
Let f (x) = g(x) to find the values of x where the

graphs intersect.
For points of intersection, x =
Solve for x.
x2 = 4
4=0
(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
x = 2 and x = 2
4
x
x2
b Sketch f (x) and g(x) on the same axes and shade the
region between the two curves from x = 1 to x = 3.
f(x) = x4
g(x) = x
x
01 2 3
c Area =
c 1 State the area as the sum of two integrals for the
two sub-intervals.
2
dx
4
The area is 4 loge + 1 square units.
3
Use a CAS calculator to evaluate the area. Record

the result.
exercise 9h
1 ( x x) dx + 2 (x x )
1 We32a State the definite integral that will find the shaded areas on each graph below.
y
y
y
a
b
c
y = x2
y = 2x
y = 3x
y=x
y=x+1
y = x2
2 x
y = 8 x2
y=x
01
y = x3
2
g
0 1
y = 3x
x
1
2
y=4x
y = ex
x
1
y = 9 x2
y = x2 5
1 0
x
y = 4
y=e
439
2 We32b Find each of the areas in question 1.

3 mC Which one of the following does not equal the shaded area?
a
C
e
1 g( x ) dx 1
5
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx
g( x ) dx
1 g( x ) dx + 5 f ( x ) dx
5
g(x)
[ g( x ) f ( x )] dx
0 1
[ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
4 mC The area bound by the curves f (x), g(x) and the lines x = 3 and
x = 1 at right is equal to:

a
C
e
1 [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
1
3 [g( x ) f ( x )] dx
B
d
g(x)
3 [ f ( x ) + g( x )] dx
1
3 [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
f(x)
4
1 [ f ( x ) + g( x )] dx
5 mC The shaded area at right is equal to:

a
3 1
f(x)
0 [g( x ) f ( x )] dx + 3 [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
0 [g( x ) f ( x )] dx
0 [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
0 [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx + 3 [g( x ) f ( x )]
b y = 2x and y = 3 x2
d y = x2 4 and y = 4 x2
f y = x and y = x2
7 We34 i Find the values of x where the functions intersect.

ii Sketch the graphs on the same axes.
iii Find the area between f (x) and g(x) giving an exact answer.
a y = x3 and y = x
b y = 3x2 and y = x3 + 2x
8 Find the area between the pairs of curves below, over the given interval.
a y = x3, y = x2, x [1, 1]
b y = sin (x), y = cos (x), x [0, ]
c y = (x 1)2, y = (x + 1)2, x [1, 1]
d y = x3 5x, y = 6 2x2, x [0, 3]
1
, y = 4x, x [ 14 , 1]
x
f y = e x, y = ex, x [0, 1]
g y = 2 cos (x), y = x , x [0, ]
2
2
h y = e x, y = ex, x [2, 1]
Find the area between the curve y = ex and the lines y = x, x = 1 and x = 3.
Find the area between the curve y = x2 and the lines y = x + 3, x = 1 and x = 3.
2
Calculate the area between the curves y = sin (2x) and y = cos (x) from x = 0 to x = .
2
Calculate the area between the curves y = 3 sin (2x) and y = sin (2x) from x = 0 to x= .
4
Find the exact area bound by the curves y = ex and y=3 2ex.
e y=
10
11
12
13
440
g(x)
6 We33 In each of the following:

i find the values of x where the functions intersect
ii sketch the graphs on the same axes
iii hence, find the area bound by the curves.
a y = 4x and y = x2
c y = x2 1 and y = 1 x2
e y = (x + 1)2 and y = 1 x2
[ f ( x ) g( x )] dx
5
y
f(x)
3 4
14 The graph at right shows the cross-section of a bricked archway.
(All measurements are in metres.)

a Find the x-intercepts of f (x).
b Find the x-intercepts of g(x).
c Find the cross-sectional area of the brickwork.
15 The diagram below shows the outline of a window frame. If all
measurements are in metres, what is the area of glass which fits into
the frame?
y
f(x) = 4 14 x2
x
0
g(x) = 3 13 x2
y = 2 12 2x2
y = 2x2
12
1
2
16 The diagram at right shows the side view of a concrete bridge.
(All measurements are in metres.) Find:

a the x-intercepts of the curve
b the length of the bridge
c the area of the side of the bridge
d the volume of concrete used to build the bridge if the bridge is
9 metres wide.
17 The cross-section of a road tunnel entrance is shown at right. (All
measurements are in metres.) The shaded area is to be concreted. Find:
a the exact area, above the entrance, which is to be concreted
b the exact volume of concrete required to build this tunnel if it is
200 metres long.
9i
5
2
x
y = 4
100
0
y
x
f(x) = 5 sin (
30 )
average value of a function
Consider the function y = f (x). The average value, yav, for the function y = f (x) over the interval [a, b] is
given by:
b
1
yav =
f ( x ) dx.
ba a
This can be rearranged to give yav (b a) =
y
a f ( x ) dx.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video about the
average value of a
function.
y = f(x)
yav
a
Geometrically, the average value of the function is the height, yav, of the rectangle of width (b a) that
has the same area as the area under the graph of y = f (x) for the interval [a, b].
Worked example 35
Find the average value of f (x) = 2x2 for the interval [1, 4]. Find the value of x that corresponds to
the average value.
Think
WriTe
Write the relationship for the average value.
yav =
b
1
f ( x ) dx
a
ba
Identify f (x) = 2x2 and substitute in the values

for a and b.
yav =
4
1
2 x 2 dx
1
4 1
441
1 2 x 3
yav =
3 3 1
Antidifferentiate.
Evaluate the definite integral and multiply by 3.
1 2 43 2 13
yav =
3 3 3
1 128 2

3 3
3
1 126
=
= 14
3 3
The average value is 14.
=
Solve f (x) = 14 to find x.
2x2 = 14
x2 = 7
x= 7
Choose the value of x that satisfies the given

interval.
x = 7 as x [1, 4].
Worked example 36
Find the average value of f (x) = loge(2x) for the interval [2, 4]. Give your answer in exact form.
Think
WriTe
yav =
4
1
loge (2 x ) dx
2
42
Write the relationship for the average value and

substitute the values for a and b.
Enter the definite integral into a CAS calculator.
1
2
State the result.
4 loge (2) 1
Write the answer.
The average value f (x) = loge (2x) for the

interval [2, 4] is 4 loge (2) 1.
2 loge (2 x ) dx
Worked example 37
Find the constant k, where k Z, such that the average value of the function f ( x ) =
the interval [0, k] is given by 19 log e ( 11

2 ).
Think
1
over
3x + 2
WriTe
b
Write the relationship for the average value.
yav =
1
Identify f ( x ) =
, and substitute the values
x
+2
3
for a and b.
1
loge 11
2
9
Equate this to
3
442
1
f ( x ) dx
b a a
( )
1
=
k0
( )
k
1
= loge (3 x + 2) k
3
0
1
1
= loge (3k + 2) loge (2) k
3
3
1
3k + 2
=
loge
2
3k
( ).
1
dx
3x + 2
1
loge 11
9
2
Antidifferentiate.
1
loge 11
2
9
Equate the coefficients.
Check by equating logarithmic terms.
3k = 9
k=3
3k + 2 11
=
2
2
3k + 2 = 11
3k = 9
k=3
Worked example 38
dy
.
dx
b Hence, find an anti-derivative of e2x(sin (2x) + cos (2x)).
.
c Find yav if y = e2x(sin (2x) + cos (2x)) over the interval 0,
4
a If y = e2xsin (2x) find
Think
WriTe
a Differentiate y = e2x sin (2x) using the product rule.
a If y = e2x sin (2x)
du
= 2e 2 x
dx
dv
= 2 cos (2 x )
Let v = sin (2 x) so that
dx
dy
du
dv
= ( v ) + (u)
dx
dx
dx
dy
= 2e 2 x sin (2 x ) + 2e 2 x cos(2 x )
dx
= 2e 2 x (sin (2 x ) + cos(2 x ))
Let u = e2x so that
b Use your result from part a to find the
anti-derivative of
e2x(sin
(2x) + cos (2x)).
2e2 x (sin (2 x ) + cos(2 x )) dx = e2 x sin (2 x )

2 e 2 x (sin (2 x ) + cos(2 x )) dx = e 2 x sin (2 x )
1
e2 x (sin (2 x ) + cos(2 x )) dx = 2 e2 x sin (2 x)

b
c 1 Write the relationship for the average value.
Identify f (x) =
(2x) + cos (2x)) and
substitute in the values of a and b.
e2x(sin
c yav =
yav =
1
f ( x ) dx
b a a
1
4 2x
e (sin (2 x ) + cos(2 x )) dx
0 0
4
1 2x
= e sin (2 x )
2
0 4
1

1
= e 2 sin e 0 sin (0)
2 2
2
4
1
= e2
2
4
1 4
= e2
2
2e 2
=
443
exercise 9i
Find the average value, in exact form, of the function for the given interval.

a y = x3 x, x [1, 3]
b y = sin (x), x 0,
6
c y = x , x [1, 4]
d y = e3x, x [0, 2]
1 We35
2 We36 Find the average value of the function, in exact form, for the given interval.

6
d y = x x + 1, x [1, 7]
b y = tan (2x), x 0,
a y = x loge (x), x [2, 5]

c y = xex, x [0, 4]
3 For the function y = e 2x for x [1, 0], find:

a the average value of the function
b the corresponding x-value in exact form.
4 mC The average value of the function f (x) = loge (2x + 1) over the interval [0, 4] is:
loge (9)
4
d 9 loge (3) 4
a
B loge (9)
e
9log
e (3) + 4
1
[9loge (3) 4]
4
5 mC The average value of the function y = sin (2x) over the interval 0, is:
4
4
1
2
a
B 2
C
d
e
2
6 Scientists have found that releasing millions of genetically modified mosquitoes into the wild leads
to a dramatic fall in the wild mosquito numbers. The genetically sterile males can be reared in large
numbers by feeding them with a supplement that turns off the sterility gene temporarily.
A team bred 3 million sterile males (male mosquitoes do not bite or spread diseases as this is the
domain of the female mosquitoes) and released them into the wild where an estimated 17 million
mosquitoes existed. There, they were able to mate with wild females without producing offspring.
The number of mosquitoes, N millions, at time, t months, after the sterile males were introduced,
is given by:
N(t) = 20e 0.268t.

a How many mosquitoes were there at the beginning of the experiment?
b How many mosquitoes still existed after six months of the experiment? Give your answer correct
to the nearest whole million.

c What is the percentage decrease in the mosquito numbers over this six month period?
d Find the average number of living mosquitoes over the six month period. Give your answer

7 The conditions inside a sauna are controlled by the temperature as well as by the relative humidity, but
once the thermostat has been turned on the temperature can be defined by the function:
1 3 7 2
T (t ) =
t + t + 60 0 t 15
150
30
where T is the temperature in C and t is the number of minutes after the thermostat has been turned
on and the door has not been opened/closed on a regular basis.
a Find the initial temperature of the sauna.
b Find the temperature of the sauna after a 15 minute period, when the thermostat had been on, but
then turned off automatically until the temperature starts to fall again.
c Find the average temperature of the sauna over the last 5 minutes that the thermostat was turned
on. Give tour answer correct to the nearest C.
8 If yAV = f (c), determine the value of c, where c Z and f (x) = x3 6x + 1 over the interval [0, 4].
9 The length of day varies from one season to another. An observer at latitude 66N found that the length
of the day throughout the year could be described by the function:
t
f (t ) = 10 sin + 12
0 t 12
6
where t is the number of months after the spring equinox (March 21/22) and f (t) describes the
number of hours between sunrise and sunset.
444
a Find the maximum and minimum hours of daylight throughout the year and when these actually
occur.
b Find yAV, where y = f (t) for the interval [4, 7]. Give your answer correct to the nearest whole
number of hours.
10 The length of daylight hours in Melbourne over a period of a year can be described by the function:
t
f (t ) = 2.5cos + + 12
0 t 12
6 2
where t is the number of months after the autumn equinox (March 21/22) and f (t) describes the
number of hours between sunrise and sunset.
a Find the minimum (June 21/22) and the maximum (December 21/22) number of daylight hours in
Melbourne.
b Compare the yAV, where y = f (t) for the intervals [0, 2] and [3, 5]. Give your answers correct to
1 decimal place.
1
9
11 We37 Find the value of the constant k, where k Z and y AV = loge , for the function
5
4
1
y = f (x) =
over the interval [0, k].
2x + 5
12 We38 Consider the function defined by y = e3xcos (3x)
a Find the derivative of the function.
b Hence, find the anti-derivative of e3xcos (3x) e3xsin (3x).
2
c If y = e3xcos (3x) e3xsin (3x), find yAV over the interval ,
3 3
9J
Differentiation can be applied to rates of change and related rates. If the rate of change of a function
is known, antidifferentiation allows the original function to be found. So integration has many practical
applications.
Worked example 39
The rate of change of position, velocity, of a particle travelling in a straight line

dx
is given by
= 40 10 e 0.4 t m/s, t 0, where x is measured in metres and
dt
t in seconds.
a Find the velocity:
i initially
ii after 10 seconds, correct to 2 decimal places.
b Find the time taken to reach a velocity of 35 m/s.
dx
c Sketch the graph of
against t.
dt
d Find the total distance travelled by the particle in the first 10 seconds.
Think
WriTe
a i 1 The initial velocity occurs when t = 0.
Substitute t = 0 into
dx
.
dt
a i
Answer with the correct units.
ii 1 Substitute t = 10 into
TUTorial
eles-1225
Worked example 39
dx
.
dt
Answer with the correct units.
ii
dx
= 40 10e 0.4 t
dt
= 40 10e 0.4 0
= 40 10e 0
= 40 10
= 30
Velocity is initially 30 m/s.
dx
= 40 10e 0.4 10
dt
= 40 10e 4
= 39.82
After 10 seconds, the velocity
is 39.82 m/s.
445
dx
= 35.
dt
dx
= 40 10e 0.4 t
dt
35 = 40 10e 0.4 t
Substitute
Solve for t.
= 10e 0.4 t
0.4
t
e
= 0.5
0.4t = ln(0.5)
ln(0.5)
t=
0.4
= 1.73 s
Answer the question correct to

2 decimal places.
Time taken is 1.73 seconds.
Define the function to be graphed and c f1(x) = 40 10e0.4 x

enter it into a CAS calculator. Ensure the
appropriate window is used.
Sketch the graph displaying on the

CAS calculator.
y
40
35
30
0
d
Distance travelled = area under the

graph
State the distance as a definite
integral.
(1.73, 35)
1.73
dx
= 40 10e 0.4 t
dt
x=
10
(40 10e
0.4 t
) dt
10 0.4 t 10
= 40t
e
0
0.4
10
Antidifferentiate.
x = 40t + 25e 0.4 t
x = (40 10 + 25e 0.4 10 ) (40 0 + 25e
= (400 + 25e 4 ) (25e 0 )

4
= 400 + 25e 25
= 375 + 25e 4
= 375.46
State the distance travelled with

correct units.
0.4 0
The distance travelled in the first 10 seconds is

375.46 metres.
Worked example 40
The rate of change of pressure, P atmospheres, of a given mass of gas with respect to its volume,
dP k
V cm3, is given by
= , k > 0.
dV V 2
dP
= 5 when V = 10, find k.
a If
dV
b Find the pressure, P, as a function of V given that when P = 10 atmospheres, V = 50 cm3.
c Find the volume when the pressure is 20 atmospheres.
Think
a 1 Substitute the conditions
the given rate.
446
WriTe
dP
= 5 and V = 10 into
dV
dP k
=
dV V 2
k
5=
(10)2
k
= 100
Simplify.
Solve for k.
k = 500
b 1 Write the rate with the value of k found previously.

2
b dP = 500
2
dV
V
500
P=
dV
V2
= 500 V 2 dV
Antidifferentiate.
=
3
Substitute the given conditions P = 10 and

V = 50 to find c.
Write the relationship for P.
500
V
500
20 =
V
V=
Solve for V.
State the answer with correct units.
500
V
P=
exercise 9J
500
+c
V
500
10 =
+c
50
c=0
P=
P=
c 1 Substitute P = 20.
500
+c
V
500
20
The volume is 25 cm3.
1 If f (x) = (2 x)2 and the y-intercept of f (x) is 4 , find the rule for f (x).
dy
= 1 4 cos(2 x ) and the y-intercept is 2, find the exact value of y when x = .
12
dx
3 The rate of deflection from a horizontal position of a 3-metre diving board when an 80-kg person is
dy
= 0.03( x + 1)2 + 0.03, where y is the deflection in metres.
x metres from its fixed end is given by
dx
2 If
y (Metres)
0
Board
(Metres)
x
Deflection
a What is the deflection when x = 0?

b Determine the equation that measures the deflection.
c Hence, find the maximum deflection.
4 On any day the cost per item for a machine producing n items is given by
n [0, 200] and C is the cost in dollars.

Use the rate to find the cost of producing the 100th item.
Express C as a function of n.
What is the total cost of producing the first 100 items?
Find the average cost of production for:
i the first 100 items
ii the second 100 items.
dC
= 40 2e 0.01n, where
dn
a
b
c
d
447
5 We39 The rate of change of position (velocity) of a racing car travelling down a straight stretch of
dx
= t (16 t ), where x is measured in metres and t in seconds.
dt
a Find the velocity when:
i t=0
ii t = 4.
b Determine:
i when the maximum velocity occurs
ii the maximum velocity.
dx
c Sketch the graph of
against t for 0 t 16.
dt
d Find the area under the graph between t = 0 and t = 10.
e What does this area represent?
We40 The rate at which water is pumped out of a dam, in L/min, t minutes after the pump is
dV
t
started is
= 5 + cos .
40
dt
a How much water is pumped out in the 40th minute?
b Find the volume of water pumped out at any time, t, after the pump is started.
c How much water is pumped out after 40 minutes?
d Find the average rate at which water is pumped in the first hour.
e How long would it take to fill a tank holding 1600 litres?
The rate of flow of water into a hot water system during a 12-hour period is thought to be
dV
t
= 10 + cos , where V is in litres and t is the number of hours after 8 am.
2
dt
dV
a Sketch the graph of
against t.
dt
b Find the length of time for which the rate is above 10.5 L/h.
c Find the volume of water that has flowed into the system between:
i 8 am and 2 pm
ii 3 pm and 8 pm.
y (metres)
The roof of a stadium has the shape given by the function
20
f : [25, 25] R, f (x) = 20 0.024x2.
The stadium is 75 metres long and its cross-section is shown
5
(metres)
at right.
x
0
a Find the volume of the stadium.
25
25
b The stadium is to have several airconditioners strategically
placed around it. Each can service a volume of 11 250 m3.
y
y = x3
How many airconditioners are required?
The cross-section of a channel is parabolic. It is 3 metres wide at the top
P
and 2 metres deep. Find the depth of water, to the nearest cm, when the
channel is half full.
x
For any point P on the curve y = x3, prove that the area under the curve is one
0
quarter of the area of the rectangle.
The arch of a concrete bridge has the shape of a parabola. It is
y (metres)
6 metres high and 8 metres long.
7
a Find the rule for the function corresponding to the arch of the
6
bridge.
b Find the area of the shaded region.
(metres)
c If the bridge is 10 metres wide, find the volume of concrete in the
x
0
4
4
5
bridge.
In the figure at right f (x) and g(x) intersect at O and B.
y f(x) = ex 1
a Show that the coordinate of B is (loge (2), 1).
B
C
g(x) = 2ex + 2
b Find the exact area of the region bound by f (x) andg(x).
c Show that the sum of the areas under f (x) and g(x), from x = 0
to x = loge(2), is equal to the area of the rectangle OABC.
road is given by
10
11
12
448
Summary
antidifferentiation
The relationships between f (x) and f ( x ) dx are:

f (x)
f ( x) dx
ax + c
ax n
ax n + 1
+c
n +1
(ax + b)n
(ax + b)n + 1
+c
a(n + 1)
1
x
loge |x| + c
1
ax + b
1
log |ax + b| + c
a
ex
ex + c
ekx
1 kx
e +c
k
sin (ax)
cos (ax)
[ f ( x ) g( x )] dx =
Graphs of the
antiderivative function
f ( x ) dx g( x ) dx
1
cos (ax) + c
a
1
a sin (ax) + c
kf ( x ) dx = k f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx is the indefinite integral
g( x ) dx = f ( x ) + c, where g(x) = f (x) dx
For a polynomial function, the graph of f (x) is one degree higher than the graph of f (x).
The x-intercepts of f (x) are the x-coordinates of the turning points of f (x).
When f (x) is above the x-axis, the gradient of f (x) is positive.
When f (x) is below the x-axis, the gradient of f (x) is negative.
1. To differentiate using the chain rule, use one of the following rules.
(a) If f (x) = [g(x)]n then f (x) = ng(x)[g(x)]n 1
dy
(b) If y = e f (x),
= f ( x )e f ( x )
dx
dy dy du
=
(c)
dx du dx
(d) f (x) = g(x) cos [g(x)] where f (x) = sin [g(x)]
f (x) = g(x) sin [g(x)] where f (x) = cos [g(x)]
g ( x )
x) .
(e) f ( x ) =
where f ( x ) = logge g( x)
g( x )
2. To antidifferentiate, use g( x ) dx = f ( x ) + c where g(x) = f (x).

approximating areas
An approximation to the area between a curve and the x-axis can be found by dividing the area into
a series of rectangles that are all the same width. The approximation is found by finding the sum of
all the areas of the rectangles.
For an increasing function, left rectangle approximation actual area right rectangle
approximation.
For a decreasing function, left rectangle approximation actual area right rectangle approximation.
449
The fundamental
theorem of integral
calculus
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus:

b
f ( x ) dx = [ F ( x )]ba = F (b) F (a) where F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), f (x) is derivative of F(x).
a kf ( x ) dx = k a f ( x ) dx
a [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx = a
f ( x ) dx is the definite integral
f ( x ) dx =
a f ( x ) dx + c
f ( x ) dx =
f ( x ) dx
Area =
a g( x ) dx
b f ( x ) dx
The limiting value of a sum:
Signed areas
f ( x ) dx , a < c < b
a f ( x ) dx , if
f ( xi ) xi
x0
f ( x ) dx = lim
i =1
f ( x ) > 0 for x [a, b]

y
0
b
Area = a f ( x ) dx , if f ( x ) < 0, or
y = f(x)
a f ( x ) dx
, for x [a, b]
y = f(x)
a
b
x
Area =
f ( x ) dx
a f ( x ) dx = c
f ( x ) dx +
and f (x) < 0 for x [a, c]
a f ( x ) dx , if
f ( x ) > 0 for x [c, b]
y = f(x)
A1
a
Further areas
450
0 A
2
1. For graphs with two or more intercepts, there is an enclosed region (or regions) between the
graph and the x-axis.
2. The number of regions is one less than the number of intercepts.
3. Where possible, sketch graphs to make it easier to calculate the areas under curves.
4. As areas cannot be negative, take the absolute values of the integrals.
5. When graphs are not easily drawn, areas can be calculated by finding the x-intercepts and
determining whether they are within the bounds of the required area.
areas between two

curves
Area = a [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx , if f ( x ) > g( x ) for x [a, b]

y
f(x)
g(x)
0 a
Area =
a [g( x ) f ( x )] dx + c [ f ( x ) g( x )] dx ,
if g(x) > f (x) for x [a, c] and f (x) > g(x) for x [c, b]
y
g(x)
f(x)
a 0
average value of a
function
1
yav = b a
f ( x ) dx
451
Chapter review
S h orT
anS Wer
1 Find the equation of the curve f (x) if it passes through (1, 3) and f ( x ) =
2 A particular curve has
( )
3x 3 2 x 2
.
x
dy
x
= cos
+ k , where k is a constant, and it has a stationary point (2, 1).
4
dx
Find:
a the value of k
c the value of y when x = 6.
dy
and hence antidifferentiate (x + 1) cos (x2 + 2x).
3 If y = sin (x2 + 2x), find
dx
4 A curve has a gradient function f (x) = 2ex + k. It has a stationary point at (0, 3). Find:
a the value of k
b the equation of the curve f (x).
5 Calculate the exact area between the curve y = ex 4 and the lines y = x, x = 1 and x = 2.
(Hint: y = ex 4 and y = x do not intersect between x = 1 and x = 2.)
6 Evaluate each of the following definite integrals.

a
1 (2 x + 3)4 dx
7 Given that
33 cos(2 x ) dx
0 (4 x 5) dx = 2, find two possible values for k.
1
.
x2
b Find the exact area between the graph of f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = 3 and x = 6.
8 a Sketch the graph of the function f ( x ) =
9 Find the area bound by the x-axis and the curve g(x) = (4 x)(6 + x).
.
2
11 Use the method of left rectangles to approximate the area under the curve y = x2 + 1, from x = 1 to
x = 4, using interval widths of 1 unit.
10 Calculate the area between the curve y = 2 cos (x) and the lines y = x, x = 0 and x =
mUlT ip l e
Ch oiCe
1 The antiderivative of 4 x 3
a x4 loge (1 x) + c
1
is:
1 x
d 16x4 + loge (1 x) + c
B x4 + loge (1 x) + c
e
x4
1
+c
(1 x )2
2 The indefinite integral (5 x 4)4 dx is equal to:

a 25(5x 4)5 + c
B 5(5x 4)5 + c
d 15 (5 x 4)5 + c
e
4
3 An antiderivative of 2(3x + 4)
a
d
2
3
2
9
(3x + 4)
3x
a 2e 3x + c
4)5 + c
2
B 3 (3x + 4) 3 + 5
2
C 9 (3x + 4) 3
B 3e 3x + c
C 18e 3x + c
e 8(3x + 4) 3
(3x + 4)
2e3x +1
1
25 (5 x
+c
is:
( 3)
1
2
3x
+c
x
3 sin(3 x) dx is equal to:
5 The indefinite integral cos
x
a sin
+ cos (3x) + c
3
x
d 3 sin
+ cos (3x) + c
3
()
()
452
C (5x 4)5 + c
is:
4 The antiderivative of 6e
C 16x4 loge (1 x) + c
B
e
(3x ) + 3 cos (3x) + c

x
3 sin ( ) cos (3x) + c
3
1
3
sin
( 3)
x
C 3 sin
+ cos (3x) + c
6 An antiderivative of x3 + sin (4x) + e4x is:

a 4[x4 cos (4x) + e4x]
B 14 x 4 + cos(4 x ) + 14 e 4 x
d 4 [x4 cos (x) + e4x]
1
4
C 4 x4 4 cos (4x) + 4 e4x
[x4 cos (4x) + e4x]
7 If f (x) has a stationary point at (0, 3) and f (x) = ex + k, where k is a constant, then f (x) is:
a ex 2x + 2
d ex + x + 2
B ex + x + 2
e ex + 2x + 1
C ex x + 2
8 If the derivative of (x x2)8 is 8(1 2x)(x x2)7 then an antiderivative of 24(1 2x)(x x2)7 is:
a 2(x x2)8
d
1
3
C 2 (x x2)8
B 3(x x2)8
e 8(x x2)8
(x x2)8
, then the antiderivative of ( x 2 + 1)e x +3 x is:

1
x +3 x + c
a 3e
+c
C e3 x +3 + c
B
2
3( x + 1)
e undefined
d 13 e x + 3 x + c
2x
x
10 If the derivative of loge (5 x2) is
then the antiderivative of
is:
2
5
x2
5 x
B 2 loge (5 x2) + c
a 12 loge (5 x2) + c
y
9 If the derivative of
3
e x +3 x
is
3( x 2
+ 1)e x
+3 x
(3.5, 9)
(3, 6)
(2.5, 4)
(2, 3)
d 2 loge (5 x2) + c
C 2 loge (5 x2) + c
e undefined
11 The approximation for the area under the graph at right from x=2 to x=4,
using the lower rectangles is:

a 22 sq. units
C 11 sq. units
e 20 sq. units
B 14 sq. units
d 10 sq. units
12 The area under the graph at right from x = 5 to x = 1 can be approximated
by the area of the upper rectangles and is equal to:

a 20 sq. units
B 21 sq. units
C 23 sq. units
d 11 12 sq. units
e 10 sq. units
13 The expression
a 2
0 (3
y
(5, 8)
(4, 6)
(3, 5)
(2, 4)
x x ) dx is equal to:
1 0
B 8
1
C 2 2
e 16
d 20
14 The exact value of the definite integral
a 3e4 e 4
C e4 2e 4
e e4 e 4
15 The exact value of

a 3
d 3 3
2 (4e2 x 2e 2 x ) dx is:
B 2e4 e 4
d e4 + e 4
()
2 cos x dx is:
3
B 3
e 3 2
y = (x 2)3
C 3 3
4 x
16 The shaded area on the graph at right is equal to:

a 12 sq. units
C 10 sq. units
e 8 sq. units
B 16 sq. units
d 4 sq. units
17 The shaded area on the graph at right is:

a 20 sq. units
C 16 sq. units
e 18 sq. units
B 20 sq. units
d 16 sq. units
y
0
1
y = 1 3x2
453
18 The area bound by the curve on the graph at right and the x-axis is equal to:
a
5
20 12
sq. units
1
21 12
sq. units
y = x(x + 2)(x 3)
5
d 10 12 sq. units
C 1012 sq. units
e 20 12 sq. units
Questions 19 to 21 apply to the curve with equation f (x) = ex 1.

19 The graph of f (x) is best represented by:
y
B
a
f(x)
f(x)
f(x)
x
1
20 The area bound by the graph of f (x), the x-axis and the line x = 2 is equal to:
a e2 1
B e2 2
C e2 + 1
21 The area bound by the graph of f (x), the y-axis and the line y =
a e2 5
f(x)
1 0
0
1
f(x)
0
B e2 3
e2
C e2 + 2
d e2 + 2
e e2 3
1 is equal to:
d e2 + 1
e 5 e2
Use the graph below to answer questions 22 and 23.

y
y = 2x + 3 0
y = x2
22 The two graphs intersect where x is equal to:

a 1 and 3
d 1 and 2
B 1 and 3
e 1 and 3
C 1 and 2
23 The area bound by the two graphs is equal to:

2
a 10 3 sq. units
1
d 11 3 sq. units
1
C 7 3 sq. units
B 7 3 sq. units
2
e 6 3 sq. units
24 The average value of the function y = cos (2x) over the interval 0, is:
4
1
d
2
a
e x T ended
r e SponS e
454
e 2
dC
= 75t 2 + 50t + 800,
dt
where C is the accumulated cost in dollars and t is the time in years since the car was first used. Find:
a the initial maintenance cost
b C as a function of t
c the total maintenance cost during the first 5 years of use of the car
d the total maintenance cost from 3 to 5 years
e the maintenance cost for the second year.
1 From past records it has been found that the cost rate of maintaining a certain car is
2 Over a 24-hour period on a particular autumn day, starting
at 12 midnight, the rate of change of the temperature for

Melbourne was approximately
dT 5
t
=
cos , where T is the temperature
12
dt
12
in C and t is the number of hours since midnight
when the temperature was 10 C. Find:
a the temperature at any time, t
b whether the temperature reaches 17 C at any time
during the day
c the maximum temperature and the time at which it occurs
d the minimum temperature and the time at which it occurs
e the temperature at
i 2 am
ii 3 pm
f the time when the temperature first reaches 14.33 C.
3 The diagram at right shows part of the curve with equation
x
x
Normal
y = e 2 . Find:
2
y
=
e
B
a the coordinate of point A
b the equation of the normal to the curve at point A
A
C
c the coordinate of point B
d the coordinate of point C
x
0
2
e the area bound by the curve and the lines AB and BC.
4 a Find the derivative of x loge (x).
b Hence, find an antiderivative of loge (x).
y
The cross-section of a platform is shown at right. (All measurements
1
are in metres.)
e2
c Find the height of the platform.
0
e x
1
d Find the cross-sectional area of the platform.
f(x) = logex
e Find the volume of concrete required to build this platform if it is
20 metres long.
5 A thick metal pipe is filled with boiling water and is kept boiling. The temperature,
T C, of the metal in the pipe decreases relative to its distance, x cm, from the centre
of the pipe.
x
dT 20
=
It is known that
and 4 x 8.
dx
x
a Find the rate of change of the temperature in the metal on the outside of the pipe.
b Express T as a function of x.
c Find the temperature of the metal, correct to 2 decimal places:
i when x = 6 cm
ii on the outside of the pipe.
6 a To find
(cos (x) sin (x) cos(x) ) dx use the facts

2
1
2
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
sin (2 x ) = 2sin ( x ) cos ( x )

1
2
sin (2 x ) = sin (x) cos (x)

cos (2 x ) = 2 cos 2 ( x ) 1
cos 2 ( x ) = 12 (cos (2 x ) + 1)

1
b If y = cos 2 ( x ) sin ( x ) cos( x ) , find yAV over the interval , in terms of .
2
8 8
diGiTal doC
doc-9220
Test Yourself
Chapter 9
455
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGiTal doC
integration. (page 403)
9a
antidifferentiation
diGiTal doC
SkillSHEET 9.1 doc-9265: Practise substitution and evaluation.
(page 410)
9C
TUTorial
We13 eles-1187: Watch a worked example on performing
integration by recognition. (page 414)
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 9.1 doc-9218: Determine functions using
antidifferentiation. (page 418)
9d
approximating areas enclosed by functions
inTeraCTiViTY
Approximating areas enclosed by functions int-0254: Consolidate
your understanding of varying approximations to areas enclosed by
TUTorial
We18 eles-1186: Watch a worked example on the approximation
of the area under a curve. (page 418)
9e
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus
TUTorial
We21 eles-1188: Watch a worked example on evaluating definite
integrals. (page 424)
456
diGiTal doCS
Definite integrals doc-9266: Investigate the properties of definite
integrals. (page 423)
SkillSHEET 9.2 doc-9267: Practise subtracting function values.
(page 426)
9F
Signed areas
TUTorial
We28 eles-1189: Watch a worked example on finding the area
bound by an exponential curve above and below the x-axis.
(page 429)
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 9.2 doc-9219: Approximate areas between curves and
calculate areas between curves using integrals. (page 432)
9h
TUTorial
area between two curves using CAS. (page 439)
9J
TUTorial
We 39 eles-1225: Watch a worked example on applications of
integration. (page 445)
Chapter review
diGiTal doC
Answers CHAPTER 9
inTeGraTion
exercise 9a
antidifferentiation
1 a 12 x2 + c
b 15 x5 + c
d 12 x6 + c
2
+c
x3
j 81 x4 + c
g
m
p
5
3 3
x
5
5
h
k
+c
2x 2
+c q
s 16 x + c
c 81 x8 + c
2
+c
3
4 2
x
3
1
9x3
f 5 x5 + c
1 5
i 25
x +c
+c
+c
7
16 4
x
7
+c
3
2 2
x
3
+c
4
7 7
x
4
+c
2
r
+c
x5
+c
x
12
t
+c
x
2 a x2 + 5x + c
b x3 + 2x2 10x + c
c 2x5 + 32 x4 + 2x + c
d
e
f
g
h
i
1
e 30
(6x + 5)5 + c
f 14 (4x 1)3 + c
h
j
l
n
p
1
5
(7
1
33 (8
1
12 (6x
1
15 (3x
2
3 (7
x)5
+c
9x)11
1 a 12 e2x + c
c
f (x) = (1 2x) + 2
f (x) = loge | x + 5 | + 2
f (x) = 4 loge | 7 2x | + 7
k = 8
y = 41
k = 1
2
b g(x) = 4
loge | x |
x
c 3 loge (4)
14 a
g 3 loge |x + 3| + c
f loge |x + 3| + c
h 2 loge |x + 4| + c
i 6 loge |x + 5| + c
j 43 loge |3x + 2| + c
k 8 loge |5x + 6| + c
l 32 loge |2x 5| + c
f (x)
j 4e 2x + c
x
l 0.4e 4 + c
x
m 6e 2 + c
n 9e 3 + c
o ex ex + c
e x + e x
+c
2
3 3 e3x 2 e2x + 3ex x

1
f (x)
(1, 3)
f (x)
+c
1
2
(2x)
+c
g 2 cos (6x) + c
9
b C
b 14 cos (4x) + c
d 16 sin (2x) + c
f 1 sin (3x) + c
3
h 2 sin (4x) + c
i 2 cos (3x) + c
j 2 sin (x) + c
x
k 3 cos + c
l 2 sin x + c
e 12 loge |6 10x| + c
e 12 cos
3 log |6 11x| + c
p 11
e
q 2 loge |4 3x| + c r 4 loge |5 2x| + c
c 3x + 2 loge |x| + x 1 + c
h 2 e3x + c
12
1 6x
e +c
2
x
3e 3 + c
c 17 sin (7x) + c
n 27 loge |6 + 7x| + c
10 a 15 x5 + x2 + loge |x| + c
g 1 e6x + c
4 4 x4 x3 + 2e3x
5 a D
6 a 1 cos (3x) + c
8A
9 2x + 7 loge |x| + c
f 47 e4x + c
e 4 loge |x| + c

d 13 e 3x + c
+c
e e5x + c
d 7 loge |x| + c
b 14 e4x + c
2 x + 2ex + 2 e2x
8) 5 + c
5x) + c
ex
f (x)
c 65 loge |x| + c
d 32 loge |2x + 1| + c
1 2
integration of e x, sin (x)
exercise 9B
h
i
j
12 a
b
13 a
+ 5) 2 + c
b 8 loge |x| + c
(3x +
f (x)
and cos (x)
+c
6C
7 a 3 loge |x| + c
(0, 0)
g f (x) = 14 (x + 4)4 + 1
d 9 (3x 4)6 + c
1)6
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
2 1
f f (x) = 2 x x 2 6
c 15 (2x + 1)5 + c
1
18
f (x)
11 a f (x) = 2x2 + x + 2
b f (x) = 5x x2 5
b 14 (x 5)4 + c
e f (x) = 43 x 3 x3 + 50x
4 E
5
5
2 loge |3 + 2x| + c
log |5 x| + c
e
3B
f (x)
(0, 0)
d f (x) = 12 x2 + 23 x 2 10
3
2 6
1 4
3
2
3 x + 4 x 2x + x + c
1 4
1 3
4 x + 12x 3 x + c
1 3
2
3 x 2x 21x + c
5 3
2
3 x + 5x 5x + c
7 3
1 4
2
4 x 3 x + 2x 28x + c
1 4
3
2
4 x + x 2x + c
1
g 4 (4 x)4 + c
4
i 15 (8 3x)5 + c
1
k 2 (2x + 3) 1 + c
1
m 2 (4x 7) 3 + c
1
o 10
(6 5x) 2 + c
g 83 (4x + 1) 2 + c
h 14 x2 + 4x + 8 loge |x| + c
2
i loge | x | + 2x 1 + 15
2x +
3
j 23 x 2 2 loge |3 x| + c
2
5
k 2 x 2 x2 + 92 x 3 + c
l 12 x2 + 14 x4 + c
1
5
3
m 25 x 2 + 43 x 2 2 x 2 + c
n 5x 2 + x 1 + x2 + c
1
c f (x) = 3x + 2
x
5 a 13 (x + 3)3 + c
f 13 (2x 5)6 + c
x
m 12 cos
+c
4
x
o 16 sin + c
4
2x
q 6 cos
+c
3
5x
s 45 cos
+c
2
5
u
cos ( x) + c
6
x
w
sin + c
n 10 cos x + c

5
x
+c
2
3x
8 sin + c
4
12 sin 7 x + c
7
4
6
x
sin + c
2
4x
cos
+c
4

p 12 sin
r
t
v
x
457
7 a sin (x) cos (x) + c

b 12 cos (2x) sin (x) + c
c 1 sin (4x)
5 a i cos (x 5)
b i 3 cos (3x + 2)
c i 4 sin (4x 7)
cos (2x) + c
x
1 sin (2x) + c
d 2 cos
2 2
e sin (4x) + 16 cos (2x) + c
4
1
2
d i 6 sin (6x 3)
e i 5 cos (2 5x)
f i 4 sin (3 4x)
6 x
x
sin cos + c
2
3
h
i
h 12 e6x + 12 cos (8x) + 7x + c
6 a
8 14 e4x 12 cos (2x) + 14 x4 + c

9 x3 sin (2x) + 2e3x
10 a
b
1 x4 1
4
2
1 x3 + 2
3
1
3
loge |2x + 3| +
x
+c
sin (2x) + e + c
x
cos +
3
x
2e 2
loge |3x 2| +
1 e2x
2
1
4
1
15
(3x
1)5
+c
x
e + 5 sin + c
5
4x
x
x
cos 6 sin + 5e
3
2
+c
c
d
12 a
b
c
13 a
b
c
f (x) = 4 + sin (x)

f (x) = 1 2 cos (2x)
x
f (x) = 3 2 + 12 sin
4
x
x
f (x) = 4 sin + 2 cos 4
4
2
k = 1
6
x
y=
cos x + 7
6
6
y=1+
k = 4
f (x) = 2 sin (2x) 4ex + 3
f = 2.02
6
exercise 9C
b i 10x(x2 + 1)4
ii 12 (3x 2)8 + c
ii 12 (x2 + 1)5 + c
1
ii 2 x 5 + c
2x 5
2
d i
ii 4 x + 3 + c
4x + 3
2
e i 4(2x + 3)(x + 3x 7)3
ii 14 (x2 + 3x 7)4 + c
c i
f i
2x
ii
1)2
(x
2 a A
3 E
4 a i 4e4x 5
b i
458
+c
ii 2 e4x 5 + c
ii 2e6 5x + c
ii 12 e x + c
d i (1 2 x )e
x2
bB
5e6 5x
c i 2 xe x
8
9
10
11
12
13
15
1 a i 24(3x 2)7
x x2
5
ii 4 loge (5x + 2) + c
5x + 2
2x
i 2
ii 6 loge (x2 + 3) + c
x +3
2x 4
i 2
ii 12 loge (x2 4x) + c
x 4x
i 3 cos (x) x sin (x)
ii sin (x) x cos (x)
2sin( x )
x cos( x ) sin( x )
i
ii
x
x2
2
ii e x x + c
[ex (sin (x) + cos (x)]

3ex sin (x)
sin (x) + x cos (x)
x sin (x) + cos (x)
ex + xex
ii xex ex
12x5(1 3x)(2 3x)5
x6
ii
(2 3x)6 + c
2
3x 2 + 2
b i
ii 2 x 3 + 2 x + c
2 x3 + 2x
1
a 3+
b 3x + loge |x 1| + c
x 1
2
a 5
b 5x 2 loge |x + 2| + c
x2
5
a 4+
b 4x + 52 loge |2x 3| + c
2x 3
4
a 3+
b 3x 2 loge |3 2x| + c
3 2x
dy sin ( x )
a
=
= tan ( x )
dx
cos ( x )
b loge |cos (x)| + c
cos( x )
14 16 loge |3x2 4|
sin( x )
1
1
sin (ax + b)
16
cos (ax + b)
a
a
1 ax + b
e
a
1
a
cos (3 x + 1) + c
3
1
1 x + 3
b
sin (1 4 x) + c c
e
+c
4
c i
ii
d i
ii
e i
7 a i
x
6
f 23 x 2 + x2 +
cos + 5x + c

11 a
b
ii 4 cos (4x 7) + c
ii 12 cos (6x 3) + c
ii 2 sin (2 5x) + c
ii 12 cos (3 4x) + c
g i
f 52 x2 2 cos (x) + c
g
ii sin (x 5) + c
ii 2 sin (3x + 2) + c
17
18
x
d
cos 2 +
+c
3
6
x
e
sin
+5 +c
2
sin (x)
f e
+c
3
exercise 9d approximating areas

All answers for areas in questions 1 to 15 are
in square units.
1 10
2 a 8
b 42
3 a A
b A
c B
4 a 30
5 a 32
d 16
g 26
6 a 26
7 a 28
c loge (24)
e 23 13
g 100
8 a 10
9 a 6.875
10 10.5
b 22
b 32
e 29
b 41
b e
d 6
c 39
f 12
c 33 12
+1+e
f 7.25
b 7
b 5.375
c 8.5
c 6.125
exercise 9e The fundamental theorem of

integral calculus
1 a 13
d 13
b 20 14
e 8
g 12 23
j 1
m 85
h
k
n
c 5 13
f 56
74
6313.2
i 38
l 5949
60
49
o 24.8 3 loge (4) or 20.64

p
r
2 a
37 13
q 35 loge (5) or 0.966
2
s 3.65
1 (e8 1)
4
2
b 3(1 e 3 )
c 2(e 2 e2)
d 12 (e12 + 15 e6)
1
e 5 loge (4) + 2e2 2e 2
f 12 (e 2 + e2 e 6 e6)
g 1
i 20 10 2
k 0
m9 3 9
h
j
l
n
0
6
0
0
o 43
p (2 2 2 + 4) 23.4
q 14 23 + 2 cos (9c) 2 cos (3c)
r 6 + loge () 6 sin (0.5c)
3 18
4 a B
5 a 9
d 10
g 3
6 k = 1 or 4
8 k=3
6
11 a 16
c
12
12 D
b 23
e 4e 4
b A
c 3
h 13 (e 3 e3)
f 2 loge (5)
7 k=2
9 a = 2 loge (3)
10 k =
b
d
13
40
A
exercise 9F Signed areas

The answers to all area questions are in
square units.
1 a 8
b 8
2 a 4.5
b 4.5
3 a
c
1 2 x dx
2
1 x 2 dx
0 (4 x ) dx
1
2
d 3 x dx
3
b
7 a E
1 ( x 3 9 x 2 + 20 x ) dx
0
f ( x 3 4 x 2 4 x ) dx
2
4
1
2x
dx
g e x dx
h e
1
1
e
02 2 sin (2 x ) dx
3
2
0
8 a
x
cos dx
3
b8
d 26
g ee 1
j 3
y
5 a
e 22
h 12 (e 8 e 2)
1 g( x ) dx 3 g( x ) dx
1 h( x ) dx 3 h( x ) dx
b D
c E
3
3
1
= x 2 x 3
3 0
2
27
= 9 0
2
= 4.5 square units

b g(x) = (2 x)(4 + x)
x = 0 g(x) = 2 4 = 8
g(x) = 0 0 = (2 x)(4 + x)
2 x = 0 or 4 + x = 0
x = 2 or x = 4
The turning point is at (1, 9).
11
12
c 16
4 3 2 1 0
ii A =
5
12
1
c 312
01
y= x
+
4
0
1
y = 2ex
1
2
= 9 26
3
3
1
2
= 9 + 26
3
3
= 36 square units
3
2
4 2
Exact area is 2 3 1
or
3
approx. 0.578.
14 2 loge (2)
15 8 + e3 e 1
2
3
+
4
y= x1
8
1
= 16 4 32 16 + 21
3
3
b
13
0 1
3
2
exercise 9G
Further areas
All answers for areas are exact and in square
units unless stated otherwise.
1 a f(x) = x2 3x
x = 0 f(x) = 0
f(x) = 0 0 = x2 3x
0 = x(x 3)
x = 0 or x = 3
y = loge ( )
0
y = 3 sin (2x)
3
0
6 a 2
b1
1
g ee
j 4
e 4
h 12 (e
c 5 13
f 2 23
e ) i 1
2 a 85 13
b 57 16
d 21 13
1
e 312
g 8
h 40 12
4 D
3 A
y
x
2
2x 2 x3
8x

=
2
3 4
y = 4 x2
y
4 g( x ) d x
4
y = 1 + 3 cos (2x)
1
0
1 2
= (8 2 x x 2 ) d x
g(x)
(1, 9)
8
6
4
2
a 2 23
y
10 23
y = x3 + x2 2x
2 0
5 13
y
y = x2
y = x2 4
x
0 1 2
y=6x
2 g( x ) dx 2 g( x ) dx + 3 g( x ) dx
10
d 43
0 f (x) d x
3
= ( x 2 3x ) d x
0
3
= (3 x x 2 ) d x
0
ii Area =
f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx
9a B
y = 4x
b A
5
d f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx
4
5
f 1 13
i 2
12
c 73
4 a 8
6 a i
0
1 2 3
1
2
3 (1.5, 2.25)
4
ii 6
1
y = 3 3x2
b i
y
2
c i
ii 2 loge (3)
y = 2x
0 1
5 C
y
3
1 0
y
4
3
2
1
64 2
3
f 49 13
ii 12
12
x
0
1
y =
x2
459
d i
y = x3 4x ii
12 a x = 2 and y = 0
5 43
d i x = 2 and 2
y
ii
b 49
13 x-intercept is 12 loge (3) (or 0.55),
e i
ii
(1 e )
ii 1 e
y = ex
1
0
3 1
ii
2
1
x
0
y = 2 sin (x)
ii 4
y
y = cos ( x)
2
2
1
0
i i

ii
( )
ii 2 2
4
x=1
e3 + 1 3e (or approx. 12.93)
x=1
ii 1 85
No x-intercepts
2e 2e 1 (or approx. 4.7)

x = 2 and 2
ii 139.2
x=2
ii 2
5
g i
8
1
3
(e6
1
4
10
11 a
y=
1 0 1
1 ( x
h (1
1
21 13
2 14
17 13
y = 3x2
2 16
0
e + e (approx. 14.98)
8 a 23
1
d 2312
3 C
4 D
6 a i x = 0 and 4
y
ii
y = 4x
iii 10 23
b i x = 3 and 1
y
ii
0 1
(x 3)2
e
1
c 4
1 81
2 (or approx. 1.09)

2
(or approx. 3.23)
g 2+
8
h 2e 2e 2 (or approx. 5.17)
9 e3 e 4 (or approx. 13.37)
11 12
3
(or approx. 0.45)
12
13 3 loge (2) 2
14 a x = 4 and 4
b x = 3 and 3
c 9 13
12
iii
10 23
x
y = 3 x2
y = x2 1
15 2 16 m2
16 a x = 20 and 20
iii 2 23
93 13
m2
0 1
y = 1 x2
b 40 m
d 840 m3
300
) m2
60 000
b (30 000
) m3
17 a (150
b2 2
10 3 12
y = 2x
3
f e+e
5 E
y = x2
iii 12
y = x3 + 2x
x 2 ) dx
h 43
b i x = 0, 1 and 2
y
ii
2
x
f (9 x e ) dx
1
+ e x ) dx
1
6
b 14
460
(3 x x 3 ) dx
c i x = 1 and 1
y
ii
x=3
iii 12
3 3
9
2
e3)
g 1 12 + e2 e (or approx. 6.17)
b i x=
d i
e i
ii
f i
y = x3
y=x
2
0 (4 x 2 3x ) dx d 2 (8 2 x ) dx
1
2
2 a
12 45
7 a i x=
and 2
ii 1 4 loge 43 (or approx. 2.15)
c i
ii
iii 13
y = x2
y= x
7 a i x = 1, 0 and 1
y
ii
1 ( x 1) dx
i x = 0 and 1
y
ii

All answers are in square units unless stated
otherwise.
y
y=x x
8
6
4
2
1
x
0 1234
j i
ii 23
y = sin (3x)
(3e 4 + 1)
(or approx. 82.40)
18
2
19 2 4 (or approx. 2.28)
20 a loge (4)
b
2
y = 1 x2
b 5 13
iii 13
1
1
0 ( x x 2 ) dx
e i x = 0 and 1
ii
y y = (x + 1)2
c loge (1.5) (or approx. 0.41)
1 a
y = 4 x2
exercise 9h
632
h i
b 12 loge (x2 + 2)
17 a 2 23
g i
1
2
11 + e 4
.
2
14 No x-intercepts, area is 6 + 1.
15 a 1 + loge (x)
b x loge (x) x
c 4 loge (4) 3 (or approx. 2.55)
2x
16 a 2
x +2
area is
y = e2x
f i
2 0 1 2
iii 21 13
y = x2 4
exercise 9i
1 a 8
c 14
9
3(2 3)
e6 1
d
6
b
1
2 a 12
[50 loge (5) 8 loge (2) 21]
3loge (2)
302 2
d
45
b
c 14 (3e4 + 1)
6 a 1 49
3
2
7 k = 12 or 2
b
8 a
dx
dt (m/s)
e2 1
b 2 loge
4C
5 E
6 a 20 million.
b 4 million.
c Decrease is 80% d 9.95 million
7 a 60 C
b 90 C
c 83 C
8 c = 2
9 a Maximum hours of daylight is
f (1) = 10(1) + 12 = 22 hours.

Minimum hours of daylight is
f (1) = 10(1) + 12 = 2 hours.
The longest hours of daylight occurs
when t = 3, i.e. June 21/22 or the
summer equinox.
The shortest hours of daylight occurs
when t = 9, i.e. December 21/22 or the
winter equinox.
b The average number of hours of sunlight
on [4,7] is 14 hours to the nearest hour.
10 a The minimum number of daylight hours
is f (1) = 2.5(1) + 12 = 9.5 hours.
The maximum number of daylight hours
is f (1) = 2.5(1) + 12 = 14.5 hours.
b The average number of daylight hours
for the interval [0, 2] is 10.8 hours.
The average number of daylight hours
for the interval [3, 5] is 9.9 hours.
11 k = 2
dy
12 a
= 3e3xcos (3x) 3e3xsin (3x)
dx
(e3 x cos(3x ) e3 x sin(3x )) dx
1
= e3 x cos(3 x )
3
c 177.82
exercise 9J Further applications of

integration
(2 x )3
+4
1 f (x) =
3
2 1+
12
c
4 a
b
c
d
5 a
b
y = 0.01x3 0.03x2
54 cm
$34.56
C = 40n 200e0.01n + 200
$3656.34
i $36.56
ii $30.66
i 0 m/s
ii 48 m/s
i t=8
ii 64 m/s
5 (5.5 e2 + e) sq. units
1
y =
x2
64
3 a 12 (e2 1)
3 a 0m
b y = 0.01(x + 1)3 + 0.03x + 0.01 or
8 16
Seconds
d 466 23 m
e The total distance travelled in 10 seconds.
6 a 4L
b V = 5t +
40
t
sin
40
c 200 L
d 4.79 L/min
e 5 h 20 min
7 a
dv
dt
Hours
12
b 4h
c i 60 L
ii 50.6 L
8 a 56 250 m3
b 5
9 1.26 m
11 a y = 83 x2 + 6
b 38 m2
c 380 m3
12 a, c Check with your teacher.
b 3l oge (2) 2
ChapTer reVieW
ShorT anSWer
1 f (x) = x3 x2 3
2 a k=0
4
4
x
sin + 1
4
8
c 1
dy
3
= 2(x + 1) cos (x2 + 2x) and
dx
antiderivative is 12 sin (x2 + 2x) + c
4 a 2
b 2ex 2x + 1
b
9 166 23 sq. units
+ 2 sq. units (or approx. 3.23)
8
11 17 sq. units
10
mUlTiple ChoiCe
1
5
9
13
17
21
11
10
9
b loge (4)
B
D
D
B
A
D
2
6
10
14
18
22
E
E
A
E
B
B
3
7
11
15
19
23
C
C
C
C
C
A
4
8
12
16
20
24
A
B
C
D
E
B
exTended reSponSe
1 a
b
c
d
e
2 a
b
c
d
e
f
3 a
b
c
e
4 a
b
c
d
e
5 a
b
c
6 a
b
$0
C = 25t3 + 25t2 + 800t
$7750
$4450
$1050
t
T = 10 5 sin
12
No
15 C at 6 pm
5 C at 6 am
i 7.5 C
ii Approx. 13.5 C
4 pm
(2, e)
y = (2e 1)x + e + 4e 1
1
d (0, 1)
(0, e + 4e )
(2 + 4e 1) sq. units
1 + loge (x)
x loge (x) x
3m
(e e 2) m2 (or approx. 2.58 m2)
20(e e 2) m3 (or approx. 51.66 m3)
C/cm
5 2
T = 180 40 x
i 82.02 C
ii 66.86 C
2
4
2 2
yav =
461

1 The graph of f (x): R R, where f (x) = 10xex is graphed at right.
a By selecting approximate values from the graph, determine a left-
y
4
rectangle approximation to the area bounded by the graph, the x-axis

and the lines x = 1 and x = 5 by dividing the area into four strips of
equal width.
dy
b If y = (x + 1)ex, find
.
dx
c Hence determine an exact value for the shaded area.
S ho rT
a n S W er
40 minutes
2
0
8x
3 marks
2 Write down an antiderivative of:

a y = 4x3 2 cos (x) + e x
3
.
2 marks
x
3 A is (0, 2), a point on the y-axis. P is a point on the parabola y = x2 such that the length of AP, the line
segment from the A to P is a minimum.
a Find the coordinates of P.
b Find the minimum length of AP.
2 marks
x
4 The area of the region bound by the curve with equation y = a cos
, the x-axis and the line
3
2 marks
with equation x = is 3. Find a.
b y=
x+
5 A spa is being filled with water at the rate of 30 litres per minute. The volume (V litres) of water in the
spa is related to its depth (x cm) by V = 250 loge (x). At what rate (cm per min) is the depth of the spa
2 marks
increasing?
6 The graph of f : R R, f (x) = (x 1)(5 x) is shown. The tangent to the
graph of f where it crosses the x-axis is also shown.

a Find the equation of the tangent to the graph of f where
it crosses the x-axis.
b Find the exact area of the shaded region.
y
4
3
2
4 marks
1
1
1 Which integral could be evaluated in order to calculate the area enclosed
between the graphs of y = f (x) and y = g(x) and the vertical lines x = a and x = b?
b
( f ( x ) g( x )) dx
( f ( x ) g( x )) dx
m U lTip l e
C ho iC e
x=a
8 minutes

one mark.
x=b
( f ( x ) + g( x )) dx
a
g
x
( f ( x ) + g( x )) dx
b
a
a
(g( x ) f ( x )) dx
b
2 The average value of the function y = 3sin(2 x +
3 3
4
27
e
4
a 0
d
3 3
2
3 Using the fact that

a 16
d 14
) over the interval [0, ] is:

3
3
1
C 2
4
f ( x ) dx = 5, what is the value of (3 f ( x ) 1) dx?

