Structure of a paramecium: large ciliate protozoan that lives in stagnant freshwater.

Cilia: minuscule cilia that envelop the paramecium and are used for locomotion.
Contractile vacuole: cavity of the paramecium that is able to contract.
Food vacuole: cavity of the paramecium responsible for digestion.
Micronucleus: one of the less important central organelles of a paramecium.
Oral groove: canal of the paramecium used to ingest nutrients.
Gullet: cavity of the pharynx.
Ectoplasm: vitreous superficial layer of a paramecium.
Endoplasm: central part of a paramecium.
Large nucleus: the most important central organelle of a paramecium.
Canals of contractive vacuole: division of the contractile cavity of a paramecium.
Trochocyst: root of a vibrative cilium of a paramecium.

Ferns, unlike some other plants, do not flower in order to propagate. Instead, they reproduce sexually
from spores.
The life cycle of a fern is very different from the life cycle of many other plants. While many plants
grow a mature adult form straight out of the seed, ferns have an intermediate stage, called a
gametophyte, which then grows into a mature fern.
There are two distinct stages in the life cycle of ferns. The first stage is that of the gametophyte.
Spores are produced on the underside of mature plants. These will germinate and grow into small,
heart-shaped plants called gametophytes. The gametophytes produce both sperm and egg cells, and
will fertilize itself, or others. Once the fertilization occurs, the adult fern will begin growing. The
second stage in the life cycle of a fern is the adult stage. The fertilized gametophytes begin to look
like a mossy growth. After some time, young fronds will appear, rising out of the moss. If direct
sunlight falls onto the young fronds for an extended period of time, the plant may die easily. This is
because the tiny stems are not strong enough to sustain direct light and will dry out. Once these tiny
fronds grow larger, the plant has a better chance of survival. When the veins are matured, moisture
from the ground will be transported easily to the outermost leaves and the plant can withstand
periods of direct sunlight. After the plant is large and mature, it will grow spores on the undersides of
its leaves and the life cycle of a fern will begin again.

Life cycle of a moss

The life cycle of bryophytes consists of an alternation of two stages, or generations, called the sporophyte and the
gametophyte. Each generation has a different physical form. When a spore germinates, it usually produces the
protonema, which precedes the appearance of the more elaborately organized gametophytic plant, the gametophyte,
which produces the sex organs. The female sex organ is a flask-shaped structure called the archegonium. The
archegonium contains a single egg in a swollen lower portion that is more than one cell thick. The neck of the
archegonium is a single cell layer thick and sheathes a single thread of cells that forms the neck canal. When mature
and completely moist, the neck canal cells of the archegonium disintegrate, releasing a column of fluid to the neck
canal and the surrounding water. The egg remains in the base of the archegonium, ready for fertilization. The male
sex organ, the antheridium, is a saclike structure made up of a jacket of sterile cells one cell thick; it encloses many
cells, each of which, when mature, produces one sperm. When wet, the jacket of the mature antheridium ruptures to
release the sperm into the water. When a sperm enters the field of the fluid diffused from the neck canal, it swims
toward the site of greatest concentration of this fluid, therefore down the neck canal to the egg. Upon reaching the
egg, the sperm burrows into its wall, and the egg nucleus unites with the sperm nucleus to produce the diploid
zygote. The zygote remains in the archegonium and undergoes many mitotic cell divisions to produce an embryonic
sporophyte. Mature bryophytes have a single sporangium (spore-producing structure) on each sporophyte. The
sporangium generally terminates an elongate stalk, or seta, when the sporangium is ready to shed its spores and is
capped by a lid, or operculum. The sporangium rupture usually involves specialized structures that enhance
expulsion of the spores away from the parent gametophyte.

Incomplete metamorphosis

During reproduction, the male grasshopper introduces sperm

into the vagina through its aedeagus (reproductive organ),
and inserts its spermatophore, a package containing the
sperm, into the females ovipositor. The sperm enters the
eggs through fine canals called micropyles.
In the summer, the female grasshopper lays the fertilized egg pod, using her
ovipositor and abdomen to insert the eggs about one to two inches
underground, although they can also be laid in plant roots or even manure
and usually in their habitats. These are immediately incubated. She lays the
eggs in a row and sprays them with a stick substance which forms a pod.
Each 'pod' has 15 - 150 eggs inside it, depending on the species. The female
grasshopper can lay up to 25 pods.
Metamorphosis
Grasshoppers undergo simple complete or incomplete metamorphosis that
consists of 3 or 4 stages:
Complete
metamorphosis:

Incomplete metamorphosis:

1. egg

1. egg

2. larvae

2. nymph

3. Pupa

3. adult

4