B 14
e 16
C 12
Exam practice 3
463
4 A function with the rule y = f (x) is shown in the sketch below left.
y
Which of these rules could correspond to the sketch above right?

a y = f (x)
B y = f 1(x)
1
d y = f (x)
e y=
f (x)
C y = f (x)
5 If f (x) = (2x + 1)2 and f (0) = 1 then the antiderivative of f (x) will be equal to:
(2 x + 1)3 2
+
3
3
d 2(2x + 1) + 1
a
e xT ended
r e S p onS e
30 minutes
B 4x + 1
1
((2 x
6
+ 1)3 + 5)
e 4x3 + 4x2 + x + 1
The volume of a cylindrical soft drink can is 250 mL. The volume of a cylinder
can be calculated using V = r2h, the area of a circle is given by A = r2 and its
perimeter is given by P = 2 r. Also 1 mL = 1 cm3.
a Create an expression for the total surface area of the can, S, in terms of r and h.
1 mark
b Use the fact that the volume is 250 mL to show that S can be expressed in terms
500
.
r
500
for 0 r 10. Use these graphs
c The graphs below are of y = 2 r2 and y =
r
500
2
to create a sketch of S = 2 r +
on the same axes.
r
y
of r only as S = 2 r 2 +
1 mark
1 mark
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
8 10 x
d Hence obtain an estimate, to 1 decimal place, of the radius corresponding to the minimum total
surface area.
1 mark
e Using calculus determine an exact value for the radius corresponding to the minimum surface area.
f i Write down a decimal approximation to 2 decimal places for the radius corresponding to the
minimum total surface area.

ii Confirm using the sign of gradient test that the stationary point located is in fact a minimum.
iii Write down the value of the minimum surface area to the nearest cm2.
1 + 1 = 2 marks
g If the cost of the material for the bottom and top of the can is twice the cost for the sides determine the
radius of the can for minimum total cost.
2 marks
h The actual radius for a can of soft drink is 3.0 cm. Determine to 2 decimal places the ratio
diGiTal doC
doc-1610
Solutions
exam practice 3
464
cost of material for top and bottom

which would be consistent with this can having the minimum
cost of material for the sides
2 marks
cost of materials.
ChaPTer 10

diGiTal doC
doc-9221
10 Quick Questions
ChaPTer ConTenTS
10a
10B
10C
10d
Probability revision
Measures of centre of discrete random distributions
Measures of variability of discrete random distributions
10a
To introduce this chapter we shall revise important concepts and skills that were covered in
Mathematical Methods (CAS) Units 1 and 2.
Units: 3 & 4
Terminology
The circular spinner at right is divided into 8 equal sectors. When the spinner is
2
1
spun, the possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. These outcomes may be
3
8
listed as the elements of a set. The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment
is called the sample space (or the universal set) and is denoted by , and each
possible outcome is called a sample point. Therefore, spinning the spinner gives
7
4
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
5
6
A subset of the sample space is known as an event. For the example above, if event
A is defined as an odd number when the spinner is spun, then A = {1, 3, 5, 7}. If
event B is defined as a number less than 5 when the spinner is spun, then B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
The union (symbol ) of the two events A and B above implies a combined event, that
is, either event A or event B or both occurring. Therefore the set A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}.
Note: Common elements are written only once.
The intersection (symbol ) of the two events A and B above is represented by the common sample
points of the two events. Therefore the set A B = {1, 3}.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Venn diagrams
Venn diagrams involve drawing a rectangle that represents the sample space and a series of circles that
represent subsets of the sample space. They provide a visual representation of the information at hand
and clearly display the relationships between sets.
The Venn diagrams below illustrate an alternative way of presenting information regarding the circular
spinner shown on the previous page.
B
5
7
1
3
2
4
AB
B
5
6
8
1
3
2
4
AB
B
5
6
8
1
3
2
4
6
8
ChaPTer 10 Discrete random variables
465
Note: Sample points not belonging to either set are placed outside the circles but remain inside the
rectangle.
Venn diagrams can also assist in determining whether or not two sets are equal, that is, whether they
contain the same elements. As the examples below show, the equality of two sets may not be obvious
from the set notation but is often easier to see in a diagram.
A
A B = (A B)
A B = (A B)
Probability
Probability deals with the likelihood or chance of some event occurring. The probability of a specific
event, say A, occurring is defined by the rule:
Pr(A) =
number of favourable outcomes

.
total number of possible outcomes
Its probability lies within the restricted interval 0 Pr(A) 1. A probability of zero implies that the
event cannot occur, while a probability of 1 implies that the event will most certainly occur.
The individual probabilities of a particular experiment will sum to a value of 1 and can be denoted as
follows.
p( x ) = 1
If Pr(A) is defined as the probability of an event occurring, then its complement, Pr(A), is defined as
the probability of an event not occurring.
Therefore, it can be stated that Pr(A) + Pr(A) = 1
which can be transposed to
Pr(A) = 1 Pr(A).
Worked examPle 1
Two fair dice are rolled simultaneously and the sum of the two numbers appearing uppermost is
recorded as shown below.
(1, 1)
(2, 1)
(3, 1)
(4, 1)
(5, 1)
(6, 1)
(1, 2)
(2, 2)
(3, 2)
(4, 2)
(5, 2)
(6, 2)
(1, 3)
(2, 3)
(3, 3)
(4, 3)
(5, 3)
(6, 3)
Find the probability that the sum will be:

a 6
b 10
c a number less than 5
Think
a 1 Define the event.

2
List all the possible favourable outcomes.
Substitute the values into the probability rule.
b 1 Define the event.

466
(1, 4)
(2, 4)
(3, 4)
(4, 4)
(5, 4)
(6, 4)
(1, 5)
(2, 5)
(3, 5)
(4, 5)
(5, 5)
(6, 5)
d at least 9
(1, 6)
(2, 6)
(3, 6)
(4, 6)
(5, 6)
(6, 6)
e an odd number.
WriTe
a (5, 1)
(4, 2)
(3, 3)
(2, 4)
(1, 5)
Let A = the sum of 6.

Pr(A) =
5
=
36
b (6, 4)
(5, 5)
(4, 6)
Simplify.
c 1 Define the event.

2
Simplify.
d 1 Define the event.
Let A = the sum of 10.

Pr(A) =
3
=
36
1
=
12
c (1, 1) (2, 1) (3, 1) (1, 2) (2, 2) (1, 3)
Let A = a number less than 5.
Pr(A) =
6
=
36
1
=
6
d (6, 3)
(6, 5)
2
Simplify.
e 1 Define the event.
Simplify.
(6, 4)
(4, 6)
(4, 5)
(5, 6)
(5, 5)
(6, 6)
Let A = at least 9.
Pr(A) =
10
=
36
5
=
18
e (2, 1)
(2, 3)
(2, 5)
2
(5, 4)
(3, 6)
(4, 1)
(4, 3)
(4, 5)
(6, 1)
(6, 3)
(6, 5)
(1, 2)
(1, 4)
(1, 6)
(3, 2)
(3, 4)
(3, 6)
(5, 2)
(5, 4)
(5, 6)
Let A = an odd number.

Pr(A) =
18
=
36
1
=
2
Worked examPle 2
A bag contains 15 marbles comprising 5 black, 3 red, 4 blue, 2 white and 1 green. One marble is
drawn randomly from the bag.
a Determine the probability of each of the coloured marbles being drawn:
i black
ii red
iii blue
iv white
v green.
b Show that the probabilities sum to 1.
c What is the probability that the marble drawn is:
i not blac
k?
ii either black or white?
iii neither blue nor green?
Think
a i
WriTe
Define the event.
Substitute the values into the probability

rule.
i Let B = a black marble.
Pr(B) =
=

5
15
467
ii
iii
Simplify.
Define the event.

rule.
Simplify.
Define the event.

rule.
ii Let R = a red marble.
Pr(R) =
Define the event.

rule.
3
15
1
5
iii Let Bl = a blue marble.
Pr(Bl) =
Define the event.

rule.
Pr(W) =
4
15

2
15
v Let G = a green marble.
Pr(G) =
=
b Add each of the probabilities.

iv Let W = a white marble.
=
v

=
iv
1
3

1
15
1
3
b Sum of probabilities = +
1
5
=1
c i
ii
iii
i Pr(B) = 1 Pr(B)
Write the appropriate rule:

Pr(A) = 1 Pr(A).
Substitute the known values into the rule.
=13
Evaluate.
=3
Add each of the probabilities together.
= 3 + 15
Evaluate.
= 15
= 1
Evaluate.
= 1 15
ii Pr(B W) = Pr(B) + Pr(W)

1
iii Pr(Bl G) = 1 [Pr(Bl) + Pr(G)]
10
468
Simplify.
4
15
5
= 15
4
=3
+ 15
+ 15 + 15 + 15
The addition rule of probability

The addition rule of probability states that Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A B).
Worked examPle 3
a If Pr(A) = 0.4, Pr(B) = 0.7 and Pr(A B) = 0.2, find Pr(A B).
b If Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.8 and Pr(A B) = 0.9, find Pr(A B).
Think
WriTe
a Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A B)
a 1 Write the addition rule.

2
= 0.4 + 0.7 0.2
Evaluate.
= 1.1 0.2
= 0.9
b Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A B)
b 1 Write the addition rule.

2
Transpose the equation to make Pr(A B) the

subject.
Evaluate.
0.9 = 0.6 + 0.8 Pr(A B)

0.9 = 1.4 Pr(A B)
Pr(A B) = 1.4 0.9
= 0.5
Venn diagrams may also be used to display the probabilities rather than just the outcomes, as shown in
the diagram below.
Pr
Pr (AB) (AB) Pr (AB)
Pr (AB)
Note: Pr(A B) is represented by the shaded section.

The probabilities given and calculated in Worked example 3(a) and 3(b) can be displayed as follows.
B
0.2
0.2
B
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.1
Worked example 3(a)
Worked example 3(b)
mutually exclusive events

If two or more events cannot occur simultaneously, they are said to be mutually exclusive or disjoint; that
is, they have nothing in common. In set notation this may be expressed as Pr(A B) = { } or Pr(A B) = 0.
Therefore, for mutually exclusive events the addition rule becomes:
Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B).
independent events
Two events A and B are independent if one event does not influence the other event from occurring. The
mathematical definition of independence is given by:
Pr(A B) = Pr(A) Pr(B).
469
Worked examPle 4
Two fair dice are rolled with S representing the event of obtaining a number less than 4 on the
first die and T the event of obtaining a number greater than 4 on the second die. Find:
a Pr(S)
b Pr(T)
c if events S and T are mutually exclusive
d if events S and T are independent.
Think
a 1 Refer to the dice results recorded in the
WriTe
question in Worked example 1.

2
Define the event.
Let S = obtaining a number less than 4 on the

first die.
Determine the probability.
Pr(S) = 36
Simplify.
18
1
=2
b Let T = obtaining a number greater than 4 on
the first die.

2
Simplify.
c Answer the question with reasoning.
Pr(T) =
=
12
36
1
3
c Events S and T are not mutually exclusive
since they have common points; that is,

(1,5) (1, 6) (2, 5) (2, 6) (3, 5) (3, 6).
d 1 Answer the question using the dice results in
d From the dice results recorded in the question
Worked example 1.
in Worked example 1,
6
Pr(S T) = 36
1
=6
2
Using the rule Pr(S T) = Pr(S) Pr(T)

1
1
=2 3
Check with answer obtained using the rule.
=6
Since both methods give the same answer,
S and T are independent events.
Worked examPle 5
Two fair dice are rolled with U representing the event of obtaining a 5 on the first die and V the
event of the sum of numbers on the two dice exceeding 10. Find:
a Pr(U)
b Pr(V)
c if events U and V are independent.
Think
a 1 Refer to the dice results recorded in the
WriTe
question in Worked example 1.

2
Define the event.
Let U = obtaining a 5 on the first die.
Pr(U) = 36
Simplify.
=6
b Let V = the sum of the numbers on the
two dice exceeds 10.

470
Simplify.
Pr(V) = 36
1
= 12
c From the dice results, Pr(U V) =
c 1 Answer the question using the dice results.

2
1
36
Using rule Pr(U V) = Pr(U) Pr(V)
Check with answer obtained using the rule.
= 6 12
1
= 72
Since the two methods do not give the same
answer, U and V are not independent events.
karnaugh maps and probability tables

Karnaugh maps and probability tables summarise all combinations of two events (for example A and B)
and their complements (for example A and B ).
B
AB
A B
A B
A B
Pr(A B)
Pr(A B)
Pr(A)
Pr(A B)
Pr(B)
Pr(A B)
Pr(A)
1
Karnaugh map
Pr(B)
Probability table
Worked examPle 6
For the probability table shown at right,

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
event A is not more than 17 years of age
B
B
and event B is has a learner permit.
a Complete the probability table at right.
Row 1
A
0.12
b What do the following probabilities
Row 2
0.5
A
represent?
Row 3
0.63
1
i Pr(AB) ii Pr(AB)
c What is the probability that:
i a person over the age of 17 does not have a learner permit?
ii a person has a learner permit and is older than 17?
iii a person over the age of 17 has a learner permit or a person at or under the age of 17 does not
have a learner permit?
Think
a 1 Calculate the values of the cells in
row 1, column 3 and row 3, column 1.

2
WriTe
a Pr(A) = 1 Pr(A)
= 1 0.5
= 0.5
Enter the values into the appropriate

cells.
Column 1
B
Row 1
Row 2
Row 3
Calculate the value of the cell in

row 1, column 2.
Pr(B) = 1 Pr(B)
= 1 0.63
= 0.37
Column 2
B
0.12
0.5
0.5
A
0.37
Column 3
0.63
Pr(A B) = Pr(A) Pr(A B)

= 0.5 0.12
= 0.38
471
Enter the value into the appropriate

cell.
Column 1
B
Row 1
Row 2
Calculate the value of the cell in

row 2, column 1.

cell.

cell.
this example.
ii Explain what Pr(AB) represents in
this example.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
i State the appropriate probability from
the table.
ii State the appropriate probability from
the table.
iii State the appropriate probabilities
from the table and evaluate.
Column 2
Column 3
B
0.38
0.12
0.25
0.37
0.5
0.5
0.63
Column 2
Column 3
0.12
0.25
B
0.38
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.37
0.63
Column 1
B
A
A
Row 3
i Explain what Pr(A B) represents in
0.63
0.5
0.5
Pr(AB) = Pr(B) Pr(AB)

= 0.63 0.38
= 0.25
Row 1
Row 2
0.37
Column 1
B
Row 3
Calculate the value of the cell in row 2,
column 2.
0.12
Pr(AB) = Pr(B) Pr(AB)

= 0.37 0.12
= 0.25
Row 1
Row 2
Column 3
B
0.38
Row 3
5
Column 2
i Pr(AB) represents the probability of a person at
or under the age of 17 having a learner permit. In

this case the probability of the given event occurring
is 0.12.
ii Pr(AB) represents the probability of a person
over the age of 17 not having a learner permit. In

this case the probability of the given event occurring
is 0.25.
i Pr(AB) = 0.25
ii Pr(AB) = 0.25
iii Pr(AB) + Pr(AB) = 0.25 + 0.38
= 0.63
Conditional probability
Conditional probability deals with an event which has previously occurred and has an effect on an event
we are interested in. Due to the initial condition (or restriction) imposed, the number of possible events
Pr( A B)
, where Pr(B) 0, and
is reduced. Conditional probability is defined by the rule Pr( A | B) =
Pr(B)
can be transposed to Pr(A B) = Pr(A | B) Pr(B). The latter is called the multiplication rule. Pr(A | B) is
read as the probability of A given B.
472
Worked examPle 7
If Pr(A) = 51 , Pr(B) = 110 and Pr(A B) = 210 , find:

a Pr(A B)
b Pr(A | B)
c Pr(B | A)
d if events A and B are mutually exclusive
e if events A and B are independent.
Think
a 1 Write the addition rule.
TUTorial
eles-1226
Worked example 7
WriTe
a Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A B)
1
= 15 + 101 20
Evaluate.
5
= 20
Simplify.
b 1 Write the appropriate rule.
= 14
Pr( A B)
b Pr(A | B) =
Pr( B)
1
20
1
10
Evaluate.
1
1
= 20 10
Simplify.
c 1 Write the appropriate rule.
1
20
10
20
10
1
=2
c Pr(B | A) =
Pr( B A)
Pr( A)
1
20
1
5
Evaluate.
1
20
15
1
20
5
20
1
4
Simplify.
d State the answer, showing reasoning.
5
1
d Events A and B are not mutually exclusive
since they have common events, that is,

1
Pr(A B) = 20
.
e Compare the given value with the answer
obtained using the rule.
e Pr(A B) =
1
.
20
Using rule Pr(A B) = Pr(A) Pr(B)

= 15 101
=
1
50
Since the two methods do not give the same

answer, A and B are not independent events.
From Worked example 7(b) and 7(c) it can be seen that Pr(A | B) Pr(B | A).
Tree diagrams
Tree diagrams are a useful tool in solving probability tasks as they display each of the possible outcomes
along with their respective probabilities.
473
Worked examPle 8
Nadia knows that if her car starts, she has an 80%

chance of getting to work on time. However, if her
car doesnt start, her chance of arriving on time is
50%. If Nadias car starts only 70% of the time,
what is the probability that:
a her car starts and she gets to work on time?
b she arrives at work late?
c she arrives at work on time?
d her car starts, given that she arrives at work on
time?
Think
a 1 Define the events.
Assign probabilities to each event.
WriTe/draW
a Let C = car starts
Let C = car doesnt start

Let O = Nadia arrives at work on time
Let L = Nadia arrives at work late
70
Pr(C ) = 100
= 107
Pr(C') = 103
80
If car starts, Pr(O) = 100

4
=5
1
If car starts, Pr(L) = 5

50
If car doesnt start, Pr(O) = 100

1
=2
1
If car doesnt start, Pr(L) = 2

3
Draw a tree diagram with each branch

assigned the appropriate probability.
4
5
7
10
3
10
1
5
O
L
O
1
2
C
L
1
2
Calculate the required probability.
Pr(CO) = 10 5
= 28
50
Simplify.
= 14
25
b Calculate the required probability.
b Pr(L) = Pr(CL) + Pr(CL)

7
= 10 5 + 10 2
= 50 + 20
14
15
= 100 + 100
29
= 100
474
c Calculate the required probability.
c Pr(O) = Pr(CO) + Pr(CO)

7
28
= 10 5 + 10 2
= 50 + 20
56
15
= 100 + 100
71
= 100
d 1 Write the appropriate rule.
Note: Given implies conditional probability.
Pr(CO)
Pr(O)
d Pr(C | O) =
14
25
71
100
Evaluate and simplify.
14
25
100
14
25
56
71
71
100
71
Worked examPle 9
A fair coin is tossed three times. Find the probability of obtaining two heads given the first toss
resulted in a tail.
Think
1
Draw a tree diagram and list all of the

possible outcomes.
WriTe/draW
H
H
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT

2
Calculate the probability of each event.
Pr(2H | tail first toss) =
Pr(2H tail first toss)

Pr(tail first toss)
1
Pr(2H tail first toss) = 8

Pr(tail first toss) = 84
=1
Evaluate.
Pr(2H | tail first toss) =
1
8
1
2
1
=82
=81
2
=8
6
Simplify.
=4
475
Combinations
In mathematics, a combination deals with the number of ways items may be selected from a set of
elements where the order is not important. For example, in how many ways can 3 numbers be selected
from the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, taking into account that order is not important?
The following selections can be made:
1, 2, 3 1, 2, 4 2, 3, 4 3, 4, 1
Hence 4 selections could be made.
If order was important, there would be a greater number of possibilities since each of the above
selections could be arranged in 6 ways. For example, the selection (1, 2, 3) could be arranged as:
1, 2, 3 2, 1, 3 2, 3, 1 3, 1, 2 3, 2, 1 1, 3, 2.
A combination is also referred to as a selection or choice, and is defined by the rule nCr.
nC = the number of selections of n different objects taken r at a time
r
n!
=
( n r )! r !
nC
r
( )
may also be expressed as rn and is read as n over (above) r.
Worked examPle 10
A drawer contains 7 T-shirts of which 3 are white and the rest are black.
If 2 T-shirts are randomly selected from the drawer simultaneously,
find the probability that they are:
a both blac
k
b both white
c different olours
c
d the same colour.
Think
a 1 Calculate the number of selections of taking
2 black T-shirts from a total of 4.
WriTe
a 4C2 = 6; that is, there are 6 ways of selecting
2 black T-shirts from a total of 4.
Calculate the number of selections of taking

2 T-shirts from a total of 7.
= 21; that is, there are 21 ways of selecting

Calculate the probability using the rule.
Pr(both black) =
6
21
Simplify.
2
7
b 1 Calculate the number of selections of taking
2 white T-shirts from a total of 3.
7C
2
2 black T-shirts from 4

2 T-shirts from 7
b 3C2 = 3; that is, there are 3 ways of selecting
2 white T-shirts from a total of 3.


Pr(both white) =
3
21
Simplify.
1
7
c 1 Calculate the number of selections of taking
1 black T-shirt from a total of 4.
476
TUTorial
eles-1227
Worked example 10
7C
2
2 white T-shirts from 3

2 T-shirts from 7
c 4C1 = 4; that is, there are 4 ways of selecting
1 black T-shirt from a total of 4.

1 white T-shirt from a total of 3.

1 white T-shirt from a total of 3.


3C
1
7C
2
Pr(different colours) =
1 black 1 white
2 T-shirts from 7
43
21
Evaluate.
12
21
Simplify.
4
7
d 1 Calculate the probability using the rule.
d Pr(same colours) = Pr(both black)
+ Pr(both white)
2
=7+7
Evaluate.
=7
exercise 10a
1 We1 Two fair dice are rolled simultaneously and the sum of the two numbers appearing uppermost is
recorded. Find the probability that the sum will be:

a 3
b 12
c 7
e at least 7
f an even number
g a prime number.
d greater than 4
2 We2 A bag contains 12 marbles comprising 3 black, 5 red and 4 green. One marble is drawn
randomly from the bag.

a Determine the probability of each of the coloured marbles being drawn:
i black
ii red
iii green.
b Show that the probabilities sum to 1.
c What is the probability that the marble drawn is:
i not green?
ii either black or red?
iii neither red nor green?
iv either black, red or green?
3 A fair coin is tossed three times. Find the probability of obtaining:
a three heads
b two heads
c one head
d no heads
e at least two heads.
4 A circular spinner is divided into 8 equal sectors and numbered as shown in the
diagram at right. If the spinner is spun once, find the probability of obtaining:
a a one
b a two
c a three or a four or a five
d a one or a two.
2
4
5 We3a If Pr(A) = 0.3, Pr(B) = 0.6 and Pr(A B) = 0.2, find Pr(A B).
6 We3b If Pr(A) = 0.5, Pr(B) = 0.4 and Pr(A B) = 0.8, find Pr(A B).
7 If Pr(A) = 4 Pr(B), Pr(A B) = 0.8 and Pr(A B) = 0.2, find:
a Pr(B)
b Pr(A).
8 Of the 200 students studying VCE at Merlynston Secondary College, 80 study Maths Methods, while
there are 65 Physics students. If there are 85 students who dont take either Maths Methods or Physics,
find the probability that a randomly selected student:
a studies Maths Methods
b studies Physics
c studies neither Maths Methods nor Physics
d studies Maths Methods and Physics
e studies Physics, given that the student studies Maths Methods.
9 We4,5 Two fair dice are rolled, with F representing the event of obtaining a number greater than 4 on
the first die and G the event of obtaining an even number on the second. Find:
a Pr(F)
b Pr(G)
c if events F and G are mutually exclusive
d if events F and G are independent.
10 For two events P and Q, Pr(P) = 0.72, Pr(Q) = 0.25 and Pr(P Q) = 0.91. Are P and Q mutually
exclusive events?
11 For two events X and Y, Pr(X) = 0.4, Pr(Y) = 0.5 and Pr(X Y) = 0.2. Are X and Y independent events?
477
12 We6 For the probability table shown, A is the event is unfit and B is the event is a smoker.
a Complete the probability table at right.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
b What do the following probabilities
represent? i Pr(A B) ii Pr(A B)
B
B
c What is the probability that:
Row 1
A
0.22
i a person is unfit and a non-smoker?
ii a person is a smoker and fit?
Row 2
0.60
0.68
A
iii a person is unfit and a smoker or is
Row 3
unfit and a non-smoker?
iv a person is a non-smoker?
13 We7
If Pr(A) = 12 , Pr(B) = 13 and Pr(A B) =
1
6
find:
a Pr(A B)
b Pr(A | B)
d if events A and B are mutually exclusive
e if events A and B are independent.
c Pr(B | A)
If Pr(A) = 0.4, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A B) = 0.2 find:
14
a Pr(A B)
b Pr(A | B)
c Pr(B | A).
15 We8 A recent study has shown that 60% of people who dont wear glasses get regular headaches,
while only 30% of people who wear glasses are headache sufferers. If 35% of people wear glasses, find
the probability that a randomly selected person:
a wears glasses and gets headaches
b does not wear glasses and suffers from headaches
c suffers from headaches
d wears glasses, given that the person suffers from headaches.
16
Jemma knows that if her alarm goes off, she has a 90%
chance of getting to school on time. However, if the alarm does
not ring, her chance of arriving on time is only 40%. If Jemmas
alarm clock works only 60% of the time, what is the probability
that:
a she gets to school on time
b she arrives late to school
c her alarm rang, given that she arrived on time?
17
A bag contains 5 red marbles and 3 green marbles. A marble

is selected at random, its colour is observed and it is then replaced. A second selection is then made.
Find the probability that the two marbles chosen were:
a both red
b both green
c different colours
d the same colour.
18 mC Two fair dice are rolled. The probability of the numbers showing uppermost on both dice being
the same is:

1
a 36
1
18
1
6
d 3
e 2
19 mC If Pr(S) = 0.2, Pr(T) = 0.5 and Pr(S T) = 0.6, which one of the following is not true?
a Pr(S T) = 0.1
d S and T are mutually exclusive.
B Pr(S | T) = 0.2
e S and T are independent.
C Pr(T | S) = 0.5
20 mC The probability of picking a red picture card from a standard pack of playing cards is:
a
1
2
3
13
2
13
3
26
1
26
21 mC If Pr(M) = 0.3, Pr(N) = 0.4 and Pr(M | N) = 0.5 then Pr(M N) is equal to:
a 0.15
B 0.2
C 0.6
d 0.75
e 0.8
22 We9 A fair coin is tossed three times. Find the probability of obtaining three tails, given that the first
toss resulted in a tail.

23
If Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A B) = 0.36, find:

b Pr(B)
e Pr(A B)
h Pr(A | B)
a Pr(A)
d Pr(A B)
g Pr(B | A)
478
c Pr(A B)
f Pr(A | B)
i Pr(B | A).
24 We10 A drawer contains 6 T-shirts, of which 2 are white and the rest are black. If 2 T-shirts are
randomly selected from the drawer simultaneously, find the probability that they are:
b both white
c different colours
d the same colour.
a both black
25 A box contains one dozen chocolates, of which 4 are strawberry creams, 3 are orange creams and 5 are
peppermint creams. Two chocolates are selected at random. Find the probability that they are both the
same type if:
a the first chocolate is replaced before the second is drawn
b the first chocolate is not replaced before the second is drawn.
26 mC A fair die has its 4-spot changed to a 5-spot and its 2-spot changed to a 3-spot. The probability
of getting an even number when the altered die is rolled is:

a
1
6
1
3
1
2
2
3
5
6
27 mC A box contains 3 red balls and 2 green balls. Two balls are chosen simultaneously. The
probability that they are the same colour is:

a
8
25
2
5
13
25
3
5
13
20
28 A bag contains 5 red cubes and 3 black cubes. Three cubes are chosen at random. Find the probability
of at least 2 reds being chosen, given that the first cube was red:
a if the cubes are replaced after each draw
b if the cubes are not replaced after each draw.
29 Joanne knows that her chance of winning each tennis match she plays is 0.8. A knockout
tournament requires players to win five matches to win the championship. What is the probability
that Joanne:
a wins the tournament? Give your answer to 4 decimal places.
b wins the tournament given that she wins her first three matches?
30
In a particular suburb the chances of a woman owning her own home is 0.4, while the probability
of a woman owning her own home and being employed is 0.2. Find the probability that a woman who
owns her own home is also employed.
31
The probability of Vanessas car starting on a cold morning is 0.6, while on a normal morning the
chance of it starting is 0.9. The probability of any morning being a cold one is 0.3. If Vanessas car
starts tomorrow morning, find the probability that the morning is cold.
32 The Roosters know that they will win 80% of their home matches and 40% of their away matches. This
seasons fixture has the Roosters playing 55% of their games at home. Given that the Roosters won
their last game, what was the probability that it was played at home?
33 Tatiana is trying out for a place on the high jump team. In order to qualify she must clear three of the four
heights. She knows that she has a 70% chance of clearing the first height and a 65% chance of clearing any
subsequent height. What is the probability, to 4 decimal places, that Tatiana:
a clears the first, third and fourth heights only?
b clears three heights?
c clears three heights, given she did not clear the first height?
10B
discrete random variables
A random variable is one whose value cannot be predicted but is determined by the outcome of an
experiment. For example, two dice are rolled simultaneously a number of times. The sum of the numbers
appearing uppermost is recorded. The possible outcomes we could expect are {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12}. Since the possible outcomes may vary each time the dice are rolled, the sum of the numbers
appearing uppermost is a random variable.
Random variables are expressed as capital letters, usually from the end of the alphabet (for example,
X, Y, Z) and the value they can take on is represented by lowercase letters (for example, x, y, z
respectively).
The above situation illustrates an example of a discrete random variable since the possible outcomes
were able to be counted. Discrete random variables generally deal with number or size.
A random variable that can take on any value is defined as a continuous random variable.
Continuous random variables generally deal with quantities that can be measured, such as mass,
height or time.
479
Worked examPle 11
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Which of the following represent discrete random variables?

a The number of goals scored at a football match
b The height of students in a Maths Methods class
c Shoe izes
s
d The number of girls in a five-child family
e The time taken, in minutes, to run a distance of 10 kilometres
Think
WriTe
Determine whether the variable can be counted or needs

to be measured.
a Goals can be counted.
a Discrete
b Height must be measured.
b Continuous
c The number of shoe sizes can be counted.
c Discrete
d The number of girls can be counted.
d Discrete
e Time must be measured.
e Continuous
discrete probability distributions

When dealing with random variables, the probabilities associated with them are often required.
Worked examPle 12
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch
a video about
discrete probability
distributions.
Let X represent the number of tails obtained in three tosses. Draw up a table that displays the
values the discrete random variable can assume and the corresponding probabilities.
Think
1
WriTe/draW
Draw a tree diagram and list all of the

possible outcomes.
H
H
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT

2
Draw a table with two columns: one labelled

number of tails, the other probability.
Enter the information into the table.
Number of tails (x)
Probability Pr(x)
1
8
3
8
3
8
1
8
1
2
3
The table above displays the probability distribution of the total number of tails obtained in three tosses of
a fair coin. Since the variable in this case is discrete, the table displays a discrete probability distribution.
In Worked example 12, X denoted the random variable and x the value that the random variable could
take. Thus the probability can be denoted by p(x) or Pr (X = x). Hence the table in Worked example 12
could be presented as shown below.
480
Pr(X = x)
1
8
3
8
3
8
1
8
Close inspection of this table shows important characteristics that satisfy all discrete probability
distributions.
1. Each probability lies in a restricted interval 0 Pr(X = x) 1.
2. The probabilities of a particular experiment sum to 1, that is,
Pr( x = x) = 1
If these two characteristics are not satisfied, then there is no discrete probability distribution.
Worked examPle 13
Draw a probability distribution graph of the outcomes in worked example 12.

Think
1
WriTe/draW
Draw a set of axes in the first quadrant only.

Label the horizontal axis x and the vertical axis
Pr(X = x).
Pr(X = x)
3
8
Mark graduations evenly along the horizontal

and vertical axes, and label with appropriate
values.
2
8
1
8
Draw a straight line from each x-value to its

corresponding probability.
Note: The probability distribution graph may also be drawn as follows.

Pr(X = x)
Pr(X = x)
3
8
3
8
2
8
2
8
1
8
1
8
A column graph
A dot graph
Worked examPle 14
Which of the following tables represent a discrete probability distribution?

a
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.1
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.3
Think
a 1 Check whether each of the probabilities lie
within the restricted interval 0 Pr(X = x) 1.
Pr(X = x)
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.4
Pr(X = x)
WriTe
a All probabilities lie between 0 and 1 inclusive.
Check that the probabilities sum to 1.
0.2 + 0.5 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 1
Yes, this is a discrete probability distribution

since both requirements have been met.
b 1 Check whether each of the probabilities lie
b All probabilities lie between 0 and 1 inclusive.
0.5 + 0.3 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 1

481
Yes, this is a discrete probability distribution

since both requirements have been met.
c 1 Check whether each of the probabilities lie
c All probabilities lie between 0 and 1 inclusive.
0.2 + 0.1 + 0.3 + 0.3 1 (totals to 0.9)
No, this is not a discrete probability

distribution since both requirements have not
been met.
d 1 Check whether each of the probabilities lie
d The first probability is a negative value,
so not all probabilities lie between 0 and 1

inclusive.
0.2
No, this is not a discrete probability

distribution since both requirements have
not been met.
+ 0.3 + 0.5 + 0.4 = 1
Worked examPle 15
Find the value of k for each of the following discrete probability distributions.
a
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
Pr(X = x)
5k
6k
4k
3k
2k
Pr(X = x)
b
Think
WriTe
a 1 Add up each of the given probabilities.

2
Simplify.
Solve to find k.
0.2 + k + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.1 = 1

0.8 + k = 1
k = 1 0.8
= 0.2
b 1 Add up each of the given probabilities.
They should sum to 1.

2
Simplify.
Solve to find k.
Pr( X = x ) = 1
They should sum to 1.
5k + 6k + 4k + 3k + 2k = 1
20k = 1
1
k = 20
Worked examPle 16
a Show that the function p(x) =
1
(5x
42
+ 3), where x = 0, 1, 2, 3 is a
probability function.
1
b Show that the function p(x) = 100 x2 (6 x), where x = 2, 3, 4, 5 is a
Think
a 1 Substitute each of the x-values into the
equation and obtain the corresponding

probability.
482
TUTorial
eles-1228
Worked example 16
WriTe
a When x = 0, p(x) =
3
42
1
14
When x = 1, p(x) = 42
4
= 21
13
When x = 2, p(x) = 42
18
When x = 3, p(x) = 42
3
=7
3
Check whether each of the probabilities

lie within the restricted interval
0 Pr(X = x) 1.
All probabilities lie between 0 and 1 inclusive.
Check whether the probabilities sum to 1.
1
4
+
14 21
State whether the function is a

Yes, this is a probability function since both

requirements have been met.
b 1 Substitute each of the x-values into the

probability.
16
b When x = 2, p(x) = 100

4
= 25
13
+ 42 + 7 = 1
27
When x = 3, p(x) = 100

32
When x = 4, p(x) = 100

8
= 25
25
When x = 5, p(x) = 100

1
=4
3
Check whether each of the probabilities

lie within the restricted interval
0 Pr(X = x) 1.
All probabilities lie between 0 and 1 inclusive.
Check whether the probabilities sum to 1.
4
25
State whether the function is a

Yes, this is a probability function since both

requirements have been met.
27
+ 100 + 25 + 4 = 1
Worked examPle 17
Three balls are selected from a box containing 6 blue balls and 4 yellow balls. If the ball chosen
after each selection is replaced before the next selection, find:
a the probability distribution for the number of blue balls drawn:
i 0 blue balls
ii 1 blue ball
iii 2 blue balls
iv 3 blue balls
b the probability that 3 blue balls are chosen, given that at least one ball was blue.
Think
WriTe/draW
Draw a tree diagram and list all

the possible outcomes with their
respective probabilities.
10
10
10
10
10
Y
4
10
10
10
10
6
10
10
4
10
10
10
Outcomes
B
Y
BBB
BBY
B
Y
BYB
BYY
B
Y
YBB
YBY
B
Y
YYB
YYY
Probability
6
10
6
10
6
10
6
10
4
10
4
10
4
10
4
10
6
6
=
10 10
6
4
10 10
4
6
10 10
4
4
10 10
6
6
10 10
6
4
10 10
4
6
10 10
4
4
10 10
216
1000
= 144
1000
= 144
1000
96
=
1000
= 144
1000
96
=
1000
96
=
1000
64
=
1000
483
ii
Obtain the probability required.
List the required probabilities from

the tree diagram obtained in part i.
Note: Three outcomes correspond
to 1 blue ball.
64
Pr(0 blue balls) = 1000 (or 0.064)

ii Pr(1 blue ball) = Pr(BYY) + Pr(YBY) + Pr(YYB)
96
= 3 1000
288
= 1000 (or 0.288)

iii
iv
List the required probabilities from

the tree diagram obtained in part i.
Note: Three outcomes correspond
to 2 blue balls.
Obtain the probability required.
Place all of the information in a

table.
iii Pr(2 blue balls) = Pr(BBY) + Pr(BYB) + Pr(YBB)
=3
Determine each of the probabilities.
Substitute values into the rule.
exercise 10B
432
1000
(or 0.432)
iv Pr(3 blue balls) =
216
1000
(or 0.216)
Pr(X = x) 0.064 0.288 0.432 0.216
Check that the probabilities sum

to 1.
b 1 Define the rule.
144
1000
Pr(X = x) = 0.064 + 0.288 + 0.432 + 0.216

=1
Pr( X = 3 X > 1)
Pr( X = 3 | X > 1) =
Pr( X > 1)
Pr(X = 3 X > 1) = Pr(X = 3) = 0.216
Pr(X > 1) = 0.432 + 0.216
= 0.648
Pr(X = 3 | X > 1) =
=
0.216
0.648
1
3
1 We11 Which of the following represent discrete random variables?

a The number of people at a tennis match
b The time taken to read this question
c The length of the left arms of students in your class
d The shoe sizes of twenty people
e The weights of babies at a maternity ward
f The number of grains in ten 250-gram packets of rice
g The height of jockeys competing in a certain race
h The number of books in Melbourne libraries
2 We12,13 a If X represents the number of heads obtained in two tosses of a coin, draw up a table that
displays the values that the discrete random variable can assume and the corresponding probabilities.
b Draw a probability distribution graph of the outcomes in part a.
diGiTal doC
doc-9222
Spreadsheet
Probability distribution
484
3 A fair coin is tossed three times and a note is taken of the number of tails.
a List the possible outcomes.
b List the possible values of the random variable X, representing the number of tails obtained in the
three tosses.
c Find the probability distribution of X.
d Find Pr(X 2).
4 Draw graphs for each of the following probability distributions.

a
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
0.05
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.05
10
15
20
0.5
0.3
0.15
0.05
10
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
5 We14 Which of the following tables represent a discrete probability distribution?

a
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
12
15
Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.1
Pr(X = x)
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.2
6 We15 Find the value of k for each of the following discrete probability distributions.
a
x
Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
10
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Pr(X = x)
2k
3k
4k
0.2
3k
0.3
0.1
Pr(X = x)
c
x
Pr(X = x)
Find the value of k for the following discrete probability distribution.
7
a
x
Pr(X = x)
1
3k
13
2
k2
13
3
5k 4
13
4
k2
13
5
7
13
b Explain why one of the values of k had to be discarded.

8
Two fair dice are rolled simultaneously, and X, the sum of the two numbers appearing uppermost, is
recorded.
a Draw up a table that displays the probability distribution of X, and find:
b Pr(X > 9)
c Pr(X < 6)
d Pr(4 X < 6)
e Pr(3 X 9)
f Pr(X < 12)
g Pr(6 X < 10).
485
9 A spinner is numbered from 1 to 5, with each number being equally likely to come up. If X is the
random variable representing the number showing on the spinner, find:

a the probability distribution of X
b the probability of getting an even number
c Pr(X > 2).
10 A fair die is rolled and X is the square of the number appearing uppermost.
a Draw up a table that displays the probability distribution of X, and find:
b Pr(X < 30)
c Pr(X > 10).
11
A fair die is altered so that the 1 is changed to a 5. If X is the random variable representing the
number uppermost on the die, find:
b the probability of a number bigger than 2 appearing uppermost
c Pr(X = 5 | X > 2).
12 We16a
Show that the function p(x) =
13 We16b Show that the function p(x) =
1
90 (8x
+ 2), where x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 is a probability function.
1 2
x (x + 2), where x = 1, 2, 3, 4 is a probability function.
160
14 We17 Three balls are selected from a box containing 4 red balls and 5 blue balls. If the ball chosen after
each selection is replaced before the next selection, find, correct to 4 decimal places:
a the probability distribution for the number of red balls drawn:
i 0 red balls
ii 1 red ball
iii 2 red balls
iv 3 red balls
b the probability that three reds are chosen, given that at least one ball is red.
15
A circular spinner, divided into five equal sectors numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, is spun twice, and the sum
of the numbers the pointer lands on is recorded. The following events are then defined.
A = an odd number on the first spin
B = an even number on the second spin
C = the sum of the two numbers is odd
D = the sum of the two numbers is at most 7
a List each of the possible outcomes.
b Find:
i Pr(A)
ii Pr(B)
iii Pr(C)
iv Pr(D).
c Find:
i Pr(A | B)
ii Pr(B | C)
iii Pr(C | D).
16
A biased coin is tossed twice. If the probability of obtaining a head is 5:

a find the probability distribution of the number of heads in 2 tosses
b show that the sum of the probabilities is 1.
17
A discrete random variable has the following probability distribution:
x
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.11
0.15
0.09
0.17
0.13
0.15
Find:
a Pr(X > 3)
d Pr(2 < X < 5)
g {x: Pr(X x) = 0.54}.
b Pr(X 4)
e Pr(X < 3 | X < 5)
c Pr(3 X 6)
f {x: Pr(X < x) = 0.46}
18 mC Which one of the following random variables is not discrete?

a
B
C
d
e
The price, in cents, of a loaf of bread at the local supermarket

The number of runs scored by a batsman in each innings over a season
The weight of a baby as he grows over a one-year period
The number of houses sold by a real estate agent each month for a year
The number of newspapers recycled by a family each month.
19 mC What is the value of k which will make this table a probability distribution table?
Pr(X = x)
2k
3k
4k
a 0
486
B 1
C 0.1
1
9
e 0.1
20 mC Examine the following probability distribution table.
x
Pr(X = x)
16
25
36
0.16
0.21
0.35
0.08
0.2
Pr(X 10) is equal to:

a 0.38
B 0.84
C 0.35
d 0.28
e 0.63
21 mC The following table represents a discrete probability distribution for a random variable, Y.
10
13
Pr(X = x)
4d
5d
2k
The value of d is:

a
1
9
1
10
1
11
1
12
e
3
1
13
22 mC A coin is biased so that the probability of obtaining a head is 7 . If the coin is tossed 3 times the
probability of obtaining exactly 2 heads is:

a
27
343
108
343
144
343
135
343
23 mC Which of the following is a probability function?

a p(x) = 0.1, 0.3, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1, x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
C p(x) =
e p(x) =
24
1
40
x2
20
(5x 1), x = 1, 2, 3, 4
64
343
B p(x) =
1
66
(3x + 7), x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
d p(x) =
1
20
x2 (4 x), x = 1, 2, 3
(3x 1), x = 1, 2, 3
If the random variable X represents the number of boys in a four-child family:
diGiTal doC
doc-9223
WorkSHEET 10.1
a write the values that X may take

1
b assuming that the Pr(boy) = 2 , find the probability distribution of X.
measures of centre of discrete

random distributions
10C
Units: 3 & 4
The expected value of a discrete random variable, X, is the average value of X. It is also referred to as the
mean of X or the expectation.
The expected value of a discrete random variable, X, is denoted by E(X) or the symbol (mu). It is
defined as the sum of each value of X multiplied by its respective probability; that is,
E(X) = x1Pr(X = x1) + x2Pr(X = x2) + x3Pr(X = x3) + . . . + xnPr(X = xn)
=
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
x Pr(X = x)
all x
Note: The expected value will not always assume a discrete value.
Worked examPle 18
Find the expected value of a random variable that has the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
2
5
1
10
3
10
1
10
1
10
Think
1
Write the rule for the expected value.
WriTe
E(X) =
x Pr( X = x )
all x
Substitute the values into the rule.
Evaluate.
E(X) = 1 5 + 2 10 + 3 10 + 4 10 + 5 10
2
= 5 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10
2
= 25
487
Worked examPle 19
Find the unknown probability, a, and hence determine the expected value of a random variable
that has the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
10
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.1
Think
WriTe
Determine the unknown value of a

using the knowledge that the sum of the
probabilities must total 1.
0.2 + 0.4 + a + 0.1 + 0.1 = 1

0.8 + a = 1
a = 1 0.8
= 0.2
E(X) = x Pr( X = x )
all x
Evaluate.
E(X) = 2 0.2 + 4 0.4 + 6 0.2 + 8 0.1 + 10 0.1

= 0.4 + 1.6 + 1.2 + 0.8 + 1
=5
Worked examPle 20
Find the values of a and b of the following probability distribution if E(X) = 4.29.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.2
Think
1
WriTe
Write an equation for the values of a and

b using the knowledge that the sum of
the probabilities must total 1. Call this
equation [1].
0.1 + 0.1 + a + 0.3 + 0.2 + b + 0.2 = 1

0.9 + a + b = 1
a + b = 1 0.9
a + b = 0.1
E(X) =
[1]
x Pr(X = x )
all x
Evaluate and call this equation [2].
488
Solve the equations simultaneously.

Multiply equation [1] by 3 and call it
equation [3]. Subtract equation [3] from
equation [2]. Solve for b. Substitute
b = 0.03 into equation [1]. Solve for a.
4.29 = 1 0.1 + 2 0.1 + 3 a + 4 0.3 + 5 0.2

+ 6 b + 7 0.2
= 0.1 + 0.2 + 3a + 1.2 + 1 + 6b + 1.4
4.29 3.9 = 3a + 6b
3a + 6b = 0.39
a + b = 0.1
3a + 6b = 0.39
3 (a + b = 0.1)
3a + 3b = 0.3
[2] [3]: 3b = 0.09
b = 0.03
a + 0.03 = 0.1
a = 0.1 0.03
= 0.07
a = 0.07 and b = 0.03
[2]
[1]
[2]
[3]
Worked examPle 21
Niki and Melanie devise a gambling game based on tossing three coins simultaneously. If three
heads or three tails are obtained, the player wins $20. Otherwise the player loses $5. In order to
make a profit they charge each person $2 to play.
a What is the expected gain to the player?
b Do Niki and Melanie make a profit?
c Is this a fair game?
Think
WriTe/draW
a 1 List the possible outcomes and place
all of the information in a table.

Note: The Gain is from the
players point of view.
a S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Pr(X = x)
1
8
3
8
3
8
1
8
Gain ($)
20
20
x Pr( X = x )
E(X) =
Write the rule for the expected

value.
all x
= 20 8 + 5 8 + 5 8 + 20 8
Evaluate.
20
8
10
8
15
8
15
8
20
8
=
= $1.25
5
The players expected gain per game is $1.25; however,

as each game incurs a cost of $2, the player in fact loses
75c per game.
b Answer the question using the results

from a.
b The girls make a profit of 75c per game.
c Answer the question using the results

from a.
c No, this is not a fair game, since the cost to play each
game does not equal the expected gain of each game.
Note: In a fair game E(X) = 0.
It is important to understand that the expected value signifies the average outcome of an experiment
and can be used to determine the feasibility of a situation. The previous worked example illustrates
that, in the long run, the player will lose on average 75 cents per game; it does not mean the player will
lose 75 cents each time the game is played.
expectation theorems
Worked examPle 22
A random variable has the following probability distribution.

x
Pr(X = x)
Find: a E(X)
0.25
0.26
0.14
0.35
b E(3X)
Think
a 1 Write the rule for the expected value.
c E(2X
4)
TUTorial
eles-1229
Worked example 22
d E(X2).
WriTe
a E(X) =
x Pr(X = x )
all x
E(X) = 1 0.25 + 2 0.26 + 3 0.14 + 4 0.35

489
= 0.25 + 0.52 + 0.42 + 1.4

= 2.59
Evaluate.
b 1 Write the rule for the expected value.
b E(3X) =
3x Pr(X = x )
all x
Evaluate.
Note: 1. The probability remains the same.
2. Each x-value is multiplied by 3
because of the new function, 3x.
c 1 Write the rule for the expected value.
E(3X) = (3 1) 0.25 + (3 2) 0.26

+ (3 3) 0.14 + (3 4) 0.35
= 3 0.25 + 6 0.26 + 9 0.14
+ 12 0.35
= 0.75 + 1.56 + 1.26 + 4.2
= 7.77
c E(2X 4) =
(2 x 4) Pr(X = x )
all x
= (2 1 4) 0.25 + (2 2 4)
0.26 + (2 3 4) 0.14
+ (2 4 4) 0.35
Evaluate.
2. Each x-value is multiplied by 2 and
then 4 is subtracted from the result,
because of the new function, 2x 4.
= 2 0.25 + 0 0.26 + 2 0.14

+ 4 0.35
= 0.5 + 0 + 0.28 + 1.4
= 1.18
d 1 Write the rule for the expected value.
d E(X 2) =
x 2 Pr(X = x )
all x
= (12) 0.25 + (22) 0.26 + (32)

0.14 +(42) 0.35
Evaluate.
2. Each x-value is squared because of
the new function, x2.
= 1 0.25 + 4 0.26 + 9 0.14

+ 16 0.35
= 0.25 + 1.04 + 1.26 + 5.6
= 8.15
The above worked example displays some important points that shall be investigated.
For this example,
E(X) = 2.59
E(3X) = 7.77
from part b
note that
3E(X) = 3 2.59
= 7.77
E(2X 4) = 1.18
from part c
note that
2E(X) 4 = 2 2.59 4
= 1.18.
Hence if X is a random variable and a is a constant, its expected value is defined by E(aX) = aE(X).
Furthermore, if X is a random variable where a and b are constants, then the expected value of a linear
function in the form f (X) = aX + b is defined by:
If a = 0 then
becomes
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
E(0X + b) = 0E(X) + b
= b.
These rules are called expectation theorems and are summarised below.
E(aX) = aE(X)
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
E(b) = b
E(X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y)
490
where X is a random variable and a is a constant.

where X is a random variable and a and b are constants.
where b is a constant.
where X and Y are both random variables.
These theorems make it easier to calculate the expected values.

Finally, from part (d) of the above example it can be seen that:
E(X 2) [E(X)]2.
Worked examPle 23
Casey decides to apply for a job selling mobile phones. She receives a base salary of $200 per
month and $15 for every mobile phone sold. The following table shows the probability of a
particular number of mobile phones, x, being sold per month. What would be the expected salary
Casey would receive each month?
x
Pr(X = x)
50
100
150
200
250
0.48
0.32
0.1
0.06
0.04
Think
Method 1
1 Define a random variable.
2
Write the rule for the expected salary.
WriTe
Let X = the number of mobile phones sold by Casey in

a month.
E(15X + 200) =
(15x + 200)Pr(X = x )
all x
= (15 50 + 200) 0.48

+ (15 100 + 200) 0.32
+ (15 150 + 200) 0.1
+ (15 200 + 200) 0.06
+ (15 250 + 200) 0.04
Evaluate.
= 950 0.48 + 1700 0.32

+ 2450 0.1 + 3200 0.06
+ 3950 0.04
= 456 + 544 + 245 + 192 + 158
= 1595
The expected salary Casey would receive each month

would be $1595.
Method 2
Using the expectation theorem:
1
Write the rule for the expected salary.
E(X) =
x Pr (X = x )
all x
= 50 0.48 + 100 0.32 + 150 0.1

+ 200 0.06 + 250 0.04
Evaluate.
= 24 + 32 + 15 + 12 + 10
= 93
Using the fact that

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b find E(15X + 200).
E(15X + 200) = 15E(X) + 200

= 15 93 + 200
= 1595
Units: 3 & 4
Note: Using the expectation theorem is quicker because it is easier to evaluate aE(X) + b than E(aX + b).
median and mode

The median is the middle value of the distribution. It is the value such that 50% of the distribution lies to
the left of this value, and 50% of the distribution lies to the right.
For a random variable, X, the mode is the most commonly occurring value, that is, it is the variable with
the highest probability.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
491
Worked examPle 24
For the following probability distributions, calculate:

i the median
ii the mode.
a
x
Pr(X = x)
0.25
0.4
0.15
0.2
11
14
0.18
0.32
0.2
0.3
b x
Pr(X = x)
Think
WriTe
a i 1 To calculate the median, work from the left
of the data. Add up the probabilities until the

total is 0.5 or greater.
2
Write the answer.
Pr(X 5) = 0.25 + 0.4

= 0.65, which is 0.5
The median value is 5.
ii 1 To calculate the mode, identify the highest

2
a i Pr(X 3) = 0.25, which is 0.5
ii The highest probability is 0.4.
probability in the table.
That is, Pr(X = 5) = 0.4.
Write the answer.
The mode is 5.
b i 1 To calculate the median, work from the left
of the data. Add up the probabilities until the

total is 0.5 or greater.
b i Pr(X 5) = 0.18, which is 0.5.
Pr(X 8) = 0.18 + 0.32

= 0.5
Similarly Pr(X 11) = 0.2 + 0.3
= 0.5
8 + 11
Calculate the median by calculating the mean

of 8 and 11.
Median = 2
= 9.5
Write the answer.
The median is 9.5.
ii 1 To calculate the mode, identify the highest

2
ii The highest probability is 0.32.
probability in the table.
That is, Pr(X = 8) = 0.32.
Write the answer.
The mode is 8.
measures of centre of discrete random

distributions
exercise 10C
1 We18 Find the expected value of a random variable that has the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
12
0.21
0.08
0.19
0.17
0.35
Find the expected value of a random variable that has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
1
18
1
3
1
18
2
9
1
6
1
18
1
9
Find the unknown probability, a, and hence determine the expected value of a random
variable that has the following probability distribution.
3 We19
x
Pr(X = x)
492
11
0.11
0.3
0.15
0.25
0.1
4 Find the unknown probability, a, and hence determine the expected value of a random variable that has
the following probability distribution.

x
Pr(X = x)
5
18
1
a
10
13
1
9
5
18
1
18
2
9
5 Find the unknown probability, b, and hence determine the expected value of a random variable that has
the following probability distribution.

x
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.02
3b
0.1
0.08
6 Find the value of k, and hence determine the expected value of a random variable that has the following
probability distribution.
x
12
16
20
Pr(X = x)
6k
2k
3k
8k
If X represents the outcome of a fair die being rolled, find:
a the probability distribution of each outcome

b E(X).
8 Two fair dice are rolled simultaneously. If X represents the sum of the two numbers appearing
uppermost, find:
b E(X).
9 A fair coin is tossed 4 times. If X represents the number of tails obtained, find:
b E(X).
10 We20
x
Pr(X = x)
Find the values of a and b of the following distribution if E(X) = 1.91.

0
0.2
0.32
0.18
0.05
0.05
Find the values of a and b of the following distribution if E(X) = 2.41.
11
x
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.23
0.15
0.12
12 We21 Lucas contemplates playing a new game which involves tossing three coins simultaneously. He
will receive $15 if he obtains 3 heads, $10 if he obtains 2 heads and $5 if he obtains 1 head. However, if
he obtains no heads he must pay $30. He must also pay $5 for each game he plays.
a What is Lucass expected gain?
b Should he play the game? Why?
c Is this a fair game? Why?
13
Angie plays a game based on tossing three coins simultaneously. She will receive $10 if she obtains
3tails, $5 if she obtains 2 tails and $5 if she obtains 1 tail. However, if she obtains no tails she must pay $40.
a What is Angies expected gain?
b Should she play the game? Why?
c Is this a fair game? Why?
X is a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.
14
x
Pr(X = x)
2
0.3
4
0.2
7
0.4
k
0.1
Find the value of k if the mean is 5.3.

15 X is a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.
10
14
Pr(X = x)
0.1
0.08
0.07
0.27
0.16
0.32
Find the value of k if the mean is 10.98.

493
16 A coin is biased such that the probability of obtaining a tail is 0.6. If X represents the number of tails in
three tosses of the coin, find:

b E(X)
c the mode.
17 We22
x
diGiTal doC
doc-9268
SkillSHEET 10.1
expected value of a
function of a random
variable
Pr(X = x)
Find:
a E(X)
2
15
7
15
1
3
1
15
c E(2X + 1)
b E(4X)
d E(X2).
18 A random variable has the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
Find:
a E(X)
0.33
0.25
0.27
0.15
b E(4X 6)
c E(X 2 + 1)
d E(3X 2).
19 We23 Christian decides to apply for a job selling mobile phones. He
receives a base salary of $180 per month and $12 for every mobile phone
sold. The following table shows the probability of a particular number
of mobile phones, x, being sold per month. What would be the expected
salary Christian would receive each month?
x
Pr(X = x)
50
100
150
200
250
0.32
0.38
0.2
0.06
0.04
20 We24
For the following probability distributions, calculate:
i the median
ii the mode.
a
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
diGiTal doC
doc-9224
WorkSHEET 10.2
x
Pr(X = x)
0.25
0.15
0.1
0.1
0.4
13
17
0.06
0.36
0.17
0.29
0.12
1
4
1
16
3
16
1
8
1
8
1
16
3
16
measures of variability of discrete

10d
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
494
Variance
Variance is an important feature of probability distributions as it provides information about the spread
of the distribution with respect to the mean. If the variance is large, it implies that the possible values are
spread (or deviate) quite a distance from the mean. A small variance implies that the possible values are
close to the mean. Variance is also called a measure of spread or dispersion.
The variance is written as Var(X) and denoted by the symbol 2 (sigma squared). It is defined as the
expected value (or average) of the squares of the spreads (deviations) from the mean.
The rule for variance is given by: Var(X) = E(X )2
= (X )2 Pr(X = x).
Although this rule clearly demonstrates how to obtain the variance, performing the calculation is quite a
lengthy process. Hence an alternative rule is used for calculating the variance:
Var(X) = E(X )2
= E(X2 2X + 2)
= E(X2) E(2X) + E(2)
= E(X2) 2E(X) + E(2)
= E(X2) 22 + 2
since E(X) = (the mean)
= E(X2) 2
= E(X2) [E(X)]2.
inTeraCTiViTY
int-0255
measures of variability
of discrete random
distributions
Worked examPle 25
Find the expected value and variance of the following probability distribution table.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.15
0.12
0.24
0.37
0.12
Think
1
WriTe
E(X) =
x Pr(X = x )
all x
= 1 0.15 + 2 0.12 + 3 0.24 + 4 0.37 + 5 0.12
Evaluate.
= 0.15 + 0.24 + 0.72 + 1.48 + 0.6

= 3.19
Calculate E(X 2).
E(X 2) =
=
x 2 Pr(X = x )
all x
(12)
0.15 + (22) 0.12 + (32) 0.24

+
0.37 + (52) 0.12
= 1 0.15 + 4 0.12 + 9 0.24 + 16 0.37
+25 0.12
= 0.15 + 0.48 + 2.16 + 5.92 + 3
= 11.71
(42)
Calculate [E(X)]2.
[E(X)]2 = 3.192
= 10.1761
Calculate Var(X) using the rule for

variance.
Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2

= 11.71 10.1761
= 1.5339
Worked examPle 26
Find the variance of 2Y + 1 for the following probability distribution table.

y
Pr(Y = y)
0.25
0.35
0.2
0.2
Think
1
TUTorial
eles-1230
Worked example 26
WriTe
E(2Y + 1) =
(2 y + 1) Pr(Y = y)
all x
= (2 0 + 1) 0.25 + (2 1 + 1) 0.35
+ (2 2 + 1) 0.2 + (2 3 + 1) 0.2
Evaluate.
= 1 0.25 + 3 0.35 + 5 0.2 + 7 0.2

= 0.25 + 1.05 + 1 + 1.4
= 3.7
495
Calculate [E(2Y + 1)]2.
[E(2Y + 1)]2 = 3.72

= 13.69
Calculate E(2Y + 1)2.
Calculate Var(2Y + 1) using the rule.
E(2Y + 1)2 = 12 0.25 + 32 0.35 + 52 0.2 + 72 0.2

= 0.25 + 3.15 + 5 + 9.8
= 18.2
Var(2Y + 1) = E(2Y + 1)2 [E(2Y + 1)]2
= 18.2 13.69
= 4.51
The variance of a linear function can also be calculated by the following rule:
Var (aX + b) = a2Var (X).
For Worked example 26, given that Var(Y) = 1.1275, Var(2Y + 1) can be determined using the
above rule:
Var(2Y + 1) = 22Var(Y)
= 4 1.1275
= 4.51 as before.
Worked examPle 27
X is a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.

x
Pr(X = x)
0.15
0.3
0.45
0.1
Find the value of k, a positive integer, if the variance is 1.7475.

Think
1
WriTe
E(X) = x Pr(X = x )
all x
= 3 0.15 + 4 0.3 + 6 0.45 + k 0.1
Evaluate.
= 0.45 + 1.2 + 2.7 + 0.1k

= 4.35 + 0.1k
Calculate E(X2).
E(X2) = x 2 Pr(X = x )
all x
= (32) 0.15 + (42) 0.3 + (62) 0.45 + (k2) 0.1

= 9 0.15 + 16 0.3 + 36 0.45 + k2 0.1
= 1.35 + 4.8 + 16.2 + 0.1k2
= 22.35 + 0.1k2
496
Calculate [E(X)]2.
[E(X)]2 = (4.35 + 0.1k)2

= 0.01k2 + 0.87k + 18.9225
Calculate Var(X) using the rule and

equate it to the given value of the
variance; that is, 2 = 1.7475.
Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2

1.7475 = 22.35 + 0.1k2 (0.01k2 + 0.87k + 18.9225)
1.7475 = 0.09k2 0.87k + 3.4275
Solve for k.
0.09k2 0.87k + 3.4275 1.7475 = 0

0.09k2 0.87k + 1.68 = 0
(9k 24)(k 7) = 0
24
2
k = 9 (or 2 3 ) or k = 7
k = 7. Reject the other value of k since the variable is

discrete.
Standard deviation
Another important measure of spread is the standard deviation. It is written as SD(X) or denoted by the
symbol (sigma). The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance. It is defined by the rule:
SD(X) = Var( X )
= 2
= .
Variation and standard deviation are used extensively in many real-life applications involving statistics.
Analysis of data would be useless without any information about the spread of the data.
Worked examPle 28

x
Pr(X = x)
1
4
3
8
1
8
1
4
Calculate the expected value, the variance and the standard deviation.
Think
1
WriTe
1
E(X) = 0 4 + 1 83 + 2 81 + 3 4
Calculate the expected value.
=0+8+8 +4
3
= 18
2
( )
3
[E(X)]2 = 1 8
Calculate [E(X)]2.
57
= 164 (1.890 625)

3
E(X2) = 02 4 + 12 8 + 22 8 + 32 4
Calculate E(X 2).
=0+8+8+4
1
= 38
4
Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2

1
57
= 38 164
Calculate Var(X).
15
= 164 ( 1.234 375)

SD(X) = 1.234375
Calculate the standard deviation.
Round the answer to 4 decimal places.
= 1.1110
Worked examPle 29
In order to encourage car pooling, a new toll is to be introduced on the Eastgate Bridge. If
the car has no passengers, a toll of $2 applies. Cars with one passenger pay a $1.50 toll, cars
with two passengers pay a $1 toll and cars with 3 or more passengers pay no toll. Long-term
statistics show that the number of passengers (X) follows the probability distribution given
below.
x (no. of passengers)
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.35
0.2
0.05
a Construct a probability distribution of the toll paid.

b Find the mean toll paid per car.
c Find the standard deviation of tolls paid.
497
WriTe
Think
a Let Y = toll to be paid.
a Construct a table of values of toll
information. Probabilities remain the same.
y
Pr(Y = y)
b E(Y) =
b 1 Write the rule for the expected value.
1.5
0.4
0.35
0.2
0.05
y Pr(Y = y)
all y
= 2 0.4 + 1.5 0.35 + 1 0.2 + 0 0.05
Evaluate.
= 0.8 + 0.525 + 0.2 + 0

= 1.525
= 1.53
The mean toll is $1.53.

c E(Y2) =
c 1 Calculate E(Y2).
y2 Pr(Y = y)
all y
= (22) 0.4 + (1.52) 0.35 + (12) 0.2

+ (02) 0.05
= 4 0.4 + 2.25 0.35 + 1 0.2 + 0
= 1.6 + 0.7875 + 0.2
= 2.5875
2
Calculate [E(Y)]2.
[E(Y)]2 = 1.5252
= 2.325 625
Calculate Var(Y).
Var(Y) = E(Y2) [E(Y)]2

= 2.5875 2.325 625
= 0.261 875
SD(Y) =
0.261 875
= 0.51
The standard deviation of tolls paid is $0.51.
interpreting the standard deviation

Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
A characteristic of many distributions is that approximately 95% of the spread or distribution lies
between 2 standard deviations of the mean; that is,
Pr( 2 X + 2) 0.95.
It is important to note that when calculating the Pr( 2 X + 2) for a specific distribution an
exact value of 0.95 will not always be achieved, but should be close to it.
For many random variables, approximately 95% of the spread of the population lies between
2 standard deviations of the mean, that is,
Pr( 2 X + 2) 0.95.
Worked examPle 30
A probability distribution is shown below.

Given that = 3.38 and = 0.946, calculate Pr( 2 X + 2).
x
Pr(X = x)
498
0.14
0.5
0.23
0.1
0.03
Think
WriTe
Calculate 2.
2 = 3.38 2 0.946
= 3.38 1.892
= 1.488
Calculate + 2.
+ 2 = 3.38 + 2 0.946
= 3.38 + 1.892
= 5.272
Substitute the values obtained in steps 1

and 2 into the given interval.
Since X represents discrete values,
Pr(1.488 X 5.272) becomes
Pr(2 X 5).
Pr( 2 X + 2) = Pr(1.488 X 5.272)

= Pr(2 X 5)
= 0.14 + 0.5 + 0.23 + 0.1
= 0.97
Note: In this example, 97% of the distribution lies within
2 standard deviations of the mean, which is close to the
estimated 95%.
Worked examPle 31
The table below represents the probability distribution of the number of accidents per week
in a factory.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.02
0.22
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.07
0.13
0.03
0.05
Given that = 4.36 and = 2.105 find Pr( 2 X + 2).

Think
WriTe
Calculate 2.
2 = 4.36 2 2.105
= 4.36 4.21
= 0.15
Calculate + 2.
+ 2 = 4.36 + 2 2.105
= 4.36 + 4.21
= 8.57
Substitute the values obtained in steps 1

and 2 into the given interval.
Since X represents discrete values,
Pr(0.15 X 8.57) becomes
Pr(1 X 8).
Note: In this example,
Pr(1 X 8) = 1 Pr(X = 9).
Pr( 2 X + 2) = Pr(0.15 X 8.57)

= Pr(1 X 8)
= Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2)
+ Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4)
+ Pr(X = 5) + Pr(X = 6)
+ Pr(X = 7) + Pr(X = 8)
= 1 Pr(X = 9)
= 1 0.05
= 0.95
Note: The answer is the estimated one of 95%. In this
case, 95% of the distribution lies within 2standard
deviations of the mean.
Worked examPle 32
The probability distribution of X is given by the formula:

x2
Pr(X = x) =
where x = 2, 3, 4, 5.
54
Find:
a the probability distribution of X as a table
b the expected value of X, correct to 4 decimal places
c the standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal places
d Pr( 2 X + 2), correct to 3 decimal places.
TUTorial
eles-1231
Worked example 32
499
Think
a 1 Substitute each of the x-values into the

probability.
WriTe
a When x = 2, p(x) =
=
When x = 3, p(x) =
=
When x = 4, p(x) =
=
When x = 5, p(x) =
Enter the information into a table.
b 1 Calculate the expected value.
Pr(X = x)
2
27
1
6
8
27
25
54
=
c 1 Calculate [E(X)]2.
2
+ 3 16 +
27
4
3
32
125
+ 6 + 27 + 54
27
4
4 27
b E(X) = 2
4
54
2
27
9
54
1
6
16
54
8
27
25
54
8
25
4 27
+ 5 54
= 4.1481
4
c [E(X)]2 = (4 27 )2
151
= 17 729 ( 17.2071)
2
Calculate E(X2).
25
E(X2) = 22 27 + 32 6 + 42 27 + 52 54
8
= 27 + 6 +
128
27
625
54
= 189 ( 18.1111)
3
Calculate Var(X).
Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2

1
151
= 18 9 17 729
= 659
( 0.9040)
729
d 1 Calculate 2.
SD(X) = 0.9040
= 0.9 507 776 039
= 0.9508
d 2 = 4.1481 2 0.9508
= 4.1481 1.9016
= 2.2465
Calculate + 2.
+ 2 = 4.1481 + 2 0.9508
= 4.1481 + 1.9016
= 6.0497
Substitute the values obtained in steps1

and 2 into the given interval. Since X
represents discrete values,
Pr(2.2465 X 6.0497) becomes
Pr(3 X 6).
Pr( 2 X + 2)
= Pr(2.2465 X 6.0497)
= Pr(3 X 6)
= 1 Pr(X = 2)
2
= 1 27
25
= 27
4
500
= 0.926
Note: In this example, 92.6% of the distribution lies
within 2 standard deviations of the mean, which is
close to the estimated value of 95%.
measures of variability of discrete

exercise 10d
1 We25 Find the expected value and variance of the following probability distribution table.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.1
diGiTal doC
doc-9222
Spreadsheet
Probability distribution
Pr(X = x)
1
8
3
16
9
16
1
8
Find:
a the expected value, E(X)
b the variance of X, Var(X).
3 The cost of a loaf of bread is known to vary on any day according to the following probability
distribution.
x
$1.20
$1.25
$1.30
$1.35
$1.60
Pr(Y = y)
0.05
0.2
0.1
0.25
0.4
Find:
a the expected cost of a loaf of bread
b the variance of the cost.
4 We26 Find the variance of 2Y 1 for the following probability distribution table.
x
Pr(Y = y)
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
x
Pr(X = x)
0.15
0.3
0.42
0.13
Find:
a Var(X)
d Var(5X + 7).
c Var(3X + 1)
b Var(2X)
x
Pr(X = x)
0.27
0.15
0.13
0.1
0.35
Find:
a Var(X)
7 We27
x
Pr(X = x)
c Var(10X 5)
b Var(3X)
d Var(5X 2).
Let X be a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.

2
0.3
0.1
0.5
0.1

8 Let X be a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4

9 We28 A random variable has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
1
4
1
3
1
4
1
6
Calculate the expected value, the variance and the standard deviation.
501
x
Pr(X = x)
6
0.3
7
0.3
10
0.2
12
0.2
Find:
a the expected value, E(X)
b the variance of X, Var(X)
c the standard deviation of X, SD(X), to 2 decimal places.
11
For a random variable, X, E(X) = 12 and E(X2) = 340.
Find the standard deviation of X.
12 For a random variable, X, E(X) = 20 and E(X2) = 529.
Find the standard deviation of X, to 2 decimal places.
13 We29 In order to encourage car pooling, a new toll is to be
introduced on the International Gateway. If the car has no passengers,
a toll of $2 applies. Cars with one passenger pay a $1.50 toll, cars
with two passengers pay a $1 toll and cars with 3 or more passengers
pay no toll. Long-term statistics show that the number of passengers
follows the probability distribution given below.
x
0
1
2
3
0.5
0.3
0.15
0.05
Pr(X = x)
a Construct a probability distribution of the toll paid.
b Find the mean toll paid per car.
c Find the standard deviation of tolls paid.
14 We31 The table below represents the probability distribution of
the number of accidents per week in afactory.

x
1
2
3
4
0.03
0.21
0.16
0.18
Pr(X = x)
5
0.14
6
0.07
7
0.15
Given that = 4.35 and = 2.08, find Pr( 2 X + 2).

15 We32 The probability distribution of X is given by the formula, Pr(X = x) =
8
0.01
9
0.05
x2
where x = 1,3, 5.
35
Find:
the probability distribution of X as a table
the expected value of X
the standard deviation of X, to 4 decimal places
Pr( 2 X + 2).
x2 1
16 The probability distribution of X is given by the formula, Pr(X = x) =
where x = 2, 3, 4, 5.
50
Find:
b the expected value of X
c the standard deviation of X
d Pr( 2 X + 2).
x
1
2
3
4
0.4
0.2
0.2
k
Pr(X = x)
a
b
c
d
Find:
a the value of the constant k
b the most likely value of X
c E(X), the mean of X
d Var(X), the variance of X
e SD(X), the standard deviation of X, to 4 decimal places
f Pr( 2 X + 2).
18 Calculate the values between which 95% of the distribution would be expected to lie where:
a = 4, = 2
b = 10, = 3
c = 35, = 7
d = 21.6, = 5.2
1
1
e = 9.7, = 0.7
f = 17 2 , = 23.
502
19 Two fair dice are rolled and the outcomes are noted. If X represents the sum of the two numbers
showing, find:
a the expected value of X
b the variance of X, to 2 decimal places
c Pr( 2 X + 2), correct to 2 decimal places.
20 For the spinner shown at right, X represents the number obtained.
Find:
b the expected value of X
c the standard deviation of X, to 2 decimal places
d the probability that the number is 4, given that it is not 1.
21 mC The following table represents a discrete probability distribution
for a random variable, X.
x
Pr(X = x)
2k
3k
4k
2
2
The standard deviation of x is:

a 1.0
B 1.2
C 1.8
d 2.0
e 2.2
Questions 22 and 23 refer to the following information. The probability distribution of X is given in
the table below.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.2
22 mC The variance and standard deviation of X, respectively, are:

a 3.9, 15.21
B 26.1, 3.3
23 mC Var (6X 3) is equal to:

a 91.26
B 541.56
C 26.1, 3.9
d 26.1, 5.11
e 11.61, 3.41
C 417.96
d 939.6
e 140.4
503
Summary
Outcomes are results of experiments.

The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space and is denoted by ,
and each possible outcome is called a sample point.
A subset of the sample space is known as an event.
The union (symbol ) of two events A and B implies a combined event, that is, either event A or
event B or both occurring. Common elements are written only once.
The intersection (symbol ) of two events A and B is represented by the common sample points of
the two events.
Venn diagrams involve drawing a rectangle that represents the sample space and a series of circles
that represent subsets of the sample space. They provide a visual representation of the information
at hand and clearly display the relationships between sets.
The probability of an event occurring is defined by the rule:
.
Pr(A) =
The probability of an event occurring lies within the restricted interval 0 Pr(A) 1.
The individual probabilities of a particular experiment will sum to 1; that is, p(x) = 1.
The addition rule of probability is defined by the rule Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A B).
If two events A and B are mutually exclusive, then Pr(A B) = 0 and therefore the addition rule
becomes Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B).
If two events A and B are independent, then Pr(A B) = Pr(A) Pr(B).
Karnaugh maps and probability tables summarise all combinations of two events (for example A
and B) and their complements (for example A and B).
Pr( A B)
Conditional probability is defined by the rule Pr(A | B) =
, where Pr(B) 0. This can be
Pr( B)
transposed to Pr(A B) = Pr(A | B) Pr(B).
Tree diagrams are useful tools in solving probability tasks as they display each of the possible
outcomes along with their respective probabilities.
A combination is defined by nCr, that is, the number of selections of n different objects taken r at a time.
discrete random
variables
A random variable is one whose value is determined by the outcome of an experiment.

Discrete random variables generally deal with number or size and are able to be counted.
Two important characteristics satisfy all discrete probability distributions:
1. Each probability lies in a restricted interval 0 Pr(X = x) 1.
2. The probabilities of a particular experiment sum to 1; that is,
Pr( X = x ) = 1
If these two characteristics are not satisfied, then there is no discrete probability distribution.
measures of centre
of discrete random
distributions
The expected value of a discrete random variable, X, is denoted by E(X) or the symbol (mu). It is
defined by the rule:
E(X) = x Pr (X = x ).
all x
A game is considered fair if the cost to play the game is equal to the expected gain.
A fair game is one in which E(X) = 0.
The expected value of a linear function can be calculated using the expectation theorems:
E(aX) = aE(X)
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
E(b) = b
E(X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y).
Note: E(X2) [E(X)]2
The median is the middle value of a distribution.
The mode is the variable with the highest probability.
504
measures of variability
of discrete random
distributions
The variance is denoted by Var(X) or the symbol 2 (sigma squared).

It is defined by the rule:
Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2.
The variance of a linear function can also be calculated by the following rule:
Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X).
The standard deviation is written as SD(X) or denoted by the symbol .
It is defined by the rule:
SD(X) = Var( X )
= 2.
Approximately 95% of the spread of the population in many distributions lies between 2 standard
deviations of the mean, that is,
Pr( 2 X + 2) 0.95.
505
Chapter review
S h orT
anS Wer
1 The Santaroos have 3 soccer teams, A, B and C, entered in the interschool championships. Each team is
entered in a separate division. The probability of each team winning their particular final is given as follows:
1
1
3
Pr(Team B iwns) = 3
Pr(Team C iwns) = 4 .
Pr(Team A wins) = 2
Find the probability that:
a none of the Santaroos teams win
b one of the Santaroos teams wins
c two of the Santaroos teams win
d each of the Santaroos teams win their particular final.
2 Thirty students were required to complete a logic puzzle. The time taken to complete the puzzle was
recorded in the table below.

Time taken (whole number of minutes)
Number of students
3
4
4
8
5
10
6
2
7
6
4
0.2
5
0.1
For the information given:

a what proportion of students completed the puzzle in less than 5 minutes?
b what proportion of students took more than 5minutes to complete the puzzle?
3 The probability distribution for the service time at a bakery is given below.
Service time (whole number of minutes)

Probability
1
0.2
2
0.3
3
0.2
a What is the probability that the service time for a customer is:
i 2 minutes?
ii 2 minutes or less?
iii more than 2 minutes?
iv not more than 4 minutes, given it is more than 1 minute?
b What is the expected value for the service time?
c If 50 customers were served at the bakery in a morning, how many of these would you expect to
take 4 minutes to be served?

4 The probability distribution of X is given by the formula, Pr(X = x) =
Find:
b the expected value of X.
x2
, where x = 1, 2, 3, 4.
30
5 A player rolls a fair die. If the player gets a 1 on the first roll, she rolls again and her score is the sum of the
two results, otherwise her score is the result of the first roll. The die cannot be thrown more than twice.
Find:
a the probability distribution
b the expected score
c Pr(X < ).
6 Tayah and Sandy are playing a game where a biased die is rolled. The probabilities of rolling each
number are Pr(1) = 0.2, Pr(2) = Pr(3) = Pr(5) = 0.1, Pr(4) = 0.3 and Pr(6) = 0.2.
They have to pay $1.00 to play. If a 2, 3 or 5 is rolled, they win $3. If a 1 or 6 is rolled, they get their
money back, and if a 4 is rolled, they do not receive any money. Is this a fair game to play?
7 A game of three-up is played where three coins are tossed simultaneously. A player must pay $2 to
play the game. If three heads come up, the player collects $6. If two heads come up, the player collects
$3. Is it a fair game?
8 Kylie is about to compete in her clubs archery finals. If she is equally
likely to hit any point on the board and never misses the target, find:
a her expected score from
i 1 shot at the target shown
ii 5 shots at the target shown
b her probability of getting five points on every one of her 5 shots.
9 For the following probability distributions, calculate:
i the median
ii the mode.
506
30 cm
2 points
5 points
10 cm
11 points
20 cm
0.1
0.45
0.09
0.26
0.1
11
Pr(X = x)
1
5
1
5
1
10
2
5
1
10
Pr(X = x)
b
10 At Fast Eddys Drive-In Theatre the cost is $5 per car, plus $1 per occupant. The variable X represents
the number of people in any car and is known to follow the probability distribution below.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
Find:
a the expected cost per car
b Fast Eddys expected profit if 100 cars enter and costs for wages, electricity, etc. are $300
c the mode.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.1
0.25
0.35
0.3
Find the value of n if the mean is 4.7.

12 Five thousand scratch-and-match tickets are to be sold for $2 each. The tickets offer the following prizes:
1 prize of $5000
2 prizes of $500
20 prizes of $50
100 prizes of $10.
Find:
a the expected loss per ticket
b the profit made by organisers, that is, the house
c the house percentage.
13 A raffle is to be drawn from 500 tickets. Each ticket was purchased for $1, with first prize being $200,
second prize $150 and third prize $100. Find:

a the expected loss per ticket
b the profit made by organisers, that is, the house
c the house percentage.
x ( x + 1)
14 Pr(X = x) =
for 0 x n
40
a Find the value of n.
b Find the probability distribution for X as a table.
c Find the expected value of X.
1 If Pr(A) = 0.65, Pr(B) = 0.37 and Pr (A B) = 0.28, then Pr(A B) is equal to:
a 0.93
B 0.56
C 0.09
d 0.74
2 If Pr(A) = 0.47, Pr(B) = 0.27 and Pr (A B) = 0.19, then Pr(A | B) is equal to:
a 0.57
B 0.40
C 0.70
d 0.43
e 1.02
m U lTiP l e
C ho iC e
e 0.30
3 The probability that Fiona attends an aerobics class is 0.60, and the probability that Kath attends an
aerobics class is 0.85. If these two events are independent, the probability of one of these two people
attending an aerobics class is:
a 0.60
B 0.85
C 0.51
d 0.34
e 0.43
4 Which of the following random variables is discrete?
a
B
C
d
e
The number of runs scored by Sir Donald Bradman in his cricketing career
The weight of people in an elevator
The life span of a fly
The volume, in litres, of water in the Yarra River
The time, in hours, for a student to complete a Mathematical Methods test
507
5 Which of the following does not represent a probability distribution?
Pr(X = x)
10
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.24
0.03
0.56
0.07
12
15
0.36
0.12
0.4
0.02
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.09
0.12
0.41
0.18
0.2
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
x
Pr(X = x)
6 X is a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.1
The probability that the variable is an odd number, given that it is less than 4 is:
1
a 2
B 10
C 5
d 7
e 3
7 The value of k for the following probability distribution is:
x
Pr(X = x)
a 0.15
0.3
5k
0.2
3k
0.1
B 0.05
C 0.25
d 0.4
e 1
8 A die is biased so that Pr(X = 1) = Pr(X = 2) = 0.1 and Pr(X = 3) = Pr(X = 4) = Pr(X = 5) = Pr(X = 6) = 0.2.
A game is played where a player rolls the die. The player receives $5 if a number greater than 4 is
obtained but must pay $2 if a number less than or equal to 4 comes up. The expected result for the player
for each roll is:
a a loss of 80c
B a loss of $1.40
C a win of 80c
d a loss of $1.40
e a win of $1.20
9 Gertrudes Gambling House offers patrons a card game which uses a deck comprising four aces, three
kings, two queens and one jack. A player draws a card at random. If a jack is drawn the player wins
$5, while a queen results in a win of $2. However, if the player draws an ace, a loss of $1 is incurred.
On average, Gertrudes Gambling House wins 40c each time the game is played. If a king is drawn, a
player must pay:
a $1.00
B $3.00
C $1.50
d $2.00
e $2.50
10 Sams chance of getting a bullseye while playing darts is 0.1 and his chance of missing the board
altogether is 0.2. Sam collects $2 for a bullseye or 20c for hitting any other part of the board. If the
game is to be fair, missing the board altogether means Sam must pay:
a $1.70
B $2.70
C $2.20
d $1.50
e $1.85
11 The toll for a new freeway is $2 per car and 50cperoccupant. Long-term surveys show that X, the
number of occupants per car, is distributed as follows.

x
Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
The expected toll for each car is:

a $3.20
B $3
508
C $3.50
d $2.95
e $3.65
Questions 12 and 13 refer to the following probability distribution.

x
Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
12 E(X) is equal to:

a 2.5
B 3.1
C 5.2
d 2.4
e 2.6
B 4.5
C 4
d 7.5
e 5
13 E(5X 8) is equal to:

a 18
Questions 14, 15 and 16 refer to the following probability distribution.

x
Pr(X = x)
0.1
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.3
14 E(X) is equal to:

a 1.2
B 0.5
C 1.4
d 1.5
e 0.3
B 1.7
C 1.91
d 0.61
e 2.11
C 7.73
d 15.3
e 2.7
15 Var(X) is equal to:

a 2
16 Var(3X + 2) is equal to:

a 8
B 17.19
x
Pr(X = x)
12
0.21
0.35
0.17
0.27
The mean and standard deviation are:

a = 6 and = 3.3
C = 7.6 and = 3.3
e = 6 and = 10.89
B = 7.5 and = 10.89

d = 7.5 and = 3.3
18 Let X be a random variable with the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
The values between which 95% of the distribution lie for the discrete random variable X are:
a [1, 3]
B [1, 4]
C [2, 4]
d [1, 2]
e [2, 3]
1 Bobs Bakery makes four different types of doughnut, each at a different price, depending on the
ingredients used. A school canteen buys all its doughnuts from Bob and is currently estimating budgets
for the upcoming financial year. Types of doughnut and their prices are listed below, along with their
popularity (expressed as a probability).
Doughnut type
Cost per box (2 dozen)
Probability
Jam
$14.40
1
4
Iced
$15.60
1
4
Cinnamon
$12.00
3
10
Iced jam
$18.00
1
5
ex Ten d ed
r eS P o n S e
Find:
a the mean price per box
b the standard deviation per box
c the average price per doughnut.
509
21
28
The canteen wants to make a 14% profit on costs.

3 26 0 32 15 1
Find:
35
9
12
4
d the cost of a doughnut at the canteen, if all doughnuts
are to be sold for the same amount
e the average profit per box.
2 Amina plays roulette, a game where a wheel containing 37 slots
numbered 036 is spun and the winning number is the one in which
a ball lodges when the wheel stops spinning. Amina plays three
different games:
a First she bets $20 on her favourite number coming up at
Casino-nominated odds of 35:1 against.
i How much would Amina collect if her number came up?
ii Find her expected win or loss for the game.
iii Is this game fair?
b In the second game Amina bets $20 on an even number coming up at Casino-nominated odds of
1:1 (even money chance).
i How much would Amina collect if an even number came up?
c In game number three, Amina bets $20 on a line of 12; that is, if numbers 112 come up, she
wins. The Casino-nominated odds for this game are 2:1 against.
i How much would Amina collect if one of her numbers came up?
d What is the house percentage for these games?
3 A door-to-door telecommunications representative has recorded her day-by-day sales figures over
a period of time. She knows that her probability of selling X packages on any one day follows the
probability distribution shown in the table.
6
20
14 3
1 9 22 18 29
5 17 34 6 27 1
22
33
3
11
23 10 5 24 1
63
0 8
3
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
diGiTal doC
doc-9225
Test Yourself
Chapter 10
510
x
Pr(X = y)
>5
2t2
3t
2t2
2t
4t2 + t
Find the value of t.

Find the probability that she sells at least 2 packages on any one day.
Find the probability that she sells at most 4 packages on any one day.
Find the number of packages she can expect to sell each day.
Calculate the Var(X) and standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal places.
Find Pr( 2 X + 2).
If the representative receives a commission of $25 per package sold and a bonus of $200 if she
sells 4 or more packages in one day, find her expected daily earnings from commissions and
bonuses.
h Given that the representative will sell at least two packages tomorrow, find the probability that
she will get her $200 bonus.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGiTal doC
applications of discrete random variables. (page 465)
10a
TUTorialS
We7 eles-1226: Watch a worked example on calculating
conditional probability. (page 473)
We10 eles-1227: Watch a worked example on considering
combinations when conducting probability experiments. (page 476)
10B
TUTorial
We16 eles-1228: Watch a worked example on verifying
probability functions. (page 482)
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9222: Investigate probability distributions.
(page 484)
WorkSHEET 10.1 doc-9223: Determine probabilities given discrete
data and distributions including conditional probability and graphs.
(page 487)
10C measures of centre of discrete random

distributions
TUTorial
measures of centre. (page 489)
diGiTal doCS
SkillSHEET 10.1 doc-9268: Practise finding the expected value of a
function of a random variable. (page 494)
WorkSHEET 10.2 doc-9224: Calculate probabilities, expected values
and variance for discrete probability distributions. (page 494)
10d measures of variability of discrete random

distributions
inTeraCTiViTY
Measures of variability of discrete random distributions int-0255:
Consolidate your understanding of measures of centre and
variability. (page 495)
TUTorialS
variance. (page 495)
We32 eles-1231: Watching a worked example on constructing a
probability distribution table. (page 499)
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet doc-9222: Investigate probability distributions.
(page 501)
Chapter review
diGiTal doC
511
Answers CHAPTER 10
diSCreTe random VariaBleS
exercise 10a
1
1 a 18
e 7
12
2 a i 14
1
b 36
c 16
f 12
g 5
5
ii 12
iii 13
12
5
b 14 + 12
+ 13 = 1
c i 23
ii 2
3 a i 81
d 81
4 a
b
e
3
8
5 0.7
7 a 0.2
8 a
c
e
iv 1
1
4
3
8
3
8
5
8
iii
3
3
8
1
2
1
4
b
d
b
d
11
9 a
c No
10 No
A
A
Row 1
Row 2
Row 3
6 0.1
b 0.8
2
5
17
40
3
8
1
3
12 a
d 65
Column
1
B
0.22
0.08
0.30
exercise 10B
1 a
c
e
g
2a

Discrete
b Continuous
Continuous
d Discrete
Continuous
f Discrete
Continuous
h Discrete
Pr(X = x)
1
4
1
2
1
4
10 a
3
4
1
2
1
4
Pr(X = x)
d
Column
3
4 a
0.32
0.68
1
e Yes
b 0.4
16 a 0.7
25
17 a 64
c 27
35
b 0.3
19 D
21 B
23 a 0.4
22 14
b 0.5
c 15
32
f 18
25
g 35
h 12
15
7
i 20
25
25 a 72
26 A
28 a 55
64
29 a 0.3277
30 0.5
32
22
31
33 a 0.1035 (4 d.p.)
c 0.2746 (4 d.p.)
512
7
15
19
66
27 B
b 67
b 0.64
31 92
b 0.3929 (4 d.p.)
16 25 36
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
3
1
6
1
45
1
9
1
5
13
45
17
45
3
160
1
10
9
32
3
5
x
0
1
2
3
Pr(X = x) 0.1715 0.4115 0.3292 0.0878
b 0.1060
15 a (1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (1, 2),
(2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3),
(3, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4),
(4, 4), (5, 4), (1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5),
(5, 5)
b i Pr(A) = 35
ii Pr(B) = 25
iv Pr(D) = 19
25
ii Pr(B | C) = 12
c i Pr(A | B) = 35
10
iii Pr(C | D) = 19
16 a
x
Pr(X = x)
d 0.24
g 4
4
25
12
25
9
25
b 0.55
e
c 0.54
31
55
f 4
18 C
19 C
21 D
22 B
24 a x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
b x
0
b 0.6
Pr(X = x)
d 0.1
3
13
1
13
1
13
1
13
7
13
b k = 5 was discarded as it would result in
negative probabilities.
8 a
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pr(X = x)
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1
36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9
5
c 18
9
4
b 25
+ 12
25 + 25 = 1
17 a 0.54
1
c 11
7 a
1
6
Pr(X = x)
1 2 3 4 x
b 16
1
6
iii Pr(C) = 12
25
5 a, d
6 a 0.2
x
Pr(X = x)
1
6
14 a
c 0.74
e 0.76
1
5
c 25
13 x
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
d 17
32
d 0.26
1
b 15
1
8
d Pr(X = x)
20 D
24 a 25
8
c 15
3
8
2 4 6 8 10 x
33
18 C
3
8
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
d 7
9
b 64
1
8
c Pr(X = x)
b 0.39
c 0.495
5 10 15 20 x
c 0.5
1
5
5
6
Pr(X = x)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
c 13
b 12
1
5
c 12
12 x
smoker, Pr(A B) = 0.60.

c i 0.10
ii 0.08
iii 0.32
iv 0.70
1
5
x
Pr(X = x)
b Pr(X = x)
Pr(A B) = 0.22.
1
5
c 35
x
Pr(X = x)
Pr(X = x)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
ii Pr(A B) represents a fit non-
13 a 23
d No
14 a 0.7
15 a 0.105
7
8
b i Pr(A B) represents an unfit smoker,
2
5
11 a
TTH, TTT
Yes
Yes
g 95
b 65
1
2
35
f 36
x
Pr(X = x)
b Pr(X = x)
b x = 0, 1, 2, 3
c x
Column
2
B
0.10
0.60
0.70
9 a
3 a HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
13
40
3
20
29
e 36
1
12
7
d 36
1
18
1
36
20 E
23 D
1
16
1
4
3
8
1
4
1
16
exercise 10C measures of centre of

discrete random distributions
13
1 7.11
2 18
3 a = 0.09, E(X) = 5.42
1
4 a = 18
, E(X) = 5 13
5 b = 0.15, E(X) = 2.39

6 k = 0.05, E(X) = 13
7 a x
1 2
Pr(X = x)
b 3 12
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
8 a
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pr(X = x)
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1
36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9
b 7
9 a x
Pr(X = x)
1
12
1
18
1
36
1
16
1
4
3
8
1
4
1
16
6 a 8.7899
c 878.99
7 10
9 2 13 , 1.0556, 1.0274
10 a 8.3
b 5.41
11 14
13 a
b 2
10 a = 0.15, b = 0.05 11 a = 0.1, b = 0.2

12 a $3.75
b No, because although his expected gain
is $3.75 per game, he must pay $5 to

play each game. Therefore his loss per
game will be $1.25.
c No, because the expected gain is not
equal to the initial cost of the game.
13 a $0
b No, because even though her expected
gain (that is, her average gain per game
in the long run) is $0, she could still lose
$40 in one single game.
c Yes, because E(X) = 0.
14 11
15 17
16 a
8
125
36
125
54
125
27
125
0.064
0.288
0.432
0.216
Pr(X = x)
OR
b 1 45
17 a
18
c
19
20
2 13
c 2
b
a 2.24
7.16
$1452
a i 3.5
b i 9
c i 0.5
9 13
5 23
b 2.96
d 18.48
ii
ii
ii
measures of variability of
1 2.3, 0.81
2 a
5 83
3 a $1.42
4 4.96
5 a 3.2364
c 29.1276
55
2 64
b $0.02
b 12.9456
d 80.91
y
Pr(Y = y)
4 13
25
16 a
b
d
17 a
d
18 a
c
Pr(X = x)
1.5
0.3
1
0.15
0
0.05
c $0.51
Pr(X = x)
1
35
9
35
5
7
x
Pr(X = x)
3
50
4
25
3
10
12
25
f 12 65 X 22 16
b 5.83
c 0.94
e 8.3 X 11.1
x
Pr(X = x)
b 2.25
1
4
3
8
1
4
1
8
d 16
c 0.97
21 A
22 E
23 C
ChaPTer reVieW
ShorT anSWer
1
1 a 12
2 a
9
b 24
5
c 12
2
5
iii 0.5
iv 87 (0.875)
3 a i 0.3
b 2.7 min
4
15
ii 0.5
c 10
d 81
1
30
2
15
3
10
8
15
7
36
7
36
7
36
7
36
7
36
1
36
1
7
412
c 12
6 No, it is not a fair game.
7 No
8 a i 4
ii 20
9 a i 4
b i 7
21
4 15
c
( 0.9165)
5
Pr(2.3669 X 6.0330) = Pr(3 X 6)
= 0.94
0.2
b 1
c 2.2
1.36
e 1.1662
f1
0X8
b 4 X 16
21 X 49
d 11.2 X 32
20 a
1
b 243
d 34
35
c 1.0443
x
Pr(X = x)
b 3 13
5 a x
c 2.33
2
0.5
b $1.60
14 0.95
15 a x
4 a
12 11.36
19 a 7
1
615
5
8
exercise 10d
b 79.1091
d 219.7475
8 5
ii 4
ii 8
10 a $8.10
11 7
12 a 40 cents
b $510
c 2
b $2000
c 20%
13 a 10 cents
14 a 4
b x
b $50
c 10%
Pr(X = x)
1
20
3
20
3
10
1
2
c 3 14
mUlTiPle ChoiCe
1
4
7
10
13
16
D
A
B
A
C
B
2
5
8
11
14
17
C
D
C
A
E
D
3
6
9
12
15
18
E
D
B
D
C
B
exTended reSPonSe
1 a
c
e
2 a
b
c
d
$14.70
b $2.14
61.25 cents
d 70 cents
$2.10
i $720
ii Loss of 54 cents
i $40
ii Loss of 54 cents
i $60
ii Loss of 54 cents
2.7%
3 a 81
c
7
8
iii No
iii No
iii No
b 19
32
d 2.5625 packages
e Var(X) = 2.3086, SD(X) = 1.5194

f 1
g $126.56
h 10
19
513
ChapTer 11

ChapTer ConTenTS
11a
11B
11C
11d

Problems involving the binomial distribution for multiple probabilities
Markov chains and transition matrices
Expected value, variance and standard deviation of the binomial distribution
diGiTal doC
doc-9226
10 Quick Questions
Units: 3 & 4
11a
The binomial distribution is an example of a particular type of discrete probability distribution. It has
relevance and importance in many real-life everyday applications. This particular branch of mathematics
moves away from the textbook and the classroom and into the areas of medical research, simulation
activities and business applications such as quality control.
The binomial distribution may be referred to as a Bernoulli distribution, and the trials conducted are
known as Bernoulli trials. They were named in honour of the Swiss mathematician Jakob Bernoulli
(16541705).
Bernoulli trials and sequences

A Bernoulli trial is an experiment in which the outcome is either a success or a failure.
A Bernoulli sequence is a sequence of Bernoulli trials in which:
1. the probability of each possible outcome is independent of the results of the previous trial
2. the probability of each possible outcome is the same for each trial.
Note: In a Bernoulli sequence, the number of successes follows the binomial distribution.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch
a video about
binomial
distributions.
Worked example 1
Determine which of the following sequences can be defined as Bernoulli sequences.

a Rolling an 8-sided die numbered 1 to 8 forty times and recording the number of
6s obtained
b Drawing a card from a fair deck with replacement and recording the number of aces
c Rolling a die 60 times and recording the number that is obtained
Think
a Check that all the characteristics have been
satisfied for a Bernoulli sequence.
WriTe
a Yes, this is an example of a Bernoulli sequence,
as there are two possible outcomes for each

trial (success is obtaining a 6 and failure is
not obtaining a 6), the outcome of each trial is
independent of the outcome of previous trials,
and the probability of success is the same for
each trial.
ChapTer 11 The binomial distribution
515
b Check that all the characteristics have been
b Yes, this is an example of a Bernoulli sequence,
as there are two possible outcomes for each trial

(success is obtaining an ace and failure is not
obtaining an ace), the outcome of each trial is
independent of the outcome of previous trials, and
the probability of success is the same for each trial
(as each time a card is drawn it is replaced).
c Check that all the characteristics have been
c This is not an example of a Bernoulli sequence,
since success has not been defined.
If X represents a random variable that has a binomial distribution, then it can be expressed as:
X Bi(n, p) or X B(n, p).
Translated into words, X Bi(n, p) means that X follows a binomial distribution with parameters n
(the number of trials) and p (the probability of success).
Consider the experiment where a fair die is rolled four times. If X represents the number of times a
3 appears uppermost, then X is a binomial variable. Obtaining a 3 will represent a success and all other
values will represent a failure. The die is rolled four times so the number of trials, n, equals 4 and the
probability, p, of obtaining a 3 is equal to 1. Using the shorthand notation, X Bi(n, p) becomes X Bi(4, 1).
6
6
We will now determine the probability of a 3 appearing uppermost 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 times. Obtaining
3 is defined as a success and is denoted by S. All other numbers are defined as a failure and are denoted
by F. The possible outcomes are listed in the table below.
Note that q = 1 p; the probability of a failure.
Occurrence of 3
Possible outcomes
Probability
FFFF
SFFF FSFF FFSF

FFFS
4 (65)
SSFF SFSF SFFS

FSSF FSFS FFSS
6 (65)
SSSF SSFS SFSS FSSS
SSSS
625
1 (65) = 1296
4
500
( ) = 1296
3 1
6
()
2 1 2
6
150
= 1296
20
4 (65)(16) = 1296
3
1
1 (16) = 1296
4
q4
4q3p
6q2p2
4qp3
p4
It is interesting to note that the binomial probability distribution is closely related to the binomial
theorem (see far right-hand column). Furthermore, if we examine the coefficients of the terms that
is, 1, 4, 6, 4, 1 it is evident that they are the entries of Pascals triangle.
This procedure for determining the individual probabilities can become tedious, particularly once
the number of trials increases. Hence if X is a binomial random variable, its probability distribution is
defined as follows.
Pr(X = x) = nCx pxqn x where x = 0, 1, 2, . . . n. That is:
x = the occurrence of the successful outcome.
The formula may also be written as:
Pr(X = x) = nCx px(1 p)n x where x = 0, 1, 2, . . . n.
Here, the probability of failure, q, is replaced by 1 p.
nC
represents the number of ways that x different outcomes can be obtained from n trials. It can also be
n
n!
written as and has the formula nCx =
.
x
x !(n x )!

x
516
Since this is a probability distribution, we would expect that the sum of the probabilities is 1.
Therefore, for the previous example:
Pr(X = x) = Pr(X = 0) + Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2) + Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4)
625
+ 500 + 150 + 20 + 1
= 1296
1296 1296 1296 1296
= 1.
Worked example 2
A binomial variable, X, has the probability function Pr(X = x) = 6Cx(0.4)x(0.6)6 x

where x = 0, 1, . . . 6. Find:
a n, the numbe
r of ials
tr
b p, the probability of success
c the probability distribution for x as a table.
Think
TUTorial
eles-1191
Worked example 2
WriTe
a Obtain the relevant information from the a n = 6
given function. The number of trials, n,

is the value of the number located at the
top left-hand corner of C.
b Obtain the relevant information from the
given function. The probability of success,

p, is the value in the first bracket.
b p = 0.4
c 1 Write the rule of the given probability c Pr(X = x) = 6Cx(0.4)x(0.6)6 x
function.
Substitute x = 0 into the rule.
Evaluate.
Evaluate.
Evaluate.
Evaluate.
10
11
Evaluate.
12
13
Evaluate.
14
15
Evaluate.
16
Place values in a table.

Note: The table at right clearly
displays the probability distribution
of the given function. It also shows
that the individual probabilities
sum to 1.
Pr(X = 0) = 6C0(0.4)0(0.6)6
= 1 1 0.046 656
= 0.046 656
Pr(X = 1) = 6C1(0.4)(0.6)5
= 6 0.4 0.077 76
= 0.186 624
Pr(X = 2) = 6C2(0.4)2(0.6)4
= 15 0.16 0.1296
= 0.311 04
Pr(X = 3) = 6C3(0.4)3(0.6)3
= 20 0.064 0.216
= 0.276 48
Pr(X = 4) = 6C4(0.4)4(0.6)2
= 15 0.0256 0.36
= 0.138 24
Pr(X = 5) = 6C5(0.4)5(0.6)
= 6 0.010 24 0.6
= 0.036 864
Pr(X = 6) = 6C6(0.4)6(0.6)0
= 1 0.004 096 1
= 0.004 096
x
Pr(X = x) 0.0467 0.1866 0.3110 0.2765 0.1382 0.0369 0.0041
517
Worked example 3
A fair die is rolled five times. Find the probability of obtaining:

a exactly four 5s
b exactly two even numbers
c all results greater than 3
d a 5 on the first roll only
e a 5 on the second and third roll only.
Think
a 1 Check that all the characteristics have been
WriTe
a Binomial distribution n independent trials
satisfied for a binomial distribution.
and two outcomes, fixed p and q.
Write the rule for the binomial probability

distribution.
Pr(X = x) = nCx pxqn x
Define and assign values to variables. The

number of 5s obtained is exactly four.
n=5
Let X = the number of 5s obtained.
That is, x = 4
p = probability of a 5 = 16
q = 56
Evaluate.
Pr( X = 4) = 5C4 (16)

=5
25
= 7776
b 1 Define and assign values to variables.
Two even numbers means we have x = 2.
Evaluate.
require 5 occasions when results are greater

than 3.
56
Let X = the number of even numbers.

That is, x = 2
p = probability of an even number = 12
q = 12
Pr( X = 2) = 5C2 ( 12)
()
2 1 3
2
= 10 1 1
4
5
= 16
Simplify.
c 1 Define and assign values to variables. We
1
1296
b n=5
= 10
32
4
()
4 5
6
c n=5
Let X = values greater than 3.

That is, x = 5
Three outcomes 4, 5, 6 out of six are greater
than 3.
p = probability of number greater than 3 = 1
2
q=1
2
Evaluate.
Pr( X = 5) = 5C5 ( 12)

=1
=
518
()
5 1 0
2
1
32
1
32
d Since a specific order is required here, the
d Pr(5 on the first roll only)
= Pr(SFFFF)
=15555
binomial rule is not required.
=
e Since a specific order is required here, the
6
6
625
7776
e Pr(5 on the second and third roll only)
= Pr(FSSFF)
= 56 16 16 56 56
binomial rule is not required.
125
= 7776
Note: If the rule for the binomial probability distribution were to be used in part d, it would provide an
625
3125
answer of 5 7776 = 7776. This answer gives the probability of obtaining a 5 once on any of the five trials,
not necessarily on the first roll only.
Hence, if a specific order is required the rule for the binomial probability
distribution should not be used.
125
1250
Similarly in part e the rule would produce an answer of 10 7776 = 7776, giving the probability of
obtaining a 5 twice on any of the five trials.
Worked example 4
A new drug for hay fever is known to be successful in 40% of cases. Ten hay fever sufferers
take part in the testing of the drug. Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a four people are cured
b no people are cured
c all 10 are cured.
Think
a 1 Check that all the characteristics have been
WriTe
a This is a binomial distribution with n
independent trials and two outcomes, p and q.

distribution.
Define and assign values to variables.
n = 10, p = 0.4, q = 0.6

Let X = the number of people cured,
therefore x = 4
Pr(X = 4) = 10C4(0.4)4 (0.6)6
Evaluate.
= 210 0.0256 0.046 656

= 0.250 822 656
0.2508
A CAS calculator can also be used to

calculate the probability for a particular
x-value.
Define the variables.
n = 10
p = 0.4
X ~ Bi(10, 0.4)
x=4
Use the binomial Pdf feature of a CAS

calculator. Enter n = 10, p = 0.4, x = 4.
binom Pdf (10, 0.4, 4)
Record the result.
0.250 823
The probability that exactly 4 people are

cured is 0.2508.
10
519
b 1 In this case n = 10, p = 0.4, x = 0
2
3
Use a CAS calculator to determine the

probability.
Record the result.
c 1 In this case n = 10, p = 0.4, x = 10
Use a CAS calculator to determine the

probability.
Record the result.
b binom Pdf (10, 0.4, 0)
0.006 046 6
The probability that exactly 0 people are cured
is 0.0060
c binom Pdf (10, 0.4, 10)
0.000 104 86
The probability that exactly 10 people are cured
is 0.0001.
Worked example 5
Grant is a keen darts player and knows that his chance of scoring a bullseye on
any one throw is 0.3.
TUTorial
a If Grant takes 6 shots at the target, find the probability, correct to 4 decimal
eles-1232
Worked example 5
places, that he:
i misses the bullseye each time
ii hits the bullseye at least once.
b Find the number of throws Grant would need to ensure a probability of more than 0.8 of
scoring at least one bullseye.
Think
a i 1 Check that all the characteristics have been
a i This is a binomial distribution with n
independent trials and two outcomes, p and q.

distribution.
Evaluate and round answer to

4 decimal places.
Note: Check the answer using
binomPdf(6,0.3,0).
Pr(X = 0) = 6C0(0.3)0(0.7)6
= 1 1 0.117 649
= 0.117 649
0.1176
The probability that Grant misses the bullseye
each time is 0.1176.
ii 1 Define and assign values to variables.
520
WriTe
Note: Pr(X 1) would involve adding

probabilities from Pr(X = 1) to
Pr(X = 6). Using the fact that
Pr(X 1) = 1 Pr(X = 0) allows us to solve
the problem using fewer terms.
Evaluate and round answer to

4 decimal places.
Note: Check the answer using
1 binomPdf(6,0.3,0) on a CAS calculator.

n=6
Let X = the number of bullseyes, therefore
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
p = 0.3
q = 0.7
ii n = 6

x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
p = 0.3
q = 0.7
Pr(X 1) = Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2)
+ . . . + Pr(X = 6)
= 1 Pr(X = 0)
= 1 6C0(0.3)0(0.7)6
= 1 0.117 649
= 0.882 351
0.8824
The probability that Grant hits the bullseye at

least once is 0.8824.
b n=?

x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
p = 0.3
q = 0.7
Pr(X 1) > 0.8
Write the rule as required.
Pr(X 1) = Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2) + . . . + Pr(X = 6)

= 1 Pr(X = 0)
1 Pr(X = 0) > 0.8
1 nC0(0.3)0(0.7)n > 0.8
Evaluate by solving for n.
1 0.7n > 0.8

1 0.8 > 0.7n
0.2 > 0.7n
loge(0.2) > loge(0.7n)
loge(0.2) > n loge(0.7)
loge (0.2)
< n (since loge(0.7) < 0)
loge (0.7)
n > 4.512 338 026
Interpret the results and answer the

question.
Grant would need to take 5 shots to ensure a

probability of 0.8 of scoring at least one
bullseye.
Alternatively, a CAS calculator can be

used to solve the inequation.
1 (0.7)n > 0.8
Use the calculators solve feature.
solve (1 (0.7)n > 0.8, n)
Write the result.
n > 4.51 234
Write the solution.
Solving 1 0.7n > 0.8 for n implies

n > 4.51 234
Interpret the results and answer the

question.
Grant would need to take 5 shots to ensure a

probability of 0.8 of scoring at least one
bullseye.
Graphs of the binomial distribution

We will now consider the graph of a binomial distribution. If we refer to the example of obtaining a 3 when
rolling a die four times (see the table on page 516) we note that X ~ Bi(4, 16 ). The probability distribution of
the random variable, X, is given in the table and graph over the page.
Pr(X = x)
0.5
Pr(X = x)
0.4823
0.4
0.3858
0.3
0.1157
0.2
0.0154
0.0008
0.1
0.0
01234
521
The effect of changing n and p on binomial

distribution graphs
The effect of increasing p can be seen in the series of graphs below.
Pr(X = x)
0.4
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.3
X ~ Bi(8, 0.2)
0.3
Pr(X = x)
0.4
X ~ Bi(8, 0.5)
0.3 X ~ Bi(8, 0.8)
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
01234 56 78 x
01234 56 78 x
The graph is symmetrical.
The graph is positively skewed.
0.0
01234 56 78 x
The graph is negatively skewed.
We will now keep p fixed and vary n.

Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with binomial
distributions.
Pr(X = x)
0.34
0.32
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
X ~ Bi(5, 0.5)
012 34 5
Pr(X = x)
0.34
0.32
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Pr(X = x)
0.34
0.32
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
X ~ Bi(15, 0.5)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415
X ~ Bi(25, 0.5)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425
From the preceding graphs it can be seen that:

1. when p = 0.5, the graph is symmetrical
2. as n increases, and the interval between the vertical columns decreases, the graph approximates a
smooth hump or bell shape.
The effects that the parameters n and p have on the binomial probability distribution curve can be
summarised in the following way.
522
If p = 0.5, the graph is

symmetrical.
If p < 0.5, the graph is

positively skewed.
Pr(X = x)
If p > 0.5, the graph is

negatively skewed.
Pr(X = x)
Pr(X = x)
When n is very large and p = 0.5, the vertical columns are closer together and the line graph
becomes a bell-shaped curve or a normal distribution curve.
exercise 11a
1 We1 Determine which of the following sequences can be defined as a Bernoulli sequence:
a Rolling a die 10 times and recording the number that comes up
b Rolling a die 10 times and recording the number of 3s that come up
c Spinning a spinner numbered 1 to 10 and recording the number that is obtained
d Tossing a coin 15 times and recording the number of tails obtained
e Drawing a card from a fair deck, without replacement, and recording the number of picture cards
f Drawing a card from a fair deck, with replacement, and recording the number of black cards
g Selecting three marbles from a jar containing three yellow marbles and two black marbles,
without replacement.
2 Evalute the following, correct to 4 decimal places:
a 7C2 (0.4)2 (0.6)5
b 9C3 (0.1)3 (0.9)6
d
8C
5
(0.2)5 (0.8)3
()()
9C 1 7 2 2
7 3
3
3 We2 A binomial variable, X, has the probability function Pr(X = x) =
1, . . ., 5. Find:
a n, the number of trials
c the probability distribution for x as a table.
10C
5
(0.5)5 (0.5)5
10C
0
(0.15)0 (0.85)10.
5C
x
(0.3)x
(0.7)5 x
where x = 0,
b p, the probability of success
Twenty per cent of items made by a certain machine are defective. The items are packed and sold in
boxes of 5. What is the probability of 4 items being defective in a box?
Alex lives so close to where she works that she only has a 0.1 chance of being late. What is the
probability that she is late on 3 out of 4 days?
Ange has four chances to knock an empty can off a stand by throwing a ball. On each throw, the
1
probability of success is . Find the probability that she will knock the empty can off the stand:
3
a once
b twice
c at least once.
7 We3
diGiTal doC
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Spreadsheet
Binomial distribution
A fair coin is tossed four times. Find the probability of obtaining:
a heads on the first two tosses and tails on the second two
b heads on every roll
c two heads and two tails.
8
Peter is quite poor at doing crossword puzzles and the probability of him completing one
is 0.2. Find the probability that:
a of the next three crossword puzzles that he attempts, he is successful in completing two
b he successfully completes the first three crossword puzzles that he tries, but has no luck on the
next one
c he successfully completes the first three crossword puzzles that he tries
d he successfully completes the first three puzzles that he tries given that he was successful in
completing his first two.
9 A weighted coin is biased such that a tail comes up 60% of the time. The coin is tossed five times. Find
the probability of obtaining:

a tails on the first four tosses only
b four tails.
523
10 We4 Fifty-five per cent of the local municipality support the local council. If eight people are selected
at random, find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:

a half support the council
b all eight support the council
c five support the council
d three oppose the council.
11 The probability of Colin beating Maria at golf is 0.4. If they play once a week throughout the entire
year and the outcome of each game is independent of any other, find the probability that they will have
won the same number of matches, correct to 4 decimal places.
12 It is known that 5 out of every 8 people eat Superflakes for breakfast. Find the probability that half of a
random sample of 20 people surveyed eat Superflakes, correct to 4 decimal places.

13 On a certain evening, during a ratings period,
two television stations put their best shows on

against each other. The ratings showed that 39%
of people watched Channel6, while only 30% of
people watched Channel 8. The rest watched other
channels. A random sample of 10 people were
surveyed the next day. Find the probability, correct
to 4 decimal places, that exactly:
a six watched Channel 6
b four watched Channel 8.
14 Three per cent of items produced by a certain machine are defective. A random sample of 10 items is
taken. Find the probability that exactly 10% are defective, correct to 4 decimal places.
15 A new drug being trialled gives 8% of the patients a violent reaction. If 200 patients trial the drug, find
the probability that 12 patients have a violent reaction to the drug, correct to 4 decimal places.
16 A pen company produces 30 000 pens per week. However, of these 30 000 pens, 600 are defective.
Pens are sold in boxes of 20. Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a two defective pens are found in one box
b a box is free from defective pens.
17 A box contains 5 red marbles, 3 blue marbles and 2 yellow marbles. A marble is chosen at random and
replaced. This selection process is completed eight times. Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal
places, that:
a exactly 4 reds are selected
b exactly 2 blues are selected
c no yellows are selected.
18 mC Claires position in the netball team is goal shooter. The probability of her shooting a goal is 78%.
If Claire has 10 attempts at scoring, the probability she will score fewer than 3 goals is:
a 10C3 (0.78)3(0.22)7
B 10C3 (0.78)3(0.22)7 + 10C4 (0.78)4(0.22)6 + . . . + (0.78)10
C 10C2 (0.78)2(0.22)8 + 10C1 (0.78)1(0.22)9 + (0.22)10
d 10C2 (0.78)2(0.22)8 + 10C1 (0.78)1(0.22)9 + (0.78)10
e 10C2 (0.22)2(0.78)8 + 10C1 (0.22)1(0.78)9 + (0.78)10
19 mC The probability that the temperature in Melbourne will rise above 25 C on any given summer
day, independent of any other summer day, is 0.6. The probability that four days in a week reach in
excess of 25 C is:
4
a 0.64 0.43
B 7 0.64 0.43
C
0.43
7
d 0.64
e 35 0.64 0.43
20 mC Rachel sits a multiple-choice test containing 20 questions, each with four possible answers. If she
guesses every answer, the probability of Rachel getting 11 questions correct is:
() ()
() ()
1 11 3 9
20 C
11 4
4
()()
1 9 3 11
20 C
10 4
4
1 20 3 9
20 C
11 4
4
1 9 3 11
20 C
11 4
4
() ()
1 11 3 9
20 C
10 4
4
()()
21 mC A smoke detector has a probability of failing 2% of the time. If a shopping complex has
installed 40 of these smoke detectors, the probability that at least one fails is given by:
a 1 40C1 (0.98)1(0.02)39
B 1 40C1 (0.02)1(0.98)39
C 1 (0.02)40
40
40
e (0.98)
d 1 (0.98)
524
22 mC It is found that 3 out of every 10 cars are unroadworthy. Ten cars are selected at random. The
probability that 3 are unroadworthy is:

a 0.009
B 0.2601
d 0.5
e 1
C 0.2668
23 We5 Grant is a keen darts player and knows that
his chance of scoring a bullseye on any one throw

is 0.6.
a If Grant takes 5 shots at the target find the
probability that he:
i misses the bullseye each time
ii hits the bullseye at least once.
b Find the number of throws Grant would need to
ensure a probability of more than 0.7 of scoring
at least one bullseye.
24 The chance of winning a major prize in a raffle is
0.05. Find the number of tickets required to ensure
a probability of more than 0.6 of winning a major
prize at least once.
25 A darts player knows that her chance of scoring a
bullseye on any one throw is 0.1. Find the number
of turns she would need to ensure a probability of
0.9 of scoring at least one bullseye.
diGiTal doC
doc-9269
SkillSHEET 11.1
Solving indicial
equations
26 In Tattslotto, your chance of winning first division is

1
.
8145 060
Find:
a the number of games you would need to play if
you wanted to ensure a more than 50% chance of winning first division at least once
b the number of tickets you would need to buy for part a if there are 16 games on each ticket
c the cost of buying these tickets, if they cost $4.10 each.
27 The following probability distribution is for p = 0.2 and n = 10.
a Find the most likely outcome for x.
b Describe the plot.
28 From the following binomial distribution tables:
i draw a graph of the probability distribution
ii describe the skewness of each graph.
a X Bi(10, 0.3)
b X Bi(10, 0.5)
c X Bi(10, 0.8)
x
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
29
Pr(X = x)
0.028 25
0.121 06
0.233 47
0.266 83
0.200 12
0.102 92
0.036 76
0.009 00
0.001 45
0.000 01
5.9 106
x
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pr(X = x)
0.000 98
0.009 77
0.043 95
0.117 19
0.205 08
0.246 09
0.205 08
0.117 19
0.043 95
0.009 77
0.000 98
x
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
diGiTal doC
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Spreadsheet
Pr(X = x)
1 107
4.1 106
0.000 07
0.000 79
0.005 51
0.026 42
0.088 08
0.201 33
0.301 99
0.268 44
0.107 37
a Describe the plots of the following binomial probability distributions, without drawing the graphs.
i n = 25, p = 0.1
ii n = 50, p = 0.5
iii n = 30, p = 0.9
b What effect does p have on the graph of a binomial probability distribution?
525
a Describe the plot of the binomial probability distribution, X Bi(60, 0.5), without drawing the
30
graph.
b Suggest how the graph might look for a binomial probability distribution with the same p, but
double the value of n.

a Describe the plot of the binomial probability distribution, X Bi(100, 0.4), without drawing the
31
graph.
b Suggest how the graph might look for a binomial probability distribution with the same n, but
double the value of p.

32 Describe the skewness of the graphs of the following binomial probability distributions.
a
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.2
0.2
1 2 3 4 5
0.0
Pr(X = x)
diGiTal doC
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WorkSHEET 11.1
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.0
Pr(X = x)
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
2 4 6 8 10
5 10 15 20 x
0.0
1 2 3 4
problems involving the binomial

distribution for multiple probabilities
11B
We shall now work with problems involving the binomial distribution for multiple probabilities.
Worked example 6
The binomial variable, X, has the following probability table.

x
Pr(X = x)
0
0.2311
1
0.3147
2
0.3321
3
0.1061
4
0.0112
5
0.0048
a Pr(X > 3)
b Pr(X 4).
Think
a 1 Pr (X > 3) means Pr(X=4) or Pr(X = 5).

2
a Pr(X > 3) = Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5)
Add these probabilities.
= 0.0112 + 0.0048
Evaluate.
= 0.0160
b 1 Pr(X 4) would involve adding the probabilities
from Pr(X = 0) to Pr(X=4). Using the fact that

Pr(X 4) = 1 Pr(X > 4) allows us to solve the
problem using fewer terms.
526
WriTe
b Pr(X 4) = Pr(X = 0) + . . . + Pr(X = 4)
= 1 Pr(X = 5)
Substitute the value into the rule.
= 1 0.0048
Evaluate.
= 0.9952
Worked example 7
Find Pr(X 3) if X has a binomial distribution with the probability of success, p, and the number
of trials, n, given by p = 0.3, n = 5.
Think
WriTe
State the probability distribution.
X Bi(n, p)
X Bi(5, 0.3)
Write what is required.
Pr(X 3) = Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5)
Substitute the values for n, p and q into the

rule Pr(X = x) = nCx pxqn x.
= 5C3(0.3)3(0.7)2 + 5C4(0.3)4(0.7)
+ 5C5(0.3)5(0.7)0
Evaluate.
= 10 0.027 0.49 + 5 0.0081 0.7

+ 1 0.002 43 1
= 0.1323 + 0.028 35 + 0.002 43
= 0.163 08
Worked example 8
So Jung has a bag containing 4 red and 3 blue marbles. She selects a marble at
random and then replaces it. She does this 7 times. Find the probability,
correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a at least 5 marbles are red
b greater than 3 are red
c no more than 2 are red.
Think
a 1 State the probability distribution and define
and assign values to variables.
TUTorial
eles-1233
Worked example 8
WriTe
a Let X = number of red marbles selected
n=7
p = 47
X ~ Bi(7, 47)
As X = number of red marbles selected,
therefore x = 5.
We want at least 5 red marbles, Pr(X 5).
2
Use the binom Cdf feature of a CAS

calculator to find Pr(x 5).
Enter n, p.
n=7
f = 47
binom Cdf (7, 47, 5, 7)
Record the result.

Round to 4 decimal places.
0.359 345
Pr(x 5) = 0.3593
b 1 Repeat step 2 to find Pr(x > 3). Note that
x > 3 is the save as x 4.
Record the result. Give answer correct to

4decimal places.
c 1 Repeat step 2 to find Pr(x 2).

2
Record the result.

Round to 4 decimal places.
b binom Cdf (7, 4, 4, 7)

7
0.65 310 008

Pr(x > 3) = 0.6531
c binom Cdf (7, 4, 0, 2)
7
0.126 584
Pr(x 2) = 0.1266
527
Worked example 9
X follows a binomial distribution with n = 9, p = 0.4. Find, correct to 4 decimal places:

a Pr(X 7)
b the probability that X is greater than 7 given it is greater than 5; that is, Pr(X > 7X > 5).
Think
WriTe
a 1 State the probability distribution.
a X Bi(n, p)
X Bi(9, 0.4)
Pr(X 7) = Pr(X = 7) + Pr(X = 8) + Pr(X = 9)
Substitute the values for n, p and

q into the rule
Pr(X = x) = nCx pxqn x.
Pr(X 7) = 9C7(0.4)7(0.6)2 + 9C8(0.4)8(0.6)

+ 9C9(0.4)9(0.6)0
Evaluate and round the answer to

4 decimal places.
= 36 1.6384 103 0.36 + 9 6.5536 104

0.6 + 1 2.621 44 104 1
= 0.021 23 + 0.003 54 + 2.621 44 104
= 0.025 034 752
0.0250
Pr(X 7) = binomCdf(9, 0.4, 7, 9)
= 0.0250
Part a can also be solved with a

CAS calculator. (Refer to Worked
example 8).
b 1 Write what is required.
Evaluate each probability

individually.
Pr(X > 7) can be obtained from
results in a.
Evaluate
Pr( X > 7)
.
Pr( X > 5)
Pr(( X > 7) ( X > 5))

Pr( X > 5)
Pr( X > 7)
=
Pr( X > 5)
b Pr(X > 7 | X > 5) =
Pr(X > 7) = Pr(X = 8) + Pr(X = 9)

= 3.801 088 103
Pr(X > 5) = Pr(X = 6) + Pr(X = 7) + Pr(X = 8) + Pr(X = 9)
= 9C6(0.4)6(0.6)3 + 0.025 034 752
= 84 4.096 103 0.216 + 0.025 034 752
= 0.993 525 76
Pr( X > 7) 3.801 088 10 3
=
Pr( X > 5)
0.993 525 76
= 0.038 258 75
Round the answer to 4 decimal

places.
Part b can also be solved with a
CAS calculator.
0.0383
Pr(X > 7 | X > 5) =
=
Pr( X > 7)
Pr( X > 5)
binomCdf(9,0.4,7,9)
binomCdf(9,0.4,5,9)
= 0.0383
Worked example 10
Seventy per cent of all scheduled trains through Westbourne station arrive on time.
If 10 trains go through the station every day, find, correct to 4 decimal places:
a the probability that at least 8 trains are on time
b the probability that at least 8 trains are on time for 9 out of the next 10 days.
528
TUTorial
eles-1234
Worked example 10
Think
WriTe
a X Bi(n, p)
a 1 State the probability distribution.
X Bi(10, 0.7)
Pr(X 8) = Pr(X = 8) + Pr(X = 9) + Pr(X = 10)
Substitute the values of n, p and q into the rule

= 10C8(0.7)8(0.3)2 + 10C9(0.7)9(0.3)1
+ 10C10(0.7)10(0.3)0
Evaluate and round the answer to 4 decimal

places.
= 45 0.057 648 01 0.09

+ 10 0.040 353 607 0.3
+ 1 0.028 247 524 9 1
= 0.233 474 440 5
+ 0.121 060 821
+ 0.028 247 524 9
= 0.382 782 786 4
0.3828
Part a can also be solved with a CAS calculator.

(Refer to Worked example 8).
5
The probability that at least 8 trains are on time

is 0.3828.
b X Bi(n, p)
b 1 State the probability distribution.
X Bi(10, 0.3828)
Pr(X = 9) = 10C9(0.3828)9(0.6172)
Substitute the values of n, p and q into the rule

Evaluate and round the answer to 4 decimal

places.
Part b can also be solved with a CAS calculator.
Pr(X 8) = binomCdf(10, 0.7, 8, 10)

= 0.3828
= 10 0.000 176 501 08 0.6172

= 0.001 089 364 7
0.0011
Pr(X = 9) = binomPdf(10, 0.3828, 9)
= 0.0011
The probability that at least 8 trains are on time
for 9 out of the next 10 days is 0.0011.
problems involving the binomial

distribution for multiple probabilities
exercise 11B
1 Find:
a 4C3(0.4)3 (0.6) + 4C4(0.4)4 (0.6)0
b 5C3(0.6)3 (0.4)2 + 5C4(0.6)4 (0.4) + 5C5(0.6)5 (0.4)0.
The binomial variable, X, has the following probability table.
2 We6
Pr(X = x)
0.15
0.3
0.1
0.22
0.15
0.08
Find:
a Pr(X 4)
c Pr(X 4)
b Pr(X > 0)
d Pr(X < 2).
diGiTal doC
doc-9270
SkillSHEET 11.2
multiple probabilities
3 A binomial variable, X, has the probability function Pr(X = x) = 5Cx(0.3)x (0.7)5 x, where x is the
probability of success and x = 0, 1, . . . , 5.

Find:
a Pr(X 2)
b Pr(X < 4).

529
4 We7 Find Pr(X 4), correct to 4 decimal places, if X has a binomial distribution with the probability
of success, p, and the number of trials, n, given by:

a p = 0.6, n = 5
b p = 0.5, n = 6
5
c p = 0.2, n = 7.
A fair coin is tossed 5 times. Calculate the probability of obtaining:

a at least one tail
b greater than three tails
c greater than three tails, given that at least one tail was obtained.
Marco has a faulty alarm clock and the probability that it sounds in the morning is 1.
3
Calculate the probability, for the next 4 mornings, that his alarm clock:
a works at least 3 times
b works fewer than 2 times
c works at least 3 times, given that it works at least once.
Generally, 10% of people who enter a modelling contest are male. For a particular competition,
three winners were chosen. What is the probability that less than two females were chosen?
8 We8 A bag contains 4 red and 2 blue marbles. A marble is selected at random and replaced. The
experiment is repeated 6 times. Find the probability that:

a all 6 selections are red
b at least 2 are red
c not more than 1 is red.
9 It is known that 40% of Victorians play sport regularly. Ten people are selected at random. Calculate the
probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:

a at least half play sport regularly
b at least nine dont play sport regularly.
10 Surveys have shown that 8 out of 10 VCE students study every night. Six VCE students are selected at
random. Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that, on any one day:
a at least 50% of these students study every night
b less than 3 students study every night.
1
2
1
6
11 A die is weighted such that Pr (X = 6) = , Pr (X = 2) = Pr (X = 4) = and

1
. The die is rolled five times. Calculate the probability,
Pr (X = 1) = Pr (X = 3) = Pr (X = 5) = 18
correct to 4 decimal places, of obtaining:

a at least three 6s
c a maximum of two odd numbers.
b at least two even numbers
12 We9 If X is binomially distributed with n = 8 and p = 0.7, find, correct to 4 decimal places:
a Pr(X 7)
b Pr(X > 7 | X > 5).
13 A survey shows that 49% of the public support the current government. Twelve people are selected at
random. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:

a the probability that at least 8 support the government
b the probability that at least 10 support the government, given that at least 8 do.
14 mC When Graeme kicks for goal, the probability of his kicking a goal is 0.7. If he has five kicks at
goal, the probability that he will score fewer than two goals is:
a 5C1(0.7)1 (0.3)4 + (0.3)5
B 5C2(0.7)2 (0.3)3
C 5C2(0.7)2 (0.3)3 + 5C1(0.7)1 (0.3)4
d 5C2(0.7)2 (0.3)3 + 5C1(0.7)1 (0.3)4 + (0.3)5
e 1 5C2(0.7)2 (0.3)3
15 mC The proportion of patients who suffer a violent reaction from a new drug being trialled is p. If
80 patients trial the drug, the probability that one-quarter of the patients have a violent reaction is:
a 80C25 (p)25(1 p)55
B 80C20 (1 p)20(p)60
C 80C25 (1 p)25(p)55
80
20
60
80
20
d
C20 (p) (1 p)
e
C20 (p)
16 mC If X is a random variable, binomially distributed with n = 10 and p = k, Pr(X 1) is:
a 1 (1 k)10
B (1 k)10
C 10(k)(1 k)9
d (k)10
e 1 (k)10
17 mC Three per cent of items made by a certain machine are defective. The items are packed and sold
in boxes of 10. If 3 or more are defective, the box can be returned and money refunded. The chance
of being eligible for a refund is:
a 0
B 0.0002
C 0.0036
d 0.0028
e 0.9972
18 mC Long-term statistics show that Silvana wins 60% of her tennis matches. The probability that
she will win at least 80% of her next 10 matches is:

a 0.0061
B 0.0464
C 0.1673
530
d 0.8327
e 0.9536
19 mC Nineteen out of every 20 cricketers prefer Boundary cricket gear. A squad of 12 cricketers
train together. The probability that at least 11 use Boundary gear, given that at least 10 use it, is:
a 0.5404
B 0.6129
C 0.8816
d 0.8992
e 0.9804
20 A school council, comprising 15 members of the school community, requires a minimum two-thirds
majority to pass a motion. It is known that 50% of the school community favour a new uniform.
Calculate the probability that the school council will pass a motion in favour of a new uniform, correct
21 A car insurance salesman knows that he has a good chance of finding customers in the age group
from 18 to 20, as people often buy their first car at this age. Five per cent of all people in this age
group are looking to purchase a car. The salesman questions 30 people in this age group. Calculate the
probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that he will get:
a no more than 3 sales
b at least 3 sales.
22 Police radar camera tests have shown that 1% of all cars drive at over 30km/h above the speed limit,
2% between 10 km/h and 30 km/h above the limit and 4% below 10km/h over the limit. In one
particular hour, a radar camera tests 50 cars. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a at most, one car is over 30 km/h above the limit
b at most, two cars are between 10 km/h and 30 km/h above the limit
c at most, two cars are below 10 km/h above the limit
d at most, three cars are above the limit.
23 An Australian cricketer scores 50 or
more runs in one-third of all his test

match innings. The Australian selectors
are aiming to predict his next 10 innings.
Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places, the
probability that he will score 50 or more
runs on:
a no occasions
b exactly four occasions
c at least two occasions.
24 Two dice are rolled simultaneously and
their difference is recorded. Find the

probability, correct to 4 decimal places,
that in 5 rolls:
a a difference of zero occurs at least once
b a difference of 1 occurs at least twice
c a difference of 5 occurs at least once.
25 We10 Eighty per cent of all scheduled trains through Westbourne station arrive on time. If 10 trains
go through the station every day, find:

26 Seventy-five per cent of all scheduled trains through Westbourne station arrive on time. If 15 trains
go through the station every day, find, correct to 4 decimal places:

27 An experiment involves rolling a die 6 times. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
a the probability of obtaining at least four prime numbers
b the probability of obtaining at least four prime numbers on 5 occasions if the experiment is
repeated 8 times.
28 Tennis balls are packed in cans of 6. Five per cent of all balls are made too flat (that is, they dont
bounce high enough). The cans are then packed in boxes of two dozen. Calculate the probability,
correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a a can contains, at most, one flat ball
b a box contains at least 22 cans with a maximum of one flat ball.
531
markov chains and

transition matrices
11C
inTeraCTiViTY
int-0256
markov chains and
transition matrices
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video about Markov
Chains.
Andrei Markov was a Russian mathematician whose name is given to a technique that calculates
probability associated with the state of various transitions. It answers questions such as, What is the
probability that James will be late to work today given that he was late yesterday? or What can be said about
the long-term behaviour of James punctuality?.
A Markov chain is a sequence of repetitions of an experiment in which:
1. The probability of a particular outcome in an experiment is conditional only on the outcome of the
experiment immediately before it.
2. The conditional probabilities of each outcome in a particular experiment are the same every single time.
A two-state Markov chain is one in which there are only two possible outcomes for each experiment.
Consider a leisure centre that offers aerobics classes and has a gym. Records show that 20% of the
members who use the gym on a particular day will participate in an aerobics class the next day and 70%
of the members who participate in an aerobics class on a particular day will use the gym the next day. It is
also known that 200 members use the leisure centre each day and they all participate in aerobics classes
or use the gym, but not both. On a particular day 150 members use the gym and 50 members attend an
aerobics class. The possible outcomes may be illustrated on a tree diagram as shown below.
0.8
Gym
Outcome
GG
0.2
Aerobics
GA
0.7
Gym
AG
0.3
Aerobics
AA
Day 1
Day 2
Gym
Aerobics
Interpretation
The member uses the gym on day 2 given the member used
the gym on day 1.
The member attends an aerobics class on day 2 given the
member used the gym on day 1.
The member uses the gym on day 2 given the member
attended an aerobics class on day 1.
The member attends an aerobics class on day 2 given the
member attended an aerobics class on day 1.
The tree diagram can also be used to calculate how many members use the gym or attend an aerobics
class. From the tree diagram below, it can be seen that on the second day 155 members use the gym and
45 attend an aerobics class.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Day 1
Gym
Aerobics
Day 2
0.8
Gym
0.2
Aerobics
0.7
Gym
0.3
Aerobics
Outcome
GG
GA
Number of members
150 0.8 = 120
150 0.2 = 30
50 0.7 = 35
50 0.3 = 15
AG
AA
The tree diagram may be extended to display the possible outcomes and their respective probabilities
for the third day.
Day 11
Day
Day 22
Day
0.8
0.8
Gym
Gym
0.2
0.2
Aerobics
Aerobics
0.7
0.7
Gym
Gym
0.3
0.3
Aerobics
Aerobics
Gym
Gym
Aerobics
Aerobics
0.8
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.7
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.8
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.7
0.7
0.3
0.3
Day 33
Day
Gym
Gym
Aerobics
Aerobics
Outcome
GGG
GGA
Probability
0.8 0.8 = 0.64
0.8 0.2 = 0.16
Gym
Gym
Aerobics
Aerobics
GAG
GAA
0.2 0.7 = 0.14

0.2 0.3 = 0.06
Gym
Gym
Aerobics
Aerobics
AGG
AGA
0.7 0. 8 =0. 56
0.7 0. 2 =0. 14
Gym
Gym
Aerobics
Aerobics
AAG
AAA
0.3 0.7 = 0.21

0.3 0.3 = 0.09
GGG represents the member using the gym on all three days; Pr(GGG) = 0.64.
532
If you want to find out the probability of the member using the gym on two out of three days, three
outcomes need to be considered: GGA, GAG and AGG.
Pr(gym 2 out of 3 days) = Pr(GGA) + Pr(GAG) + Pr(AGG)
= 0.16 + 0.14 + 0.56
= 0.86
The tree diagram may be further extended to display the possible outcomes and their respective
probabilities on the fourth day.
Day 1
Day 2
Gym
0.8
Day 3
0.8
Gym
0.2
Aerobics
0.7
Gym
0.2
Aerobics
0.3
Aerobics
Gym
0.7
0.8
Gym
0.2
Aerobics
0.7
Gym
0.3
Aerobics
Aerobics
Probability
0.8 0.8 0.8 = 0.512
0.8 0.8 0.2 = 0.128
GGAG
GGAA
0.8 0.2 0.7 = 0.112

0.8 0.2 0.3 = 0.048
GAGG
GAGA
0.2 0.7 0.8 = 0.112

0.2 0.7 0.2 = 0.028
Gym
Aerobics
GAAG
GAAA
0.8
0.2 0.3 0.7 = 0.042

0.2 0.3 0.3 = 0.018
Gym
0.2
Aerobics
Gym
AGGG
AGGA
0.7 0.8 0.8 = 0.448

0.7 0.8 0.2 = 0.112
AGAG
AGAA
0.7 0.2 0.7 = 0.098

0.7 0.2 0.3 = 0.042
AAGG
AAGA
0.3 0.7 0.8 = 0.168

0.3 0.7 0.2 = 0.042
AAAG
AAAA
0.3 0.3 0.7 = 0.063

0.3 0.3 0.3 = 0.027
0.2
0.7
0.3
Gym
0.8
0.2
0.7
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.8
0.3
Aerobics
Day 4
Gym
Aerobics
Gym
Aerobics
Gym
Aerobics
Outcome
GGGG
GGGA
0.8
0.2
0.7
0.3
Aerobics
Gym
Aerobics
Gym
Aerobics
As we extend the analysis to cover a greater number of days,

setting up the tree diagram becomes very messy and time consuming.
The original information can be set up as a pair of recurrence relationships.
That is, if 20% of the members using the gym attend an aerobics class the
next day, 80% will use the gym the next day. Furthermore, if 70% of the
members attending an aerobics class use the gym the next day, 30% will
attend an aerobics class the next day.
Let gi = the number of members who use the gym on day i.
Let ai = the number of members who attend an aerobics class on day i.
gi + 1 = 0.8gi + 0.7ai
and
ai + 1 = 0.2gi + 0.3ai
number of gym users
number of aerobics participants
Day i
Day i
gi = 150
ai = 50
Day i + 1
Day i + 1
gi + 1 = 0.8gi + 0.7ai
ai + 1 = 0.2gi + 0.3ai
= 0.8 150 + 0.7 50
= 0.2 150 + 0.3 50
= 155
= 45
Day i + 2
Day i + 2
gi + 2 = 0.8gi + 1 + 0.7ai + 1
ai + 2 = 0.2gi + 1 + 0.3ai + 1
= 0.8 155 + 0.7 45
= 0.2 155 + 0.3 45
= 155.5
= 44.5
Day i + 3
Day i + 3
gi + 3 = 0.8gi + 2 + 0.7ai + 2
ai + 3 = 0.2gi + 2 + 0.3ai + 2
= 0.8 155.5 + 0.7 44.5
= 0.2 155.5 + 0.3 44.5
= 155.55
= 44.45
533
Day i + 4
Day i + 4
gi + 4 = 0.8gi + 3 + 0.7ai + 3
ai + 4 = 0.2gi + 3 + 0.3ai + 3
= 0.8 155.55 + 0.7 44.45
= 0.2 155.55 + 0.3 44.45
= 155.555
= 44.445
This method allows us to clearly see how many members (when rounded to integer values) are using
the gym or attending an aerobics class each day.
Often we are interested in the long-term behaviour (or the steady state, as it is often called) of a
particular situation, in this case how many members will use the gym or attend an aerobics class. We can
determine this by using the following information.
Let g = the number of members who use the gym.
Let a = the number of members who attend an aerobics class.
Total number of members = 200
This gives the equation
g + a = 200
which when rearranged is equal to
a = 200 g
[1]
Also
g = 0.8g + 0.7a
[2]
and
a = 0.2g + 0.3a
[3]
Rearranging equation [2]
g 0.8g = 0.7a
0.2g = 0.7a
0.2 g 0.7a
=
0.2
0.2
Substituting [4] into [1] and solving gives
g = 3.5a
a = 200 3.5a
a + 3.5a = 200
4.5a = 200
400
a=
9
[4]
a = 44.4444 (correct to 4 decimal places)

Substituting a = 44.4444 gives g = 155.5556.
In the long term, 156 members will use the gym and 44 members will attend an aerobics class.
Worked example 11
The Nee Islands are very wet. If it is raining on a particular day, the chance that it will rain
the next day is 60%. If it is not raining on a particular day, the chance that it will rain on the
following day is 45%.
a If it is raining on Tuesday, draw a tree diagram to represent the next two days.
b Extending the tree diagram, calculate the probability that, if it is raining on Tuesday, it will
also be raining on Friday of the same week.
Think
WriTe/draW
a Draw a tree diagram labelling each branch a
Wednesday
and place the appropriate probability along

the relevant branch.
0.60
Rain
0.40
Dry
Tuesday
Thursday
0.60
Rain
0.40
Dry
0.45
Rain
0.55
b 1 Draw a tree diagram labelling each
branch and place the appropriate

probability along the relevant branch.
Note: The tree diagram will start at
Tuesday and extend to Friday.
534
Dry
Wednesday
0.60
Rain
Tuesday
0.40
Dry
Thursday
Rain
0.60
0.40
Dry
0.45
Rain
0.55
Dry
0.45
0.55
0.45
0.55
0.60
0.40
0.60
0.40
Friday
Rain
Dry
Rain
Dry
Rain
Dry
Rain
Dry
List each of the outcomes and

calculate the probability for each
individual outcome.
Outcome
RRR
RRD
RDR
RDD
DRR
DRD
DDR
DDD
Probability
0.6 0.6 0.6 = 0.216
0.6 0.6 0.4 = 0.144
0.6 0.4 0.45 = 0.108
0.6 0.4 0.55 = 0.132
0.4 0.45 0.6 = 0.108
0.4 0.45 0.4 = 0.072
0.4 0.55 0.55 = 0.099
0.4 0.55 0.55 = 0.121
Add the probabilities of the required

outcomes.
0.216 + 0.108 + 0.108 + 0.099 = 0.531
Interpret the answer.
The probability that it will be raining on Friday if

it is raining on Tuesday is 0.531. That is, there is a
53.1% chance of raining on Friday given it will rain on
Tuesday.
Worked example 12
Commuters travelling into the centre of Trenchtown use either the bus or
the train. Research has shown that each month 20% of those using the bus
switch to train travel and 30% of those using the train switch to
bus travel.
If, at the beginning of January, 4800 people were using the bus and 3600 were
using the train to get into the city, calculate:
a the number of people using the train at the beginning of May
b the number of people using the bus and train in the long term.
Think
a 1 Interpret the given information.
TUTorial
eles-1235
Worked example 12
WriTe
a Each month 20% of bus commuters switch to
train travel and 80% will not switch.

Each month 30% of train commuters switch to
bus travel and 70% will not switch.
2
Define the variables.
Let ti = the number of people using the train at

the beginning of month i.
Let bi = the number of people using the bus at
the beginning of month i.
Set up a pair of recurrence relationships.
ti + 1 = 0.7ti + 0.2biandbi + 1 = 0.3ti + 0.8bi
Substitute the given values of bus and train

commuters into the recurrence relationships.
Train travellers
January (month i)
ti = 3600
February (month i + 1)
ti + 1 = 0.7ti + 0.2bi
= 0.7 3600 + 0.2 4800
= 3480
March (month i + 2)
ti + 2 = 0.7ti + 1 + 0.2bi + 1
= 0.7 3480 + 0.2 4920
= 3420
Bus travellers
January (month i)
bi = 4800
February (month i + 1)
bi + 1 = 0.3ti + 0.8bi
= 0.3 3600 + 0.8 4800
= 4920
March (month i + 2)
bi + 2 = 0.3ti + 1 + 0.8bi + 1
= 0.3 3480 + 0.8 4920
= 4980
535
April (month i + 3)
ti + 3 = 0.7ti + 2 + 0.2bi + 2
= 0.7 3420 + 0.2 4980
= 3390
May (month i + 4)
ti + 4 = 0.7ti + 3 + 0.2bi + 3
= 0.7 3390 + 0.2 5010
= 3375
5
Evaluate the number of bus and train

commuters at the beginning of February.
Use the values obtained in step 5 to calculate

the number of bus and train commuters at the
beginning of March.
Repeat the processes involved in step 5 and

6 until the number of bus and train commuters
at the beginning of May is obtained.
b 1 Set up and number equations that relate to:
At the beginning of May, the number of people

using the bus and train respectively is 5025 and
3375.
b Let t = number of people using the train.
Let b = number of people using the bus.

Total = 3600 + 4800
t + b = 8400
t = 0.7t + 0.2b
b = 0.3t + 0.8b
[1]
[2]
[3]
Rearrange equation [1] so that t is the

subject.
Note: Either variable may be the subject.
t + b = 8400
t = 8400 b
[4]
Rearrange equation [3] so that b can be

expressed in terms of t.
Note: Again either variable may be
transposed.
b = 0.3t + 0.8b
b 0.8b = 0.3t
0.2b = 0.3t
0.2b 0.3t
=
0.2
0.2
(i) the number of train commuters

(ii) the number of bus commuters
(iii) the total number of commuters.
Note: Maintain the variables defined in
part a.
2
April (month i + 3)
bi + 3 = 0.3ti + 2 + 0.8bi + 2
= 0.3 3420 + 0.8 4980
= 5010
May (month i + 4)
bi + 4 = 0.3ti + 3 + 0.8bi + 3
= 0.3 3390 + 0.8 5010
= 5025
b = 1.5t
4
Substitute equation [5] into [4] and solve

for t.
[5]
t = 8400 b
t = 8400 1.5t
t + 1.5t = 8400
2.5t = 8400
2.5t 8400
=
2.5
2.5
t = 3360
536
Substitute t into equation [5] and solve for b.
b = 1.5t
b = 1.5 3360
= 5040
In the long term, 3360 commuters will travel by

train and 5040 will travel by bus.
Transition matrices
Transition matrices are another technique for solving some Markov chain problems. Transition
matrices are specifically used for problems where you are only interested in the probability of the
final outcome (for example, the probability that a person goes to the gym on the seventh day). Tree
diagrams must still be used to solve problems that take into account the number of different ways of
reaching the final outcome (e.g. the probability that a person goes to the gym 4out of the next
7 days).
Consider again the previous scenario, from page 32, of the probability of using the gym or attending
an aerobics class.
Day 1
Gym
Aerobics
Day 2
0.8
Gym
0.2
Aerobics
0.7
Gym
0.3
Aerobics
This can also be described in a transition probability table:

Gym today
Aerobics
today
Gym
tomorrow
0.8
0.7
Aerobics
tomorrow
0.2
0.3
or
Aerobics
today
Gym today
Aerobics
tomorrow
0.3
0.2
Gym
tomorrow
0.7
0.8
Note: Each column should add up to one, as do the pairs of branches in the given tree diagram.
A transition matrix can be used to simplify calculations involving Markov chains. As its name
suggests, the matrix assists in the calculation of the transition from one state to the next.
We can convert the above transition probability tables into a transition matrix, T, as shown below.
G1 A1
T=
A1 G1
G 2 0.8 0.7
A 2 0.2 0.3
or
T=
A 2 0.3 0.2
G 2 0.7 0.8
The proportion of the population that use the gym or attend the aerobics class is called the state of the
system, S. It can either relate to specific populations, or the probabilities associated with the different
outcomes.
For our example, the initial system, S0 is given by:
n(using the gym on day 1)
n(doing aerobics on day 1)
150
=
50
or
n(doing aerobics on day 1)
n(using the gym on day 1)
50
=
150
n(Gi ) n(A i )
At any time, the state is represented by the column matrix
or
, where n(Gi) is the
n(A i ) n(Gi )
number of gym users and n(Ai) is the number of aerobics participants.
There are two different transition and initial state matrices for this problem, so which one should
we choose to use? It does not matter which one we choose, as long as the correct pairing of T and S0
is selected.
150
0.8 0.7
For example, if we choose T =
, S0 must be 50
0.2
0.3
537
The element in the 1st row of S0 must represent the initial value for the element in the 1st row, 1st
column of the transition matrix.
These elements must match (i.e.
the probability about gym users
matches with the initial number of
gym users).
Similarly, these elements must

match (i.e. the probability about
aerobics participants matches with
the initial number of aerobics
participants).
0.8 0.7 150

i.e. when multiplying T and S:
0.2 0.3 50
They are then multiplied
together as part of the 1st
element for S0.
0.8 150 + 0.7 50

=
0.2 150 + 0.3 50

155
=
45
n(G1 )
Hence, the state after 1 day, S1 is
n(A1 )
0.8 0.7 150

= 0.2 0.3 50

0.8 150 + 0.7 50
=
0.2 150 + 0.3 50

155
=
45
Note: These are the same values as we calculated earlier.

From the above calculation, we can see that S1 = T S0.
If the conditional probabilities remain the same, then a similar equation will express the transition
from any particular state to the next.
Therefore, in general, Sn + 1 = T Sn
Also, as, S1 = T S0 and, S2 = T S1,
then, S2 = T T S0 = T 2 S0
and, S3 = T T T S0 = T 3 S0
In general, Sn = T n S0
To find the long-term behaviour, or steady state, choose n to be a large number, for example n= 50,
and find S50.
T can be written from the generalised transition probability table below:
Event A2
Event A2
Event A1
Pr(A2 | A1)
Pr(A2 | A1)
Event A1
Pr(A2 | A1)
Pr(A2 | A1)
Pr(A 2 | A1 ) Pr(A 2 | A1 )
T=
Pr(A 2 | A1 ) Pr(A 2 | A1 )
n(A1 )0 Pr(A1 )0
and S0 =
.
or
n(A 2 )0 Pr(A 2 )0
Worked example 13
Using the above data for attending the gym or aerobics class, find:
a the proportion of people attending the gym and aerobics class on the 5th day
b the number of people attending the gym or aerobics class in the long term.
Think
a 1 Write down the transition matrix.
538
WriTe
0.8 0.7
a T=
0.2 0.3
150
S0 =
50
Write down a suitable initial state matrix. In

this case, it is the initial numbers of people
attending the gym and aerobics class.
Identify which state matrix is required.
As S0 corresponds to day 1, therefore day 5

corresponds to the state matrix S4.
Using a CAS calculator define the transition

matrix T.
Define the initial state in terms of numbers of

people attending gym (150) and
aerobics (50).
0.8 0.7
0.2 0.3 t
Calculate the proportion of people attending

gym or aerobics on the 5th day.
S4 = T4 S0.
t 4S0
Write the answer.
155.555
44.445
Write the solution.
S4 = T 4 S0
150
50 s0
150
0.8 0.7
0.2 0.3
50
155.555
=
44.445
9
Answer the question (rounding to the nearest

whole number).
b 1 Repeat step 6 for the long term choose
n = S0.
On the 5th day, there will be 156 people

at the gym and 44 people attending the
aerobics class.
b t 50S0
Record the result.
155.556
44.444
Write the solution.
S50 = T 50 S0
0.8 0.7
=
0.2 0.3
50
150
50
= 155.555
44.445
4
Answer the question (rounding to the nearest

whole number).
In the long-term, 156 people attend the gym

and 44 people go to aerobics class.
Worked example 14
The chance of Jos netball team winning a given game depends on how the team performs in the
previous game. If her team wins, then the chance that it will win the next game is 0.75. If her team
loses, there is only a 0.4 chance that they will win the next match. Given the team wins their first
match, find the probability, that:
a they win two out of their first three games
b they win the 7th game they play, correct to 4 decimal places.
539
Think
a 1 Draw a tree diagram labelling each
WriTe/draW
branch and place the appropriate

probability along the relevant branch.
List the outcomes.
Game 2
Won
game 1
Won
0.75
Game 3
Won
Outcomes
WWW
0.4
Lost
Won
WWL
WLW
0.6
Lost
WLL
0.75
0.25
0.25
Lost
Select the appropriate outcomes for the

required probability.
Pr(win 2 out of 3 games) = Pr(WWL) + Pr(WLW)
Calculate the probabilities by

multiplying along the branches.
Pr(win 2 out of 3 games) = 0.75 0.25 + 0.25 0.4

= 0.1875 + 0.1
= 0.2875
b 1 Write down the transition matrix, T.
W1
L1
W2 0.75 0.4
L 2 0.25 0.6
0.75 0.4
T=
0.25 0.6
T=
Write down a suitable initial state

matrix, S0.
As the value of the 1st row, 1st column of
T is the probability associated with winning
consecutive games, the first element of S0
will be the probability that the team has
won. We know for certain that Jos team
won the first match, so the probability
must be 1. Therefore, the probability of the
second element must be 0.
Pr(Jos team wins 1st game)

S0 =
Pr(Jos team loses 1st game)
1
S0 =
0
Identify which state matrix is required.
As S0 corresponds to game 1, therefore game 7

corresponds to the state matrix S6.
Using a CAS calculator, define the

transition matrix, T.
Define the initial state matrix, S0.
0.75 0.4
0.25 0.6 t
Calculate the state matrix for the

7th day (S6) (S6 = T5 S0).
t 6S0
Write your answer.
0.616 092
0.383 908
Write the solution.
Pr(winning the 7th game) = T 6 S0
1
0 S0

0.75 0.4
1
=

0
0.25 0.6
0.616 092
=
0.383 908
9
540
As the answer required is the probability

of winning the 7th game, we need the
first element of the state matrix. Round
the answer to 4 decimal places.
Pr(winning the 7th game) = 0.6161
Worked example 15
People from the suburb of Balwyn have easy access to two modes of public transport for
travelling to work locally or into the city. The modes of transport are buses and trams. When
3000 local people were interviewed, it was found that 40% used buses on a regular basis and
60% used trams on a regular basis. It was also found on a day-to-day basis, that if a person
caught a bus one day there was a 75% chance of them catching a bus again the following day.
Also, if a person caught a tram one day there was a 65% chance of them catching a tram again
the following day.
a For a particular five day working week, find the proportion of people using the bus and the
tram on Tuesday.
b For a particular five day working week, find the proportion of people using the bus and the
tram at the end of the working week, namely Friday.
c The proportion of people from the Balwyn area using the bus and the tram in the long term.
Think
a 1 Draw up a transition probability table.
WriTe
Bus next day

Tram next day
Write down the transition matrix T and the

initial state matrix S0.
Bus day 1
0.75
0.25
1.00
Tram day 1
0.35
0.65
1.00
0.75 0.35
0.25 0.65 is the transition matrix, T.
0.4
0.6 is the initial state matrix, S0.
If Sn = T Sn 1 then find S2 to determine

the proportion of people using each mode of
transport on Tuesday.
Note: The sum of the resultant two
probabilities MUST add to one.
Monday:
0.75 0.35 0.4
S1 =
0.25 0.65 0.6

0.75 0.4 + 0.35 0.6
=
0.25 0.4 + 0.65 0.6

0.51
=
0.49
Tuesday:
0.75 0.35 0.51
S2 =
0.25 0.65 0.49

0.75 0.51 + 0.35 0.49
=
0.25 0.51 + 0.65 0.49

0.554
=
0.446
State the result.
b 1 Continue using Sn = T Sn 1 to determine
the proportion of people using each mode of

transport on Friday.
On Tuesday 55.4% of the people from Balwyn

used the bus and 44.6% of the people used the
tram.
b Wednesday:
0.75 0.35 0.554

S3 =
0.25 0.65 0.446

0.75 0.554 + 0.35 0.446
=
0.25 0.554 + 0.65 0.446

0.5716
=
0.4284
541
Thursday:
S4 = 0.75 0.35 0.5716

0.25 0.65 0.4284
= 0.75 0.5716 + 0.35 0.4284

0.25
0.5716
0.65
0.4284
0.57864
=
0.42136
Friday:
c 1
State the result.

Note: If the results for Thursday and Friday
were both given correct to 2 decimal places,
the final matrix values would be the same,
namely 0.58 and 0.42. This is because the
result is quickly approaching a steady state.
For the long term solution define the steady
state probability.
Write simultaneous equations for the long

term probability.
Simplify each equation.
Both equations are identical, so express

B in terms of T.
Use the fact that B + T = 1, always.
S5 = 0.75 0.35 0.57864

0.25 0.65 0.42136
0.75 0.57 864 + 0.35 0.42 136
=
0.25 0.57 864 + 0.65 0.42 136

0.581 456
=
0.418 544
On Friday 58.1% of the people from Balwyn
used the bus and 41.8% of the people used the
tram.
c 0.75 0.35 B
B
0.25 0.65 T = T

where B represents the steady state.
T
It can be seen in part (b), as n becomes larger
and larger the Sn matrix is changed by only
very very small amounts. This is because it is
approaching a steady state.
0.75B + 0.35T = B
0.25B + 0.65T = T
From [1]
0.35T = 0.25B
From [2]
0.25B = 0.35T
1
B
4
7
= 20
T
B = 75 T
B = 7T
5
B+T=1
And rearranging [2], we have
B=1T
Substitute [3] into (1)
1 T = 75 T
1 = 75 T + T
1 = 12
T
5
5
12
542
State the result.
[1]
[2]
=T
In the long run 5 or approximately 41.7%

12
7
of the Balwyn people use the tram and 12
or
approximately 58.3% use the bus.
[1]
[2]
[3]
exercise 11C
markov chains and transition matrices
1 We11 Kelly has developed a method for predicting whether or not the surf will be good on a
particular day. If it is good today, there is a 65% chance it will be good tomorrow. If it is poor today,
there is a 45% chance it will be poor tomorrow.
a If the surf is good on Thursday, draw a tree diagram to represent the next two days.
b Extending the tree diagram, calculate the probability that, if the surf is good on Thursday, it will
also be good on Sunday.
2 Mio Custors films have either been hugely successful or have failed miserably at the box office. It
is known that there is a 25% chance of Mios next film being successful if his previous film was a
success. It is also known there is a 62% chance of his next film failing if the previous film was a failure.
He is currently filming a trilogy that will be released over a period of 3 years.
a What is the probability that the second instalment of the trilogy will be a failure if his latest film
before the trilogy was a success?
b What is the probability that the final instalment of the trilogy will be a failure if his latest film
before the trilogy was a success? Answer to 4 decimal places.
3 In the local cricket competition, teams can use either of two types of ball Kingfisher or Best Match.
At the end of each season, clubs sometimes decide to change the ball they use. Research suggests that
80% of those using Kingfisher stay with that ball for the next season.
K
An incomplete tree diagram representing this situation is shown at
0.80
K
right. Complete the diagram and then answer the following questions.
B
a If a club chooses Best Match one season, what is the probability
0.20
K
it will choose Best Match the following season?
0.70
B
b If a club chooses Best Match one season, what is the probability
B
0.30
it will be using Kingfisher in 3 years time?
4
The probability that Alicia is on time to school in the morning is dependent upon if she is asleep
by 10 pm. If she is asleep before 10 pm, the probability of her being on time to school is 0.8. If she
stays up until after 10 pm the night before, the probability of her being on time to school is only 0.4.
The probability that she is asleep before 10 pm is 0.6.
a Calculate the probability that she is on time to school on any given day.
b Given that she was on time to school, find the probability that Alicia went to bed later than 10 pm.
The Lo Schiavo family take a holiday every summer. They choose between a resort in Cairns and
visiting relatives in Tasmania. If they fly to Cairns one year, the probability of returning to Cairns
the next year is 0.4. If they decide to visit their relatives one summer, there is only a 0.3 chance
of a repeat visit the following year. In a particular year, the Lo Schiavos visited their relatives in
Tasmania. What is the probability that they were holidaying in Cairns two years later?
Every Sunday night, Priya gets takeaway. She only selects from Chinese takeaway or fish and
chips. If she eats Chinese takeaway one week, the probability of her eating fish and chips the week
after is 0.7. If she ate fish and chips one Sunday, the probability that she eats Chinese the next
Sunday is 0.5. Given that she eats Chinese on a particular Sunday, calculate the probability that
she eats Chinese takeaway on only one of the next three Sundays.
7 We12 Commuters travelling into the centre of Trenchtown use either the bus or train. Research has
shown that each month 30% of those using the bus switch to train travel and 60% of those using the
train revert to bus travel.
If, at the beginning of January, 5600 people were using the bus and 4900 were using the train to
get into the city, calculate:
a the number of people using the train at the beginning of May
b the number of people using the bus and train in the long term.
8 We13 Residents of Trenchtown purchase their petrol from either Petes Premium Petrol or Slick
Sams Servo. Research has shown that each month 10% of Petes customers switch to Slick Sams
Servo and 20% of Sams customers switch to Petes Premium Petrol.
If, at the beginning of June, 2800 customers purchased their petrol from Pete and 3100 customers
purchased their petrol from Sam, calculate:
a the number of people purchasing petrol from Pete at the beginning of October
b the number of people purchasing petrol from Pete and Sam in the long term.
543
9 A leisure centre offers aerobics classes and has a gym.
Records show that 10% of the members who use the gym on
a particular day will participate in an aerobics class the next
day, and 70% of the members who participate in an aerobics
class on a particular day will use the gym the next day. It is
also known that 300 members use the leisure centre each
day and they all participate in aerobics classes or use the
gym, but not both. On a particular day 200 members use the
gym and 100 members attend an aerobics class.
a In the long term, how many people will use the gym?
b In the long term, how many people will attend an aerobics class?
10 mC Records show that if a local football team make the top eight in a particular year, the chance
that they make the top eight in the following year is 70%. If they dont make the top eight in a
particular year, the chance that they make the top eight in the following year is 40%.
The tree diagram that best represents this situation is:
a
Make top 8
0.3
0.7
,
Don t
make top 8
Make top 8
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.3
,
Don t
make top 8
Make top 8
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
,
Don t
make top 8
0.3
0.7
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
0.7
0.3
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make top 8
,
Don t
make top 8
Make top 8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
,
Don t
make top 8
0.7
0.3
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
Make
top 8
,
Don t make
top 8
11 Miya prefers to shop at either Southland or Chadstone each weekend. The place she shops at depends
diGiTal doC
doc-9229
WorkSHEET 11.2
544
only on where she shopped the previous time. If she visited Southland one weekend, the next weekend
she goes shopping, the probability of her returning to Southland is 14. The transition matrix for the
probabilities of Miya visiting either Chadstone or Southland given the shopping centre she visited
1 2
4
5
the weekend before is 3 3 .
4 5
a If Miya shops at Chadstone one weekend, what is the probability she shops at Southland the
following weekend?
b Miya does visit Chadstone on a particular weekend. What is the probability, correct to 3 decimal
places, that she will be at Chadstone again in four weekends time?
c In the long term, what proportion of weekends, correct to 3 decimal places, does Miya spend at
Chadstone?
12 We14 The chance of Paul hitting a bullseye in darts is dependent on the success of his
previous throw. If he hits a bullseye, then the chance that his next throw will also be a
bullseye is 0.65. If he misses, though, there is only a 0.15 chance that he will get a bullseye
on his next throw. Given that Pauls first throw is a bullseye, find the probability, correct to
4 decimal places, that:
a he hits the bullseye on his next two throws, but misses on the third
b on his tenth throw, he gets a bullseye.
13 Markov chains have a long history in computer generated music. They work by analysing the change
of a given pitch going directly to any other pitch. Suppose it is known that C is the most common
pitch to start a composition with a 65% rating. C is followed by A with an 18% rating and then by B
with a 17% rating. When composing music, for each possible current state, there are three possible
next states. Each column in the transition matrix below indicates the relative probability of going to
the next state.
A
T= B
C
A
B
C
0.24 0.35 0.70
0.48 0.20 0.14
0.28 0.45 0.16
If you are currently on A, there is a 0.24 probability of repeating A, a 0.48 probability of going to
B and a 0.28 probability of going to C.
a Define the initial state matrix.
b In a computer music composition, what are the respective probabilities for the fourth note to be
either A, B or C? Give answers correct to 4 decimal places.
14 We15 An investigation, at the beginning of 2007, into the movement between inner city living (I)
and suburban living (S) of major cities in Australia found that on an annual basis, 40% of the inner
city population moved to the suburbs and 30% of the suburban population moved to the inner city. It
was also found that on average 55% of the citys population were inner city dwellers and 45% were
suburban dwellers.
a Define the initial state matrix and the transition matrix.
b If another urban study was taken at the beginning of 2012, what proportion of people would be
expected to be living in the inner city and in the suburbs after the 3 year period? Give your answers
correct to 1 decimal place.
c Find the proportion of the population who will be city dwellers and suburban dwellers in the long
run. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
15 Auto-immune diseases affect around 1 in 20 people and are one of the important health issues in
Australia. The causes of auto-immune diseases are not yet known, however, in many cases it appears
that there is some inherited tendency to develop auto-immune diseases. Some examples of
auto-immune diseases are multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis and lupus.
A researcher investigating auto-immune diseases, constructed the following transition matrix,
to further investigate the possibility of an off-spring from a union developing an auto-immune
disease.
Parents auto-immune disease history
A
T = off-springs history A 0.6 0.3

A 0.4 0.7
A = has auto-immune disease
A = does not have auto-immune disease
b Determine the probability of a child having or not having an auto-immune disease. Give your
answers correct to 3 decimal places.

c For the long term solution, define the steady state probability.
d Find the proportions (as fractions) of family descendants who will or will not suffer from an auto-
immune disease in the long run.

16 The following study was the result of a socio-economic investigation completed in the USA. The study
investigated if the income of an offspring from a legal or de facto union, when he/she was an adult,
depended on the income of the occupation of the parents. The following transition matrix was given:
Parents income
L
M
H
L 0.6 0.15 0.05
T = offsprings income M 0.2 0.6 0.3

H 0.2 0.25 0.65
L = Low income, M = Medium income, H = High income
545
1 L
The initial state matrix of S0 = 0 M also allows us to investigate the descendants of low income

parents.
0 H
a Explain each of the entries in the first row of the transition matrix.
b What is the probability that the great grandchild of a low income earner family will earn at a high
income level? Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
c In the long run, what proportions of the offspring of low income earners will be earning at a low,
medium or high income levels? Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
17 Consider again the socio-economic study described in question 16.
a Define the initial state matrix appropriate to enable us to investigate the descendents of a high
income earners.
b What is the probability that the great great grandchild of high income earning parents will earn at:
i a high level?
ii medium level?
iii low level?
Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.

18 A delivery truck delivers goods to/between three adjacent municipalities: Birmingham (B),
Kurumburra (K) and Redhorse (R). It is known that 35% of all deliveries go to Birmingham, 35% of
all deliveries go to Kurumburra and 30% of all deliveries go to Redhorse. The transition matrix for the
truck deliveries is as follows:
From
B
K
R
B 0.1 0.2 0.5
T = T0 K 0.5 0.2 0.5
R 0.4 0.6 0.0
b Find the probability that the fifth delivery for the day is to Redhorse. Give your answers correct to
4 decimal places.
c Find the percentage of the deliveries that go to each of the municipalities in the long run. Give
your answers correct to 1 decimal place.

19 Each morning a young woman leaves her house and goes for a run. She has three pairs of running shoes
that she can choose to wear. One pair has red trimmings, another pair has blue trimmings and a third pair
has yellow trimmings. As the pair with red trimmings (R) are the oldest and the most comfortable, she
chooses them 60% of the time, while the blue trim shoes (B) are chosen 25% of the time and the yellow
trim shoes (Y) are chosen 15% of the time. The transition matrix for the choice of running shoes is as
follows:
T = Next day B
Y
Day One
R
B
Y
0.5 0.4 0.4
0.3 0.4 0.3
0.2 0.2 0.3

b Let day 1 be Monday. What is the probability that she will be wearing her favourite shoes with
red trimmings on the following Friday? Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
c Find the long term likelihood that she would wear each of the pairs of running shoes. Give your
answers correct to 1 decimal place.

20 A person can buy their lunch from the company canteen. They have a choice from the following options.
Asandwichwithfruit(S)chosenby25%oftheworkersonaregularbasis.
Achickensaladwithfruit(C)chosenby30%oftheworkersonaregularbasis.
Lasagnewithfruit(L)chosenby45%oftheworkersonaregularbasis.
The workers who buy a sandwich one day have a 40% chance of buying it again the next day
and a 30% chance of buying a chicken salad the next day. The workers who buy a chicken
salad one day have a 50% chance of buying it again the next day and a 40% chance of buying
546
a lasagne the next day. The workers who buy a lasagne one day have a 50% chance of buying it
again the next day and a 10% chance of buying a sandwich the next day.
b What percentage of people chose a chicken salad on the Thursday of a working week? Give your
answers correct to 1 decimal place.
c Find the percentage of people who consume each of the lunch options in the long run.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
21 Two hundred members of a particular gym were questioned about their attendance patterns. 20% said
their attendance was 3 or more times per week (H), 35% said their attendance was 12 times per week
(M) and the remainder said their attendance was 01 times per week (L). It was also discovered that if
a person attended 3 or more times per week for one week, they had a 50% chance of maintaining that
pattern the next week but a 10% chance of dropping to 10 times per week the next week. If a person
attended 12 times per week for one week, they had a 35% chance of maintaining that attendance
pattern the next week and a 40% chance of upgrading the attendance to 3 or more times the following
week. Finally, if a person attended 01 times for one week, they had a 80% chance of maintaining that
attendance pattern the following week and only a 5% chance of improving their attendance pattern to
3 or more time per week the following week.
b What percentage of the gym members attended 12 times per week after 4 continuous weeks?
c Find the percentage of the gym members who attended at H, M and L levels in the long run. Give
your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
expected value, variance and

standard deviation of the binomial
distribution
11d
Units: 3 & 4
When working with the binomial probability distribution, (like other distributions) it is very useful to
know the expected value (mean), variance and the standard deviation.
The random variable, X, is such that X Bi(8, 0.3) and has the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x) 0.057 65 0.197 65 0.296 48 0.254 12 0.136 14 0.046 68 0.010 00 0.001 22 0.000 07
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
In chapter 10 we saw that the expected value, E(X) was defined as E( X ) = x Pr( X = x ). Hence, the
expected value for the above table is:
E( X ) = x Pr( X = x ).
= 0 0.057 65 + 1 0.197 65 + 2 0.296 48 + 3 0.254 12 + 4 0.136 14 + 5 0.046 68 + 6
0.010 00 + 7 0.001 22 + 8 0.000 07
= 0 + 0.197 65 + 0.592 96 + 0.762 36 + 0.544 56 + 0.233 400 + 0.060 00 + 0.008 54 + 0.000 56
= 2.4
The variance was defined by the rule Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2. Hence, the variance for the above
table is:
Var(X) = E(X2) [E(X)]2
=0 2 0.057 65 + 12 0.197 65 + 22 0.29 6 48 + 32 0.254 12 + 42 0.136 14 + 52 0.046 68 +
62 0.010 00 + 72 0.001 22 + 82 0.000 07 (2.4)2
= 0 + 0.19 7 65 + 1.185 92 + 2.287 08 + 2.178 24 + 1.166 89 + 0.360 01 + 0.060 011
+ 0.004 194 (2.4)2
= 7.44 (2.4)2
= 1.68
The standard deviation was defined by the rule SD( X ) = Var( X ). Hence the standard deviation for
the above table is:
SD( X ) = Var( X ) = 1.68 = 1.30
547
Since this method for obtaining the expected value, variance and the standard deviation is tedious and
time consuming, a quicker method has been developed to calculate these terms. It can be shown that if
X Bi(n, p) then:
E( X ) = np
Var( X ) = npq
SD( X ) = npq
To check that these agree with the previous example, we will substitute the values into the given rules.
When X Bi(8, 0.3), we obtain the following.
The expected value:
E(X) = np
= 8 0.3
= 2.4
The variance:
Var(X) = npq
= 8 0.3 0.7
= 1.68
The standard deviation:
SD( X ) = npq
= 1.68
= 1.30
As can be seen, these values correspond to those obtained earlier. A great deal of time is saved using
these rules and the margin for making mistakes is reduced.
Hence, if X is a random variable and X Bi(n, p) then:
E(X) = np
SD(X) = npq
Var(X) = npq
Note: The distribution must be binomial for these rules to apply.

Worked example 16
The random variable X follows a binomial distribution such that X Bi(40, 0.25). Determine the:
a expected value
b variance and standard deviation.
Think
WriTe
a E(X) = np

2
List the values for n and p.
n = 40, p = 0.25
E(X) = 40 0.25
Evaluate.
= 10
b Var(X) = npq
b 1 Write the rule for the variance.

2
Write the values for n, p and q.
n = 40, p = 0.25, q = 0.75
Var(X) = 40 0.25 0.75
Evaluate.
Write the rule for the standard deviation.
Substitute the value obtained for the variance

and take the square root.
= 7.5
Evaluate.
= 2.74
= 7.5
SD(X) = npq
Worked example 17
A fair die is rolled 15 times. Find:

a the expected number of 3s rolled
b the probability of obtaining more than the expected number of 3s.
Think

2
548
List the values for n and p.
WriTe
a E(X) = np
n = 15, p = 16
Evaluate.
b 1 State the probability distribution.
E(X) = 15 16
= 2.5
b X ~ Bi(n, p)
X ~ Bi15,
6
2

Note: Since X represents the
number of 3s, X can have only
whole number values.
Write the rule for the binomial

probability distribution. Then
substitute the values of n, p and
q into the rule.
Evaluate and round the answer

Part b can also be solved with a CAS

calculator.
Pr(X > 2.5) = Pr(X 3)

= 1 Pr(X < 3)
= 1 [Pr(X = 0) + Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2)]
0
15
1
14
2
13
1 5
1 5
1 5
= 1 15 C0 + 15C1 + 15C2
6 6
6 6
6 6
= 1 (0.064 905 471 5 + 0.194 716 414 6

+ 0.272 602 980 4)
= 1 0.532 224 866 5
= 0.467 775 133 5
0.4678
Pr(X > 2.5) = Pr(X 3)
= binomCdf(15, 1, 3, 15)
6
= 0.4678
Worked example 18
A binomial random variable has an expected value of 14.4 and a variance of 8.64. Find:
a the probability of success, p
b the number of trials, n.
Think
a 1 Write what is known and what is required.
WriTe
E(X) = 14.4
Var(X) = 8.64
p=?
npq = 8.64
14.4q = 8.64
Substitute the value of np into the variance

equation.
Transpose the equation to make q the subject.
q=
Evaluate.
q = 0.6
Solve for p using the relationship q = 1 p.
b 1 Write what is known and what is required.

2
Substitute the values into the equation.
Transpose the equation to make n the subject.
so np = 14.4
so npq = 8.64
8.64
14.4
q=1p
0.6 = 1 p
p = 0.4
b np = 14.4
n=?
where p = 0.4
n 0.4 = 14.4
14.4
0.4
= 36
n=
549
Worked example 19
A new test designed to assess the reading ability of students entering high school
showed that 10% of the students displayed a reading level that was inadequate to TUTorial
cope with high school.
eles-1236
a If 400 students are selected at random, find the expected number of students Worked example 19
whose reading level is inadequate to cope with high school.
b Determine the standard deviation of students whose reading level is inadequate to cope with
high school and hence calculate 2.
c Discuss the results obtained in part b.
Think
WriTe
a E(X) = np
Write the values for n and p.
n = 400, p = 0.1
E(X) = 400 0.1
Evaluate.
Interpret the answer.
b 1 Write the rule for the variance.
= 40
It is expected that 40 students will have a
reading level that is inadequate to cope with
high school.
b Var(X) = npq
Write the values for n, p and q.
n = 400, p = 0.1, q = 0.9
Var(X) = 400 0.1 0.9
Evaluate.
Write the rule for the standard deviation.
Substitute the value obtained for the variance and

take the square root.
= 36
Evaluate.
=6
Calculate 2.
2 = 40 2 6
= 28
Calculate + 2.
+ 2 = 40 + 2 6
= 52
c Interpret the results obtained in part b.
Note: Recall that for many random variables,

approximately 0.95 of the probability distribution
lieswithin two standard deviations of the mean.
= 36
SD(X) = npq
c There is a probability of 0.95 that between 28 to
52 students (inclusive) will have a reading level

that is inadequate to cope with high school.
expected value, variance and standard

deviation of the binomial distribution
exercise 11d
In questions 1, 2 and 3, assume we have a binomial distribution with number of trials, n and probability
of success, p, as given.
diGiTal doC
doc-9227
Spreadsheet
550
1 We16a
Determine the mean if:
a n = 10 and p = 0.6
c n = 100 and p = 0.5
b n = 8 and p = 0.2
2 We16b
Determine the variance if:
a n = 20 and p = 0.6
c n = 25 and p = 0.4
b n = 15 and p = 0.9
d n = 50 and p =
d n = 20 and p =
3
4
1
4
3 We16b Determine the standard deviation if:

a n = 10 and p = 0.2
c n = 50 and p = 0.7
b n = 30 and p = 0.5
d n = 72 and p =
2
4
4 A fair coin is tossed 10 times. Find:

a the expected number of heads
b the variance for the number of heads
c the standard deviation for the number of heads.
5 A card is selected at random from a standard playing pack of
10
11
12
13
14
15
52 and then replaced. This procedure is completed 20 times.

Find:
a the expected number of picture cards
b the variance for the number of picture cards
c the standard deviation for the number of picture cards.
Six out of every 10 cars manufactured are white. Twenty cars
are randomly selected. Find:
a the expected number of white cars
b the variance for the number of white cars
c the standard deviation for the number of white cars.
We17 A fair die is rolled 10 times. Find:
a the expected number of 2s rolled
b the probability of obtaining more than the expected number of 2s.
A fair die is rolled 15 times. Find:
a the expected number of prime values
b the probability of obtaining more than the expected number of prime values.
A mathematics exam contains 27 multiple-choice questions, each with 5 possible answers. Find:
a the expected number of correct answers if a student guessed each question
b the probability of obtaining more than the expected number of correct answers.
A new drug that is being trialled has a success rate of 35%. Of the next 80 patients who trial the drug,
find:
a the expected number of patients who will be cured
b the probability that more than the expected number of patients will be cured.
Eighty per cent of rabbits that contract a certain disease will die. If a group of 120 rabbits
contract the disease, how many would you expect to:
a die?
b live?
We18
A binomial random variable has a mean of 10 and a variance of 5. Find:
A binomial random variable has a mean of 12 and a variance of 3. Find:
X is a binomial random variable with a mean of 9 and a variance of 6. Find:
b the number of trials, n
c Pr(X = 10).
If X is a binomial random variable with E(X) = 3 and Var(X) = 2.4, find:
b the number of trials, n
c Pr(X = 10)
d Pr(X 2).
16 mC The expected number of heads in 20 tosses of a fair coin is:

a
1
2
d 15
B 5
C 10
e 20
17 mC Jenny is a billiards player who knows from experience that
7 out of every 10 shots she plays will result in a ball being potted.
If she has 40 shots, the number of balls she expects to pot is:
a 7
B 14
C 21
d 25
e 28
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18 mC The variance of the number of balls that Jenny pots from her 40 shots in question 17 is:
a 2.898
B 7.3
C 8.4
d 22.2
e 28
19 mC Eighty per cent of children are immunised against a certain disease. A sample of 200 children
is taken. The mean and variance of the number of immunised children is:
a 80 and 5.66 respectively
B 80 and 32 respectively
C 100 and 50 respectively
d 160 and 5.66 respectively
e 160 and 32 respectively
20 mC A binomial random variable has a mean of 10 and a variance of 6. The values of n and p
respectively are:
2
a 5 and 5
B 5 and 5
C 20 and 5
d 25 and 5
e 25 and 5
21 mC A Bernoulli trial has a probability of success, p. If 5 trials are conducted, the probability of
three successes is:

a p3q2
B p2q3
C 10p2q3
d 10p3(1 p)2
e p3
22 A binomial experiment is completed 20 times, with the expected number of successes being 16. Find:
b the variance
c the standard deviation.
23 A multiple-choice test has 20 questions with five different choices of answer for each question. If the
answers to each question are guessed, find:

a the probability of getting 50% of the questions correct
b the probability of getting at least three correct.
24 Four per cent of pens made at a certain factory do not work. If pens are sold in boxes of 25, find the
probability that a box contains more than the expected number of faulty pens.
25 A biased coin is tossed 10 times. Let X be the random variable representing the number of tails
obtained. If X has an expectation of 3, find:

a the probability of obtaining exactly two tails
b the probability of obtaining no more than two tails.
26
Eighty per cent of Melbourne households have DVD players. A random sample of 500 households
is taken. How many would you expect to have DVD players?
27 The executive committee of a certain company contains 15 members. Find the probability that more
females than males will hold positions if:

a males and females are equally likely to fill any position
b females have a 55% chance of holding any position
c females have a 45% chance of holding any position.
28
A statistician estimates the probability that a spectator at a Carlton versus Collingwood

AFL match barracks for Carlton is 1. At an AFL grand final between these two teams there are
2
10 000 spectators. Find:
a the expected number of Carlton supporters
b the variance of the number of Carlton supporters
c the standard deviation of the number of Carlton supporters.
29
Thirty children are given five different yoghurts to try. The yoghurts are marked A to E,
and each child has to select his or her preferred yoghurt. Each child is equally likely to select any
brand. The company running the tests manufactures yoghurt B.
a How many children would the company expect to pick yoghurt B?
b The tests showed that half of the children selected yoghurt B as their favourite. What does this tell
the company manufacturing this product?
30 The proportion of defective fuses made by a certain company is 0.02. A sample of 30 fuses is taken for
quality control inspection.

a Find the probability that there are no defective fuses in the sample.
b Find the probability that there is only one defective fuse in the sample.
c How many defective fuses would you expect in the sample?
d The hardware chain that sells the fuses will accept the latest batch for sale only if, upon
inspection, there is at most one defective fuse in the sample of 30. What is the probability that
they accept the batch?
e Ten quality control inspections are conducted monthly for the hardware chain. Find the
probability that all of these inspections will result in acceptable batches.
552
A new test designed to assess the reading ability of students entering high school
showed that 10% of the students displayed a reading level that was inadequate to cope with high
school.
a If 1600 students are selected at random, find the expected
number of students whose reading level is inadequate to
cope with high school.
b Determine the standard deviation of students whose
reading level is inadequate to cope with high school, and
hence calculate 2.
32 The success rate of a new drug that is being trialled is 70%.
a If 1800 patients are selected at random, find the expected number of patients cured.
b Determine the standard deviation of patients cured, and hence calculate 2.
31 We19
diGiTal doC
doc-9230
Investigation
Winning at
racquetball!
553
Summary
The binomial
distribution
The binomial distribution is an example of a discrete probability distribution.

The binomial distribution may be referred to as a Bernoulli distribution, and the trials conducted
are known as Bernoulli trials.
For a sequence to be defined as a Bernoulli sequence, each of the following characteristics must be
satisfied.
1. n independent trials must be conducted.
2. Only two possible outcomes must exist for each trial, that is, success (p) and failure (q).
3. The probability of success, p, is fixed for each trial.
If X represents a random variable that has a binomial distribution, then it can be expressed as
X ~ Bi(n, p) or X ~ B(n, p). This means that X follows a binomial distribution with parameters n
(the number of trials) and p (the probability of success).
If X is a binomial random variable its probability is defined as:
Pr(X = x) = nCx pxqn x where x = 0, 1, 2, . . . n.
The effects of n
and p on binomial
distribution graphs
The parameters n and p affect the binomial probability distribution curve as follows.
1. If p < 0.5, the graph is positively skewed.
2. If p = 0.5, the graph is symmetrical or is a normal distribution curve.
3. If p > 0.5, the graph is negatively skewed.
4. When n is very large and p = 0.5, the interval between the vertical columns decreases and the
graph approximates a smooth hump or bell shape.
problems involving the

binomial distribution
for multiple
probabilities
When solving problems dealing with the binomial distribution for multiple probabilities, always:
1. define the distribution
2. write what is required
3. write the rule for the binomial probability distribution
4. substitute the values into the given rule and evaluate.
markov chains and

transition matrices
A Markov chain is a sequence of repetitions of an experiment in which:

1. The probability of a particular outcome in an experiment is conditional only on the result of the
outcome immediately before it.
2. The conditional probabilities of each outcome in a particular experiment are the same every
single time.
A two-state Markov chain is where there are only two possible outcomes for each experiment.
Problems involving two-state Markov chains can be solved using:
1. tree diagrams where the probabilities are multiplied along the branches
2. recurrence relationships
Pr(A 2 | A1 ) Pr(A 2 | A1 )
,
3. transition matrices where T =
Pr(A 2 | A1 ) Pr(A 2 | A1 )
n(A1 )0
S0 = the initial state,
n(A 2 )0
Pr (A1 )0
or
Pr (A 2 )0
Sn = T n S0
To find the long-term proportion or steady state, let n = a large number, relative to the problem, and
solve forSn.
expected value,
variance and standard
deviation of the
binomial distribution
If X is a random variable and X Bi(n, p) then:

E(X) = np
Var(X) = npq
SD( X ) = npq
This applies only to a binomial distribution.
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Chapter review
1 Zoe tosses a fair coin 5 times. Calculate:
a the probability of obtaining 3 heads
b the probability of obtaining at least 1 head
c the probability of obtaining 4 heads then a tail.
S ho rT
a n S W er
2 Matt is a dedicated football player and knows that his chance of scoring a goal on any one kick is 0.9. If
he has three shots at goal in a row, calculate the probability that:

a he scores two goals
b all of his shots miss
c after missing the first, he scores a goal on each of his next two shots.
3 Nisha is pulling marbles out of a bag containing 3 green and 9 red ones. After each selection she
replaces the marble. In total she selects four marbles. What is the probability she selects:
a two red marbles?
b two red marbles, given that at least one red marble was selected?
4 One out of three people read the Bugle newspaper, while one out of five read the Headline. If four
people are sampled, what is the probability that:

a one of them reads the Headline?
b at least three of them read the Bugle?
5 A cafe prepares its macchiatos with either skinny or regular milk. It is known that 20% of customers
who have a regular macchiato on a particular day will have a skinny macchiato the next day. Also, 70%
of customers who have a skinny macchiato on a particular day will have a regular macchiato the next
day. Given a particular customer has a skinny macchiato on Monday, calculate the probability:
a they had a regular macchiato on Tuesday and a skinny macchiato on Wednesday
b they had a skinny macchiato on Wednesday.
6 Hilary loves going to the movies every Friday night, and prefers either comedy or action films. If she
watches a comedy one week, the probability that she sees a comedy the following week is 0.1. If she sees
an action movie on a particular Friday, there is a probability of 0.4 that she will see an action movie the
following Friday. Given that Hilary saw a comedy on the first Friday in March, calculate the probability:
a she sees an action film on the third Friday of the month
b she saw a comedy on the 2nd Friday, given that she saw an action film on the third Friday of the month.
7 Maria and Patrick love to play a game of tennis each week. The probability of Maria beating Patrick
if she wins the previous week is 0.7; however, if she loses a match, the chance of her beating him the
following week is only 0.2. Given that Maria beats Patrick in their first match of the year, calculate
the probability that she will beat him exactly one more time in the next three weeks.
8 Calculate:
i the me
an
ii the variance
for the binomial random variables with n and p given by:
a n = 100 and p = 0.5
b n = 50 and p = 0.8.
9 A binomial random variable has a mean of 10 and variance of 8. Calculate:

10 A mathematics exam contains 40 multiple-choice questions, each with 5 possible answers. Calculate:
a the expected number of correct answers if a student guessed each question
b the variance of the number of correct answers if a student guessed each question.
1 Three out of every 7 students ride bikes to school. Twenty students are randomly selected. The
probability that 8 of these rode to school today is:

a 0.0951
B 0.1426
C 0.1738
d 0.3178
m U lTip l e
C ho iC e
e 0.4916
2 An unbiased 8-sided die is rolled 12 times. The probability of obtaining three results greater than 5 is:
a 0.1135
B 0.1688
C 0.2188
d 0.2279
e 0.2824
3 Which of the following does not represent a Bernoulli sequence?

a Rolling a die 10 times and recording the number of 5s
B Rolling a die 50 times and recording the results
555
C Spinning a 7-sided spinner and recording the number of 4s obtained

d Surveying 100 people and asking them if they eat Superflakes cereal
e Drawing a card with replacement and recording the number of red cards obtained
4 The probability that the temperature in Melbourne will rise above 25 C on any given summer day,
independent of any other summer day, is 0.65. The probability that 3 days in a week reach in excess
of 25 C is:
B 37 0.354
a 0.653
d 35 0.653 0.354
C 7 0.653 0.44
e 0.653 0.354
5 A fair die is rolled 10 times. The probability of obtaining 4 even numbers is:
a 0.0004
B 0.2051
C 0.0009
d 0.7949
e 0.2461
6 If the same die from question 5 is rolled 10 times, the probability of obtaining at least 8 even numbers is:
a 0.0107
B 0.0390
C 0.0547
d 0.9453
e 0.9893
7 The probability of Sam beating Abby in a game of cards is 0.36. Abby and Sam decide to play a game
every day for n days. What is the fewest number of games they need to play to ensure the probability of
Sam winning at least once is greater than 0.85?
a 3
B 4
C 5
d 6
e 7
8 One in every 50 apples sold at Grubby Grannys Greengrocers has worms in it. If I buy a box of
100 apples, the probability of at least three apples containing worms is:
a 0.3233
B 0.3781
C 0.5
d 0.6219
9 X is a random variable, binomially distributed with n = 20 and p =
a 1
()
4 20
7
B 1
()
( )( )
3 20
7
3
C 20 7
4 19
7
3
7.
e 0.6867
Pr(X 1) is:
(37)20
( 47)20
10 Claires position in the netball team is goal shooter. The probability of her shooting a goal is 67%. If
she has 15 attempts at scoring, the probability she will score at least 7 goals is:
a 15C7 (0.67)7(0.33)8
B 15C7 (0.33)7(0.67)8 + 15C8 (0.33)8(0.67)7 + + (0.33)15
C 15C8 (0.67)8(0.33)7 + 15C9 (0.67)9(0.33)6 + + (0.67)15
d 15C7 (0.67)7(0.33)8 + 15C8 (0.67)8(0.33)7 + + (0.67)15
e (0.33)15 + 15C1 (0.67)(0.33)14 + + 15C7 (0.67)7(0.33)8
11 The proportion of patients that suffer a violent reaction from a new drug being trialled is k. If
60 patients trial the drug, the probability that one-fifth of the patients have a violent reaction is:
B 60C12 (k)12
a 60C5 (1 k)5(k)55
C 60C5 (k)5(1 k)55
60
12
48
d
C12 (1 k) (k)
e 60C12 (k)12(1 k)48
12 Theo passes three sets of traffic lights on his way to school each morning. The lights at each
intersection operate independently of each other. The probability of him having to stop for a red light
is 23 and the probability of passing through the intersection without stopping is 13 . If Theo encountered
a red light at least once during a particular trip to school, what is the probability that he had to stop at
exactly two intersections?
a
2
13
6
19
3
5
6
13
2
9
13 Consider a Markov chain where the nth state is given by Sn = T n S0. Which one of the following could
represent the transition matrix, T, and the initial state matrix, S0, respectively?
0.1 0.9
1
0.6 0.4 and
0.3
0.6 0.1
0.4 0.9 and 0.7
0.6 0.1
15
30 and 0.4 0.9
10
0.25 0.45
0.25 0.75
and
and
e
0.4 0.6
20
0.85 0.65

14 Kelly has developed a method for predicting whether or not the surf will be good on a particular day. If it is
good today, there is an 83% chance it will be good tomorrow. If it is poor today, there is a 65% chance it will
be poor tomorrow. The probability that the surf will be poor on Thursday given it was poor on Tuesday is:
a 0.4225
B 0.4820
C 0.0595
d 0.6620
e 0.6500
1
0
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15 Two fair coins are tossed simultaneously 60 times. The number of times that they both show heads is
expected to be:
a 10
B 15
C 20
d 30
e 45
16 The variance in the number of heads obtained from 50 tosses of a fair coin is:
1
2
B 25
a 50
C 14
d 25
e 3.53
d 2.5
e 25
17 The expected number of heads in 50 tosses of a fair coin is:

a 12
B 6.25
18 A variance of 1.35 occurs when:
C 10
a n = 20 and p = 0.6
B n = 15 and p = 0.9
d n = 20 and p =
e n = 50 and p = 0.3
1
4
C n = 25 and p = 0.4
ex Ten d ed
r eS p o n S e
1 Speedy Saverios Pizza House claims to cook and deliver
90% of pizzas within 15minutes of the order being placed. If

your pizza is not delivered within this time, it is free. On one busy
Saturday night, Saverio has to make 150 deliveries.
a How many deliveries are expected to be made within
15 minutes of placing the order?
b What is the probability of receiving a free pizza on this night?
c If Saverio loses an average of $4 for every late delivery, how
much would he expect to lose on late deliveries this night?
2 Ten per cent of all Olympic athletes are tested for drugs at
the conclusion of their event. One per cent of all athletes use
performance enhancing drugs. Of the 1000 Olympic wrestlers
competing from all over the world, Australia sends 10. Find:
a the expected number of Australian wrestlers who are tested
for drugs
b the probability that half the Australian wrestlers are tested
for drugs
c the probability that at least two Australian wrestlers are tested for drugs
d the expected number of drug users among all wrestlers.
3 Five per cent of watches made at a certain factory are defective. Watches are sold to retailers in boxes of 20.
Find:
a the expected number of defective watches in each box
b the probability that a box contains more than the expected number of defective watches per box
c the probability of a bad batch, if a bad batch entails more than a quarter of the box being defective.
4 Aiko is a keen basketball player and knows that her chance of scoring a goal on any one throw is 0.65.
a If Aiko takes 6 shots for a goal, find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that she:
i misses each time
ii scores a goal at least three times
iii scores a goal five times, given that she scored a goal at least three times.
b Find the number of throws Aiko would need to ensure a probability of more than 0.9 of scoring at
least one goal.
5 Sixty-eight per cent of all scheduled trains through Westbourne station arrive on time. If 20 trains go
through the station every day, calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a no more than 10 trains are on time
b at least 12 trains are on time
c at least 12 trains are on time for 9 out of the next 10 days.
6 The success rate of a new drug being trialled is 60%.
a If 2400 patients are selected at random, find the expected number of patients cured.
b Determine the standard deviation of patients cured and hence calculate 2.
c Interpret the results found in part b.
557
7 Phil is running a stall at the local Primary School Fair involving lucky dips. It costs $2 to have a go, and
10
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Practice
VCE exam
questions
Use StudyON to
access all exam
questions on this
topic since 2002.
diGiTal doC
doc-9231
Test Yourself
Chapter 11
558
11
contained in a large box are 80 lucky dips from which to choose. Phil claims that one in 5 lucky dips
contains a prize. By the end of the day, all 80 have been sold. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal
places, that:
a the first four people to select a lucky dip dont win a prize, but the next two do
b there are at least 10 winners
c there are no more than 18 prize winners, given that at least 10 people won a prize.
Every afternoon Anna either goes for a run or a walk. If she goes for a walk one afternoon, the
probability that she goes for a run the next is 0.45, and if she decides to run one afternoon, then the
probability of her going for a walk the next afternoon is 0.8. On Wednesday, Anna decides to go for a
walk around the park.
a What is the probability that she goes for a run on each of the next three afternoons?
b What is the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that over the next three afternoons, she goes
for a run at least once?
c What is the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that on the following Wednesday Anna will
decide to go for a run?
d In the long term, on what proportion of afternoons will she choose to go for a run?
A small town has two restaurants Kazs Kitchen and Als Fine Dining. Records show that 30%
of customers who eat at Kazs Kitchen one week will visit Als Fine Dining the next. Also, 40% of
customers who eat at Als Fine Dining during the week will dine at Kazs Kitchen the following week.
There are 400 members of the town who regularly dine out once a week. During the first week of July,
300 people visit Kazs Kitchen and Al has 100 customers at his restaurant.
a How many customers will visit each restaurant in the first week of August?
b In the long run, how many customers will Kaz and Al each get per week?
Two companies are competing for the mobile phone market. At the end of January, market research
revealed the following patterns in the subscriptions of mobile phone users.
Of the 400 Tellya customers who were interviewed, 340 were staying with Tellya and 60 were
changing to Yodacall.
Of the 100 Yodacall customers who were interviewed, 90 were staying with Yodacall and 10 were
changing to Tellya.
a Set up a pair of recurrence relationships that describes the given patterns.
b What is the original state of the companies in terms of market share?
c What is the state of each company at the end of the next month (February)?
d What is the state, in terms of market share, of each company 4 months later (May)?
e What is the state, in terms of market share, of each company 7 months later (August)?
f What is the state, in terms of market share, of each company at the end of the following January?
g A company will fail to be viable if its market share falls below 25%. Which, if either, of these
companies will not achieve this market share in the long run?
The winter months in many states of Australia can be cold, windy, mild and sunny all in a matter of
days. A study was made of the winter months of June, July and August during which it was found that
it was cold and/or raining (R) on 45% of the days, cloudy and/or windy (W) on 35% of the days and
sunny and mild (S) on 20% of the days. It was also found that the proportion of consecutive days of
cold/rain was 45%, the proportion of consecutive days of cloud/wind was 55% and the proportion of
consecutive days of sunny/mild was 45%. A rainy/cold day followed by a cloudy/windy day happened
40% of the time, a sunny/mild day followed by a cold/rainy day happened 25% of the time and a
cloudy/windy day followed by a sunny/mild day happened 5% of the time.
b What is the probability that the third day of three consecutive days is sunny and mild? Give your
answer correct to 3 decimal places.
c In the long run, find the percentage of days that will be R, W or S over the winter months.
ICT activities
Chapter opener
diGiTal doC
applications of the binomial distribution. (page 515)
11a
TUTorialS
We 2 eles-1191: Watch a worked example on indentifying the
number of trials in an experiment. (page 517)
We 5 eles-1232: Watch a worked example on constructing a
probability distribution table. (page 520)
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9227: Investigate the binomial distribution.
(pages 523 and 525)
SkillSHEET 11.1 doc-9269: Practise solving indicial equations.
(page 525)
WorkSHEET 11.1 doc-9228: Recognise Bernoulli sequences and
calculate cumulative and non-cumulative probabilities.
(page 526)
11B problems involving the binomial distribution

for multiple probabilities
TUTorialS
probabilities using a CAS calculator. (page 527)
We 10 eles-1234: Watch a worked example on calculating
probabilities using the cumulative binomial distribution. (page 528)
diGiTal doC
SkillSHEET 11.2 doc-9270: Practise multiple probabilities. (page 529)
11C
markov chains and transition matrices
inTeraCTiViTY int-0256
The binomial distribution: Consolidate your understanding of the
binomial distribution. (page 532)
TUTorial
We 12 eles-1235: Watch a worked example on calculating
long-term probabilities. (page 535)
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 11.2 doc-9229: Identify and perform appropriate
techniques to calculate probabilities. (page 544)
11d expected value, variance and standard

deviation of the binomial distribution
TUTorial
mean, median and mode of a probability density function.
(page 550)
diGiTal doCS
Spreadsheet doc-9227: Investigate the binomial distribution.
(page 550)
Investigation doc-9230: Winning at racquetball (page 553)
Chapter review
diGiTal doC
559
Answers CHAPTER 11
The Binomial diSTriBUTion
c i
exercise 11a

1 b, d and f constitute a Bernoulli trial.
2 a 0.2613
b 0.0446
c 0.2461
d 0.0092
e 0.0073
f 0.1969
3 a 5
b 0.3
c
Pr(X = x)
0.168 07
0.360 15
0.3087
0.1323
0.028 35
0.002 43
5 0.0036
32
b 27
b 16
7 a 16
c 65
81
c 8
8 a 0.096
b 0.0064
c 0.008
d 0.2
9 a 0.0518
b 0.2592
10 a 0.2627
b 0.0084
c 0.2568
d 0.2568
11 0.0381
12 0.0924
13 a 0.1023
b 0.2001
14 0.2281
15 0.0653
16 a 0.0528
b 0.6676
17 a 0.2734
b 0.2965
c 0.1678
18 C
19 E
20 B
21 D
22 C
23 a i 0.0102
ii 0.9898
b 2
24 18 tickets
25 22
26 a 5 645 726 b 352 858
c $1 446 717.80
27 a 2
b Positively skewed
28 a i
Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 x
ii Positively skewed
b i Pr(X = x)
0.3
0.65
0.2
0.0
31 a
b
32 a
b
c
d
exercise 11B problems involving the

binomial distribution for multiple
probabilities
1 a 0.1792
b 0.6826
2 a 0.23
b 0.85
c 0.92
d 0.45
3 a 0.4718
b 0.9692
4 a 0.3370
b 0.3438
c 0.0333
31
b 16
c 31
b 81
48
c 65
0.9822
0.0464
0.0170
0.9967
c 0.0178
6 a 9
7 0.028
8 a 0.0878
9 a 0.3669
10 a 0.9830
11 a 0.5000
c 0.9645
12 a 0.2553
13 a 0.1751
14 A
17 D
20 0.1509
21 a 0.9392
22 a 0.9106
c 0.6767
23 a 0.0173
24 a 0.5981
25 a 0.6778
26 a 0.8516
27 a 0.3438
28 a 0.9672
b
b
b
b
b
b
d
b
b
b
b
b
b
Good
Thursday
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 x
0.35
Poor
0.35
Poor
0.55
Good
0.45
Poor 0.55 0.35
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.65
Best Match
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Saturday
0.65
Good
0.35
Poor
0.55
Good
0.45
Poor
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
b 0.6652
0.80
Kingfisher
0.20
Best Match
0.70
Kingfisher
0.30
Best Match
b 0.777
a 0.64
b 0.25
0.49
0.525
a 3500
b 3500 (train), 7000 (bus)
a 3661
b 3933 (Pete), 1967 (Sam)
a 265
b 35
C
2
a 5
b 0.652
c 0.652
a 0.1479
b 0.3014
12
13 a
0.18 A
S0 = 0.17 B
0.65 C
b The fourth note is A with a probability
of 0.4111, B with a probability of

0.2967 and C with a probability of
0.2922.
0.55 I
S0 =
0.45 S
I S
T 0.7 0.4
T=
S 0.3 0.4
b After 3 years, 57.1% of the population
would be inner city dwellers and 42.9%
of the population would be suburban
dwellers.
c In the long run, 57.14% of the
population will be inner city dwellers
and 42.86% will be suburban dwellers.
15 a
Friday
ii Symmetrical
560
c 0.8960
c 0.2486
1 a
0.65
Kingfisher
14 a
exercise 11C markov chains and

transition matrices
0.2
0.0
0.1878
0.9216
0.5327
0.2276
0.4256
0.0973
0.2741
0.0760
0.9573
Good
2 a 0.6525
3 a 0.3
16 A
19 D
Poor
0.65
0.65
0.45
b 0.1045
b 0.0930
15 D
18 C
0.3
0.1
0.35
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 x
bell shape that is tall and narrow.

Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
Symmetrical
Positively skewed
Symmetrical
Negatively skewed
5 a 32
Good
Thursday
0.1
ii Negatively skewed
29 a i Positively skewed
ii Symmetrical
iii Negatively skewed
b Controls skewness
30 a Symmetrical
b The curve would resemble more of a
4 625
6 a 81
b 0.6115
Pr(X = x)
0.05 A
S0 =
0.95 A
Note: 1 in 20 Australians have an
auto-immune disease.
b A child has a probability of 0.315 of
having an auto-immune disease and a
probability of 0.685 of not having an
auto-immune disease.
c
0.6 0.3 A A
0.4 0.7 A = A
d In the long run, a descendant has a
3
7
chance of inheriting the auto-immune

disease and a 4 chance of not inheriting
7
the auto-immune disease.
16 a 0.6 indicates the probability that if the
parents are low income earners then
the offspring will also be low income
earners.
0.15 indicates the probability that even
though parents are medium income
earners the offspring will be low income
earners.
0.05 indicates the probability that
even though parents are high income
earners the offspring will be low income
earners.
b The probability that the great-grandchild
of a low income earner earns at a high
level is 0.35.
c In the long run, a member of the
population, who descends from a low
earning family, will be earning at a
low level with a probability of 0.2, will
be earning at a medium level with a
probability of 0.4 and will be earning
at a high level with a probability
of 0.4.
17 a
0 L
S0 = 0 M

1 H
b The great great grandchild in a high
income earning family has:

i a probability of 0.42 of earning a high
income
ii a probability of 0.41 of earning a
medium income
iii a probability of 0.17 of earning a low
income.
18 a
0.35 B
S0 = 0.35 K
0.30 R
b The fifth delivery of the day has a
probability of 0.3405 of going to the

Redhorse municipality.
c In the long run, 38.5% of deliveries
go to Kurumburra, 27.5% go to
Birmingham and 34.1% go to Redhorse.
19 a
0.60 R
S0 = 0.25 B
0.15 Y
b There is a probability of 0.44 that she
will wear her favourite running shoes on
Friday.
c In the long run, the shoe with red
trimmings would be worn 44.4% of the
time, the shoes with blue trimmings
would be 33.3% of the time and the
shoes with yellow trimmings would be
worn 22.2% of the time.
T = Next day
First da
y
S
C L
0.4 0.1 0.1
0.3 0.5 0.4
0.3 0.4 0.5
S
C
b 42.8% of the workers chose chicken
and fruit for lunch on Thursday of a

working week.
c In the long run, 14.29% of the workers
order a sandwich and fruit, 42.86%
order chicken salad and fruit and
42.86% order lasagne and fruit.
21 a
0.2 H
S0 = 0.35 M
0.45 L
H
irst
F
ewek
M L
0.50 0.40 0.05 H

T = Next week 0.40 0.35 0.15 M
0.10 0.25 0.80 L
ShorT anSWer
would be expected to attend the gym

12 times per week.
c In the long run, 26.2% of the gym
members have a high attendance,
27.0% have a medium attendance and
46.8% have a low attendance.
exercise 11d expected value, variance

and standard deviation of the binomial
distribution
1 a 6
b 1.6
1
c 50
d 37 2
2 a 4.8
b 1.35
3
c 6
d 34
3 a 1.26
b 2.74
c 3.24
d 4.16
4 a 5
b 2.5
c 1.58
5 a 4.62
b 3.55
c 1.88
6 a 12
b 4.8
c 2.19
7 a 1.67
b 0.5155
8 a 7.5
b 0.5
9 a 5.4
b 0.4613
10 a 28
b 0.4488
11 a 96
b 24
1
12 a 2
b 20
3
b 16
1
3
b 27
15 a 15
b 15
14 a
c 0.0001
16 C
19 E
22 a 5
d 0.3980
17 E
20 D
b 3.2
c 0.1450
18 C
21 D
c 1.79
a 0.0020
ChapTer reVieW
b After 4 weeks, 26.96% of the members
13 a 4
b 0.7939
0.2642
a 0.2335
b 0.3828
400
a 0.5000
b 0.6535
c 0.3465
a 5000
b 2500
c 50
a 6
b The company has an extremely popular
product.
30 a 0.5455
b 0.3340
c 0.6
d 0.8795
e 0.2769
31 a 160 students
b SD(X) = 12, 2 = 136, + 2 = 184
c There is a probability of 0.95 that
between 136 to 184 students (inclusive)
will have a reading level that is
inadequate to cope with high school.
32 a 1260 patients
b SD(X) = 19.44, 2 = 1221.12,
+ 2 = 1298.88
c There is a probability of 0.95 that
between 1222 to 1298 patients
(inclusive) will be cured.
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
0.25 S
S0 = 0.30 C
0.45 L
20 a
b 32
b 0.001
31
27
b 255
4 a 625
5 a 0.14
256
b 9
b 0.23
6 a 0.45
7 0.234
8 a i 50
b i 40
b 0.2
1
9 a p= 5
b n = 50
1 a 16
2 a 0.243
c 32
c 0.081
54
3 a 128
ii 25
ii 8
10 a 8
b 6.4
mUlTiple ChoiCe
1
5
9
13
17
C
B
A
B
E
2
6
10
14
18
B
C
D
B
B
3
7
11
15
B
C
E
B
4
8
12
16
D
A
D
D
exTended reSponSe
1 a 135
b 0.1
c $60
2 a 1
b 0.0015
c 0.2639
d 10
3 a 1
b 0.2642
c 0.0003
4 a i 0.0018
ii 0.8826
iii 0.2761
b 3
5 a 0.0719
b 0.8432
c 0.3378
6 a 1440
b = 24, 2 = 1392, + 2 = 1488
c This means that there is a probability of
about 0.95 that between 1392 and 1488

of the 2400 people selected will be
cured by the drug.
1
7 X ~ Bi(80, 5 )
a 0.0164
b 0.9713
c 0.7550
561
8 a 0.018
b 0.8336
c 0.3600
d 0.36
9 a In the first week of August,
229customers will visit Kazs Kitchen

and 171 people will visit Als fine dining.
b In the long run, 229 people will dine at
Kazs Kitchen each week and Al will
get 171 customers each week.
10 a Let ti = the number of Tellya customers
at the end of January month i.
Let yi = the number of Yodacall customers
at the end of January month i.
ti + 1 = 0.85ti + 0.1yi and
yi + 1 = 0.15ti + 0.9yi
b Tellya has 400 customers or 80% of the
market; Yodacall has 100 customers or
20% of the market.
562
c Tellya has 350 customers or 70% of the
d
e
f
g
market, Yodacall has 150 customers or

30% of the market.
Tellya has 52.6% of the market,
Yodacall has 47.4% of the market.
Tellya has 40% of the market, Yodacall
has 60% of the market. Both companies
will be viable, but in the long term
Tellyas market share will drop by half,
while Yodacalls share will increase (in
fact, will triple).
11 a
0.45 R
S0 = 0.35 W
0.20 S
R
First day
W
S
0.45 0.40 0.25 R

T = Next day 0.40 0.55 0.30 W
0.15 0.05 0.45 S

b The probability of the third consecutive
day being sunny is 0.153.
c In the long run, 39.74% of the winter
month days were rainy, 45.30% were

windy and 14.96% were sunny.
Chapter 12
Chapter CONteNtS
12a
12B
12C
12D
12e
12F
12G
Continuous random variables

Using a probability density function tofind probabilities of continuous random variables
Measures of central tendency andspread
Applications to problem solving
The normal distribution
The standard normal distribution
The inverse cumulative normal distribution
12a
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9232
10 Quick Questions
Weight (kg) x
Frequencies f
40 < 50
50 < 60
10
60 < 70
19
70 < 80
15
80 < 90
90 < 100
1
Total = 50
Number of students (f)
In previous chapters we worked with discrete random variables and the probability distributions
associated with them. We will now focus on continuous random variables and an important distribution
associated with them the normal distribution.
Continuous random variables represent quantities that can be measured and thus may assume any
value in a given range. They include such variables as time, height and weight.
The weights of 50 Year 12 students are displayed in the table below, alongside a histogram.
f
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
Weight (kg)
The frequency of individual weights cannot be determined because the weights have been grouped
into class intervals. This limits the information we are able to extract from the histogram. For example,
to determine the number of students weighing less than 60 kg we simply add the frequency of the
40 < 50 and 50 < 60 class intervals, that is, 10 + 2 = 12 students. However, we would not be able to
determine the weight of students below 75 kg as this value lies within the class interval rather than being
an end point.
Since the value that a continuous random variable can assume is measured in some way, the exact value
cannot be obtained. Hence a weight of 60 kg, if we measure in whole numbers, is actually between 59.5 and
60.5 kg. Therefore, the probability of a continuous random variable assuming an exact value is zero. In order
to determine the probability of continuous random variables, a new method must be employed.
Chapter 12 Continuous distributions
563
If we were to increase the size of the sample of students weights and make the class intervals very
small, then the histogram would become a smooth frequency curve as shown below.
A special scaled version of a smooth frequency curve is the
probability density function or pdf. The scale is such that the probability f(x)
of the random variable lying between certain values is given by the
area between the pdf and the horizontal axis. Hence, sections such as
the shaded region between x = a and x = b, as shown below right
may be regarded as probabilities.
The curve is positioned above the x-axis since it represents
0
a probability distribution in which individual probabilities assume
a value between 0 and 1.
Hence, the probability of X, a continuous variable, falling between
f(x)
x = a and x = b is represented by the shaded area between a probability
density function y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b. The area
is determined by integrating f (x) from x=a to x = b. Using mathematical
notation, this may be summarised as:
b
Pr(a < x < b) = a f ( x ) dx .
a b
properties of a probability density function

1. f (x) 0 for all x, (that is, we never have negative probabilities) and
2. f ( x ) dx = 1(that is, the sum of all probabilities is equal to one).
probability density functions
The domain of a probability density function (pdf) is usually R, that is, the variable is continuous and
can assume any real value (at least in theory).
If we need our function to be non-zero over a particular interval only, say, over (a, b), then we need to
specify that the function is equal to zero everywhere else. In such case, the area under the curve between
b
x = a and x = b must be equal to one. That is, f ( x ) dx = 1.

a
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 1
Sketch the graph of each of the following and state whether each function
may be a probability density function (pdf).
4 x, 1 x 2
a f (x) =
0, elsewhere
10xx 4 , 0 x 1
b f (x) =
0, elsewhere
thINK
a 1 The graph of f (x) is a straight line with
gradient 4 over the domain [1, 2]. When x = 1,

y = 4 1 = 4, and when x = 2, y = 4 2 = 8.
So the end points of the line are (1, 4) and
(2, 8). Everywhere else, the function is zero.
0.5, 1 x 1
c f (x) =
0, elsewhere
WrIte/DraW
0
2
564
For a function to be a pdf, it has to be

positive or zero over the entire domain.
State whether this condition is satisfied by
inspecting the graph of f (x).
(2, 8)
8
(1, 4)
f (x) 0 for all x.
tUtOrIaL
eles-1237
Worked example 1
A = 4 xdx
xd
The total area under the graph of a pdf

must be equal to one. Check whether this
condition is observed by finding the area
under f (x), and comment on the result. (This
can be done by integration.)
4 x 2
=
2 1
2
= 2 x 2 1
= 2 (2)2 2 (1)2
=6
Area under the curve 1
4
Although the first condition for the function

to be a pdf is observed, the second one is not.
State your conclusion.
b 1 The graph of f (x) is a straight line over
f (x) could not be a probability density function.
thedomain [0, 1]. Its gradient is 10 and its

y-intercept is at y = 4. When x = 0, y = 4,
and when x = 1, y = 10 1 4 = 6. So the
end points of the line are (0, 4) and (1, 6).
Everywhere else, the function is zero.
y
(1, 6)
(0, 4)
2
For a function to be a pdf, it has to be positive

or zero over the entire domain. State whether
this condition is satisfied by inspecting the
graph of f (x).
f (x) is not positive or zero for all x, as part of

the graph is below the x-axis.
As the first condition is not observed, there

is no need to check the area under the curve.
State your conclusion.
f (x) does not represent a probability density

function.
c 1 The graph of f (x) is a horizontal line through
y = 0.5 over the domain [1, 1]. Everywhere

else, the function is zero.
y
(0, 0.5)
1
For a function to be a pdf, it has to be positive

or zero over the entire domain. State whether
this condition is satisfied byinspecting the
graph of f (x).
The total area under the graph of the pdf

must equal 1. Check whether this condition
is observed by finding the area under f (x),
and comment on the result.
f (x) 0 for all x.
A = 1 0.5 dx
= [0.5 x]11
= 0.5 (1) 0.5 (1)
=1
Area under the curve = 1
Both conditions for the function to be a pdf

are satisfied. State your conclusion.
f (x) could be a probability density function.
565
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 2
Find the value of a so that the given function may be a probability density function (pdf).
f: [2, 4] R, f (x) = a(12 3x)
thINK
WrIte/DraW
4
For the function to be a pdf, the

area under its graph must be 1.
Area is found by evaluating the
definite integral with terminals
being the end points of the domain.
Write the appropriate statement,
equating area to 1.
2 a(12 3x ) dx = 1
Take the coefficient, a, out of the

integral.
a (12 3 x ) dx = 1
Antidifferentiate.
3x 2
a 12 x
=1
2 2
Substitute the terminals in and

simplify the left-hand side of the
equation.
3 42
3 22
a 12 4
12 2
=1
2
2
a[(48 24) (24 6)] = 1

a(24 18) = 1
6a = 1
a=1
Solve for a.
Sketch the graph of the resultant

function and check whether f (x) 0
for all x.
f (x) = 1 (12 3x)

6
x
=2 ,2x4
2
y
(2, 1)
1
0
f (x) 0 for all x
exercise 12a
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions and state whether each function
may be a probability density function.
1
1
4 x 2, 0 x
2, 0 x
1 x , 1 x 1
a f (x) =
b f (x) =
c f (x) =
2
2
0, elsewhere
0, elsewhere
0, elsewhere
1 We1
3x 2
, 1 x 1
d f (x) = 2
0, elsewhere
x
cos (22x ),
e f (x) =
4
4
0, elsewhere
g f (x) = x
h f (x) =
1
, 1 x e
0, elsewhere
566
2 x 1, 1 x 2
0, elsewhere
2 sin (x ), 2 x
f f (x) =
2
0, elsewhere
For each of the following functions, find the value of a so that the given function
may be a pdf.
a f: [1, 2] R, f (x) = a(2x 1)
b f: [1, 1] R, f (x) = a(10 3x2)
a
c f: [0, ] R, f (x) = sin (x)
d f: [2, 3] R, f (x) = aex 2
2
ax 3
e f: [0, 2] R, f (x) =
f f: [7, 2] R, f (x) = a 2 x
4
g f: [4, 1] R, f (x) = ax 2 + a
h f: [3, 4] R, f (x) = ax(x 1)
2 We2
Find the value of a, such that the function may be a probability density function. Sketch
the graph of the resultant function.
a, 0 x 1
f (x) = ax , 1 < x 2
0, elsewhere
4 Find the value of a, such that the function may be a probability density function. Sketch the graph of
the resultant function.

a( x + 2), 1 x 0
1
f (x) = a x + 2 , 0 < x 2
2
0, elsewhere
5 Find the value of m, such that the function may be a probability density function. Sketch the graph of
the resultant function.

mx 2 , 1 x 3
f (x) = m(12 x ), 3 x 4
0, elsewhere
The diagram at right shows the graph of the function

y
x , 1 x k
2
f (x) =
0,
elsewhere
7
8
9
10
1_
2
(_1 , 1_2)
(where k > 0).
(k, k)
_1
2
Find the value of k such that the function may be a probability density function. Give your answer in
exact form.
x2
The function f: [1, n] R, f (x) =
is a probability density function. Find the value of n.
4
(Give the answer in surd form.)
k sin (2 x ), 0 x 0.5
The function f ( x ) =
is a probability density function. Find
0 , elsewhere
the value of k.
ke x , 0 x logge ((3)
The function f ( x ) =
is a probability density function. Find the
0, elsewhere
value of k.
The diagram below is a graph of rectangular or uniform distribution.
a Specify the probability density function of this distribution in terms of a and b.
b Hence, or otherwise, find the value of p if the probability density function is defined as
1
, p x 30
f (x) = 25
.
0, elsewhere
567
Using a probability density function

to find probabilities of continuous random
variables
12B
If X is a continuous random variable, then the probability of it falling between x = a and x = b is given by
the area bounded by the probability density function, the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b. This area
can be easily calculated by evaluating the definite integral between a and b. That is,
b
Pr(a X b) = f ( x ) dx.
a
y
Pr(a x b)
0
As mentioned in chapter 9,
Pr(X > a) = Pr(X a)
a f ( x ) dx = 0, so Pr(X = a) = 0.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 3
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
If X is a continuous random variable with the probability density function defined as

1
x 4, 8 x 10
f (x) = 2
0, elsewhere
find:
a Pr(X > 9)
b Pr(8.5 < X < 9)
c Pr(X > 9 X > 8.5).
thINK
a 1 Draw the graph of f (x) and shade the
required region. (It is the area under the

curve to the right of x = 9.)
See more
Watch
a video about
probability density
functions.
WrIte/DraW
To find the required probability (that is,

to find the shaded area under the curve),
integrate f (x) between x = 9 and x = 10.
Antidifferentiate and simplify.
(10, 1)
(8, 0)
10
10 1
Pr(X > 9) = x 4 ddxx
9 2
10
1 x 2
=
4 x
2 2
9
10
x2
= 4 x
4
9
4
Substitute the terminals in and evaluate to

obtain the required probability.
10 2
92
=
4 10 4 9
4
4
= (25 40) (20.25 36)

= 15 (15.75)
= 0.75
568
b 1 Show the required region on the diagram. (It
is the area under the curve between x = 8.5

and x = 9.)
y
(10, 1)
0
2
To find the required probability, integrate

f (x) between x = 8.5 and x = 9.
Antidifferentiate. (Use the result from part a.)
Substitute the terminals in and evaluate to

obtain the required probability.
(8, 0) 8.5 9
Pr(8.5 < X < 9) =
1
8.5 2
10
x 4 dx
c 1 The rule for conditional probability
Pr(( A B)
is Pr(A | B) =
. Write the
Pr(( B)
appropriate statement.
The expression in the denominator can be

found by adding the probability of X being
between 8.5 and 9 and the probability of X
being greater than 9.
The required probabilities are already found

in parts a and b. Substitute the numbers in
and evaluate.
x2
= 4 x
4
8.5
92
8.5
8.52
4 8.5
= 4 9
4
4
= (20.25 36) (18.0625 34)

= 15.75 (15.9375)
= 0.1875
c Pr(X > 9 | X > 8.5)
Pr[( X > 9) ( X > 8.5)]

Pr( X > 8.5)
Pr(( X > 9)
=
Pr( X > 8.5)
=
Pr(( X > 9)
Pr(8.5 < X < 9) + Pr ( X > 9)
0.75
0.1875 + 0.75
0.75
=
0.9375
=
= 0.8
The required probabilities can also be obtained with the aid of a CAS calculator. Where exact answers
are not required, it is appropriate to use the CAS.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 4
logg e ((0.5 x )
, 2 x 2e
A random variable, X, has its frequency curve defined as f ( x ) =

2
Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that X is: 0, elsewhere

a less than 4
b between 2.5 and 3.5.
thINK
a 1 Use a CAS calculator to evaluate the definite
integral of f (x) over the interval [2, 4].

Remember: Pr(X < 4) = Pr(X 4) because
Pr(X 4) = 0.
WrIte
4 log
ge ((0.5 x )
dx
Record the result.
0.386 294
Write the solution, rounding to 4 decimal places.
Pr(2 X 4) = 0.3863
569
b 1 Find the required probability as shown
above, this time using the interval [2.5, 3.5].
3.5 log
ge ((0.5 x )
2.5
dx
Record the result.
0.200 398
Write this solution, rounding to 4 decimal places.
Pr(2.5 X 3.5) = 0.2004
In many instances we need to integrate over intervals involving

infinity. In such cases, the limits are evaluated asshown at right.
When evaluating limits involving infinity, it is useful to remember
that as a number tends to infinity, its reciprocal tends to zero.
1 = 0. This concept is illustrated
For example, lim 1 = 0 and xlim
e x
x x
in the worked example that follows.
Interval
(, )
(, a)
(a, )
Limit
lim
k k
lim
lim
k k
k
k a
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 5
1 1 x
e 2 , x>0
A random variable, X, has its frequency curve defined as f (x) = 2
.
0, elsewhere
a Draw the graph of f (x).
b Show that f (x) is a probability density function.

c Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that X is:
i smaller than 3
ii greater than 2.5
iii greater than 2.5, given that it is smaller than 3.
thINK
WrIte/DraW
a Draw the graph of f (x). It is a decreasing function
with a starting point (0, 12) and a horizontal

asymptote y = 0.
y
1
(0, 2)
0
b 1 A pdf must be greater than or equal to 0 for
all values of x. Check whether this condition

is observed by inspecting the graph of f (x).
2
tUtOrIaL
eles-1238
Worked example 5
Find the total area under the curve by

evaluating the definite integral of f (x).
Note that the interval over which the integral
needs to be evaluated is [0, ). So, in this
k
case, evaluate lim
f ( x ) dx .
k
b f (x) 0 for all x
k 0
A = lim
1
e
2
1
= lim e
k 2
e
= klim
1
2
1
2
ddx
k
1

2 0
1
= lim 1
k 2 x
e 0
570
Substitute the terminals in and evaluate the

1
limit. Remember that klim
= 0.
k
e2
Both conditions required for the function to

be a pdf are observed. State your conclusion.
1 1
= lim k
0
k
e 2 e
1
=0+
1
=1
Since f (x) 0 for all x and the total area under
the curve is 1, f (x) is a pdf.
i The required probability can be obtained by
evaluating the definite integral of f (x) over

the interval [0, 3]. Use the expression for the
antiderivative found in part b to speed up
your calculations. Give your answer correct
c i Pr(X < 3) =
31
0 2
1
x
2 d
dx
1
= 1
e 2 x 0
1
1
= 3 0
e
e2
= 0.7769
ii
To find Pr(X > 2.5), evaluate the integral

of f (x) over the interval [2.5,].
Alternatively, find Pr(X<2.5) and
subtract it from 1. This method avoids
finding limits, as the interval over which
the integral needs to be evaluated is
[0,2.5], that is, it does not involve .
ii Pr(X > 2.5) = 1 Pr(X < 2.5)
=1
2.5 1
ddx
2.5
1
=1 1
e 2 x 0
1 1
= 1 2.5 0
e 2 e
= 1 0.7135
= 0.2865
iii
Write the appropriate statement for the

conditional probability.
iii Pr( X > 2.5 X < 3) =
=
2
Using a CAS calculator, find Pr(2.5 < X < 3),

with your interval as [2.5, 3].
Fill in the required values into the

conditional probability statement.
Answer to 4 decimal places.
Pr[( X > 2.5) ( X < 3)]

Pr(( X < 3)
Pr(2.5 < X < 3)
Pr(( X < 3)
Pr(2.5 < X < 3) = 0.063 37
Pr( X > 2.5 X < 3) =
Pr(2.5 < X < 3)

Pr(( X < 3)
= 0.06337
0.7769
= 0.0816
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 6
If X is a continuous random variable with a probability density function given by

4 2 x, 1 x 2
f (x) =
, find the value of a such that Pr(X a) = 0.75, where 1 a 2.
0, elsewhere
thINK
1
Pr(X a) = 0.75 means that the area under the

curve of f (x) to the left of a is 0.75, where
1 a 2. Draw a diagram to illustrate the
given information.
WrIte/DraW
(1, 2)
0.75
(2, 0)
x
571
Copy down the probability statement as given

in the question.
Pr(X a) = 0.75
The required probability can be found by

integrating f (x) over the interval [1, a]. So
replace Pr(X a) with the appropriate integral.
1 (4 2 x) ddxx = 0.75
2x 2
4
x
= 0.75
2 1
2
4 x x 1 = 0.75
Substitute the terminals in.
(4a a2) (4 1) = 0.75
The result is a quadratic equation. Use the

quadratic formula to solve for a.
4a a2 3 = 0.75
a2 4a + 3.75 = 0
4 4 2 4 1 3.75
2 1
4 1
=
2
5
3
a = or a =
2
2
Since 1 a 2, a = 3 .
a=
Since a must be within the interval [1, 2],

discard the first solution.
Quantiles and percentiles

Quantiles and percentiles both define the value of the random variable X, below which a given
proportion of the distribution falls. The only difference is that a quantile is a probability value expressed
as a decimal, while a percentile is expressed as a percentage. For example, if Pr(X < k) = 0.6, then k is
the 0.6 quantile, or the 60th percentile.
Finding a particular quantile or percentile involves solving an equation similar to the one used in
Worked example 6. For example, if we want to find the 60th percentile of a continuous random variable,
X, with a probability density function given by f (x) and a X b, solve for k the equation of the form
k
f ( x ) dx = 0.6.
Note that in Worked example 6, we found a such that Pr(X < a) = 0.75. In effect, we were finding the
0.75 quantile, or the 75th percentile.
Using a probability density function to

find probabilities of continuous random variables
exercise 12B
1 We3 If X is a continuous random variable with the probability density function defined as
1 (2 x + 1), 1 x 2
f (x)= 4
, find, correct to 4 decimal places:
0, elsewhere
a Pr(X > 1.5)
b Pr(1.2 < X < 1.75)
c Pr(X > 1.5 | X > 1.2).
2 If X is a continuous random variable with the probability density function defined as
1 (4 x )2 , 1 x 4
f (x) = 9
, find, correct to 4 decimal places:
0, elsewhere
a Pr(X < 3)
d Pr(2 < X < 3 | X < 3)
572
b Pr(X > 2)
e Pr(X > 2 | X < 3).
c Pr(2 < X < 3)
ax ( x 2), 0 x 2
.
0, elsewhere
3 A random variable, X, has a pdf given by f (x) =
a Find the value of a.

b Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that X is:
i greater than 1.5
ii less than 0.4
iii greater than 0.4 but less than 1.5
iv greater than 0.4, given that it is less than 1.5.
4 We4 A continuous random variable, X, has probability density function defined by
51 x cos ( x 2 ), 2 x 3
. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
f (x) =
0, elsewhere
a Pr(X < 8)
b Pr(X < 8 | X < 8.5).
0.25e 0.25 x , x 0
5 We5 A random variable, X, has its frequency curve defined as f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
b Show that it is a probability density function.

c Find the probability that X is:
i smaller than 2
ii greater than 1
iii greater than 1, given that it is smaller than 2.
1
, x 1
6
A random variable, X, has its frequency curve defined as f (x) = x 2
.
0, elsewhere
b Show that it is a probability density function.

c Find:
i Pr(X > 2)
ii Pr(X < 3)
iii Pr(2 < X < 3)
iv Pr(2 < X < 3 | X > 2)
v Pr(X < 3 | X > 2).
7 We6 If X is a continuous random variable with a probability density function given by
1 x + 1 , 1 x 2
2
, find the value of a such that Pr(X a) = 0.36, where 1 a 2.
f (x) = 3
0,
elsewhere
If X is a continuous random variable with a probability density function given by
4
, 2x4
, and Pr(X b) = 13, find the value of b, where 2 b 4.
f (x) = x 2
0, elsewhere
2
(3 x ), 0 x 1
9 If X is a random variable with a probability density function given by f (x) = 5
, find:
0, elsewhere
a the 0.4 quantile
b the 0.85 quantile

c the 70th percentile.
10
cos ( ),

2
If f () =
2
2 is the probability density function of the random variable :
0, elsewhere
a sketch the graph of the probability density function and shade the region corresponding to the
equation Pr(a a) = 12
b find the exact value of a.
11
ax, 1 x
2
The random variable, X, has a probability density function defined as f (x) =
0,
elsewhere
a Sketch the probability density function.
b Hence, or otherwise, find the value of a.

c Calculate:
i Pr(0.5 < X < 0)
ii Pr(X 0.5)
iii Pr(0.5 < X < 0 | X 0.25).
1
2.
573
12
The random variable, X, has a probability density function defined as

1
16
( x 2), 2 x 6
1
f (x) = 16 (100 x ), 6 < x 10
0, elsewhere
a Sketch the probability density function.

b Calculate:
i Pr(X < 4)
ii Pr(3 < X 8)
13 The random variable, X, has a probability density function defined as
3
2
x + 81 , 10 x 0
3
256
f (x) = 1
.
4 x, 0 x 4
16
0, elsewhere

b Show that the total area under the graph is 1.
c Find:
i Pr(X < 1)
ii Pr(X > 2)
iii Pr(X > 5)
iv Pr(X < 3)
iv Pr(2 < X < 3)
vi Pr(2 < X < 1 | X < 3).
14
A random variable, X, has a probability density function given by
cos (22x ),
x .
f (x) =
4
4
0, elsewhere
a Draw the graph of the probability density function.

b Show that the area under the graph is 1.
c Calculate each of the following (giving answers in exact form).
i Pr(X < )
ii Pr(X <
)
12
6
iii Pr(X <

| X < 0)
6
15
A random variable, X, has its frequency function given by
x , 0 x
a sin
2
f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
a Find the value of a such that f (x) is a probability density function.

b Draw the graph of the probability density function.
c Find, in exact form, the probability that X is:
i smaller than
2
ii greater than
3
2
iii between and
3
3
2
iv less than
, given that it is greater than .
3
2
1
a
16 A Cauchy distribution is defined as f (x) =
for x R and a > 0.
a2 + x 2
a Sketch the graph of f (x) for a = 1, 2 and 3 on the same set of axes. Comment on the effect of
varying a in the shape of the graph.
b For a = 1, use a CAS calculator to find the following probabilities to 4 decimal places.
i Pr(X < 1)
ii Pr(1 < X < 1)
iii Pr(1 < X < 1 | X > 1)
574
1 x
e , x R.
2
b Find the area bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
c Use your answers to a and b to define the probability density function f (x) whose rule is the same
as the rule of g(x).
d If X is a random variable whose probability density function is given by f (x), find, correct to
4 decimal places:
i Pr(X > 0.5)
ii Pr(X < 1)
iii Pr(X > 0.32)
iv Pr(0.5 < X < 1.09).
17 a Sketch the graph of g(x) =
Measures of central tendency

and spread
12C
In this section we discuss how to find measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode) and
measures of spread (variance and standard deviation) for a continuous random variable.
Measures of central tendency

Mean
If X is a continuous random variable with a probability distribution function f (x) over the domain R, the
mean of X can be found using the formula = E(x) = xf ( x ) ddx.
However, if f (x) has a certain rule for a X b and is zero elsewhere, then the mean can be obtained
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
by using the formula = E(x) = xf ( x ) ddx. In the worked examples below and the exercise that follows,
a
we will mostly deal with the latter case. In general, E[g(x)] = g( x ) f ( x ) dx.
a
Median
The median value, m, of the continuous random variable, X, is a value such that Pr(X m) = 12 .
(It follows that Pr(X m) = 12 as well.) In other words, m is a value of X such that there is a 50%
chance that X will be less than or equal to m and a 50% chance that it will be greater than or equal
to m. Since
m
Pr(X m) is given by f ( x ) dx, to find the median, solve the equation f ( x ) dx = 12. The solution of
a
a
equations of this type was discussed in detail in the previous section of this chapter.
Mode
The mode is a value of X for which f (x) has its maximum. To find the mode of the continuous random
variable, it is best to sketch the graph of its probability density function first.
If the probability density function has a maximum turning point in the interval [a, b], the mode is
given by the x-coordinate of the turning point. It can be easily obtained by finding the derivative of f (x),
making it equal to zero, and solving for x.
If the probability density function continuously increases or decreases over the interval [a, b], or if it
has a minimum turning point, the mode is then given by the end point of the interval. That is, the mode
is either a or b (whichever one corresponds to the maximum value of f (x)).
Note that it is possible to have more than one mode.
y
Mode
f(x)
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
y
f(x)
Units: 3 & 4
Mode x
f(x)
Mode 0
575
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 7
Find the mean, median and mode for the following probability density function.
2 x, 0 x 1
f (x) =
0, elsewhere
thINK
tUtOrIaL
eles-1239
Worked example 7
WrIte/DraW
b
Write the formula for finding the mean of the

continuous random variable.
= E(x) = x f ( x ) ddx
Substitute 0 for a and 1 for b and replace f (x)

with 2x. Simplify the integrand.
x dx
0 x (2 x)
1
= 2 x 2 ddx
0
Antidifferentiate.
2 x 3
=
3 0
Substitute the terminals in and evaluate.
2(1)3 2(0)3
3
3
=2
3
State the value of the mean.
The mean is 23.
Write the formula for finding the median, m.
Substitute 0 for a and replace f (x) with 2x.
f ( x ) dx = 1
2
0 2 x ddx =
1
2
2 x 2
1
2 =2
0
m
x 2 0 = 1
2
9
Substitute in the terminals and simplify.
(m)2 (0)2 = 1
2
m2 = 12
10
Evaluate the median and rationalise the

denominator. (Note that only the positive square
root is required, as 0 x 1.)
11
State the value of the median.
12
Sketch the graph of the pdf.
m=
1
2
2
.
2
The median is
y
(1, 2)
0
13
The mode is the value of X for which f (x) has its

maximum. As seen from the graph, the largest value
of f (x) is at the right-hand-side end point of the
domain. So this point represents the mode.
2
2
The mode is 1.
Note: In the worked example above, the value of the mode was obtained directly from the graph. In other
cases differentiation may be required.
576
Consider the random variable, X, with the probability density function given by
y
1 ( x 2 2 x 3), 0 x 3
f (x) = 9
.
0, elsewhere
(0, 1)
3
(3, 0)
As can be seen from the graph, the probability density function has a maximum turning point. The
x-coordinate of this point represents the mode of X. To find the x-coordinate of the turning point, we
need to differentiate, make the derivative equal to zero, and solve for x.
f (x) =
1
9
(2x 2)
f (x) = 0
1
9
(2x 2) = 0
2x 2 = 0
x=1
So the mode of X is 1.
Measures of spread
Variance
If X is a continuous random variable with the probability distribution function f (x) over the domain R,
the variance of X can be found using the formula
Var(X) = E(x )2 =
( x )2 f ( x ) ddx.
However, if f (x) has a certain rule for a X b and is zero elsewhere, then the variance can be
obtained by using the formula Var(X) = E(x )2 =
a ( x )2 f ( x ) ddx .
This formula may prove to be rather hard to use when f (x) is complicated. The alternative formula for
variance is Var(X) = E(X2) 2. This can also be expressed as
Var(X) =
( x )2 f ( x ) ddx
x f ( x ) dx .
Note that both formulas require us to find the mean of X first.

Standard deviation
The standard deviation of X can be easily found by taking a positive square root from the
variance of X. That is, SD(X) = Var( X ) .
Note: Standard deviation is often denoted as and variance as 2.
The calculations of both variance and standard deviation are shown in detail in the worked example
below.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 8
Find the variance and standard deviation for the following probability density function.
x 1 , 1 x 2
2
f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
thINK
WrIte
Write down the formula for finding the

variance.
Var(X) = E(X2) 2
Find the value of the mean. Write down the

appropriate formula.
= E(x) = x f ( x )ddx
577
Substitute 1 and 2 for a and b respectively, and

replace f (x) with x
1
.
2
Simplify the integrand.
( )
= x x 12 dx
1
2
x
= 1 x 2 dx
2
2
Antidifferentiate.
x3 x2
=
4 1
3
Substitute the terminals in and evaluate .
23 22 13 12
=
3 4 3 4
=
( 1) ( ) =
1
3
8
3
1
4
5
3
1
12
= 19
12
b
Find the value of E(x2). Write the appropriate

formula.
E(x2) = x 2 f (x) ddxx
Make all necessary substitutions and simplify

the integrand.
E(x2) = x 2 x 2 dx
( )
2
x2
= 1 x 3 dx
2
2
Antidifferentiate.
x4 x3
=
6 1
4
Substitute the terminals in and evaluate E(x2).
24 23 14 13
=
4
6 4 6
( ) ()
1
4
= 4 4
3
=8
3
1
6
1
12
= 31
12
10
Substitute the values of E(X2) and into the variance

31
Var(X) = 12
()
31
19
12
361
= 12 144
11
= 144
11
11
State the value of the variance.
Variance = 144
12
Write the formula for the standard deviation.
SD(X) = Var( X )
13
Substitute the value of the variance into the formula

and evaluate.
=
=
14
578
State the value of the standard deviation.
11
144
11
12
Standard deviation =
11
12
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 9
log e ( x ), 1 < x < e

.
The probability density function for X is given by f ( x ) =
0, elsewhere
Calculate, correct to 3 decimal places:
a the me
an
b the median
c the tandard
s
eviation
d
d Pr( 2 X + 2).
thINK
tUtOrIaL
eles-1240
Worked example 9
WrIte
a 1 Write the formula for finding the mean of
the continuous random variable.
a = E( X ) =
0 x loge ( x )dx
Use a CAS calculator to integrate x f ( x )

to find the mean.
1 ( x loge ( x ))dx
Write this result.
e2 1
+ = 2.09 726
4 4
Write the solution and round to 3 decimal

places.
= E(x
E( x ) = x loge ( x ) ddx
b 1 Use a calculator to find the median using

m
the formula: f ( x ) dx = 2 .
1
Use the calculator to solve.
1
= 2.097
Write the result.
m = 0.186 682
Write the solution.

Note: m = 0.186 682 is not possible as
m > 1.
Median = 2.156
c 1 Use a CAS calculator to find the variance
using the formula:

e
Var = x 2 f ( x ) ddx 2.
(loge ( x )) dx = 2 , m
1
b solve
or
m = 2.15 554.
1 (x 2 loge ( x )) dx (2.097 26)2

e
Write the result.
variance = 0.176 064
Calculate the standard deviation, correct

SD(X) = Var( X )
d 1 Find the intervals 2 and + 2.
State the interval 2 X + 2.
Calculate Pr( 2 X + 2) using the

CAS calculator.
= 0.176 047 371282

= 0.420
d 2 = 2.097 2 0.420
= 1.257
+ 2 = 2.097 + 2 0.420
= 2.937
2 X + 2
= 1.257 X 2.937
= 1.257 X e, since 2.937 > e (the
upper value).
e
Pr( 2 X + 2) = 1.257 logge ( x ) ddx

= 0.969
Note that in this example, 96.9% of the data lies
within 2 standard deviations of the mean, which
is close to the estimated value of 95%.
579
Interquartile range
The interquartile range (IQR) is the middle 50% of the distribution. In the previous section we discussed
percentiles and quantiles.
IQR = 75th percentile 25th percentile.
= Q3 Q1
Measures of central tendency and
exercise 12C
spread
1 We7
Find the mean, median and mode for each of the following probability density functions.
2, 2 x 1.5
0, elsewhere
a f (x) =
1 x + 1, 2 x 0
b f (x) = 2
3 x 2 , 0 x 1
0, elsewhere
c f (x) =
0, elsewhere
2 Find the mean, median and mode for each of the following probability density functions.
1
5 x,
a f (x) =
11 x 1
0, elsewhere
3 (2 x )2 , 2 x 4
b f (x) = 8
0, elsewhere
6 x ( x 1), 1 x 2
c f (x) = 5
0, elsewhere
Find the variance and standard deviation for each of the following probability density
3 We8
functions.
1, 2 x 6
a f (x) = 4
0, elsewhere
1 (3 x ), 0 x 2
b f (x) = 4
0, elsewhere
4( x x 3 ), 0 x 1
0, elsewhere
c f (x) =
4 Find the variance and standard deviation for each of the following probability density functions.
2( x 2), 2 x 3
a f (x) =
0, elsewhere
3 ( x + 1)2 , 0 x 1
b f (x)=
7
0, elsewhere
1 sin ( x ), 2 x
c f (x) =
2
0, elsewhere
0.3e 0.3 x , x 0
.
0, elsewhere
c the mode of X
5 A continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function defined by f (x) =
Calculate:
a the mean of X
d the variance of X
6 We9
b the median of X
e the standard deviation of X.
a
, 2x 3
For f (x) = ( x 1)2

, find:
0, elsewhere
a the value of a, such that f (x) would represent the probability density function of a random
variable, X
b the mean of X, correct to 4 decimal places
c the standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal places
d Pr( 2 X + 2), that is, the probability that X is within 2 standard deviations from the
mean, correct to 4 decimal places.

7 X is a continuous random variable with a probability density function given by
a co s x , 0 x
2
f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
a Calculate the value of a.

b Sketch the graph of the probability density function.
c Calculate the exact mean and the variance, correct to 4 decimal places.
.
2
X .
e Find Pr X
2
4
d Find Pr X
580
8
a
b
c
d
9
a
b
c
d
e
,
x
a sin 2 x +
For f (x) =
4
4
4:
0, elsewhere
calculate the value of a such that f (x) could be a probability density function
sketch the graph of the probability density function
find the mean, median and mode
explain the result obtained in part c.
k ( x + 2)3 , 2 x 0
The probability density function of a random variable, X, is given by f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
Find the value of k.
Calculate the median.
Calculate the 0.25 quantile.
Calculate the 0.75 quantile.
Use the answers to parts c and d to find the IQR (interquartile range).
10 The probability density function of a random variable, X, is given by
cos ( x ) , where x [0, 1]

f (x) = 2
.
0, elsewhere
a Sketch the probability distribution function.
Calculate:
b the mean
c the median
d the mode.
mx 2 + nx , 1 x 0
.
0, elsewhere
11 The probability density function of a random variable, X, is given by f (x) =
If the mean of X is 57 , find the values of m and n.

(Hint: Use simultaneous equations.)
12D
applications to problem solving
As was shown in the previous sections of this chapter, if the probability density function of a continuous
variable is known, we can use it for finding the probability of that variable falling between particular
values. So far, we have been practising finding these probabilities for variables with various probability
density functions without concerning ourselves as to what these variables actually represent. In this
section, we will look at continuous random variables that represent something of practical interest, for
instance, waiting time for a dental appointment, or the weight of fish caught on a trout farm.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 10
The weights of fish (kg) in a trout farm is given by the probability distribution function
x
, 0 x 10
f ( x ) = 50
.
0, elsewhere
Calculate:
a the maximum weight of a fish
b the expected weight of a fish
c the probability that a fish weights less than 4 kg
d the probability that a fish weights more than 8 kg.
thINK
a The maximum weight is given by the domain
WrIte/DraW
a Maximum weight = 10 kg.
of f(x).
b 1 Write the formula for finding the expected
weight of a fish (kg). Substitute for f (x) and the

appropriate interval [0, 10] for a and b.
b = E(X ) =
a x f ( x )ddx
10
x x dx
50
10 x 2
=
dx
0 50
=
581
10
x3
=
150 0
Antidifferentiate and substitute in the terminals.

Evaluate.
1000
0
150
= 20
3
The expected weight is 20

kg.
3
State the expected value.
c 1 Sketch the graph of the pdf curve. Shade
the required section on the graph. State the

probability that needs to be found.
y
(10, 1_5 )
10
Pr(X < 4) = Pr(0 < X < 4)

2
bh
2
The base of the triangle = 4.
The height of the triangle is f (4).
4
2
f (4) = 50
= 25
A=
As the shaded region forms a triangle, it is more

efficient to find the area by a geometric method,
rather than integrating.
A=
=
3
State the final answer.
d 1 Shade the required section on the graph. State the
probability that needs to be found.
4 25
2
4
25
The probability that a fish weights less

4
than 4 kg is 25
.
d
y
(10, 1_5 )
10
Pr(X > 8) = Pr(8 < X < 10)

2
This time, we will integrate to find the area under

the curve. State the integral that needs to be
evaluated to find the probability.
Note: Instead of integrating, the area of the
trapezium could be found.
Pr(X > 8) =
10
= x
x
dx
50
10
100 8
100
64
= 100 100
36
= 100
9
= 25
582
State the final answer.
The probability that a fish weights more

9
than 8 kg is 25
.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 11
The length of time (in minutes) between the successive incoming calls to a certain national helpline
0.6 e 0.6 x, x 0
is a continuous random variable with a probability density function given by f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
Find, correct to 4 decimal places, the probability that the next call will come:
a within 30 seconds of the previous call
b between 2 and 3 minutes after the previous call
c more than 7 minutes after the last call.
thINK
a 1 Sketch the graph of the pdf curve. If X
WrIte/DraW
represents time (in minutes) between the

successive calls, then getting a call within
30 seconds from the previous one would
mean that X must be between 0 and 0.5 (as
30 seconds = 0.5 minutes). Shade the required
section on the graph. State the probability that
needs to be found and the integral that needs to
be evaluated in order to find that probability.
2
y
(0, 0.6)
0.5 1
0.5
Pr(0 X 0.5) = 0 0.6ee
0.6 x
ddx
0.5
0.6e 0.6 x
=
0.6 0
Evaluate by first antidifferentiating and then

substituting terminals in for x. Give the answer
correct to 4 decimal places as required.
= e
0.6 x 0.5
0
= ( e 0.6 0.5 ) ( e
= e 0.3 + e 0
= 0.7408 + 1
= 0.2592
0.6 0
b 1 X is anywhere between 2 and 3. Show the
required section on the graph. State the

probability that needs to be found and the
integral that needs to be evaluated in order to
find that probability.
y
(0, 0.6)
2
3
Pr(2 X 3) = 0.6ee
0.6 x
ddx
0.6e 0.6 x
=
0.6 2
Evaluate.
= e
=( e
0.6 x 3
2
0.6 3
) ( e
e 1.8 + e
0.6 2
1.2
=
= 0.1653 + 0.3012
= 0.1359
c 1 The probability that X will exceed 7 can be
obtained by finding the area under the pdf

curve to the right of 7. This is equivalent to
finding the area to the left of 7 and subtracting
it from the total area under the curve (that is,
from 1).
y
(0, 0.6)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pr(X > 7) = 1 Pr(X 7)

7
= 1 0 0.6ee
0.6 x
ddx
583
0.6e 0.6 x
=1
0.6 0
Evaluate.
= 1 e
0.6 x 7
0
= 1 [( e 0.6 7 ) ( e
= 1 ( e 4.2 + e 0 )
= 1 (0.0150 + 1)
= 0.0150
0.6 0
exercise 12D
)]
1 We10 The time, in hours, that Kathryn spends watching television each day is a continuous random
variable with probability density function given by

3
2
(t + 1), 0 t 2
f ( x ) = 14
.
0, elsewhere
Calculate:
a the maximum number of hours that Kathryn could watch television each day
b the mean number of hours of television she watches each day, correct to 2 decimal places.
c the probability that she watches more than 1.5 hours of television
d the probability that she watches up to 1 hour of television each day, correct to 4 decimal places.
2 The lifespan (in days) of freshly cut roses is a random variable X with the probability density function
given by
1
4 x 2 , 2 x 4,
f ( x ) = 1 x + 3 , 4 x 6,
2
4
0,
elsewhere
a What is the probability that a freshly cut rose will last for:
i over 5 days?
ii between 3 and 5 days?
iii less than 4 days and 6 hours, correct to 3 decimal places?
b Leos girlfriend Elly likes white roses. For their three-month anniversary Leo bought her a bunch.
If the florist said that the freshly cut flowers were delivered to the shop 1.5 days ago, what is the
probability that the roses will last for at least 3 more days?
3 We11 The length (in minutes) of waiting time at the dentist is a continuous random variable with
0.15e 0.15 x , x 0
probability density function given by f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
Find, correct to 4decimal places, the probability that:
a a patient will be admitted within 10 minutes of arrival
b a patient will have to wait anywhere between 10 and 20 minutes from arrival
c the waiting time will exceed half an hour.
4 The weight (in grams) of rainbow trout caught on a fish farm is a random variable, X, with probability
ke kx , x 0
density function given by f (x) =
, where k = 10 9000 .
0,
elsewhere
a Find, correct to 4 decimal places, the probability that a randomly caught trout will weigh:
i less than 800 g
ii between 1 kg and 2 kg
iii over 2 kg.
b Calculate the mean weight of trout on this farm. Give your answer to the nearest gram.
c What proportion of trout on this farm weighs below the mean weight?
584
5 The life (in hours) of a particular brand of batteries is a random variable with probability density
x
1
function given by f (x) = 1000 e 1000 , x 0 .
0, elsewhere
a Find, correct to 4 decimal places, the probability that a randomly selected battery of this brand
will last:
i less than 100 hours
ii no more than 180 hours
iii more than 200 hours.
b If after 180 hours of operation a battery is still working, what is the probability, correct to
4 decimal places, that it will last at least another 50 hours?
c A manufacturer of the batteries claims that 90% of their batteries will work for at least n hours.
Find the largest possible value of n.
6
A group of students is given a maths quiz. The time (in minutes) taken by a student to complete the
task is a continuous random variable with probability density function given by
0.1, 300 x 4 0
f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
a State the time limits within which the quiz must be done.
b Find the probability that a student will:
i complete the task in under 33 minutes
ii take between 36 and 38 minutes to finish.
c Calculate the mean time taken to complete the quiz.
d The fastest 10% of the class will receive a bonus question and thus will have an opportunity to
earn extra marks. Find the longest time a student can take to finish the quiz and still qualify for
a bonus question.
7 Rachel is buying silk fabric for her formal dress. The dressmaker estimates that she will need
3.9 metres of silk. To be on the safe side, Rachel asks a salesperson to cut off 4 metres from the selected
roll. The difference (in centimetres) between the ordered length (4 metres) and the actual length of
material cut by the salesperson is a continuous random variable with
0.1
probability density function given by f (x) =
.
(0.01 + x 2 )
a Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that the actual length of the material willbe:
i within 2 centimetres of the ordered length
ii within 5 centimetres of the ordered length.
b Find the probability that the actual length of the material is at least 4.07 metres, correct to
4 decimal places.
c What is the probability that the purchased material will not be long enough to make a dress (that
is, will be shorter than 3.9 metres)? Answer to 4 decimal places.
8 An Australian Chamber Orchestra concert is to be broadcasted live on Classic FM. It is scheduled to
begin at 7 pm sharp. Although every effort is made to ensure the concert will start on time (due to the
live broadcast), it may still start anywhere between 6.55 pm and 7.05 pm. The difference (in minutes)
between the advertised starting time and the actual starting time is a continuous random variable with
probability density function given by

x
cos , 5 x 5
20
f (x) = 20 2
.
0, elsewhere
a What is the probability that the concert will start within 30 seconds of the scheduled time?
Answer correct to 4 decimal places.
b Maya is listening to the concert at home. She turns on her radio at 6.58 pm. What is the
probability that Maya will miss the beginning, correct to 4 decimal places?
c Patrons who arrive after the concert has started will not be admitted until the interval. Lena and
Alex are caught in a traffic jam and estimate that they will arrive at the concert hall at 7.03 pm.
Assuming that the couple will indeed arrive at their estimated time, what is the probability that
they will be admitted, correct to 4 decimal places?
585
9 In a certain bank, the time (in minutes) the customer has to wait to be served is a random variable with
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9233
WorkSHEET 12.1
INteraCtIVItY
int-0257
the normal distribution
a probability density function defined as

kx , 0 x 10
f (x) = k ( x 20), 10 < x 20, for k > 0 .

0, elsewhere
a Sketch the graph of the probability density function.

b Hence, or otherwise, find the value of k.
c Find the probability that a customer had to wait more than 10 minutes, if it is known that he was
waiting for at least 7 minutes, correct to 4 decimal places.
d Nathan parked his car in a 15-minute parking zone just outside the bank. He needs to deposit a
cheque, which usually takes 3 minutes. What is the probability that Nathan will return to his car
on time (that is, within 15 minutes)?
12e
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video about normal
distributions.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact with
the normal curve.
586
The normal distribution is an important tool when dealing with the probability distribution of a continuous
random variable. The frequency curve of the normal distribution is characterised by the symmetrical bell
shape called the normal distribution curve or normal curve. The normal curve fairly realistically models
many observed frequency distributions such as heights and weights of infants, Mathematical Methods
examination results, the intelligence quotient of children in a particular age group, the lengths of battery lives,
the diameters of steel cans, etc.
If X is a continuous random variable that follows a normal distribution with mean, , and variance,
2, it is written as X N(, 2).
f(x)
properties of the normal distribution
1. The normal probability distribution is characterised by a bell-shaped

2
curve that is symmetrical about the mean.
2. The equation of the normal curve is given by the probability distribution
function (pdf)
1 x
x
0
1
f (x) =
e 2
Mean
2
Mode
where x R.
Median
1
3. From the graph, a maximum value of
is obtained when x = .
2
4. For a normal distribution:
(a) the mean, mode and median are the same
(b) many of the frequencies are situated near the mean
(c) the graph extends indefinitely to the right and left of the mean, but never touches or goes below
the x-axis
(d) the area between the normal curve and the x-axis is equal to 1 square unit, that is,
2
(e) Pr(a < x < b) = f (x) dx .
1
e
2
1 x
= 1
effect of and on the graph of the normal distribution function

1 x 2
1
The equation of the normal distribution function is given by: f ( x ) =
e 2 .
2
The standard deviation, , and the mean, , represent the transformations of the graph.
The most basic form of the normal distribution function is when the mean is 0 and the standard
1
x
1
2 .
f
(
x
)
=
e
deviation is 1. In this case the equation would be:
2
The effect of the mean and the standard deviation on the normal distribution curve is:
1
dilation factor of from the x-axis
dilation factor of from the y-axis

translation of units in the positive x direction (for > 0).
Common probabilites associated with

a normal distribution
Units: 3 & 4
1. Approximately 68% of the observations lie within one

standard deviation of the mean. This may be written as
Pr( X + ) 68%.
68%
2. Approximately 95% of the observations lie within two standard deviations

of the mean. This may be written as Pr( 2 X + 2) 95%. We can
also say that a value of x will most probably lie within two standard
95%
3. Approximately 99.7% of the observations lie within three standard deviations

of the mean. This may be written as Pr( 3 X + 3) 99.7%. We
can also say that a value of x will almost certainly lie within three standard
+ 2 x
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
99.7%
+ 3 x
The mean, , and the standard deviation, , are used when dealing with a population and are thus
called population parameters. If these values are unknown then the sample mean, x , and sample
standard deviation, s, are used.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 12
Draw a curve of the normal distribution, showing an appropriate scale, for =25 and = 5.
thINK
WrIte/DraW
Calculate .
= 25 5 = 20
+ = 25 + 5 = 30
Calculate 2.
2 = 25 2 5 = 15
+ 2 = 25 + 2 5 = 35
Calculate 3.
3 = 25 3 5 = 10
+ 3 = 25 + 3 5 = 40
Rule up a set of axes.
Label the axes, class intervals, frequency values and

the , , 2, 3 values.
Draw the normal distribution curve.
Remember to add the maximum point: ,

.
2
(25, 5 12 )
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 13
Scores from a certain test are normally distributed with mean, = 84 and
standard deviation = 4. Find the percentage of scores which are:
a between 80 and 88
b between 72 and 96
c above 88
d above 96.
thINK
a 1 As the values 80 and 88 are symmetrical about the
mean, determine the difference between the mean

and the extreme value.
tUtOrIaL
eles-1241
Worked example 13
WrIte/DraW
a Difference = 88 84
=4
587
Divide the difference by the standard

deviation.
Note: This gives us the number of standard
deviations by which the extreme value
differs from the mean.
Difference 4
=
4
=1
Match the number of standard deviations

with the appropriate percentage.
68%
Approximately 68% of the observations lie

between the scores of 80 and 88.
b 1 Determine the difference between the mean
and the extreme value.

2
Divide the difference by the standard

deviation.
b Difference = 96 84
= 12
Difference 12
=
4
=3
Match the number of standard deviations

with the appropriate percentage.
3 99.7%
Approximately 99.7% of the observations lie

between the scores of 72 and 96.
c 1 Relate the score with the corresponding
mean and standard deviation difference.

Use part a to assist.
2
Draw a diagram representing the situation.
c + 88
16%
16%
68%
80
84
88
Relate the percentage with the corresponding

68%. Therefore 32% of the scores lie

outside of the values.

Note: Since we are looking at values beyond
the extreme, we halve the percentage.
16% of the scores will be greater than 88.
d 1 Relate the score with the corresponding

Use part b to assist.
2
d + 3 96
Draw a diagram representing the situation.

0.15%
0.15%
99.7%
72
96 x
Relate the percentage with the corresponding

3 99.7%. Therefore 0.3% of the scores

lie outside of the 3 values.

Note: Since we are looking at values beyond
the extreme, we halve the percentage.
0.15% of the scores will be greater than 96.
In parts a and b of the above worked example, each end point was symmetric about the mean. Hence,
when determining the difference between the mean and extreme value, only one value was required.
588
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 14
For a normally distributed variable with mean = 70 and standard deviation = 18, find:
a the range between which 68% of the values lie
b the range between which 95% of the values lie
c the value which has 2.5% of all values below it.
thINK
WrIte/DraW
a 1 Relate the given percentage with the
appropriate and .
a 68%
Calculate .
= 70 18 = 52
Calculate + .
+ = 70 + 18 = 88
68% of the observations lie between 52 and 88.
b 1 Relate the given percentage with the
appropriate and .
b 2 95%
Calculate 2.
2 = 70 2 18 = 34
Calculate + 2.
+ 2 = 70 + 2 18 = 106
95% of the observations lie between 34 and 106.
c 1 Draw the normal distribution curve and relate
the given percentage with the appropriate

2
2.5%
2.5%
95%
34
70
106
2 95%. Therefore, 5% of the

observations lie outside of this interval.
Furthermore, 2.5% lie above the range and
2.5% lie below the range.
2.5% of the observed values will lie below 34.
exercise 12e
1 We12
Draw a curve of the following normal distributions, showing an appropriate scale for each.
a = 10 and = 2
b = 20 and = 5
c = 0 and = 1
The three curves on the scale below show three normal distributions.
ii
i
0
a
b
c
d
3
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9234
Spreadsheet
Normal curves
iii
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 x
State the mean for each curve.

Estimate the standard deviation for each curve.
Which two curves have the same mean?
Which two curves have the same standard deviation?
a Draw normal curves for the following on the one graph.
i = 60 and = 10
ii = 60 and = 20
b How does an increase in affect the graph?

c How does an increase in affect the graph?
iii = 80 and = 10
589
Draw graphs of the following distributions.

b X N(20, 25)
a X N(0, 1)
c X N(50, 100)
5 A large number of azalea bushes are planted, with heights following a normal distribution. Their
heights are recorded after 3 months, 6 months and 9 months. These records are shown on the three
curves below.
i
a Which curve represents the 3-month
ii
readings?
iii
b What can be said about the mean
heights as time progresses?
c What can be said about the standard
x
deviation as time progresses?
1 x 65
1
e 2 5 .
6
The pdf of a normal random variable is given by f ( x ) =
5 2
a State the mean and the standard deviation of X.
b Sketch the graph of the normal distribution.
7
a If a particular normally distributed variable has a mean of 20 and a standard deviation of 2, state
what effect (in terms of transformations) the mean and standard deviation has on the graph of the
distribution.
b A normal distribution is given by X ~ N(9, 0.52). State what effect (in terms of transformations),
the mean and standard deviation have on the graph of the distribution.
2
Scores on a certain test are normally distributed with mean = 65 and standard deviation
= 10. Find the percentage of scores which are:
a between 55 and 75
b between 45 and 85
c between 35 and 95
d above 75
e below 45
f above 95.
9
The random variable, X, is normally distributed with mean = 30 and standard deviation = 5. Find
the percentage of values which are:
a above 35
b above 40
c above 45.
8 We13
10
If X N(42, 169), find the percentage of values which are:

b between 16 and 68
d below 29
e above 55
a between 29 and 55
c between 3 and 81
f
below 3.
11 We14
A normally distributed variable has = 40 and = 12. Find:
c the range between which 99.7% of the values lie.
a
b
c
d
e
f
A normally distributed variable has = 27.2 and = 1.4. Find:

the range between which 68% of the values lie
the range between which 99.7% of the values lie
the value which has 16% of all values above it
the value which has 2.5% of all values above it
the value which has 0.15% of all values above it.
a
b
c
d
e
f
A normally distributed variable has = 16.6 and = 0.6. Find:

the range between which 99.7% of the values lie
the value which has 16% of all values below it
the value which has 2.5% of all values below it
the value which has 0.15% of all values below it.
12
13
14
15
590
a A normally distributed variable has = 102.3 and = 21.4. Draw a normal curve marking the
positions of , , 2, 3.
b Find the percentage of values between:
i 102.3 and 123.7
ii 59.5 and 102.3
iii 102.3 and 166.5
iv 80.9 and 145.1.
A normally distributed variable has = 24 and = 3. Find the percentage of values between:
b 30 and 33.
a 18 and 27
16
Weights of babies are normally distributed with a mean of 3 kg and a variance of 0.36 kg. Find the
weight range over which:
a 68% of babies weights lie
b 95% of babies weights lie
c 99.7% of babies weights lie.
17 MC Scores from a certain test are known to be normally distributed. Approximately 95% of the scores
attained were between 36 and 60. The mean and standard deviation respectively are:
a 48 and 4
B 48 and 6
C 48 and 12
D 50 and 5
e 60 and 12
18 MC Which of the following is not true for all normal distributions?
a
B
C
D
e
The median is equal to the mean.

95% of the values lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
Pr(X > + ) 0.16.
The mean is greater than the standard deviation.
68% of the values lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
19 MC For the normal distribution below, the shaded area is approximately equal to 0.997.
19
Which of the following is true?

a = 19, = 7
C = 40, = 7
e = 40, = 21
61 x
B = 19, = 40
D = 40, = 19
20 MC If X N(9, 9), then approximately 95% of the values would lie in the range:
a 9 X 27
C 3 X 15
e 9 X 18
B 0 X 18
D 5.5 X 12.5
21 MC The heights of a class of 7-year-old girls are normally distributed with a mean of 100cm and a
standard deviation of 9cm. In this class, 95% of the girls would be between approximately:
a 73 cm and 127 cm
B 82 cm and 118 cm
C 91 cm and 109 cm
D 94 cm and 106 cm
e 97 cm and 103 cm
22 MC Which one of the following would represent a continuous random variable?
a
B
C
D
e
The number of people watching a netball match

The time taken to read this question
The number of 6s obtained in ten rolls of a die
The cost of a new car
The number of heads obtained in twenty tosses of a coin
23 If X is normally distributed with a mean of 12 and a variance of 2, find the range, correct to
2 decimal places, between which:

a 68% of the values lie
b 95% of the values lie
c 99.7% of the values lie.
12F
Units: 3 & 4
the standard normal distribution
As seen earlier, the position and shape of the normal curve depend on the parameters and ,
respectively. Thus, the area below the normal curve and hence the probability for a given interval would
vary for each different value of and . Integrating the equation for the normal distribution each time
a value is required can become tedious. This problem can be quickly rectified by introducing a standard
normal distribution where = 0 and = 1. The standard normal variable is denoted by the letter z in
order to distinguish it from the normal variable, x.
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
591
1 x 2
1
The equation of the normal distribution curve f ( x ) =
e 2 when converted to the standard
2
1
z
1
x
e 2 where z =
and g( z ) = f ( x ).
normal curve becomes g( z ) =
2
The standard normal distribution is written as Z N(0, 12).

The graph of the standard normal distribution is shown below.
y
1
2
3 2 1
To convert a normal distribution into a standard normal distribution, the mean, , is subtracted from the
observed value, x, and the result is divided by the standard deviation, .
Calculating probabilities
A CAS calculator can be used to calculate the probabilities associated with the normal distribution
for any value of or , using normCdf (x1, x2, , ). x1 and x2 are the lower and upper limits,
respectively, of the interval for which you want to find the probability.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 15
Calculate the value of the following probabilities, correct to 4 decimal places.

a Pr(Z < 2)
b Pr(Z 0.728)
c Pr(2.02 < Z < 1.59)
thINK
a 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region required.
WrIte/DraW
Use the normal Cdf feature of a CAS calculator.

Enter the upper and lower limits the mean and
standard deviation.
The lower limit is as there is no end point for
the function.
Lower limit =
Upper limit = 2
Mean = 0
Standard deviation = 1
Write the result.
0.97 725
Write the solution.

Rewrite to 4 decimal places.
Pr(Z < 2) = 0.9773
b 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region required.
normCdf (, 2, 0, 1)
0.728 0
592
For Pr(z 0.728), repeat as in step 2 above.

This time the lower limit is 0.728 and the
upper limit is .
Remember: Pr(X = a) = 0, so Pr(X > a)
= Pr(x a)
Lower limit = 0.728

Upper limit =
Mean = 0
normCdf (0.728, , 0, 1)
Write the result.
0.766 693
Write the solution correct to 4 decimal places.
Pr(Z > 0.728) = 0.7667
c 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region
required.
2.02
0 1.59
For Pr(2.02 < z < 1.59) repeat as for

parts a and b above.
Lower limit = 202

Upper limit = 1.59
Mean = 0
normCdf (2.02, 1.59, 0, 1)
Write the result.
0.922 391
Pr (2.02 < Z < 1.59) = 0.9224
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 16
If X is normally distributed with = 50 and = 8, calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:

a Pr(X > 55)
b Pr(28 < X < 65)
c Pr(X < 40 | X < 70).
thINK
a 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region
WrIte/DraW
required.
50 55
Repeat as shown in Worked example 15.
Lower limit = 55
Upper limit =
Mean = 50
Lower limit = 8
norm Cdf (55, , 50, 8)
Write the result.
0.265 985
Pr(X > 55) = 0.2660
b 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region required. b
28
50
65
593
For Pr(28 < X < 65), repeat as above on a

CAS calculator. This time the lower limit is
28 and the upper limit is 65.
Write the solution and round the answer to
4 decimal places.
Pr(28 < X < 65) = normCdf (28, 65, 50, 8)

= 0.9666.
c Pr(( X < 40 | X < 70) =
c 1 Write the rule for conditional probability.
Note: Pr(X < 40 | X < 70) = Pr(X < 40). This

is given by the overlapping region in the
diagram below.
Pr[( X < 40) ( X < 70)]

Pr(( X < 70)
Pr(( X < 40)

Pr(( X < 70)
Pr(( X < 40 | X < 70) =
Pr(( X < 40)

Pr(( X < 70)
Pr (X < 40)
Pr (X < 70)
Region required
40 50 70
2
Find the individual probabilities of the

fraction using a CAS calculator.
nor
normCdf
( , 40,50,8)
nor
normCdf
( , 70,50,8)
0.105650
= 0.993790
3
Pr(( X < 40 | X < 70) =
Write the solution and round the answer to

4 decimal places.
Pr(( X < 40)

Pr(( X < 70)
nor
normCdf
( , 40,50,8)
nor
normCdf
( , 70,50,8)
= 0.1063
Symmetry properties
The symmetrical nature of the normal distribution curve can sometimes be used to work out
probabilities.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
Do more
Interact
with the symmetric
properties of the
normal curve.
As an example, Pr(Z > z) is shown above on the left. Because of the symmetry of the curve,
Pr(Z > z) = Pr(Z < z) as shown in the graph on the right.
Comparing the unshaded regions above reveals another property: Pr(Z > z) = Pr(Z < z). As the area
under the curve adds to 1, Pr(Z > z) + Pr(Z < z) = 1. Therefore, Pr(Z < z) = 1 Pr(Z > z), as demonstrated
by the graph below.
It is also important to be able to find the probability of z falling between two values, say a and b. A
diagram is essential as it allows us to see the situation clearly and hence solve the problem.
594
Consider the equation Pr(a < Z < b) = Pr(Z < b) Pr(Z < a).
The figure below clearly demonstrates the above situation.
y
=
a
0 b
0 b
y
Common region
is cancelled out.
=
a
0 b
y
=
a
0 b
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 17
a If Pr(Z < p) = 0.30, calculate:

i Pr(Z > p)
ii Pr(Z > p).
b If Pr(Z < b) = 0.8 and Pr(Z a) = 0.25, calculate:
i Pr(a < Z < b)
ii Pr(Z < a | Z < b).
thINK
a i 1 To calculate Pr(Z > p), draw a diagram
WrIte/DraW
a i
and shade the region required.
p0
A property of normal distribution curves

is: Pr(Z < p) + Pr(Z > p) = 1.
Remember: Pr(Z > p) = Pr(Z p)
as Pr(Z = p) = 0
Pr(Z > p) = 1 Pr(Z < p)

= 1 0.30
= 0.70
Write the answer.
Pr(Z > p) = 0.70
ii 1 By symmetry:
Pr(Z < p) = Pr(Z > p)
ii
Pr(Z > p) = 0.30
Write the answer.
b i 1 To calculate Pr(a < Z < b), draw a diagram

Note: b > a since Pr(Z < b) > Pr(Z < a).
a0b
595
State the probability you want to find and

the rule you will use.
Pr(a < Z < b) = Pr(Z < b) Pr(Z < a).
State the answer.
ii 1 State the probability you want to find and
the rule you will use.
Pr(a < Z < b) = Pr(Z < b) Pr(Z < a).

= 0.8 0.25
= 0.55
Pr(a < Z < b) = 0.55
Pr(( Z < a) ( Z < b))
ii Pr(Z < a | Z < b) =
Pr(( Z < b)
=
Pr(( Z < a)
Pr(( Z < b)
Pr(( Z < a)
Pr(( Z < b)
0.25
=
0.8
25
=
80
5
=
16
Substitute in the appropriate probabilities

and simplify.
Pr(Z < a | Z < b) =
Write the solution.
Pr(Z < a | Z < b) =
5
16
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 18
X is a normal random variable with mean 16 and standard deviation 2, and Z is the standard
normal variable.
a Find m if Pr(X > 18) = Pr(Z > m).
b Find m if Pr(X < 11) = Pr(Z > m).
thINK
a 1 As the probability of the X variable,
Pr(X > 18), is in the same form as the

probability of the Z variable, Pr(Z > m),
m must directly relate to 18. To convert a
normal variable to a standard normal
x
variable, we use the rule z =
.
b 1 This time the probability of the X variable,
Pr(X < 11), is not in the same form as the

probability of the Z variable, Pr(Z > m);
however, we can still link the two via
x
.
the rule z =
WrIte
a z=
18 16
2
2
=
2
=
=1
Pr(X > 18) = Pr(Z > 1)
m=1
x
.
11 16
=
2
5
=
2
b z=
= 2.5
Pr(X < 11) = Pr(Z < 2.5)
596
Use the symmetry properties of the normal

distribution to find m.
Pr(Z > z) = Pr(Z < z).

Pr(Z < 2.5) = Pr(Z > 2.5)
Pr(X < 11) = Pr(Z > 2.5)
m = 2.5
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 19
The lengths of matches made at a certain factory are normally distributed with mean 4.1 cm and
standard deviation 0.05 cm. Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a randomly
selected match is:
a greater than 4.1 cm
b less than 4.13 cm
c between 4.08 cm and 4.14 cm.
thINK
WrIte/DraW
required.
4.1
= 4.1, Pr(X > 4.1) = Pr(X > )
b 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region
Pr(X > 4.1) = 0.5000

b
required.
4.14.13
Pr(X < 4.13) = normC df (, 4.13, 4.1, 0.05)

= 0.7257
Pr(X < 4.13) can be found using a CAS

calculator. Write the solution and round
c 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region
required.
4.08 4.14.14
Pr(4.08 < X < 4.14) can be found using a

CAS calculator. Write the solution and round
exercise 12F
Pr(4.08 < X < 4.14)

= normCdf (4.08, 4.14, 4.1, 0.05)
= 0.4436
the standard normal distribution
1 We15 Find, correct to 4 decimal places:

a Pr(Z 1)
b Pr(Z 1.5)
d Pr(Z > 2.71)
e Pr(0.42 < Z < 1.513)
2
Standardise the following X-values to Z-values:

b X = 12 if X N(17, 9)
a X = 40 if X N(25, 25)
c Pr(Z < 1.75)

f Pr(1.6 Z 1.4).
c X = 15 if X N(12, 6.25).
3 The variable X is normally distributed with mean = 9 and standard deviation = 3. Standardise the
following X-values:
a X = 10
b X = 7.5
c X = 12.4.
4 We16 If X is normally distributed with = 40 and = 7, find, correct to 4 decimal places:

a Pr(X > 42)
b Pr(X 30)
c Pr(X < 45)
d Pr(X 27)
e Pr(25 X 45).
5 If X N(20, 25), find, correct to 4 decimal places:
a Pr(X > 27)
b Pr(X 18)
d Pr(7 X 12)
e Pr(X < 17 | X 25)
c Pr(X 8)
f Pr(X < 17 | X < ).
597
6 We17a
If Pr(Z > m) = 0.25, calculate:
a Pr(Z < m)
b Pr(Z > m)
c Pr(Z < m).
7 We17b
If Pr(Z b) = 0.62 and Pr(Z < a) = 0.16, calculate:
a Pr(a < Z < b)
b Pr(Z < a | Z < b).
8
If Pr(Z b) = 0.58 and Pr(a < Z < b) = 0.44, find Pr(Z < a).
If Pr(Z > b) = 0.12 and Pr(a < Z < b) = 0.60, find Pr(Z > a).
X is a normal random variable with mean 36 and standard deviation 4, and Z is the standard
normal variable.
a Find m if Pr(X < 30) = Pr(Z < m).
b Find m if Pr(X > 43) = Pr(Z < m).
10 We 18
11 We19 Light bulbs have a mean life of 125 hours and a standard deviation of 11 hours. Find the
probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a randomly selected light bulb lasts:
b less than 100 hours
c between 100 and 140 hours.
a longer than 140 hours
12 The heights jumped by Year 9 high-jump contestants follow a normal distribution with a mean jump
height of 152 cm and a variance of 49 cm. Find the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a
competitor jumps:
a at least 159 cm
b less than 150 cm
c between 145 cm and 159 cm
d between 140 cm and 160 cm
e between 145 cm and 150 cm, given that she jumped over 140 cm.
13 MC If Z has a standard normal distribution, then Pr(Z > 1.251) is:
a 0.1054
B 0.3945
14 MC If Z N(0, 1), then Pr(Z < 0.25) is:

a 0.0987
B 0.4013
C 0.6055
D 0.6623
e 0.8945
C 0.5987
D 0.7124
e 0.9013
15 MC The variable X is normally distributed with mean = 20 and standard deviation = 6. The
standardised value of Z, for X = 29 is:

a 1.5
B 1.15
C 0.483
D 1.15
e 1.5
16 MC Tennis balls are dropped from a height of 2 metres. The rebound height of the balls is normally
distributed with a mean of 1.4 metres and a standard deviation of 0.1 metres. The probability that a ball
rebounds more than 1.25 metres is:
a 0.0668
B 0.2826
C 0.4332
D 0.7174
e 0.9332
17 MC The variable X is normally distributed with mean 70 and variance 12. The probability that X is
greater than 77 is:

a 0.0217
B 0.0429
C 0.0909
D 0.9091
e 0.9783
18 MC The life span of dogs is normally distributed with a mean of 12 years and a standard deviation of
2 years. The probability that a dog lives for less than 9 years is:
a 0.0668
B 0.2826
C 0.2926
D 0.4332
19 MC If X N(16, 4), then Pr(X > 11.5) equals:
a 0.0122
B 0.0836
C 0.7217
D 0.9164
e 0.9332
e 0.9878
20 The volume of milk in a 1-litre carton is normally distributed with a mean of 1.000 litres and a standard
deviation of 0.006 litres. A randomly selected carton is known to have more than 1.004 litres. Find the
probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that it has less than 1.011 litres.
21 Eye fillet steaks are cut with a mean weight of 82 grams and a standard deviation of 5 grams. Steaks are
sold at different prices according to their weights, as shown in the table below.
Weight (g)
< 70
7080
8090
> 90
Cost ($)
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
a Find the probability that a randomly selected steak weighs between 80 grams and 90 grams. Give
your answer correct to 4 decimal places.

b Find the probability that a randomly selected steak costs $2, correct to 4 decimal places.
c Copy and complete the following table.
Cost ($)
1.40
1.60
1.80
Probability
d Using your answers from part c, find the average price of an eye fillet steak.
598
2.00
22 The length of 6-cm nails is actually normally distributed with a mean length of 6 cm and a standard
deviation of 0.03 cm. Only nails which are between 5.93 cm and 6.07 cm are acceptable and packaged
accordingly. Find:
a the probability of a randomly selected nail being an acceptable length, correct to 4 decimal places
b the expected number of acceptable nails in a batch of 1000.
23 The length of fish caught in a certain river follows a normal distribution, with mean 32 cm and standard
deviation 4 cm. Fish which are less than 27 cm are considered to be undersized and must be returned to
the river. Find:
a the probability that a fish is undersize, correct to 4 decimal places
b the expected number of fish that a fisherman could take home if he catches 20 fish in
one afternoon and follows the rules for undersize fish.
24 The heights of students in Year 12 class were found to be normally distributed with mean of 171.2 cm
and standard deviation of 5.2 cm.

a What is the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a student has a height of:
i greater than 168 cm?
ii between 164 cm and 174 cm?
iii greater than 179 cm, given that they are taller than 168 cm?
b If a random sample of 10 students was chosen, what is the probability, correct to 4 decimal places,
that 6 of the students would have a height greater than 168 cm?
25 Amy is a keen tennis player. The amount of time, in hours, she spends training each week is normally
distributed with a mean of 8.4 hours and standard deviation of 1.8 hours.
a Find, correct to 4 decimal places, the probability that:
i she spends more than 10 hours training per week
ii she spends more than 5 hours training per week, given that she spent less than 10.5hours
training per week.
b What is the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that of the next 5 weeks, Amy will spend at
least 1 of them training more than 10 hours a week?
the inverse cumulative normal

distribution
12G
Up to now, we have focused on finding probabilities associated with either the normal distribution or
standard normal distribution. Sometimes, however, we are given the probability and must determine the
value of the variable. A CAS calculator, via the function invNorm, can be used to calculate the value
associated with a given probability for any value of or , by invNorm(A, , ). A must be the area to
the left of the required value, that is, the less-than probability (e.g. Pr(X < c) = 0.47). In this instance A
would be 0.47.
Units: 3 & 4
AOS:
Topic:
Concept:
Concept
summary
Read a summary
of this concept.
See more
Watch a
video about the
inverse cumulative
normal distribution.
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 20
Find the value of c, correct to 3 decimal places, in the following.

a Pr(Z < c) = 0.5
7
b Pr(Z c) = 0.91
thINK
a 1 To calculate Pr(Z < c) = 0.57, draw a diagram
a
57%
0 c
2
Use the inverse normal feature of a CAS

calculator, where mean = 0, standard
deviation = 1, and c = 0.57.
tUtOrIaL
eles-1192
Worked example 20
WrIte/DraW
Mean = 0
Pr(Z < c) = 0.57
invNorm(0.57, 0, 1)
599
Record your result.
0.176 374

places.
c = invNorm(0.57, 0, 1)
= 0.176
b 1 To calculate Pr(Z c) = 0.91, draw a diagram
91%
c
2
For this example, the shaded area is to the

right of the unknown value, so we subtract
the given area from 1.
Pr(Z < c) = 1 Pr(Z > c)

= 1 0.91
= 0.09
Find the value of c using a CAS calculator as

in part a.
Mean = 0
Pr(Z < c) = 0.09
invNorm(0.09, 0, 1)
Record your result.
1.340 76

places.
c = invNorm(0.09, 0, 1)
= 1.341
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 21
Find the value of c in Pr(c < Z < c) = 0.9544. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
thINK
1
Draw a diagram of the situation. Label the

unknown values as c1 and c2.
Note: c1 = c2.
WrIte/DraW
0.0228
0.0228
0.9544
c1
c2
1 0.9544
2
0.0456
=
2
= 0.0228
Determine the probability of each of the

unshaded areas by subtracting the given
probability from 1 and dividing the result by 2.
Unshaded area =
Find Pr(Z < c2) by adding the probabilities.
Therefore Pr(Z < c2) = 0.9544 + 0.0228

= 0.9772
Find the value of c2 using a CAS calculator.
c2 = invNorm(0.9772, 0, 1)
= 1.999
Pr(1.999 < Z < 1.999) = 0.9554
c = 1.999
percentiles and quantiles

Remember that a percentile is a probability value expressed as a percentage while a quantile is a
probability value expressed as a decimal; for example, Pr(Z < c) = 0.7 means that c is the 70th percentile
or the 0.70 quantile.
600
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 22
If Z N(0, 12), find, correct to 3 decimal places:

a the 0.30 quantile
b the 80th percentile.
thINK
a 1 Draw a diagram illustrating the information.
WrIte/DraW
a
0.30
Find the value of c using a CAS calculator.

Write the solution.
c = invNorm(0.30, 0, 1)
= 0.5244
Answer the question, correct to 3 decimal

places.
c = 0.524
b 1 Draw a diagram of the situation.
b The 80th percentile is the 0.80 quantile.

0.80

Write the solution.
c = invNorm(0.80, 0, 1)
= 0.841 62
Answer the question, correct to 3 decimal

places.
c = 0.842
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 23
X is normally distributed with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 2. Calculate x1, correct to
3 decimal places, if:
a Pr(X x1) = 0.65
b Pr(X > x1) = 0.85.
thINK
required.
WrIte/DraW
0.65
10 x1
2
As the shaded area is to the left of the

unknown value, we can use invNorm straight
away, entering the mean, standard deviation
and probability.
Mean = 10
Pr (X < c) = 0.65
invNorm(0.65, 10, 2)
Record your result.
10.7706

places.
x1 = invNorm(0.65, 10, 2)
= 10.771
601
b 1 Draw a diagram and shade the region
0.85
required.
x1
10
For this example, the shaded area is to the

right of the unknown value, so we subtract
the given area from 1.
Pr(Z < x1) = 1 Pr(Z > x1)

= 1 0.85
= 0.15

places.
x1 = invNorm(0.15, 10, 2)
= 7.927
WOrKeD eXaMpLe 24
If X is normally distributed with a mean of 52.3 and Pr(X < 48) = 0.229, calculate the standard
deviation, correct to 2 decimal places.
thINK
WrIte
We need to find the standardised Z-value for

the X-value of 48. As we know and for Z,
we can use the invNorm function to find the
standardised value.
Note: Even though z is rounded to 3 decimal
places on the page, be sure to use the maximum
number of decimal places in your subsequent
working.
Pr(X < 48) = Pr(Z < z) = 0.229

z = invNorm(0.229, 0, 1)
= 0.742
Now we link the z-value to the x-value by

x
.
the rule z =
z=
48 52.3
0.7421 = 4.3
4.3
=
0.7421
0.7421
= 5.794
3

places.
The standard deviation is 5.79.
the inverse cumulative normal

distribution
exercise 12G
1 We20 Find the value of c in the following, correct to 3 decimal places.

a Pr(Z < c) = 0.9
b Pr(Z < c) = 0.2
c Pr(Z > c) = 0.54
d Pr(Z c) = 0.45
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2 We21 Find the value of c in the following.

a Pr(c < Z < c) = 0.6826
c Pr(c < Z < c) = 0.2
b Pr(c Z c) = 0.5
d Pr(c Z c) = 0.38
3 We22 If Z N(0, 1), find:

a the 0.25 quantile
c the 0.72 quantile
b the 40th percentile

d the 0.995 quantile.
4 We23 X is normally distributed with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 2. Find x1 if:
a Pr(X x1) = 0.72
b Pr(X < x1) = 0.4
c Pr(X > x1) = 0.63
d Pr(X x1) = 0.2.
5 X is normally distributed with a mean of 34 and a variance of 16. Find c if:
a Pr(X > c) = 0.31
b Pr(X c) = 0.75
c Pr(X < c) = 0.21
d Pr(X c) = 0.55.
6 Let X N(22, 25). Find k if:
a Pr(22 k X 22 + k) = 0.7
b Pr(22 k < X < 22 + k) = 0.24
c Pr(X < k | X < 23) = 0.32.
7 MC If Pr(Z c) = 0.8, then c equals:
a 0.842
D 0.524
B 0.253
e 0.842
8 MC If Pr(Z > c) = 0.7, then c equals:

a 0.524
D 0.524
B 0.496
e 0.553
9 MC If Pr(1.2 < Z < k) = 0.4, then k equals:

a 0.885
D 0.253
B 0.253
e 0.885
10 MC If Z N(0, 1), then the 0.35 quantile is:

a 0.675
D 0.385
B 0.385
e 0.675
11 MC If Pr(Z < k | Z < 0.5) = 0.6, then k equals:

a 0.215
D 0.253
B 0.253
e 0.215
C 0.253
C 0.496
C 0.038
C 0.350
C 0
12 MC If X is normally distributed with a mean of 20 and a standard deviation of 4 and Pr(X < k) = 0.6,
then k equals:
a 18.99
D 21.01
B 19.49
e 21.79
13 MC If X N(12, 4) and Pr(X > k) = 0.82, then k equals:

a 8.34
D 14.27
B 10.17
e 15.66
C 20.51
C 13.83
14 The height of Year 9 students is known to be normally distributed with a mean of 160 cm and a
standard deviation of 8 cm. Answer the following; correct to 2 decimal places.

a How tall is Theo if he is taller than 95% of Year 9 students?
b How tall is Luisa if she is shorter than 80% of Year 9 students?
15 The length of nails manufactured as 45 mm are actually normally distributed with a mean of 45 mm
and a standard deviation of 0.5 mm. The shortest 20% and longest 20% of nails manufactured are
discarded before packaging and sold as seconds. Find correct to 2 decimal places:
a the minimum length of packaged nails
b the maximum length of packaged nails.
16 At a qualifying meeting, the time taken for runners to complete 400 metres follows a normal
distribution, with a mean time of 50 seconds and a standard deviation of 2 seconds. If the fastest 25%
of runners qualify for the next meeting, how fast would you need to run to qualify? Give your answer
17 We24 If X N(20, 2) and Pr(X 19) = 0.7, find the standard deviation, .
18 X is normally distributed with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of . Forty per cent of X-values
are less than 48. Find .
19 Weights of packaged rice are normally distributed with a mean of 500 grams. Ten per cent of packages
are under 485 grams. Find the standard deviation.

20 If X N(, 16) and Pr(X 17) = 0.99, find the mean, .
21 X is normally distributed with a mean of and a standard deviation of 3. If 35% of X-values are at least
27, find the mean.

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22 The time taken for grade 4 students to complete a small jigsaw puzzle follows a normal distribution
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Investigation
Sunflower stems
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with a standard deviation of 30 seconds. If 70% of grade 4 students complete the puzzle in 4 minutes or
less, find the mean completion time for grade 4 students correct to 2 decimal places.
23 Bridget owns a fruit and vegetable shop. Being a keen mathematician as well, she knows that the
weights of the watermelon she sells are normally distributed with a mean weight of 1.5 kg and a
standard deviation of 0.2 kg. She classifies her watermelons as either large, medium or small. The
heaviest 15% are classified as large, the lightest 15% are classified as small and the rest as medium.
Find the range of weights, correct to 1 decimal place, for which:
a a large watermelon is classified
b a medium watermelon is classified.
24 Mr Lim, a physics teacher, sets a particularly hard test for his students. He finds that the average mark
is 54 and the standard deviation is 8. He decides to award the top 10% an A, and fail the bottom 10%.
Find, correct to the nearest whole number:
a the lowest mark required to achieve an A
b the range of marks that a student who fails the test could have achieved.
Summary
Continuous random
variables
Continuous random variables represent quantities that can be measured and thus may assume any
value in a given range.
probability density
functions
If X is a continuous random variable, then the probability of it falling between certain values is
given by the area under a frequency curve known as the probability density function or pdf.
The probability density function must be greater than or equal to zero for all values of x, and the
total area under the curve must be 1. That is, f(x) 0 for all x and f ( x ) dx = 1.
The domain of a probability density function is usually R, that is, the variable is continuous and
can assume any real value (at least in theory).
If we need our function to be non-zero over a particular interval only, say, over (a, b), then we need
to specify that the function is equal to zero everywhere else.
If a probability density function is only non-zero over a particular interval (a, b), the area under the
b
curve between x = a and x = b must be 1. That is, f ( x ) dx = 1.

a
Finding probabilities
using a probability
density function
If X is a continuous random variable, then the probability of it falling

between x = a and x = b isgiven by thearea bounded by the
probability density function, the x-axis and the lines x = a and
x = b. That is,
b
Pr(a X b) = f ( x ) dx.
y
Pr(a x b)
0
Pr(x = a) = 0
Pr(x > a) = Pr(x a).
To integrate over intervals involving infinity, the limits are evaluated as follows.
Interval
Limit
lim
(, )
(, a)
k f ( x ) dx
lim
lim
k k
(a, )
k a
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx
1
1
= 0 and lim x = 0.
x x
x e
Quantiles and percentiles both define the value of the random variable, X, below which a given
proportion of the distribution falls.
A quantile is a probability value expressed as a decimal, while a percentile is a probability value
expressed as a percentage.
As a number tends to infinity, its reciprocal tends to zero. For example, lim
Measures of central
tendency
If X is a continuous random variable with a probability distribution function f (x) over the domain R,
the mean of X can be found using the formula:
= E (x) =
In general, E[g(x)] =
xf ( x ) ddx .
a g( x ) f ( x ) dx .
If f (x) has a certain rule for a X b and is zero elsewhere, then the mean can be obtained by
b
using the formula = E(x) = xf ( x ) dx .

a
If f (x) has a certain rule for a X b and is zero elsewhere, then the mean can be obtained by
b
using the formula = E(x) = xf ( x ) dx .

a
605
The median value, m, of the continuous random variable, X, is a value such that Pr(X m) = 2 .
m
To find the median of X, solve for m the equation f ( x ) dx = 2 .

1
The mode is a value of X for which f (x) has its maximum. It is possible to have more than one mode.
To find the mode of a continuous random variable:
sketch the graph of the probability density function first
if the probability density function of X has a maximum turning point in the interval [a, b],
the mode is given by the x-coordinate of the turning point. It can be obtained by finding the
derivative of f (x), making it equal to zero, and solving for x.
if the probability density function continuously increases or decreases over the interval [a, b], or
if it has a minimum turning point, the mode is then given by the end point of the interval
(a or b) that corresponds to the maximum value of f (x).
Measures of spread
If X is a continuous random variable with a probability distribution function f(x) over the domain R,
the variance of X can be found using the formula:
Var(X) = E(x )2 =
( x )2 f ( x ) ddx.
If f (x) has a certain rule for a X b and is zero elsewhere, then the variance can be obtained
by using the formula Var(X) = E(x )2 =
a ( x )2 f ( x ) ddx.
The alternative formula for variance is Var(X) = E(X2) ()2. This can also be expressed as
b
Var(X) = ( x )2 f ( x ) ddx
a
( xf (x) dx) .
b
The standard deviation of X can be found by taking the positive square root of the variance of
X, that is, SD(X) = Var( X ).
The interquartile range (IQR) is the middle 50% of the distribution. IQR = 75th percentile 25th
percentile.
applications to
problem solving
Always sketch diagrams to represent the required probability.

Find probabilities by integrating the probability density function between the required values. This
can be done manually or by using a CAS calculator.
the normal
distribution
The normal distribution is the most important distribution associated with continuous random
variables.
The normal probability distribution is characterised by a bell-shaped curve which is symmetrical
about the mean.
For a normal probability distribution, mean = median = mode.
The equation of the normal curve is given by the probability distribution function
1
1
1
f (x) =
e 2 where x R. It has a maximum value of
when x = .
2
2
For the normal distribution, the same rules apply as for all other
f(x)
probability density functions:
1. f (x) 0 for all x,
2.
3.
f ( x ) dx = 1, and
b
Pr(a < X < b) = f ( x ) dx.
a
a b
The normal distribution with mean, , and variance, 2, is written as X N(, 2).
The common probabilities associated with the normal distribution are as follows:
1. Approximately 68% of the observations lie within one standard
deviation of the mean.
68%
606
2. Approximately 95% of the observations lie within two standard

deviations of the mean, or we say that a value of x will most
probably lie within two standard deviations of the mean.
95%
3. Approximately 99.7% of the observations lie within three standard

deviations of the mean, or we say that a value of x will almost
certainly lie within three standard deviations of the mean.
+ 2 x
99.7%
The parameters and have an effect on the normal distribution

curve as follows:
3
+ 3 x
The mean, , controls the position of the curve.
The standard deviation, , controls the width of the curve.
Specifically, the effect of the mean and the standard deviation on the normal distribution curve is:
1
1. dilation factor of from the x-axis
2. dilation factor of from the y-axis

3. translation of units in the positive x direction (for > 0).
the standard normal
distribution
The standard normal distribution is written as Z N(0, 12).

x
To convert a given normal variable, x, to the standard normal variable, z, use the rule z =
.
A CAS calculator can be used to calculate the probabilities associated with the normal distribution
for any value of or using normCdf(x1, x2, , ). x1 and x2 are the
lower and upper limits, respectively, of the interval for which you want
to find the probability.
Using the symmetrical nature of the standard normal curve, it can be
seen that: Pr(Z > z) = 1 Pr(Z < z)
Pr(Z >
z)
= Pr(Z < z)
With all normal distribution problems, > is equivalent to and < is equivalent to , since Pr(Z = z) = 0.
the inverse cumulative
normal distribution
A CAS calculator can be used to calculate the value associated with a given probability for any
value of or , using invNorm(A, , ). A must be the area to the left of the required value.
A percentile is a probability value expressed as a percentage while a quantile is a probability value
expressed as a decimal.
When the standard deviation or mean is unknown, the standardised value, z, must be found. The
x
mean or standard deviation is then calculated using the rule z = .
607
Chapter review
S h Ort
aNS Wer
2(2 4x ), 0 x
1 a Sketch the graph of f (x) =
1
2.
0, elsewhere
b State whether or not f (x) could be a probability density function.
x , 0 x 4
2 a Sketch the graph of f (x) =
and explain why it is not a probability density function.
0, elsewhere
b Adjust the function so that it could be a probability density function by adding a dilation
coefficient, that is, by changing the rule to f (x) = a x and retaining the given domain.
c Now adjust the left-hand-side end point of the domain so that f (x) could be a probability density
function. That is, keep the rule unchanged, but replace 0 with an appropriate number in 0 x 4.
sin (22 x ), 0 < x <
2.
3 If X is a random variable with a probability density function given by f (x) =
0,
elsewhere
Calculate:
a Pr(X < 6 )
b Pr(X <
X < 3 ).
4 Consider the random variable, X, with probability density function given by
x 1, 1 x 2
f (x) = x + 3, 2 < x 3.
0, elsewhere
Calculate:
a Pr(1.5 < X < 2)
b Pr(X < 2.5)
c the mode
d the median.
kx , 0 < x < 4
5 If X is a random variable with a probability density function given by f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
Calculate:
a the value of k
b the mean
c the median
d the mode.
6 The cooking time (in minutes) of a single portion of rice in a particular microwave is a random
1, 4 x 6
.
variable, X, with a probability density function given by f(x) = 2
0, elsewhere
a Lenas cookbook recommends to cook one portion of rice for 5.5 minutes. If Lena follows the
instructions in her cookbook, what is the probability that the rice will not be ready?
b What is the probability that it will take anywhere between 4 minutes and 36 seconds and
5 minutes and 15 seconds for the rice to cook?

c If Lena wants to be 90% sure that her rice will be ready, what is the minimum cooking time she
has to set on the microwave?

7 Draw a curve of the following normal distributions, showing an appropriate scale for each.
a = 8 and = 1
b = 25 and = 8
c = 0 and = 3
8 Draw graphs of the following distributions.
a X N(30, 64)
b X N(8, 4)
c X N(100, 100)
9 A normal distribution is given by X ~ N(22, 9). State what effect (in terms of transformations) the mean
and standard deviation have on the graph of the distribution.

10 Weights of wooden sleepers are normally distributed with mean = 60 kg and standard deviation
= 9 kg. Find the percentage of sleepers that are:

a between 51 kg and 69 kg
b between 42 kg and 78 kg
11 A normally distributed variable has = 19.6 and = 3.1. Find:
c the range between which 99.7% of the values lie
d the value which has 16% of all values above it
e the value which has 2.5% of all values above it
f the value which has 0.15% of all values above it.
608
c between 33 kg and 87 kg.
12 Standardise the following X-values to Z-values.

a X = 26 if X N(22, 36)
b X = 18 if X N(16, 16)
13 If Pr(Z > p) = 0.72, calculate:
a Pr(Z < p)
c X = 56 if X N(50.9, 100)
b Pr(Z > p).
14 a If Pr(Z b) = 0.81 and Pr(a < Z < b) = 0.44, find Pr(Z < a).
b If Pr(Z > b) = 0.36 and Pr(a < Z < b) = 0.24, find Pr(Z < a).
15 X is a normal random variable with mean 27 and standard deviation 3, and Z is the standard normal
variable.
a Find m if Pr(X < 33) = Pr(Z < m).
b Find m if Pr(X > 22.5) = Pr(Z < m).
1 Which of the following could be a probability density function?
2, 1 x 0
2
ii f (x) =
0, elsewhere
3, 0 x 1
3
i f (x) =
0, elsewhere
a I only
D I and III
2 x , 1 x 2
0, elsewhere
M U LtIp L e
C hO IC e
iii f (x) =
B II only
e I, II and III
C III only
2 sin (4 x ), a x b
.
0, elsewhere
2 X is a random variable with probability density function defined as f (x) =
The values of a and b respectively are:
a 0, 4

,
4 2
C 0, 2
3
,
2 4
e 0,
a
, 1 x 2
3 The value of a such that f (x) = x 2

could be a probability density function is:
0, elsewhere
1
a 2
B 1
C 2
D 3
e 4
2 (4 x ), 1 x 2
4 If X is a random variable with a probability density function defined by f (x) = 5
,
0, elsewhere
then Pr(X > 1.2) can be obtained by evaluating:
a
1.2 2
D 1
1.2
2 2
1.2 5 (4 x ) dx
2 2
(4
5 1
1.2
2
(4 x ) dx
C 15
1
(4 x ) dx
B 5
2
(4 x ) dx
x ) dx
1 , 0 x 4
and
Pr (X < a) = 0.625, the value of a is:
0, elsewhere
a 1.5
B 2
C 2.5
D 3
e 3.5
Questions 6 to 9 refer to the random variable, X, with the probability density function given by
4 x 2 , 1 x 4
.
f (x) = 3
0, elsewhere
6 The mean of X correct to 4 decimal places is:
a 1.8484
B 2.0000
C 2.5000
D 2.8484
e 3.8484
7 The median of X is:
5 If X is a random variable with a probability density function defined by f(x) = 4
a 3
B 5
15
5
8
D 8
e 15
D 1
e 4
8 The mode of X is:

1
B 12 and 3
a 12
C 3
9 The variance of X can be found by evaluating:

a
1 3x dx (5)
4
4
ge ((4)
D 43 x 3 log
1
1 3x dx (8)
4 x
3 1
4
3
loge (4)
1 3x 2 dx (85)
4
609
Questions 10 to 11 refer to the following information.

The length of time (in minutes) of a gentlemans haircut at the hairdressers is a continuous
0.3e 0.3 x , x 0
random variable with a probability density function given by f (x) =
.
0, elsewhere
10 The probability that Alexs haircut will take longer than a quarter of an hour is:
a 0.0521
B 0.0498
C 0.9502
D 0.0111
e 0.9889
11 The probability that Alexs haircut will take longer than a quarter of an hour, given that it has already
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
taken 10 minutes is:

a 0.2231
B 0.0117
C 0.0524
D 0.0112
e 0.0504
Scores on a certain test are known to be normally distributed. Approximately 95% of the scores attained
are between 26 and 74. The mean and standard deviation respectively are:
a 48 and 6
B 48 and 8
C 48 and 12
D 50 and 6
e 50 and 12
If X N(27, 16), then approximately 95% of the values would lie in the range:
B 9 X 39
C 0 X 54
D 19 X 35
e 23 X 31
a 5 X 59
The random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 20 and standard deviation 4. If the random
variable Z has the standard normal distribution, then the probability that X is more than 24 is equal to:
a Pr(Z < 1)
B 1 Pr(Z > 1)
C Pr(Z < 1)
D Pr(Z > 1)
e 1 Pr(Z < 1)
If Z has a standard normal distribution, then Pr(Z > 1.111) is:
a 0.1333
B 0.1335
C 0.1357
D 0.8665
e 0.8667
X is normally distributed with mean = 16 and standard deviation = 5. The standardised value for
X = 22 is:
C 1.0625
D 1.2
e 1.5
a 1.2
B 1.0625
The standing long jump distances of NBL basketballers is known to follow a normal distribution with
a mean of 1.4 metres and a standard deviation of 0.25 metres. The probability that an NBL player has a
standing long jump of at least 1.6 metres is:
a 0.0013
B 0.0228
C 0.2119
D 0.3446
e 0.4207
If X N(8, 4), then Pr(X < 9.25) equals:
a 0.5311
B 0.6228
C 0.7340
D 0.9223
e 0.9991
19 If X is normally distributed with a mean of 13 and a standard deviation of 4 and Pr(x < k) = 0.71,
then k equals:
a 9.18
e X t eNDeD
r e SpONS e
B 10.79
C 15.21
D 16.81
e 18.11
1 Maya lives in Melbourne, and her sister Rosa lives in Perth. Every Saturday evening they talk on
the phone. The length of their conversations (in minutes) is a continuous random variable, X, with a
probability density function given by
0.09e 0.09 x , x 0
f(x) =
.
0, elsewhere
a What is the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that next Saturday the two sisters will talk for:
i more than 10 minutes?
ii more than 20 minutes?
iii more than half an hour?
b What is the probability that the sisters will talk for less than three-quarters of an hour, given that
they have been talking for at least 20 minutes? Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
c Mayas son Michael lives in London. He always calls Maya every Saturday at 7 pm. What is the
latest time that Maya should call her sister Rosa to be at least 95% certain that they will have
enough time to chat (i.e. that they will finish by 7 pm)? Give your answer to the nearest minute.
d Mayas phone company charges 60 cents per call for all calls to Perth under 10 minutes duration,
$1.40 per call for calls over 10 minutes and under 20 minutes duration, and $2 per call for calls
between 20 minutes and 30 minutes duration. All calls with duration of over 30 minutes are capped
at $2.50. (That is, a call of any length above 30 minutes will cost $2.50.) Find the expected cost of
Mayas call to the nearest cent.
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2 Shoelaces sold as 50 cm are manufactured at a certain factory. However, the lengths actually follow a
normal distribution with a mean of 50 cm. Quality control managers at the shoelace factory check the
lengths of all laces manufactured and follow the rules below:
i If a lace is greater than 53 cm, it is classed as oversize and sold as a 55 cm lace.
ii If a lace is smaller than 47 cm, it is classed as undersize and sold as a 45 cm lace.
iii If a lace is between 47 cm and 53 cm, it is classed as adequate and sold as a 50 cm lace.
If 90% of laces are adequate, find:
a the standard deviation, correct to 2 decimal places
b the percentage of oversize laces
c the percentage of undersize laces
d the probability of a lace being adequate, given that it is not undersize, correct to 4 decimal places.
3 The time taken for Year 7 students to read a certain page of writing follows a normal distribution with
standard deviation of 20 seconds. If 80% of students read the page in less than 3 minutes, find:
a the mean time taken to read the page, correct to 1 decimal place
b the probability that a student will take longer than 3.5 minutes to read the page, correct to
4 decimal places
c the probability that a student will take between 2.5 and 3.5 minutes to read the page, correct to
4 decimal places
d the speed with which 90% of students exceed in reading the page, correct to 2 decimal places.
4 A jeweller knows that the diameter of wedding rings follows a normal distribution, with a mean of
18mm and a standard deviation of 1mm. Find the probability that a customer requires a ring with a
diameter that is:
a greater than 20.5 mm
b less than 19 mm
c greater than 19 mm, given that it is less than 20.5 mm.
5 The lengths of fish caught in a particular river are normally distributed with a mean of 28 cm.
Ninety per cent of fish caught are longer than 25 cm. Find:
a the standard deviation for the length of fish caught in the river
b the probability of catching a fish that is longer than 30 cm from this river
c the maximum length of fish that must be thrown back, if the shortest 30% must be returned to the
river.
6 The amount of time, in hours, that Emily spends training for the Ironwoman Championships is a
4
3
( x 1) , 1 < x < 4
continuous random variable, with probability density function given by f ( x ) = 81
.
0, elsewhere
a What is the probability that she spends less than 2.5 hours training per week?
b What is the mean number of hours she trains each week?
c What is the median time, correct to the nearest minute, she spends training each week?
Units: 3 & 4
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topic since 2002.
DIGItaL DOC
doc-9237
Test Yourself
Chapter 12
611
ICT activities
Chapter opener
DIGItaL DOC
continuous distributions. (page 563)
12a
tUtOrIaL
We1 eles-1237: Watch a worked example on verifying density
12B Using a probability density function to find

probabilities of continuous random variables
tUtOrIaL
We5 eles-1238: Watch a worked example on sketching density
functions and calculating probabilities. (page 570)
12C
Measures of central tendency and spread
tUtOrIaLS
the mean, median and mode of a probability density function.
(page 576)
We9 eles-1240: Watch a worked example on finding the mean
median and standard deviation of a probability distribution using a
CAS calculator. (page 579)
12D
DIGItaL DOC
WorkSHEET 12.1 doc-9233: Using the cumulative normal distribution
table. (page 586)
612
12e
INteraCtIVItY
The normal distribution int-0257: Consolidate your understanding of
the normal distribution. (page 586)
tUtOrIaL
We13 eles-1241: Watch a worked example on using confidence
intervals to determine probabilities. (page 587)
DIGItaL DOC
Spreadsheet doc-9234: Investigate normal curves using a
spreadsheet. (page 589)
12G
the inverse cumulative normal distribution
tUtOrIaL
We20 eles-1192: Watch a worked example on inverse normal
calculations using a CAS calculator. (page 599)
DIGItaL DOCS
WorkSHEET 12.2 doc-9235: For normal distributions calculate
standard deviations, means and probabilities. (page 604)
Investigation doc-9236: Sunflower stems (page 604)
Chapter review
DIGItaL DOC
Answers CHAPTER 12
CONtINUOUS DIStrIBUtIONS
exercise 12a
Continuous random
variables
1 a
3
38
g 4
6
53
3 2
b Check with your teacher.
2
13
2
13
Not a pdf
(1, 2)
1
3
2)
(1,
A pdf
( 3 , 2)
2
3
2
A pdf
1
e
0
2
0
2 a
(e, 1e)
1
2
c 1
Not a pdf
1
2
(2, 2)
(1, 0) 2
12 a y
Using a probability
density function to find probabilities of
continuous random variables
1 a 0.5625
b 0.543 125 c 0.6696
2 a 0.9630
b 0.2963
c 0.2593
d 0.2693
e 0.2693
0.1563
0.1040
0.7398
0.8767
4 a 0.5371
b 0.6916
1
d
e 1
b i 1
8
i 0.3935
ii 0.7788
iii 0.4378
1
4
10
ii 27
32
y
(0, 1 )
8
(10 2 , 0)
3
0
1
18
(6,
i
ii
iii
iv
(0, 1 )
4
1
4
13 a
3 a 3
1
2
b a=2
c i 0.25
ii 0.75
iii 4
1
,a x b
10 a f (x) =
ba
0, elsewhere
b p=5
5 a
8 k=
( , 0)
2
7 3 11
0.5
a
a 0
a
2
exercise 12B
Not a pdf
f ( )
11 a
7
2
9 k=3
v 1
(0, 1 )
2
6
103
6 22
, or 0.6548
2
(
, 0)
2
54
103
48
103
3 )
2
6 19
, or 0.8206
2
A pdf
3
2
103
(1, 0)
5 6
iv 1
7 , or 0.3542
10 a
iii 1
9 a 3
4
13
(0, 2)
(1,
ii 2
7 a = 1.4
8 b=3
6
13
c i 0.5
0
( 1 , 0)
2
(1, 1)
2
5
Not a pdf
4
5
6 a
15
A pdf
( 1 , 2)
2
(0, 2)
e 1
(4, 0)
b Teacher to check
c i 0.5475
ii 0.1179
iii 0.8118
iv 0.9583
v 0.5182
vi 0.3583
613
4 a Variance 1 , standard deviation 2
14 a
18
b Variance 0.0742, standard deviation
(0, 1)
0.2725
c Variance 0.4674, standard deviation

0
(
, 0)
4
c i 3
15 a
iii
5 a 10
b 10 loge (2)
iii
2 3
2
e 10
3
6 a 2
c 0.2796
7 a 0.5
b
y
d 100
c 0
( , 1 )
2
1
2
2 2
i
2
0.6837
2 3
4
ii
1
2
( , 0)
4
16 a
c Mean =
d 0.5
8 a 1
b
a=1
a=2
b i 0.75
17 a
9 a
1
)
2
d
10 a
1
4
4
(
, 0)
4
b 0.5
d
i 0.2398
iii 0.6746
is 0.5.
d The mode is equal to the maximum
of the graph. In this case we have two
points where the maximum is the same.
Therefore the mode = 0, 1.
ii 0.9214
iv 0.6987
exercise 12C Measures of central

tendency and spread
1 a Mean 1.75, median 1.75, no mode
2
exercise 12D
1
c Mean 0.75, median 3 2 , mode 1
2 a Mean
2.37,
median
6 , mode
11
3 4
b Mean 3.5, median 2

, mode 4
c Mean 1.7, median 1.746, mode 2
2 a i
3 a Variance 4 , standard deviation 2 = 2 3

3
b Variance 11 , standard deviation 11

36
c Variance 11 , standard deviation 11

225
614
15
solving
1 a 2 hours
c 0.4375
b
1
8
8 10 12 14 16
3 2 1
i 15
i 5
i and ii
i and iii
ii 15
ii 1 2
iii 45
iii 5
i
ii
iii
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
b It widens the graph and increases the
range.
c It moves the graph to the right.

4 a
3 2 1
applications to problem
b = 1.29 hours
d 0.2857
ii
3
4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
iii 0.617
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
9
32
3 a 0.7769
4 a i 0.5132
b 1111 g
c 0.6321
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
11 m = 12 , n = 7
7
2 2, mode 0
b = 0.5
c As the graph is symmetrical, the median
1 x2
e ,xR
b Mean 3 , median
1
2
d 0.68
2 a
b
c
d
3 a
e 4 12 4 4
c 0.6623
1 a
c 4 4 2
10 (20, 0) x
1
100
exercise 12e
b 482
12 2
(10, 10k)
c Mean = median = mode = 0

d The distribution is symmetrical.
( , 0) 0
4
y
(0,
, variance = 0.4674
2
e 0.4142
(0,1)
iii 2
ii 0.5
(, 0)
a=3
ii 0.1647
iii 0.8187
0.9512
105.36 h
Between 30 and 40 minutes
i 0.3
ii 0.2
35 minutes
31 minutes
i 0.9682
ii 0.9873
0.0045
0.0032
0.1110
b 0.2815
c 0.1790
( , 1 )
2 2
2 2
iv
2
i 0.0952
10k
3
ii
2
3 1
2
b 2.3863
d 0.9720
5 a
b
c
6 a
b
c
d
7 a
b
c
8 a
9 a
b 0.1733
ii 0.2413
c 0.0111
iii 0.1653
5 a i
b The mean increases as time goes on.
c The standard deviation also increases as
time goes on.
6 a = 65, = 5
b
9 0.72
10 a m =
(65, 1 )
5 2
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 x
7 a Mean: translation of 20 units in the
positive x direction; standard deviation:

1
dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis,
dilation factor of 2 from the y-axis
b Mean: translation of 9 units in the
dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis,
dilation factor of 1 from the y-axis
2
8 a
d
9 a
10 a
d
11 a
b
c
12 a
c
e
13 a
c
e
14 a
68%
b 95%
16%
e 2.5%
16%
b 2.5%
68%
b 95%
16%
e 16%
28 X 52
16 X 64
4 X 76
25.8 X 28.6
b
23 X 31.4
d
30
f
16 X 17.2
b
14.8 X 18.4
d
15.4
f
c
f
c
c
f
99.7%
0.15%
0.15%
99.7%
0.15%
24.4 X 30
28.6
31.4
15.4 X 17.8
16
14.8
1
(102.3, 21.4 2 )
3 2
+ + 2 + 3
38.1 59.5 80.9 102.3 123.7 145.1 166.5
i 34%
ii 47.5%
iii 49.85% iv 81.5%
a 81.5%
b 2.35%
a 2.4 kg X 3.6 kg
b 1.8 kg X 4.2 kg
c 1.2 kg X 4.8 kg
B
18 D
19 C
C
21 B
22 B
a 10.59 X 13.41
b 9.17 X 14.83
c 7.76 X 16.24
b
15
16
17
20
23
exercise 12F
distribution
1 a 0.8413
d 0.9966
the standard normal

b 0.0668
e 0.2721
5
3
2 a 3
3 a 1
b 0.5
4 a
d
5 a
d
6 a
0.3874
0.0317
0.0808
0.0501
0.75
7 a 0.46
8 0.14
b
e
b
e
b
0.9235
0.7462
0.6554
0.3260
0.75
8
b 31
c 0.0401
f 0.8644
c 1.2
c 1.133
c 0.7623
22
23
24
25
Cost ($)
Probability
1.40
0.0082
1.60
0.3364
1.80
0.6006
2.00
0.0548
$1.74
0.9804
0.1056
i 0.7309
0.1679
i 0.1870
0.6449
b
b
ii 0.6218
16
3 a 1
4 a 3
c 2
1
8
8
3
0.325
5 a
c
9 10 11
9 17 25 33 41 49
9 6 3
8 a
6 14 22 30 38 46 54
8 10 12 14
c
70 80 90 100110120130
9 Mean: translation of 22 units in the
10
ShOrt aNSWer
y
(0, 4)
12
b Yes it could.
Chapter reVIeW
1
3
7
8
iii 0.0914
11
7 a
ii 0.9665
( 1 , 0)
2
6 a 0.25
c 5 min 48 s
1 a 1.282
b 0.842
c 0.100
d 0.126
2 a 1
b 0.675
c 0.253
d 0.496
3 a 0.675
b 0.253
c 0.583
d 2.576
4 a 11.166
b 9.493
c 9.336
d 11.683
5 a 35.984
b 36.698
c 30.774
d 33.497
6 a 5.182
b 1.527
c 17.525
7 E
8 A
9C
10 B
11 A
12 D
13 B
14 a 173.16 cm
b 153.27 cm
15 a 44.58 mm
b 45.42 mm
16 48.65 seconds
17 1.907
18 7.896
19 11.704 grams
20 26.305
21 25.844
22 3 minutes 44.27 seconds
23 a > 1.7 kg
b Between 1.3 kg and 1.7 kg
24 a 64
b 44
c 0.0082
f 0.5486
c 0.25
( )
13
c m= 2 3
980
17
b 3
exercise 12G the inverse cumulative

normal distribution
1 a
(4, 2)
11 a 0.0863
b 0.0115
c 0.9022
12 a 0.1587
b 0.3874
c 0.6826
d 0.8302
e 0.2391
13 A
14 B
15 E
16 E
17 A
18 A
19 E
20 0.8676
21 a 0.6006
b 0.0548
c
d
a
a
a
b
a
b
m = 1.75
A = 16
2 a
3
2
13
14
15

1
dilation factor of 3 from the x-axis, dilation
factor of 3 from the y-axis
a 68%
b 95%
c 99.7%
a 16.5 X 22.7
b 13.4 X 25.8
c 10.3 X 28.9
d 22.7
e 25.8
f 28.9
a 2
b 0.5
3
c 0.51
a 0.28
b 0.28
a 0.37
b 0.40
a m=2
b m = 1.5
615
MULtIpLe ChOICe
1
5
9
13
17
A
C
E
D
C
2
6
10
14
18
D
A
D
C
C
3
7
11
15
19
C
B
A
A
C
4C
8D
12 E
16 D
eXteNDeD reSpONSe
1 a i 0.4066
b 0.8946
616
ii 0.1653
iii 0.0672
c
d
2 a
b
c
d
3 a
b
c
d
6:26 pm
$1.06
1.82 cm
5%
5%
0.9474
163.2 seconds
0.0096
0.7357
137.5 seconds
4 a
b
c
5 a
b
c
6 a
b
c
0.0062
0.8413
0.1535
2.34 cm
0.1963
26.77 cm
0.0625
3.4
3 hours, 31 minutes

1 Student scores in an exam are standardised so that the mean is 30 and the standard deviation is 7.
Students are awarded a C if their standardised score lies between 30 and 37. Assuming that the student
results are normally distributed, estimate to the nearest 5% the percentage of students who would
receive a C.
1 mark
1
1
2 Two events A and B from a given event space have probabilities Pr(A) = and Pr(B) = .
6
4
1
a Calculate Pr(A B ) if Pr(A B) = .
10
1
b Calculate Pr(A | B ) if Pr(A B) = .
10
c Calculate Pr(A B ) if A and B are mutually exclusive events.
d Calculate Pr(A B ) if A and B are independent events.
4 marks
3 The probability of Karen Gouch shooting a basket from the free throw line is 0.8, given her team is
winning the game, and 0.6, given her team is losing. The team wins 7 out of 10 games.
a What is Karen Gouchs overall percentage of baskets from the free throw line?
b If Karen throws a basket from the free throw line, what is the probability that her team is winning?
S hO rt
a N S W er
2 marks
4 Claude has a coffee shop. He sells coffee and biscotti. He realises that if a person buys a coffee on a
particular day, there is a 75% probability that the person will return and buy coffee the next day and a 20%
probability that they will buy biscotti the next day. In addition, if a person buys biscotti one day, there is a
60% probability that they will purchase biscotti the next day and a 40% probability that they will buy coffee
the next day. On Monday, 90% of Claudes patrons bought coffee and 40% bought biscotti.
a Determine a transition matrix, T, that models this situation.
b Determine the initial state matrix, S.
c What is the probability that a patron will purchase a coffee on Tuesday?
d Write down a matrix expression that could be used to calculate the probability that a patron will
purchase a coffee on Friday.
4 marks
1 One normally distributed variable has a variance of 4. Another has a variance of 0.25. Which of the
graphs below would best represent these variables?

a
10 minutes
B
0
10
M U LtIp L e
C hO IC e
one mark.
10
10
10
10
2 Paddy Beam averages one ace in every 5 serves, but each serve is independent of any other. In one
particular game Paddy serves 7 times. What is the probability that 3 of the serves are aces?
1
a
5
C
7 3 3 4 4
3 7 7
7 1 3 4 4
B 3
5
5
D
7 5
3 1
12
4
5 7
3 1
12
4
Exam practice 4
617
3 A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
x
Pr(X = x)
0
0.1
1
0.1
2
0.4
The standard deviation of X correct to 2 decimal places is:

a 0.80
B 1.04
D 1.16
e 1.35
3
0.3
4
0.1
C 1.08
ax 2 3 if x [ 1,3]
0,elsewhere
4 If a random variable X has a probability density function f ( x ) =
then a is:
a 1.29
D
1
8
39
28
18
26
1
10
5 A random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 12 and standard deviation 0.25. If the random
variable Z has the standard normal distribution, then the probability that X is less than 12.5 is equal to:
a Pr(Z > 2)
B 1 Pr(Z < 2)
C Pr(Z > 2)
D 1 Pr(Z > 2)
e Pr(Z < 2)
e X teNDeD
r e S p ONS e
The graph of the probability density function for the standard normal distribution (mean = 0, variance = 1)
is plotted below.
y
x
1
e 2
It has the rule f: R R, where f ( x ) =
.
0.5
2
a Evaluate:
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5 x
i f (2)
0.5
ii f (1)
to an accuracy of 3 decimal places.
1 + 1 = 2 marks
b Plot and label the corresponding coordinates on the graph above.
1 mark
c Exact integration of f is not possible. However, it is possible to obtain an approximate value by
using a rectangular approximation. By using four intervals of equal width, determine a rectangular
approximation to the area bound by the graph of f, the y-axis, the x-axis and the line x = 1.
2 marks
d The area under a probability density function represents the probability. Use your answer to part c to
determine an approximate value for the probability that a value of x lies within 1 standard deviation
from the mean (that is, that x lies in the interval [1, 1]).
1 mark
e Use your CAS calculator to determine an approximation for the area defined in part c to an accuracy
of 3 decimal places.
1 mark
2
x2 x3 x4
+
+
2
6 24
Use this approximation to show that f (x) can be approximated by g(x) where
The infinite series approximation to ex is e x 1 + x +
g( x )
DIGItaL DOC
doc-1611
Solutions
exam practice 4
618
1
2
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
1 2 + 8 48 + 384 .
3 marks
g Sketch the graph of g for 2 x 2 onto the graph of f provided at the start of this question.
h Determine an approximation for
f ( x ) dx by using calculus to evaluate g( x ) dx.
2 marks
2 marks
Answers EXAM PRACTICE 14

3 a f (x) = e x 2 + 3
EXAM PRACTICE 1
SHORT ANSWER
y
1
f+g
horizontally, translation of
b y=
2 x
3 a The coordinates of P are
1
b ( 2 + 3, 4)
e
1
4 a Dilation of vertically and
2
1

sin 2 x +
2
3
( , ) and (
3 3
2 2
1
2
left
3
4 a=
b x=2
= 8 + 14 6 = 0 so x (2) is a factor.
Hence x + 2 is a factor.
b Q(x) = x2 2x 3
1
5 c< 4
y
2
1
0.8 0.4 0
1
y=x
f(x) = x sin (x)
y = sin (x)
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
2.4 2.8
1
2
3
4
5
b V = r 2 h = 250 h =
so S = 2 r 2 +
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1 E
4 B
7 E
2 C
5 D
3 C
6 B
EXTENDED RESPONSE
1B
4B
2C
5D
3 E
6 C
EXTENDED RESPONSE
b 2:11 pm (2.19 hours)

c 3:41 pm (3.69 hours)
d Predicts indefinite increase in speed,
g
h
predicts negative speed before 1 pm

i v(t) = 16 (t 5)2 + 256
using this model; v(3) = 192, close
to 200
ii v(13) = 768, not 0, so model is
inadequate
i v(t) = 8(t 1)(t 13)
ii v(3) = 160, not 200, so model is
inadequate
v(t) = t3 27t2 + 195t 169
i x = 250
625 000
( x 250)
+ 1020
SHORT ANSWER
1 x=42
2 x=
f (x)
Area
3.7
3.7
2.7
2.7
1.5
1.5
0.7
0.7
0.3
dy
= ( x + 1)e x + e x = xe x
dx
c 20e 1(3e 4 1)
ex
4
2 a y dx = x 2 sin ( x ) +
2
2x x
b y dx =
+ 3loge | x |
3
500 r
500
= 2 r 2 +
r2
r
y = 2r2 + 500
r
y = 2 r2
y = 500
r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 r
125
f i r 3.414 cm
ii Define g(x) = the gradient function
on a CAS calculator and determine
sign of gradient close to 3.414 (for
example, use r = 3.4 and r = 3.5).
The gradient sequence in the vicinity
of r = 3.414 is negativezeropositive,
which corresponds to a local minimum.
iii 220 cm2
g r 2.710 cm
h 1.47
er=3
EXAM PRACTICE 3
250
,
r2
d r 3.4
P ( x )Q( x )
.
500
Total
EXAM PRACTICE 2
SHORT ANSWER
, c = 2, d = 300
6
h Consider the graph of
1 a
y
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
f 473
g A = 500, k = 0.005 018
1 875 000
ii v ( x ) =
( x 250)2
iii P ( x ) =
200 birds
12 months
300 birds
7 months
e a = 200, b =
1 a v = 100t 100
1 a
b
c
d
A
E
B
B
C
a S = 2r2 + 2rh
b 0
c 1.8
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1
3
EXTENDED RESPONSE
MULTIPLE CHOICE
8 a
4 a Let P(x) = x3 7x 6. P(2)
dx
= 0.12 x
5
dt
6 a y = 4(x 1)
9 3
5
,
or
12 4
12 12
6 [3, )
7 x = loge (2)
3 a Minimum value of 1
).
b 2
5 x=
3or x 3
3 3
,
2 2
EXAM PRACTICE 4
SHORT ANSWER
1 34%
8.6
2 a
1
15
4
45
1
6
1
8
3 a 74%
28
b 37
ANSWERS Exam practice 14
619
Initialproportionof coffee purchasers 0.9

b S=
=
Initialproportionof biscotti purchasers 0.4

c 0.835
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.30
0.60
2 B
5 D or A
1.5 1 0.5
(1, 0.242)
0.5
1.5
2.5 x
0.5
rectangular)
3 C
EXTENDED RESPONSE
a i f (2) = 0.054
ii f (1) = 0.242
620
2.5 2
e 0.683
g
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1 E
4 B
0.5
(2, 0.054)
c 0.3416
d Pr(1 < X < 1) 0.7194 (left rectangular) 0.6410 (right
d 0.75
y
1
0.75 0.4
0.30 0.60
4 a T=
y
1
(0, 0.3989)
(1, 0.2421)
(2, 0.1330)
2.5 2
0.5
1.5 1 0.5
0.5
h 0.6827
(1, 0.2421)
0.5
1.5
(2, 0.1330)
2
2.5 x

1 Given the function f :
of f is:
( a, a R, f (x) = a 2 x , where a R+ , then the domain of the inverse function
A a, 3a
1 1
,
a 3a
( a, 3a)
( a, 3a
1 1
,
3a a
1
, where a is a real positive number, is given by:
2 The maximal domain of the function f (x) =
a x2
D
M U LTIP L E
C HO IC E
Each question is worth
one mark.
x < a
x > a
x a
E R \ { a}
x a
( , a R, f (x) = x a and g: a, ) R, g (x) = x + a , where a R+ ,

then the function h = f + g is defined by:
3 Consider the functions f :
( )
h: ( a, a) R, h (x) = 2 x
B h: a, a R, h (x) = 2a
A h: a, a R, h (x) = 2a
C
D h: R R, h (x) = 2 x
E h : a, a R, h (x) = 2 x
1
, which of the following is true?
x
A f (x) + f 1 (x) = x for x R \ {0}
4 If the function f (x) =
( f (x)) =
C f f
E
(x)) = x for x R \ {0}

x for x R
f (f
(x)) = x for x R
D f 1 ( f (x)) = x for x R
A y = 1 and x = a
ax a 2 + a
has asymptotes with the equations:
xa
B y = a and x = a
C y = 1 and x = a
D y = a and x = a
E y = 1 and x = a
5 If a R \ {0}, then the graph of y =
6 If f (x) = loge (x) and g (x) = x 2 ax , where a R + , then the maximal domain of the function f (g (x)) is:
A
( ,0] [a, )
a
D ,
B
E
( ,0) (a, )
( ,0) (ea , )
(0, a)
7 If f (x) = sin (x) and g (x) = cos (x) then which of the following is not true?
A f (x) + g (x) =
2 sin x +
B g (x) f (x) =
f (x)
= tan (x)
g (x)
x = g (x)
E f
2
2 cos x +
( ) ( )
D f x2 + g x2 = 1
1
and a R \ {0, 1}, which of the following is not true?
1+ x
1
1
f (a)
1
A f = af (a)
B f (a) +
C
=0
=
a
1
1+ a
f af (a)
a
1
a
1
D f ( f (a)) = a
E f 1 (a) f (a) =
1+ a
1
9 If a R \ {1,0}, the solution of the equation a 2 x a 2 + a x + a = 0 is:
a
A x = 1 only
B x = 2 only
C x = 2 and x = 1
D x = 2 and x = 1
E There is no solution for x.
8 If f : R \ { 1} R, f (x) =
621
10 Consider the function f : R \ {a} R, f (x) =
which of the following is false?
b
+ a , where a and b are non-zero, real constants,
xa
b
+a
xa
1
B Domain of f = range of f
1
C f ( f (x)) = x for x R \ {a}
D The graph of y = f (x) has x = a as a vertical asymptote.
1
E The graph of y = f 1 (x) has y = as a horizontal asymptote.

a
11 The graph of y = a a x , where a is a positive real number, is reflected in the x-axis and then
reflected in the y-axis, the resulting graph has the equation:
A y = a a+x
B y = a + a+x
C y = a+x a
A f 1 : R \ {a} R, f 1 (x) =
D y=
E y=
ax a
(x + a) a
12 Consider the function f (x) =
a x + a , where a is a positive real number, which of the following is

not true?
A The graph passes through the origin.
B The range is a, .
C The maximal domain is a, .
1
for x > a .
D The gradient function is f (x) =
2 x+a
E The graph of the function has no turning points.
13 The transformation T : R 2 R 2 , that maps the curve with equation y =
5
y = 3 4
x , could have the rule:
2
x 1 0 x 2.5
T
A
y = 0 4 y + 3

x
0
2
C T =
y 0
E T =
y

0.25
x 5
+
y 3
0
2
1
0
B T =
y
0
0.25
D T =
y 0
x 1.25
y + 3

x to the curve with equation
0
0.5
0
3
14 Under the transformation T : R 2 R 2 , of the plane defined by T =

y

image of the line with the equation 3 x + 4 y = 1 is:
A y 2x + 1 = 0
B 8y 4x = 1
C 8x 4 y = 1
D 2x y + 1 = 0
E 12 y + 8 x = 5
x 2.5
y + 1.5

x 5
+
y 1.5
x 0.5
y + 1 the

15 A curve is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis, then translated
3 units up and parallel to the y-axis, and finally translated 4 units to the left parallel to the x-axis.
The transformation T : R 2 R 2 , that describes this mapping could have the rule:
x
A T =
y
0
C T =
y
0
B T =
y
0
0 x 4
y +
3
D T = 2
y
0
0.5
E T =
y

622
0 x 4
+
2 y 3

0 x 1.5
+
1 y 4
0.5
x 4
y + 1.5

0 x 3
+
1 y 4
16 A curve y = f (x) is transformed into the curve y = 5 4 f 3
describes this mapping could have the rule:

x 2
0 x 6
A T =
+
y 0 0.25 y 1.25
x
0 2 x 5
+
0 y 6
0.5
0
0 x 3
+
4 y 5
B a, a
18 Given the function f (x) = ae
0.5
0
D T =
y
17 The range of the function with the rule f : 0,
integer is:
A R
B T =
y 0
C T =
y
4
E T =
y
x
. The transformation T : R 2 R 2, that
2
0 x 6
+
4 y 5
0
0.25
x 3
+
y 1.25
R, f (x) = a sin (2a (x + )) where a is a positive

2a
C 0, a
D a, 0
( a, a)
+ b, where a > 0 and b > 0 , the rule for the inverse f 1 is given by:
b x
x b
x b
A f 1 (x) = loge
B f 1 (x) = loge
C f 1 (x) = loge
a
a
a
1
D f 1 (x) = a loge ( x) + b
E f 1 (x) =
x
ae + b
x , where a, is a non-zero real constant, and n is an integer, has
19 The graph of the function y = tan
2a
vertical asymptotes at:
A x = 2na
B x = (2n + 1) a
C x = na
a
a
D x = (2n + 1)
E x = (2n + 1)
4
2
20 b
1
3
logb (x)
1
A
3x
, where b R \ {0, 1} and x > 0 is equal to:
1
1
B 3
C
x
3x
1
3
x
21 If a > 0 and k > 0 , then the graph shown at right could have the equation:
(
)
kx
y = a (1 e )
y = a (e kx 1)
y = a (e kx 1)
kx
A y = a 1 e
B
C
D
3
y
a
E y = ae kx
22 If sin (x) =
and x , then tan (x) is equal to:

2
7
3 10
3
E
20
4
2 x
23 A trigonometric function is given by f : R R such that f (x) = a 1 sin
, where a is a
a
non-zero real constant. The amplitude and period of f are respectively:

2
2
A 1, a
B 1,
C a, a
D a,
E a, a
a
a
A
10
7
2 10
7
3 10
20
24 A trigonometric function is given by f : R R such that f (x) = c a cos (nx), where a and c are real
constants. If f (x) 0 for x R, then:

A a+c 0
B a+c 0
D ac
E a=c
C ac
623
25 The general solution of cos (2 x) = cos (x), where n is an integer, is given by:
2
2n
C x=
only
(3n 1) only
3
3
E there is no general solution for this equation
A x = 2n only
D x=
B x=
n
only
3
26 Consider the graph of the function y = a + b loge (cx + d), where a, b, c and d are all non-zero real
constants. Several students have made some statements about the graph.
1 a

Amanda states that the graph will always cross the x-axis at e b d , 0 , it crosses the y-axis at

c
if d < 0 .
(0, a + b loge (d)) if d > 0 and it does not cross the y-axis
d
Breeana states that the maximal domain is x R \ { } and that the range is R \ {a}.
c
d
is a vertical asymptote and the line y = a is a horizontal asymptote.
Colin states that the line x =
c
Then:
A only Amanda is correct
B only Breeana is correct
C only Colin is correct
D only Breeana and Colin are correct
E Amanda, Breeana and Colin are all correct
27 Consider the functions f : R + R, f (x) = cos (x) and g: R + R, g (x) = e x 1. The number of
solutions of the equation f (x) = g (x) is equal to:

A 0
B 1
C 2
D 4
E infinitely many
a
28 The number of solutions of the equation cos (nx) = , where b > a > 0 and n is a positive integer, over
b
0, 2 is:
A 0
B 2n
C 4n
D 6n
E infinitely many
2
29 The function f : D R with the rule f (x) = x 2 + ax + 6a 2 where a is a positive constant, will have an
inverse function provided:

A D=R
B D = (2a, )
C D = (0, )
D D = 2a,
E D = ,3a
30 The function f : D R with the rule f (x) = x 3 + 3ax 2 a 2 x 3a 3, where a > 0, will have an inverse
function provided:
a
2 3 3
A D = ,
B D=
(2
3
D D = 0,
C D = ,
2 3 + 3
3 3 , 0
E D = , 0
31 If a is a non-zero real constant, which of the following is not a one-one function?

A f : R \ {a} R, f (x) =
1
xa
x
C f : 0, a R, f (x) = a cos
a
E
a
x
R, f (x) = a tan
2 2
a
a , a R, f (x) = a sin x
D f:
2 2
a
B
f:
f : a, a R, f (x) = a 2 x 2
32 Consider the parabola y = x 2 + 2bx + c 2 and the straight line y = 2cx + b 2 , where a and b are real
constants. Which of the following is not true?

A If b = c the line is a tangent to the parabola.
B If b = 0 and c 0 the line is a tangent to the parabola.
C If 0 < c < b the line intersects the parabola at two distinct points.
D If b > c the line and the parabola do not intersect.
E If 0 < b < c the line and the parabola do not intersect.
33 The simultaneous linear equations 2 kx 5 y = 10 and 8 x + 5ky = k + 1 have a unique solution for:
624
A k R \ {2}
B k R \ {2}
D k=2
E k = 2
C k R \ { 2}
34 The simultaneous linear equations (k + 2) x 3 y = 4 and

A k R \ {3,
5}
10 x
B k R \ {3}
+ 2 ky = 3k 1 have no solution for:

C k R \ { 5}
E k = 5
D k=3
35 The simultaneous linear equations 2 kx 3 y = k + 3 and 8 x 3ky = 10 have infinitely many solutions for:
A k R \ {2}
C k R \ { 2}
B k R \ {2}
D k=2
E k= 2
36 Consider the system of linear equations,
(k + 1) x + 3 y 4 z = 5
x + (k + 2) y 2 z = 1
x
+ 3 y + 2 z = 1
When considering the solution set, some students stated that:
i There is a unique solution when k R \ {1, 5}.
ii There is no unique solution when k R \ {1, 5}.
iii There is an infinite number of solutions when k = 5 and no solution when k = 1 .
iv There is an infinite number of solutions when k = 1 and no solution when k = 5 .
v y = 0 for k R \ {1, 5}
Then it is true that:
A only i iv and v are correct
B only i iii and v are correct
C only ii iv and v are correct
D only ii iii and iv are correct
E only ii iii are correct.
37 Which of the following is not a continuous function?
2
2 x 1 x 1
x >1
1
A f (x) =
1
x 1
D f (x) = 2 x 1
1
x >1
2 x 1 x 1
f (x) =
x >1
1
x
x 1
sin
f (x) = 2
1
x >1
log3 (2 x + 1) x 1
x >1
1
C f (x) =
38 Consider the function f (x) = (x a) , defined on its maximal domain, where a is a real number. Which
n
of the following is not true?

A If n = 2 the function is not continuous and not differentiable at x = a .
B If n = 1 the function is not continuous at x = a .
C If n =
D If n =
1
2
3
2
the function is not differentiable at x = a .

the function is continuous and differentiable at x = a.
E If n = 3 the function is continuous and differentiable everywhere.
39 If a is a positive real number, then which of the following is not true about the function
f : R R, f (x) = a x a ?
The range is ( , a .
The graph crosses the x-axis at x = 2a .
The function is continuous at x = a .
The function is differentiable at x = a .
f (0) = 0 .
1
40 The derivative of
with respect to x is:
loge (g (3 x))
A
B
C
D
E
3g
(3 x)
g (3 x) (loge (g (3 x)))
g (3 x)
3g (3 x) (loge (g (3 x)))
(3 x)
3g (3 x) (loge (g (3 x)))
g
(3 x)
g (3 x) (loge (g (3 x)))
3g (3 x)
g (3 x) (loge (g (3 x)))
625
41 The average value of the function with the rule f (x) = x 2 sin
A 3
D
B 6
1
24 13 3
6
x over 1 x 5 is:
6
C 9
3
24 + (13 2 72) 3
2 3
42 The average rate of change of the function with the rule f (x) = x sin
2
6
4
D
8 2 (4 )
3 2
A
2
6
x over 2 x 8 is:
8
2
C
8
E 1
43 The average rate of change of the function with the rule f (x) = x 2 cos
1
x over 1 x 5
is:
6
3
C
2
+3 3
2
13 3
18
D
E
3 3
2
4
x over 2 x 8
44 The average value of the function with the rule f (x) = x cos
is:
8
2 +8
1
2 ( 4) 8
A 1
B
C
6
48
4
4
D
E
4 2 + 4 + 8 4 2
2 ( + 4) + 8
2
3 2
3
1
45 By considering the point (9, 13) on the graph of f (x) =
and using a linear approximation method, an
x
1
estimate for
is closest to:
8.9
A 0.33 148
B 0.33 500
C 0.33 519
D 0.33 520
E 0.33 704
A 0
((
46 Using a linear approximation method, an estimate for tan (59) is:
B
3+
90
90
D 3+
E
3
45
60
g (x)
47 If f (x) = 3 , g (2) = 3 and g (2) = 6, then f (2) is equal to:
x
3
C 43
B 9
A 21
16
45
3
16
D 1
D 24
E 12
48 If f (x) = x 3 g (x) , g (2) = 3 and g (2) = 6, then f (2) is equal to:

A 84
B 72
C 36
49 The line y + 4 x 13 = 0 is normal to the curve y =

A 4
B 0
( )
x + d. The value of d is equal to:

D 3
E
50 The normal to the curve y = loge 3 x 2 at the point where x = 2, is parallel to the straight line with the
equation:
A x+y=2
D 3x + y = 4
B xy=4
C 3x y = 4
E 3y + x = 4
51 The interval [0,3] is divided into n equal subintervals by the points x 0 , x1 ,.... x n 1, x n , where
n
x 0 = 0 < x1 < x 2 < ......... < x n 1 < x n = 3. Let x = xi xi 1 for i = 1,2... n . Then lim x e x x is
x0
i =1
equal to:
3
1
3
1
3
A 2 (e 2e )
B 3 (1 4e )
C 1 4e
1
D 3 1 e 3
626
E 1 e 3
52 The speed v, in metres per second, of an object moving in a straight line is given by a function of time,
t
6 cos
2
t in seconds, where v (t) =
for t 0.
t+2
Which of the following is true?
A Over the time interval 0 t 3 the object has travelled a distance of 5.5 metres and its initial
velocity is 6 m/s.
B Over the time interval 0 t 3 the object has travelled a distance of 4.04 metres and its initial
3
acceleration is
m/s 2 .
2
C Over the time interval 0 t 3 the object has travelled a distance of 5.5metres and its initial
velocity is 3 m/s.
D Over the time interval 0 t 3 the object has travelled a distance of 4.04metres and its initial
velocity is 6 m/s.
E Over the time interval 0 t 3 the object has travelled a distance of 5.5metres and first comes to
rest when t = seconds.
53 A function f with domain R has the following properties: f (x) = 2 xe
2 x
passes through the point (0,2). Then:
A f (x) = (2 4 x) e 2 x
B f (x) = (2 x) e 2 x
such that the graph of f (x)
C f (x) = (2 + x) e 2 x
1
1
E f (x) = ((2 x + 1) e 2 x 5)
(2 x + 1) e2 x
2
2
54 Part of the graph of y = loge (x + 1) and the line y = loge (2) are shown above. Which of the following is
not a measure of the shaded area?
D f (x) =
A loge (2) loge (x + 1) dx

0
2 dx
B loge
x + 1
(loge (2) loge (x + 1)) dx
0
loge (2)
(e x 1) dx
loge (2)
(e x 1) dx
55 Part of the graph of y = x 2 ax and the line y = ax, where a is a positive real constant, are shown
above. To find the shaded area, four students propose the following calculations.
2a
(2ax x 2) dx
ii a 3
iii a 3 +
(x 2 ax) dx
(x 2 ax) dx
iv 2a 3
2a
(x 2 ax) dx + (ax x 2) dx
Which of the following is correct?

A i only
B ii only
D i ii and iv only
E ii iii and iv only
4
56 If
A
f (x) dx = 6 then
1
12
D 3
(3 f (x) 2 x) dx is equal to:

4
B 3
a3
C i and iv only
C 3
57 The area bounded by the graph of y =

A 13
2 1 a3
E 18 + 2x
D 12
a x + a the x-axis and the lines x = a is given by:
(5 4 2)
2
3 (4 2 5)
1
3
a3
2
C 3 3 2 2
a3
a3
627
58 A certain curve has a gradient given by e
2 x
through the origin is given by:
A y = 1 e 2 x cos (3 x)
D y = 13 1 e
2 x
(2 cos (3x) + 3sin (3x)). The particular curve which passes
cos (3 x))
E y = 13 e
2 x
cos (3 x) 1)
59 Consider two events, with Pr ( A) = 13 , Pr (B) = 14 and Pr ( A B) =

39
A 60
21
C 60
37
B 60
1 2 x
cos (3 x) 1
C y= 2 e
B y = e 2 x cos (3 x) 1
23
60 , then
D 45
Pr(A B) is equal to:

11
E 12
60 Consider two independent events, A and B, with Pr ( A) = a and Pr (B) = b , then Pr(A B) is equal to:
A 1 a + ab
B 1 b + ab
C 1 ab
D 1 a b + ab
E b ab
61 Consider two mutually exclusive events, A and B, with Pr ( A) = a and Pr (B) = b, then Pr(A B) is
equal to:
A 1 (a + b)
B 1 + ab (a + b)
C 1 ab
D 0
E 1
62 Every night at dinner Michael either has a glass of red wine or a glass of white wine. If he has a glass of
white wine on one particular night, the probability he has white wine on the next night is 0.4. If he has
a red wine one night, the probability he has a red wine the next night is 0.7. The long-term probability
that Michael has a glass of white wine is:
A 13
4
B 11
7
D 11
3
C 11
8
E 11
63 Consider the probability distribution, where k is a real number.
Pr (X = x)
3cos 2 (k)
cos 2 (k)
Then k is equal to:
5
A
B
only
only
3
3
2
D 2n or 2n
where n Z
3
3
E 2n
where n Z
3
64 Consider the probability distribution, where k is a real number.
x
1
2
2
k 1
Pr (X = x)
2 4 5
,
,
,
3 3
3
3
5
k +1
3
2k
Then k is equal to:

8.23 502 or 0.57 937 or 0.31 439
8.23 502 or 0.57 937
8.23 502 or 0.31 439
0.57 937 only
8.23 502 only
A
B
C
D
E
65 Consider the probability distribution, X.
Pr (X = x)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.20
0.35
Then the median of X is equal to:

A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
66 The amount of mustard in a jar is normally distributed, with a mean of 200 grams and a variance of 9.
An approximate 95% confidence interval for the amount of mustard in jars in grams, is equal to:
A 182 to 218
B 191 to 209
C 194 to 206
D 197 to 203
E 199 to 201
628
67 Consider the probability distribution, X.
Pr (X = x)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.20
0.35
Then the mode of X is equal to:

B 2
A 1 and 4
C 3
D 4
E 5
68 Consider the probability distribution, X, where X represents the number of students in a particular class.
x
Pr (X = x)
17
19
21
23
25
0.2
0.15
0.3
0.25
0.1
Then the probability that there are at least 23 students in the class, if it is known that there were at
least 21, is equal to:
A 2
13
B 7
7
13
5
6
7
8
69 Given the probability distribution defined by Pr (X = x) = cx 2 (5 x) for x = 1,2,3,4. Then:
1
1 25
and E =
50
X 73
4
1 2
D c=
and E =
X 5
165
A c=
1
1 73
and E =
50
X 20
4
1 2
E c=
and E =
X 5
165
C c=
B c=
1
1 2
and E =
50
X 5
cx 2 (5 x) for 1 x 4
.
elsewhere
0
70 Consider the continuous probability distribution defined by f (x) =
Then:
4
1
761
and E =
X 275
165
12
1 1
D c=
and E =
X 3
625
4
4
1 2
1
275
C c=
and E =
and E =
X 5
X 761
165
165
1
1 25
E c=
and E =
X 73
50
k a x a for 0 x 2a
71 Given the continuous probability distribution defined by f (x) =
0
elsewhere
where a is positive constant, then which of the

following is true?
3a 1
1
1
1
a
A k = 2 and Pr (0 < X < a) =
B k = 2 and Pr < X <
=
2
2 2
a
a
2
1
1
1
C k = and Pr (0 < X < a) =
D k = and the mode is x = a .
a
a
2
1
E k = and the median is x = a .
k
a
n for 0 x a
72 Consider the continuous probability distribution defined by f (x) = (x + a)
0
Which of the following is not true?
elsewhere
8a 2
A If n = 1 then k = log2 e
B If n = 2 then k = 2a
C If n = 3 then k =
3
24 a3
48a 4
D If n = 4 then k =
E If n = 5 then k =
7
11
x
k sin for 0 x a
73 Given the continuous probability distribution defined by f (x) =
,
a
0
where a is a positive real number, which of the
elsewhere
following is not true?

a
A The mode and the median are both equal to .
2
a 2 ( 2 4)
a
B E (X ) =
C E (X 2 ) =
2
2 2
3 2
a ( 4)
a2
D E (X 3) =
E Var (X ) =
( 2 8)
2
4 2
4
A c=
B c=
629
74 A discrete random variable has a binomial distribution. The expression
1 (0.5511 + 11 0.5510 0.45 + 55 0.559 0.452) represents the probability of:

A more than two successes in eleven trials each with a probability of success equal to 0.55
B more than two successes in eleven trials each with a probability of success equal to 0.45
C at least two successes in eleven trials each with a probability of success equal to 0.55
D at least two successes in eleven trials each with a probability of success equal to 0.45
E at least one success in eleven trials each with a probability of success equal to 0.45
5
75 A binomial distribution has X successes in n trials, with 12
as the probability of a success on any one
trial. If Pr (X = 4) = Pr (X = 5) , then n is equal to:
A 8
B 9
C 10
D 11
E 12
76 A binomial distribution has X successes in n trials, with p as the probability of a success on any one
trial. Which of the following is false?

Var (X )
n
= 1 p
A
B Pr (X 1) = 1 (1 p)
E (X )
D Pr (X n 1) = 1 pn
C Pr (X = n 1) = n (1 p)
n 1
E Pr (X = n) = pn
77 It is found that 37% of all telephone calls made from a certain landline are to mobile phones. On a
certain day, 10 calls are made from this landline. The probability that 3or 4 calls made are to mobiles is
closest to:
A 0.2339
B 0.2394
C 0.2461
D 0.4855
E 0.5145
78 If Z has the standard normal distribution with Pr (0 < Z < b) = B , where 0 < b < 3 and 0 < B < 1, then
Pr (Z > b) is equal to:

A B 0.5
D B1
B 0.5 B
C 0.5 + B
E 1B
79 The marks in a particular exam are normally distributed with a mean of 32 and a standard deviation
of 6. The continuous random variable Z has the standard normal distribution. Four students propose
the following suggestions for the probability that the marks are between 38 and 47.
Ashley proposes
1 (Pr (Z > 2.5) + Pr (Z < 1))
Ben proposes
Pr ( 2.5 < Z < 1)
Carla proposes
Pr (17 < X < 26)
Daniel proposes
Pr (1 < Z < 2.5)
From the statements above which of the following is correct.
A Only Ben and Daniel are correct.
B Only Ashley and Ben are correct.
C Only Carla is correct.
D Only Ben, Carla and Daniel are correct.
E All four are correct.
80 A manufacturing process produces bolts, such that, the lengths of the bolts are normally distributed
with a mean of 5 mm and a standard deviation of 0.1 mm. A certain component being built uses five of
these bolts. The probability that at least one of the bolts has a length of at least 5.02 mm is closest to:
A 0.9868
B 0.9348
C 0.4207
D 0.0841
E 0.0132
S H ORT
A N S WER
E X T ENDED
R E SPONS E
630
1 When the polynomial, f (x) = x 3 + bx 2 + cx + d , is divided by x + 2 the remainder is 30, when it is
divided by x 4 the remainder is 12. If x 3 is a factor of f (x), find the values of b, c and d.
2 The graph of the function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c is shown. The area bounded
by the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines, x = 2 and x = 4, is

82 units2. The area bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the
lines, x = 4 and x = 6, is 118units2. The area bounded by the graph of
y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines, x = 6 and x = 8, is 106 units2. Find the
values of a, b and c.
10
3 The function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c is such that f (x) 0 for x 1, 6 .
When the area bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and
the lines, x = 1 and x = 5, is approximated by four equally
spaced left rectangles, the area is 120 units2. When the area
bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines,
x = 1 and x = 5, is approximated by four equally spaced right
rectangles, the area is 104 units2. The exact area bounded by the
graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines, x = 1 and x = 5, is
113 13 units2. Find the values of a, b and c.
0 1
4 The diagram at right shows a leaf, on coordinates axes as shown. One corner
of the leaf passes through the origin and the other corner, passes through
the point (5,6
5, 6). The leaf is modelled by the upper curve, y = f (x), and the
lower curve, y = g (x).
Find the values of a, b c and d, and in each case determine the area of
the leaf using the mathematical models for y = f (x) and y = g (x) given
below.
a y = f (x) = a +
b
x+5
y = g (x) = ccx 2
b y = f (x) = a +
b
x+5
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
y = g (x) = ddx 3
4
1.
x+2
i State the equations of all asymptotes.
5 a Consider the function f (x) =
iii Find the coordinates of all axial intercepts.
ii State the domain and range of the function.

iv Sketch the graph of the function y =
4
1
x+2
4
1 the coordinate axes and x = 2.
x+2
a
+ k , crosses the x-axis at x = 1 and crosses the y-axis at y = 1. The area
b The graph of the y =
x+b
3
bounded by the graph, the coordinate axes and x = 2 is 6 loge (5) + 6 units2, find the values of a, b and k.
9
1 .
6 a Consider the function f (x) =
(x + 2)2
i State the equations of all asymptotes.
ii State the domain and range of the function.
9
iii Find the coordinates of all axial intercepts. iv Sketch the graph of the function y =
1.
(x + 2)2
9
v Find the area bounded by the graph of y =
1 the coordinate axes and x = 1.
x + 2)2
(
a
b The graph of the function y =
+ k , crosses the x-axis at x = 1 and crosses the y-axis at y = 6.
x
+
( b)2
The area bounded by the graph, the coordinate axes and x = 1 is 2 units2, find the values of a, b and k.
7 a Consider the graph of the function f (x) = 3 x + 1.

i State the domain and range of the function.
ii Find the coordinates of all axial intercepts.
iii Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 x + 1.
iv Find the area bounded by the graph of y = 3 x + 1 and the coordinate axes.
b The graph of the function f (x) = a x + b + c , crosses the x-axis at x = 5 and crosses the y-axis at
y = 2. If the maximal domain of the function is 4, ) , find the values of a, b and c.

8 Consider the function f : R R, f ( x ) = x 3 6 x 2 + ccxx + 19.
i Find the values of c, such that the graph of the function, f, has no stationary points.
ii Find the values of c, such that the graph of the function, f, has two stationary points.
iii Find the values of c, for which there is exactly one stationary point.
For this value of c, state the coordinates of all axial intercepts and the stationary point.
iv For the values of c, for which the function has exactly one stationary point, find f 1 (x) and
determine the coordinates of the points of intersection of the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f 1 (x).
631
9 Consider the function f : R R, f (x) = x 3 6 x 2 15 x + k .

i Find in terms of k, the coordinates of the stationary points.
ii Find a range of values of k, such that the graph of y = f (x) crosses the x-axis at three distinct
points.
10 Consider the function f : R R , f (x) = x (x a) .

2
Find in terms of a, the:

i coordinates of all turning points
ii ratio of area A and area B, where area A is the area enclosed between the graph of y = f (x), the
x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = a, and area B is the area of the rectangle bounded by the x-axis, the
lines x = 0 and x = a, and the maximum turning point
a
iii equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where x = and show that this tangent intersects
2
the curve again at x = a
iv area between the tangent and curve.
11 Consider the function f : R R , f (x) = x 3 a 2 x, where a > 0.
Find in terms of a, the:

i coordinates of all turning points
ii area enclosed between the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = a
iii equation of the tangent to the curve at the point of inflexion.
12 Consider the function f : R R , f (x) = (x a) (x b) where a > b > 0.

2
Find in terms of a and b, the:

i coordinates of all stationary points
ii area enclosed between the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and
and x = b
iii equation of the tangent to the curve at the point of inflexion and hence, show that this tangent
does not intersect the graph of the function again
a+b
iv equation of the tangent T to the curve at the point where x =
and hence, show that this
2
tangent intersects the graph of the function again at x = a
v the area between this tangent T and the curve.
13 For the curve y = x 3 + 16, find the equation of the tangent to the curve, which passes through the origin.
Hence, find values of k, for which the equation x 3 + 16 = kx has:

i no real solution
ii exactly one real solution
iii exactly two real solutions
iv exactly three real solutions.
axx 3 + bx
bx 2 + cx
cx + d crosses the x-axis at x = 1 and has a stationary point at
14 a The graph of y = f (x) = a
3, 64). If f (x) 0 ffor

or x 0, 3 and the area bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the coordinates axes
(3,64
3
and x = 3, is 171 4 units 2, find the values of a, b, c and d.

b The line y = 6 x + 68 is a tangent to the graph of y = f (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d at the point
where x = 2. The graph of y = f (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d crosses the x-axis at x = 6 and
f (x) 0 for x [0,6]. The area bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the coordinates axes and the
line x = 6, is 324 units 2, find the values of a, b, c and d.
axx 4 + bx
bx 3 + ccxx 2 + ddxx + e crosses the y-axis at y = 32, crosses the x-axis at
15 The graph of y = f (x) = a
x = 1 and x = 4 , and has a stationary point at x = 2. If f (x) 0 forr x [00,2

,2] and the area bounded by
1
the graph of y = f (x), the x-axis and x = 2 is 27 5 units 2, find the values of a, b, c, d and e, and sketch
the graph of y = f (x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e.
16 a Consider the function f : R R f (x) = x 4 12

12 x 3 + 48 x 2 80
80 x + 48.
i Find the coordinates of all axial cuts.
ii Find the coordinates of all stationary points, and classify these points.
iii Hence, sketch the graph of y = x 4 12 x 3 + 48 x 2 80 x + 48
b Consider the function f : R R f (x) = (ax
ax 2)3 (x c) where a > 0.
0
i Find the coordinates of all axial cuts.
ii Find the coordinates of all stationary points and classify these points.
iii If ac = 2, describe the nature and number of stationary points.
632
17 A cardboard container is used to store wine bottles.
A cross-section of a container which holds three wine

A
C
bottles is shown at right, along with the x and y axes,
with dimensions shown in centimetres.
6
B
The edge of the cardboard can be modelled by
2
1
different functions f (x) = a cos (n x) + c for x [0,27].
x
a Find the values of a, n and c, and the total area of
9
the cross-section of cardboard required to make the
container.
b The designers of the cardboard prefer to model the cross-sectional area by hybrid functions of the form
a1 + b1 sin (n1 x) for x 0, 9
f (x) = a2 + b2 sin (n2 x) for x 9, 18
a3 + b3 sin (n3 x) for x 18, 27

Determine the values of a1 , b1 , n1, a2 , b2 , n2 and a3 , b3 , n3, and find the total area of the crosssection of cardboard required to make the container.
c The designers of the cardboard are also experimenting with new hybrid functions, of the form
shown below, to model the cross-sectional area of the container.
a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1 for x 0, 9
f (x) = a2 x 2 + b2 x + c2 for x 9, 18
2
a3 x + b3 x + c3 for x 18, 27
For the above model determine the values of a1 , b1 , c1, a2 , b2 , c2 and a3 , b3 , c3, and find the total area
of the cross-section of cardboard required to make the container.
y
18 An artist is designing a mural for a painting that is to be mounted in
1
a restaurant. The painting is two metres wide and one metre high. It
consists of a curve, and the area above and below the curve will be
0.75
coloured with two different colours.
0.5
The curve passes through the four points A (0,1) , B ( 12 , 14 ) , C ( 32 , 43 )
0.25
and D (2, 0) with turning points at B and C.
Design 1
0.25
0.5
1.5
The curve is modelled by the function

g: 0, 2 R, g (x) = ax 5 + bx 4 + cx 3 + dx 2 + ex + f .
Find the values of a, b, c, d, e and f, and show that the artist needs an equal amount of each colour.
Design 2
The curve consists of three hybrid curves, smoothly joined at B and C.

a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1
for 0 x 12
3
f (x) = a2 x + b2 x 2 + c2 x + d 2 for 12 x 32
2
3
for 2 x 2
a3 x + b3 x + c3
i Find the values of a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 , a3 , b3 and c3 .
ii Show that the artist still needs an equal amount of each colour for this design.
iii State four transformations that produce the graph of a3 x 2 + b3 x + c3 from the graph of a1x 2 + b1x + c1.
4
19 Consider the function f : , 12 R f (x) = 4

(2 x + 1)2
a Find the inverse function f 1.
b Find the coordinates of the point(s) of intersection between the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f 1 (x).
c
where
wh
wher
eree c > 0 .
20 Consider the function f : (0, ) R, f (x) =
x
c
Let P (a, f (a)) , where a > 0, be a point on the graph of y = x .
i Find in terms of a and c, the distance s from the origin O to the point P.
ii Find the value of a, for which the distance s is a minimum.
633
iii Find the minimum value of s.

c
iv Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = at the point where x = a.
a
v Find the value of a, for which the normal passes through the origin.
c
where c > 0 .
x2
c
Let P (a, f (a)) , where a > 0, be a point on the graph of y = 2 .
x
i Find in terms of a and c, the distance s from the origin O to the point P.
ii Find the value of a, for which the distance s is a minimum.
iii Find the minimum value of s.
c
a
iv Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 2 at the point where x = a.
x
v Find the value of a, for which the normal passes through the origin.
c
+ b where a > 0, b > 0 and c > 0 .
22 Consider the function f : (a, ) R, f (x) =
i State the equations of the asymptotes. x a
21 Consider the function f : (0, ) R, f (x) =
ii Let M be the coordinates of the point of intersection between the two asymptotes. Write down the
coordinates of the point M.

Let P (x , f (x)) , where x > a, be a point on the graph of y = f (x).
iii Find the distance s from point P to point M.
iv Find the value of x, for which the distance s is a minimum.
v Find the minimum value of s.
c
23 Consider the function f : (a, ) R, f (x) =
2 + b where a > 0, b > 0 and c > 0.
i State the equations of the asymptotes. (x a)
ii Let M be the coordinates of the point of intersection between the two asymptotes. Write down the
coordinates of the point M.
Let P (x , f (x)) , where x > a, be a point on the graph of y = f (x).
iii Find the distance s from point P to M.
iv Find the value of x, for which the distance s is a minimum.
v Find the minimum value of s.
24 A car is initially 10 km north of a point O, and is
travelling due south at 60 km/h.
A train is initially 20 km west of a point O, and is
travelling due east at 80 km/h.
10 km
a Find the distance, s = s (t), from the train to the
car at a time t hours.
O
b Find the rate of change of distance with respect
to time and evaluate this:
20 km
i initially
ii after 30 minutes.
c Find the time when the car and the train are
closest to each other.
d Find the closest distance between the car and
the train.
25 A car is initially d1 km north of a point O, and is travelling due south at v1 km/h.
A train is initially d 2 km west of a point O, and is travelling due east at v2 km/h.

a Find the distance s = s (t) from the train to the car at a time t hours.
b Find the time when the car and the train are closest to each other.
c Find the closest distance between the car and the train.
d
v
d Hence, show that if 1 = 1 the car and train collide.
d 2 v2
26 Two sides of a triangle have lengths 6 cm and 10 cm. If the angle between the two sides is increasing at
1/min when the angle is 60 find the rate at which the:
i area of the triangle is increasing
ii length of the other side is increasing, when the angle is 60.
634
27 Consider the function f : R R, f (x) =
x4
.
4x
i Find the gradient function f (x).

ii Find the rate of change of the gradient function.
iii Find the coordinates of the maximum and minimum turning points of the gradient function. Write
the answer in exact form and correct to 3 decimal places.

iv Find the coordinates of the points of inflexion. Write the answer in exact form and correct to
3 decimal places.
x4
2
.
, the x-axis and the lines, x = 0 and x =
4x
loge 2
x4
1
3
x
.
vi Find the average value of the function with the rule f (x) = x over
4
4
loge 2
loge 2
x
vii Sketch the graph y = x .
y
4
28 a The graph of y = e x sin (x) for x 0 is shown at right.

If P0(x0, y0), P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2) P3(x3, y3) . . . are the coordinates of
successive maximum and minimum points, find the ratios of
0
y2 n + 2
y
and 2 n + 3 for n = 0, 1 . . . and hence, show that these ratios
y2 n
y2 n +1
are constant.
sin ( px) where k > 0 and p > 0 If P0(x0, y0),

P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2) P3(x3, y3) . . . are the coordinates of successive maximum and minimum points,
y
y
find the ratios of 2 n + 2 and 2 n + 3 for n = 0,1 . . . and hence, show that these ratios are constant.
y2 n
y2 n +1
b Consider the function f : [0, ) R, f (x) = e
kx
29 a A rectangle has two vertices on the curve y = a2 x2, where a > 0,
and two vertices on the x-axis. Find the largest area of the
a2
rectangle and hence, find the ratio of area A to that of area B,
P(x, y)
where area A is the area of the rectangle and area B is the area
2
2
bounded by the graph of the curve y = a x and the x-axis.
x
a
a
b A rectangle has two vertices on the curve y = a4 x4, where
a > 0, and two vertices on the x-axis. Find the largest area of the
rectangle and hence find the ratio of the area of the rectangle to
that of the area bounded by the graph of y = a4 x4 and the x-axis.
30 a A rectangle is inscribed in a given circle and has four vertices on the circle. Show that the area of the
2
rectangle is a maximum when it is a square that has an area of area of the circle.
P(x, y)
x
x 2 y2
+
= 1,
a2 b2
and has four vertices on the ellipse. Show that the largest rectangle
a
b
by
that just fits inside the ellipse has the dimensions
and that
2
2
2
the ratio of the area of the rectangle to the ellipse has the value of .
b A rectangle is inscribed in an ellipse with the equation
y
P(x, y)
b
a
635
31 a A cylinder is inscribed in a given cone. Show that the largest cylinder

4
that will fit in the cone has a volume of 9 that of the cone.
b A cylinder is inscribed in a given sphere. Show that the volume of
the largest cylinder that will just fit in the sphere has a volume of
1
that of the sphere.
3
c A cone is inscribed in a given sphere. Show that the volume of the largest cone that will just fit in
the sphere has a volume of
8
27
that of the sphere.
32 Consider the following system of simultaneous equations.
(k + 1)a + 2b c + 2kd = 17
ka b + 2c 3d = 7
(k 1)a + b 2c + d = 5
a b c 5d = 14
a Find the values of k for which the equations have:
i a unique solution
ii no solution
iii an infinite number of solutions.
b Find the solutions when k = 1.
33 A particle moves so that at a time t seconds, where t 0, its velocity v m/s is given by v(t) = (4t3 2t4)e2t.
i Find the acceleration a(t) of the particle at a time t.
ii Initially the particle is at the origin O, find its displacement s(t) at time t.
iii If a(t) + 4v(t) + 4s(t) = kt2e2 t, find the value of k.
iv Explain why the velocity is negative for t > 2.
v Find the times when the velocity is at a maximum and a minimum, and determine the
maximum and minimum velocity.
vi Find the distance travelled by the particle over the first 2 seconds.
vii Find when the displacement of the particle is at a maximum.
viii Sketch the velocity-time and displacement-time graphs on the one set of axes.
34 a Two towns, A and B are 20 km and 30 km from
B
a long stretch of straight road, where d(AD) = 20 km,
A
d(BC) = 30 km and d(DC) = 120 km. In the near
future, a proposed pipe line is to be built from each
30
town to point P along the road, where d(DP) = x, as
20
shown in the diagram at right.
i Find an expression for the distance s = s(x) of the
x
pipeline along the path APB.
D
P
C
ii Find the value of x, for which this distance is a
120
minimum.
iii Find this minimum distance.
636
b A ray of light from a point A strikes a mirror at a
point P and is reflected back to a point B. From

A
the diagram at right it can be seen that d(AD) = a,
d(BC) = b, d(DC) = d and d(DP) = x,
where b > a > 0.
a
i Find an expression for the distance s = s(x)
travelled by the ray of light along the path
APB.
D
ii Find the value of x, for which this distance is a
minimum.
iii Find this minimum distance.
35 A band is performing on a stage, which is 8 metres wide. The sides
and cross-section of the stage is given by the points OABCD as
shown at right, where all distances are in metres. The points are
given by O (0, 0) A ( 1 , 3) B (4, 5) C (15 , 3) and D (8, 0).
2
2
2
a The curve OA is modelled by the function
x
P
y
3
2
A
B
1
1
D
, the curve ABC is
f1 (x) = a 1
x
2 for 0 x
0
2
6
4
8
2
(2 x + b)
1
15
and the curve
modelled by f2 (x) = px 2 + qx + r for x
2
2
CD is the reflection of the curve f(x) in the line x = 4. Find the values of a, b, p, q and r, and hence,
write down a hybrid function for the boundary of the stage OABCD.
b Find the cross-sectional area of the stage.
tan ( A) tan (B)

36 i Using the formula tan ( A B) =
show that tan = 2 3 .
12
1 + tan ( A) tan (B)
ii Hence, find an approximation AL to the area bounded the graph of y = tan(x), the x-axis and,
, using four equally spaced left rectangles.

3
iii Find an approximation AR to the area bounded the graph of y = tan(x), the x-axis and,
x = 0 and x = , using four equally spaced right rectangles.

3
iv Differentiate loge (cos x) with respect to x, and hence, use calculus to find the area A bounded by
the graph of y = tan (x), the x-axis and, x = 0 and x = .

3
v Find the percentage error by which the left rectangles AL under estimate the area and find the
percentage error by which the right rectangles AR over estimate the area bounded by the graph of
y = tan (x), the x-axis and, x = 0 and x = .

3
1
vi Consider now, the approximation AT = ( AL + AR ), find the percentage error in calculating AT
2
compared to the exact value of the area A.
y
37 The diagram at right shows a heart shape, on a set of coordinate axes.
D
B
The coordinates of the points shown are
a
3
a
a
3
a
2
O (0, 0) , A (a, a) , B , , C (0, a) , D
, and E ( a, a),
E
C
A
2 2
2 2
a
where a is a positive real constant. The curve joining the points
CBA is circular, and the curve EDC is the reflection of the curve
x
a
O
CBA in the y-axis. The curve EOA is parabolic.
i Write down in terms of a, functions which describe the curves,
EOA, CBA and EDC.
ii Write down in terms of a, a definite integral which gives the area of the heart.
iii Find in terms of a, the area of the heart.
x = 0 and x =
637
38 The picture at right shows a diagram of a human eye, on a set
of coordinate axes.
The centred shaded circular section is called the pupil, the
2a
coloured section around the pupil is called the iris, and the
B
a
a
A
C
white section is called the sclera. Although all eyes are different
2
x
sizes, the pupil can be modelled by a circle, with centre at the
a
D
origin and radius ; the outer part of the iris can be modelled
Sclera
2
Pupil
Iris
by a circle with centre at the origin and radius a, where a is a
positive real constant. The curve part ABC can be modelled by
a parabola, where the points are given by A(2a, 0), B(0, a) and C(2a, 0). The curved part ADC is the
reflection of ABC in the x-axis.
i Write down in terms of a, the equations that describe the inner and outer circular parts of the iris.
ii Write down in terms of a, functions that describe the arcs ADC and ABC.
iii Write down a definite integral in terms of a, which gives the area of the sclera.
iv Find in terms of a, the cross-sectional area of the sclera.
39 A biologist is observing two different strands of bacteria in a laboratory.
a The number of bacteria in the first strand can be modelled by a function of the form A(t) = A0ert,
where A0 and r are constants, and t is the time in hours.

dA
i Show using differential calculus that
+ rA = 0.
dt
ii If initially there are 800 bacteria present, and after one hour the number has fallen to
700 bacteria, find the values of A0 and r.
iii Sketch the graph of A versus t over the first 12 hours.
iv Over the time interval from 2 to 10 hours, find the average growth rate in the number of bacteria.
v Find the growth rate of the number of bacteria after 6 hours.
vi Over the time interval from 2 to 10 hours, find the average value of the number of bacteria.
b The number of bacteria in the second strand B can be modelled by a function of the form
c
B (t) =
where t is the time in hours and b, c and k are all non-zero, real constants.
1 + be kt
dB kB
=
(c B).
i Show using differential calculus that
dt
c
ii If initially there are 20 bacteria present, and after one hour 131 bacteria are present, then after
two hours the number has risen to 527, find the values of b, c and k.
iii As time increases, what is the limiting number of cells in this strand.
iv Sketch the graph of B versus t over the first 12 hours.
v Over the time interval from 2 to 10 hours, find the average growth rate in the number of bacteria.
vi Find the growth rate of the number of bacteria after 6 hours.
vii Over the time interval from 2 to 10 hours, find the average value of the number of bacteria.
c i Find the time when the number of bacteria in both strands are equal.
ii Find the time(s) when the growth rate of the number of bacteria in the second strand is equal to
the magnitude at which the growth rate of the first strand is decreasing.
638
40 a Consider the function g : R R, g(x) = e2x + e 2x.

i Find the coordinates of the stationary point on the graph of g(x).
ii Show that the function g(x) is an even function.
b Consider the function f : D R, g(x) = e2x + e 2x.

i Find the largest subset D of R, such that f defines a one-to-one increasing function.
x + x2 4
1
Show that the rule for the inverse function is given by f 1 (x) = loge
.
2
2
State the domain and range of y = f 1(x).
Hence, solve e2x + e 2x = 4.
Find the area bounded by the graph of y = e2x + e 2x, the coordinate axes and x = a, where a > 0.
2
c Let h : R R h(x) = 4x + 2.
i Find {x : f(x) = h(x)}.
ii Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = f(x) and y = h(x) and the line x = 0.5. Write your
answer correct to 4 significant figures.
41 A discrete random variable has a binomial distribution, with a probability of p of success on any one trial.
i If n = 2, show that the probability of at least one success is equal to p(2 p).
ii If n = 3, show that the probability of at least two successes is equal to p2(3 2p).
iii If n = 4, show that the probability of at least three success is equal to p3(4 3p).
iv If n = k, show that the probability of at least k 1 successes is equal to p k1(k (k 1)p).
v If n = 8, find the exact value of p if the probability of least seven successes is equal to the
probability of six successes.
42 a A cricket bowler, finds that he gets on average, one wicket in every 45balls bowled. In one
particular over, which consists of 6 balls being bowled, find the probability, correct to
4 decimal places, that he gets:
i exactly one wicket
ii at least one wicket
iii a hat trick, that is exactly three wickets with three consecutive balls.
b The weights of cricket balls are normally distributed with a mean weight of 159.5g, and a
standard deviation of 1.2 g. Find the probability, giving your answers correct to 4 decimal
places, that a ball randomly selected weighs:
i more than 161 g
ii less than 157 g
iii between 157 g and 161 g.
c The discrete random variable X represents the number of runs scored by a batsman, and the
number of times this particular number of runs has been scored, when facing 100 balls.
ii
iii
iv
v
Number of times scored
38
28
14
10
i Find E(X) and Var(X).

ii Find the probability that the batsman scores a boundary, i.e. a 4 or 6, if it is known that
he has scored at least one run.

d A box contains 15 cricket balls, 10 of which are used and 5 new. A bowler randomly selects
3 balls from the box. Find the probability, giving your answers correct to 4 decimal places,
that he gets:
i exactly one new ball
ii at least one new ball.
e A certain cricket player has problems retaining his place in the test match team. The probability
that he plays in one test match depends on how he played in the previous test match. If he plays
in one test match, the probability that he will play again in the next test match is 0.65, while if
he does not play in a test match, the probability that he will play in the next test match is 0.55. If
he just played in the first test match of a new series, calculate the following.
i The probability, correct to 4decimal places, that he plays in five consecutive test matches.
ii The probability, correct to 4decimal places, that he plays in the team for three test matches in a
five series test match.
iii In the long run what percentage of the matches will he play?
Give your answer as a percentage, correct to 1 decimal place.
639
43 a The weights of Australian Rules footballs are normally
distributed. It is found that 20% of the balls weigh less than

418 grams, while 7.5% weigh more than 437 grams. Find
the mean and standard deviation of the weights of
Australian Rules footballs.
b The lengths of Australian Rules footballs are normally
distributed. It is found that 92% of the balls have a length
greater than 148 cm, while 68% have a length less than
164 cm. Find the mean and standard deviation of the
lengths of Australian Rules footballs.
c Assuming that the lengths and weights of Australian Rules footballs are independent, find the
probability that a randomly selected football has a weight less than 418 grams and a length less
than 164 cm.
d A team is practising with 10 footballs.
i Find the probability that at least 2 footballs weigh more than 437 grams.
ii Find the probability that at least 6 footballs have a length less than 164 cm.
k
44 Consider the probability distribution defined by Pr (X = x) =
for x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 .
x
4
i Find the value of k.
ii Complete the probability distribution table below.
Pr(X = x)
iii Find Pr(X 3 | X 1).
iv Find E(X).
v Find Var(X).
45 Consider the probability distribution defined by Pr(X = x) = x for x = 0, 1, 2 . . .

3
ii Find Pr(X 6).
iii Find Pr(X 12).
iv Find Pr(X 10 | X 5).
v Find E(X).
vi Find Var(X).
46 The number of typing mistakes, X, in a manual is given by the probability distribution defined by
e 2 2x
for x = 0, 1, 2 . . .
x!
a Find, giving all answers correct to 4 decimal places, that a particular manual has:
i two mistakes
ii at least two mistakes
iii at least three mistakes, if it is known to have at least one mistake.
b Find the average number and variance of the number of mistakes.
47 Consider the probability density function defined by
Pr(X = x) =
2 x
2 for x 0
f (x) = k x e
elsewhere
0
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
640
Find the value of k.

Find the mode.
Sketch the graph of y = f(x).
Find E(X).
Find Var(X).
Find Pr(0 < X < 4).
48 Consider the parabolic probability density function defined by
k (x a) (b x) for a x b
f (x) =
0
elsewhere
where b > a > 0.

ii Find the mode.
iii Find E(X).
iv Find Var(X).
3a + b < X < 3b + a .
v Find Pr
4
4
k1 (x a) for a x m
49 Consider the triangular probability density function defined by f (x) = k 2 (b x) for m x b

0
where b > m > a > 0.
elsewhere
Find the values of k1 and k2 in terms of a, b and m.

Find the mode.
Find E(X).
Find Var (X).
50 The waiting time, T, in seconds to catch a lift in a particular building is given by the probability density
function
at 2
for 0 t 30
f(t)
f (t) = mt + c for 30 t 150 .

0
elsewhere
i Find the values of a, m and c, and redraw the graph marking the
scale on both axes.
t
0
30 60 90 120 150
ii Find the probability that a person waits between 15 seconds and
60 seconds, before catching the lift.
iii Find the probability that a person waits less than one minute, before catching the lift.
iv Find the probability that a person waits more than one minute, if it is known that they have waited
less than two minutes before catching the lift.
v Find the expected waiting time before catching the lift.
vi Find the standard deviation of the waiting time before catching the lift.
vii Find the median waiting time before catching the lift.
i
ii
iii
iv
DIGITAL DOC
doc-1612
Worked solutions
641
Answers
CUMULATIVE EXAM PRACTICE
iii
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
53
57
61
65
69
73
77
A
D
C
A
C
A
C
B
A
D
E
C
E
E
D
E
D
C
D
D
2
6
10
14
18
22
26
30
34
38
42
46
50
54
58
62
66
70
74
78
A
B
E
A
C
D
A
C
E
D
A
C
A
D
B
A
C
C
B
C
3
7
11
15
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
B
D
C
A
B
E
E
E
D
D
D
E
C
C
B
D
E
A
D
E
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
B
E
C
B
B
A
C
D
B
A
D
A
B
B
A
E
C
E
C
B
SHORT ANSWER AND EXTENDED RESPONSE

2,
11
1 b=
c=
and d = 24
2 a = 3, b = 33 and c = 30
3 a = 2, b = 8 and c = 25
6
13 i There is no value of k for no real
y
4
solutions.
ii k < 12
iii k = 12
iv k > 12
2
0
10
iv
b
8 i
iii
20
3
a = 2, c = 6 and b = 4
c > 12
ii c < 12
c = 12
f(x) = (x 2)3 + 27
(2, 27) stationary point of inflexion
(1, 0)(0, 19)
3
1
iv f (x) = 2 + x 27
( 1.038, 1.038)
9 i (5, k 100), (1, k + 8)
ii 8 < k < 100
a 4 a3
ii 9
10 i (a, 0) and ,
16
3 27
iii y =
a2 x
a3
4
iv
14 a a = 1, b = 9, c = 27 and d = 37
b a = 2, b = 18, c = 54 and d = 108
15 a = 2, b = 14, c = 24, d = 8 and e = 32
y
40
30
20
10
a4
192
y
6
4 a = 12, b = 60, c = 25 and d = 125

a Area = 50 60 loge(2) 8.411
105
a
3
3a 2a3 3
3a 2a3 3
,
,
and
9
9
3
3
ii
x
a4
2
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
6 5 4 3 21
1
2
3
2
a
(a b)4
12
iii y =
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
a + 2b 4 (a b)3
,
27
3
12 i a, 0 and
ii
iv y =
1
a b 2 9 x 8a b
27
1
1
a b 2 (x a) v 192
4
) (
(a b)4
189
2
v 1
b a = 8, b = 1 and k = 2
7 a i Domain x [1, ) Range y (, 3]
ii (0, 2), (8, 0)
3ac + 2 27
4
4 a , 256a (ac 2)
is a minimum turning point.
2
iii If ac = 2 x1 = x 2 =
and
a
1
y = (ax 2)4
a
there is only one minimum
2
turning point at , 0 .
a
17 a n =
a = 5 c =1
9
( )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ii , 0 is an inflexion point .
1 2 3 4 5
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
ii Domain x R\{2}, range (1, )
iii (0, 5 ), (5, 0), (1, 0)
4
642
0
220
b i (c, 0) (0, 8c)
iii y = a2x
v 4loge(2) 2
b a = 6, b = 3 and k = 3
6 a i x = 2 is a vertical asymptote, and
iv
a
2
y
80
60
40
20
11 i
0
5 4 3 21
1
2
3
4
5
minimum turning point.
iii
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
ii Domain x R\{2}, range
y R{1}
iii (0, 1) (2, 0)
y
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
16 a i (0, 48) (2, 0) (6, 0)

ii (2, 0) is an inflexion point (5, 27) is
b Area = 2 60 loge (2) 10.911

5 a i x = 2 is a vertical asymptote, and
iv
2100
20
30
a+b
2
x
6 5sin 9 for x 0, 9
x for x 9, 18
b f (x) = 6 + 5sin
x
6 5sin for x 18, 27
54 (3 5)
20
92
20 2 20
24 a s = 10 100t 2 44t + 5
x
x+6
x + 1 =
2
81
9
ds
20 (50t 11)
81
b
=
for x 0, 9
dt
100t 2 44t + 5
20
27 2
20 2 20
i 98.4 km/h
x + 1 =
x
x + 46
f ( x ) = 81
2
81
3
ii 99 km/h
11
for x 9, 18
c i 50 = 0.22 hours
d 4 km
2
20 x 45 + 1 = 20 x 2 100 x + 126
2
2
25 a s = (d1 v1t) + (d 2 v2t)

81
2
81
9
x 18, 27
d v + d 2 v2
b 1 1
hours
v12 + v22
72
4
47
20
18 a = 9 , b = 9 , c = 9 ,
d v d 2 v1
c 1 2
km
d = 61
, e = 23
and f = 1
v12 + v22
9
6
i a1 = 3, b1 = 3, c1 = 1
26 i
9
cm 2 /min
3
a2 = 1, b2 = 3, c2 = 4 and d 2 = 4
12
57
a3 = 3, b3 = 9, c3 = 6
ii
cm/min
iii f3(x) = 1 f1(2 x)
228
Reflect in the x-axis.
2x3
27 i f (x) = x (2 x loge 2)
Reflect in the y-axis.
4
Translate one unit up and parallel to
4x2
the y-axis (or away from the x-axis).
ii f (x) = x (x loge 2 1)(x loge 2 3)
4
Translate two units to the right and
iii Minimum (0, 0), maximum
parallel to the x-axis (or away from the
2
y-axis).
16
1
1
,
4 (2.885,1.270)
4
19 a f 1 : ( , 4) R f 1 (x) =
log
2
e (loge 2)
e
2
4x
3
3
iv Inflexion points
b 6, 6
2
2
1
1
,
(1.443,0.586)
2
4
2
c
2
loge 2 e (loge 2)
20 i s = a + 2
a
and
ii a = c
3
81
,
4 (4.328,0.870)
6
iii 2c
log
2
e (loge 2)
e
c a2
4
(x a)
iv y =
3
103
e
a c
v
5
4 (loge 2)
va= c
3 (7e 4 115)
c2
vi
2
4
21 i s = a + 4
8e6 (loge 2)
a
ii a =
iii
vii
2c 2
y = b horizontal asymptote.
ii M(a, b)
(x a)2 + (y b)2
iv x = a + c
v 2c
23 i x = a vertical asymptote,
y = b horizontal asymptote.
ii M(a, b)
(x a)2 + (y b)2
3
2
2c 2
0.3
2c 2
s(t)
0.1
0
28 a e
b e
2
2 k
p
Arectangle
3
=
Acurve
3
Arectangle
1
b
=4
Acurve
5
32 a i k R \ { 32 , 2}
3
ii k = 2
iii k = 2
b a = 2, b = 5, c = 1 and d = 2
29 a
4
v(t)
0.2
s = x 2 + 400 + 900 + (120 x)2

48
130
s = x 2 + a 2 + b 2 + (d x)2
ad
ii
a+b
34 a i
ii
iii
b i
(a + b)2 + d 2
iii
35 a a = 4 b = 1 p =
2
49
q=
16

1
4 1
x
+ 1)2
2
(
16
309
2 2
f (x) = 49 x 49 x + 98
1
4 1
(2 x 17)2
2
2
b 20 3 m
36 ii
y = tan (x) 0
2
0.1
0.2
1
1
viii
iv x = a +
= 2t 3 (2 t) e 2t
and t 0 if t > 2 v (t) < 0
v When t = 0 v (0) = 0 is a minimum.
When t = 1 v (1) = 2e 2 is a maximum.
When
t = 3 v (3) = 54e 6 is a minimum.
vi 16e 4 metres
vii t = 2
1
c 3
v a = 2c 2
22 i x = a vertical asymptote,
iii s =
4 2t
ii s (t) = t e
iii 12
iv Since v (t) = 4t 3 2t 4 e 2t
2
c a3
iv y
= (x a)
a 2 2c
iii s =
i a (t) = 4t 2 (t 1)(t 3) e 2t
33
iii
iv
v
vi
49
r=
309
98
for 0 x
for
1
2
for
15
2
1
2
15
2
x 8
12
2 3
3
3
92 3
36
9+ 3
36
loge (2)
% left 30%
% right 35%
18 3
36
% T 2.4%
x2
a
g1 : 0, a R, g1 (x) = a + ax x 2
37 i f : a, a R, f (x) =
g2 : a, 0 R, g2 (x) = a + ax x 2
643
ii
iii
38 i
ii
iii
iv
a
x2
2 a + ax x 2 dx
0
2
a
(3 + 16)
12
a2
Inner x 2 + y 2 = , outer x 2 + y 2 = a 2
4
1
f1 : 2a, 2a R, f1 ( x ) =
( 4a2 x 2 )
4a
1 2
f2 : 2a, 2a R, f2 ( x ) =
( x 4a2 )
4a
2a
a
1
4 ( 4 a 2 x 2 ) a 2 x 2 dx
4
a
0
a2
(16 3 )
3
v 59
vi 0.60
vii 960
c i
B
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
0.05
40 a i (0, 2)
b i D = 0,
ii f 1 : 2, R,
iii
iv 12 loge 2 + 3
iv
v
vi
b i
376.353
1
B = B (t) = c (1 + be kt )
41 v 35
42 a i
ii
iii
b i
ii
iii
c
2
dB
= cbke kt (1 + be kt )
dt
cbke kt
=
(1 + be kt )2
dB
c
bke kt
=
kt
dt (1 + be ) (1 + be kt )
c B
k
B = kB (c B)
= B
c
c
B
( )
19 499
ii k = loge 2640 2
c=
b=
2 208 529
2207
2 164 389
44 140
i
ii
10
12
14
vi 1 5e 2
48 i
(b a)3
a+b
2
a+b
iii
2
ii
11
0.1192
0.1261
0.000 041
0.1056
0.0186
0.8757
1.32, 2.1376
6
= 0.1935
31
0.4945
0.7363
0.1785
0.3038
61.1%
2
iv 1 (a b)
20
v 11
16
2
and
(m a)(b a)
2
k2 =
(b m)(b a)
ii m
a+b+m
iii
3
2 + b 2 + m 2 ab m a + b
a
(
)
iv
18
49 i k1 =
50 i m =
= 425 and = 8.33 grams

= 160 and = 8.54 cms
0.136
i 0.1696
ii 0.8133
1
8400
c=
1
56
a=
1
63 000
f(t)
0.02
0.015
0.01
44 i 256
1000 and
341
49
ii
X
Pr (X = x)
iii t B 1000
iv
B
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
(16
d i
ii
e i
ii
iii
43 a
b
c
d
e2a
iv 6
v 12
(x) = 12 loge
i x=0
ii 0.008 535
2
47.94
e 2a
1
2
50.25
0.15
0.1
dA
dA
= rA0 e rt = rA
+ rA = 0
dt
dt
8
r = loge ( 7) 0.1335
ii A0 = 800
ii 4
y
iii
ii t = 0.502 and t = 3.619
x + x2 4
1
iii Dom f = ran f = 2, )
ran f 1 = dom f = 0, )
A
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
vi
1
243
1
2
3
4
46 a i 0.2707
ii 0.5940
iii 0.3740
b 2, 2
1
47 i 16
t = 2.149
39 a i A = A (t) = A0 e rt
644
iv
iii 1
17
iv 112
v
45 i
341
48 836
116 281
2
3
ii 2186
2187
iii
1 594 322
1 594 323
256
341
64
341
16
341
4
341
1
341
0.005
0
20
40
60
80
100 120 140 160
ii 12
iii 29 = 0.518
56
iv 24 0.453
53
v 885 63.214
14
vi 31.094
vii 10 15 2 21 58.348 seconds
Index
absolute value function
definition 196
derivatives involving 34950
graphing 293
transformations and sketching 869
absolute values, exponential and logarithmic
functions with 1968
addition of ordinates method 292
addition of ordinates technique 1904
addition rule of probability 469
antiderivative function graph, relationship
with original function graph 408
antidifferentiation (integration) 4038
rules 409
intersecting 4389
non-intersecting 4378
areas bound by curve and x-axis
4325
areas enclosed by functions, approximate
calculation 41820
average rates of change 317
average values of functions 4413
(ax + b) 1, integration 4056

(ax + b)n (n 1), integration 405
basic form of cubic functions 22
Bernoulli distribution 515
Bernoulli trials and sequences
51521
binomial distribution 51521
for multiple probabilities 5269
binomial distribution graphs 5213
binomial expansions 14
central tendency of continuous random
variable, measures 5757
chain rule 3324
short form 41415
change-of-base rule 134
combination rules
nC
r 4767
nC
x 516
common logarithms 152
complementary angles 2678
completing the square, finding turning
points by 1719
composite functions 99100
graphing 2956
use of chain rule 332
conditional probability 4723
in Markov chain 532
constant rates of change 317
continuous distributions 5646
continuous functions 318
continuous random variables 479
and normal distribution 5636
of practical interest 5814
using probability density function to find
probabilities 56872
cos (x)
derivative 3413
integration 412
cosine, basic definition 261
cosine function graph 27680
cubic functions
forms 224
gradient function 320
in power form 636
restricting domain of 245
cubic graphs, sketching 225
curves, sketching 36772
definite integrals, properties 423
degrees, conversion to radians 260
derivatives
ex 3357
involving absolute value function 34950
loge (x) 33840
sin (x), cos (x) and tan (x) 3413
xn 3301
difference functions 957
differentiation
from first principles 3268
mixed problems 34851
dilation
cubic functions 64
definition 578
exponential functions (any base) 1646
hyperbolas 69
logarithmic graphs (any base) 1724
logarithmic graphs (base e) 1835
matrices 901
quadratic functions 59
sine and cosine functions 2768
square root function 82
tangent function 2823
truncus 75
discrete probability distributions 4804
measures of centre 48792
measures of variability 4946
discrete random variables 47980
discriminants 1617
domain of cubic functions, restricting 245
domain of functions 1314
domain and range as inverses 225
equations
exponential (base e) 1446
exponential (indicial) 13740
from trigonometric graphs 2867
functional 1001
for graphs of exponential functions 1878
for graphs of logarithmic functions 188
literal 1501
logarithmic (any base) 1413
with natural (base e) logarithms 147
simultaneous linear 3442
tangents and normals 3656
Eulers number e 144
ex
derivative 3357
integration 41112
exact values of trigonometric ratios 2635
expectation theorems 48991
expected value of binomial distribution
54750
exponential equations (base e) 1446
with absolute values 1968
finding equations from graphs 1878
exponential functions (any base),
graphs 16370
exponential functions (base e)
graphs 17882
integration 41112
exponential (indicial) equations 13740
exponential modelling 1523
using graphs 199200
factor form of cubic functions 23
factor theorem 9
first derivative test 369
functional equations 1001
functions
average values 4413
and inverses 22731, 2324
restriction 23641
fundamental theorem of integral
calculus 4235
f(x) = 2x and f(x) = 10x, graphs 16370
f(x) = log2 (x) and f(x) = log10 (x),
graphs 1717
gradient function
cubic functions 320
graphing from graph of function 318
straight lines 31819
graphs
absolute value function 293
composite functions 2956
cubic 225
exponential functions (base e) 17882
for exponential and logarithmic
modelling 199200
linear 1112
logarithmic (any base) 1717
mathematical models described by
1026
product functions 1934, 2945
quadratic 1520
quartic 2933
sum and difference of functions 2923
trigonometric 27680
visualising inverse 226
hybrid functions, absolute value functions
as 889
hyperbolas
sketching 701
transformation 6872
implied domains 233
independent events 469
index laws 12932
indicial equations 13740
infinity, integration over intervals
involving 570
instantaneous rates of change 318
Index
645
integral calculus, fundamental

theorem 4235
integrals, properties 4034
integrand 423
integration
1 405
x
(ax + b) 1 4056
(ax + b)n where n 1 405
by recognition 41416
integration (antidifferentiation) 4039
intersection () of two events 465
interval notation 13
inverse cumulative normal distribution
599602
inverse functions
definition 2324
key feature 2389
inverse operations 1489
inverses
functions 22831
relations 2236
visualising graph 226
Karnaugh maps
4712
left rectangle method of area

approximation 41819
limits of functions 3256
linear approximation 3901
linear graphs
domain and range 1314
properties 1112
linear regression 103
literal equations 1501
logarithm laws 1336
logarithmic equations (any base) 1413
logarithmic functions
with absolute values 1968
finding equations from graphs 188
logarithmic graphs (base e),
transformations 1835
logarithmic modelling 1523
logarithmic modelling using graphs 199200
logarithms
common (base 10) 152
natural (base e) 147
loge (x), derivative 33840
many-to-one functions, restriction of domain
to one-to-one 234
Markov chains 5326
mathematical models 101
matrices
to describe reflection in line y = x 2234
in transformations 903
transition 53742
maximal domains 233
when function known 3747
when function not known 37881
mean () of continuous random
variable 575
measures
central tendency for continuous random
variable 5757
centre of discrete random distributions
48792
646
Index
spread of continuous random

variable 5778
variability of discrete random
distributions 4946
median 4912
of continuous random variable 575
mode 4912
of continuous random variable 575
modelling 1016
exponential and logarithmic 1523,
199200
trigonometric 28990
modulus function see absolute value function
multiple probabilities, binomial distribution
for 5269
mutually exclusive events 469
n-choose-r 2
natural (base e) logarithms, equations
with 147
negative angles, trigonometric ratios of
2667
negative areas 427
negative quartics (a < 0) 29
normal distribution curve (normal curve)
common probabilities associated
with 5879
effect of and on 586
inverse cumulative 599602
properties 586
symmetry properties 5947
normals and tangents, equations 3656
1 , integration 405
x
ordinates, addition 1904
Pascals triangle 2
percentiles 572, 6001
polynomials
definition 567
division 810
evaluating 67
population parameters (, ) 587
positive areas 427
positive quartics (a > 0) 29
power functions
hyperbola 6872
truncus 759
probability
addition rule 469
conditional 4723
definition 466
terminology 465
probability density functions
definition 5646
problem solving with 5814
to find probabilities of continuous random
variables 56872
probability distributions, discrete 4804
probability tables 4712
product functions 978
drawing graph 1934, 2945
product rule 3445
in power form 5961
quadratic graphs, sketching 1520

quantiles 572, 6001
quartic graphs, sketching 2933
quotient rule 3467
radians
basic concepts 25960
converting degrees to 260
random variables
continuous 5636
continuous and discrete 47980
range and domain as inverses 225
range of functions 1314
rates of change
average 317
constant 317
instantaneous 318
related 3879
rates of change of functions 3835
differentiation applied to 4457
recognition, integration by 41416
reflection
cubic functions 64
definition 58
exponential functions (any base)
16870
hyperbolas 69
logarithmic function (any base) 1767
matrices 901
truncus 75
regression, linear 103
related rates of change 3879
relations and inverses 2236
remainder theorem 9
repeated factors in cubic functions 23
restricting functions 23641
right rectangle method of area
approximation 41920
sample space 465
sigma notation 425
signed areas in area calculation 42730
simultaneous linear equations
three or more variables 412
three variables 3741
two variables 347
sine, basic definition 261
sine function graph 27680
sin(x)
derivative 3413
integration 412
sketching curves 36772
smooth functions 318
spread of continuous random variable 577
square root function
sketching 84
transformations 815
standard deviation ()
continuous random variable 577
definition 4978
interpretation 498500
standard normal distribution
( = 0, = 1) 5912
stationary points 3679

straight lines, gradient function 31819
sum functions 957
symmetry properties
normal distribution curve 5947
unit circle 2635
tan (x), derivative 3413
tangent, basic definition 262
tangent function graphs 2825
tangents and normals, equations 3656
terminals of definite integral 423
transformations
combinations of 59, 60, 64, 6970, 823
dilation 578
exponential functions (base e) 17882
formal notation 913
logarithmic functions (any base) 1717
quadratic functions in power form 5961
reflection 58

translation 589
transition matrices 53742
translation
cubic functions 64
giving y = f(x b) + c 589
hyperbolas 69
matrices 91
truncus 76
tree diagrams 4735
general solutions 2724
solutions 2702
trigonometric functions
derivatives 3413
equations from graphs 2867
with increasing trend 2989

integration 412
trigonometric graphs 27680
finding equations from 2867
trigonometric modelling 28990
truncus
sketching 778
transformations 759
turning points by completing the
square 1719
union () of two events 465
unit circle
basic concepts 25961
symmetry properties 2635
universal set 465
variance 4946
continuous random variable 577
Venn diagrams 4656
xn, derivative
3301
Index
647

Maths Quest 12 Mathematics Methods CAS

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Maths Quest 12 Mathematics Methods CAS

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2ND EDITION

Second edition published 2013 by

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Graphs and polynomials

Exponential and logarithmic equations

Functions and transformations

2A Transformations and the parabola

3A The index laws

Exponential and logarithmic graphs

4A Graphs of exponential functions with any base

5A Relations and their inverses

5B Functions and their inverses

Circular (trigonometric) functions

6A Revision of radians and the unit circle

8A Equations of tangents and normals

7A Review gradient and rates of change

9H Areas between two curves

11D Expected value, variance and standard deviation of

the binomial distribution

Discrete random variables

10B Discrete random variables

12A Continuous random variables

The binomial distribution

11A The binomial distribution

Exercise 11A 523

Based on chapters 112

Exam practice answers

Cumulative exam practice

Student website eBookPLUS

teacher website eGuidePLUS

Using the JacarandaPLUS

Using eBookPLUS references

Graphs and polynomials

The binomial theorem

the binomial theorem

means the sum of n + 1 terms from r = 0 to r = n.

Use the binomial theorem to expand (2x 3)4.

Complete the binomial theorem expansion

Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods CAS

Evaluate the combinations and the powers.

= 1(16x4) + 4(8x3)(3) + 6(4x2)(9)

= 16x4 96x3 + 216x2 216x + 81

Expand the binomial expression 2 + x .

Complete the binomial expansion where

Evaluate the powers.

State the coefficient of i x2 and

ii x4 in (3 2x)8, without the use of technology.

i 1 The powers of the 1st term decrease and

the powers of the 2nd term increase 0, 1,

Find the appropriate term by using the

Evaluate the term.

State the coefficient.

ii 1 Find which term gives a power of x4.

Evaluate the term.

The third term gives a power of x2.

The fifth term gives a power of x4.

State the coefficient.

The coefficient of the fifth term is 90 720.

Chapter 1 Graphs and polynomials

Find the fourth term in the expansion of (x 2y)5.

Find the fourth term by using the binomial theorem.

Evaluate the term.

Find and evaluate the term that is independent of x in the expansion of x 3 + 2 .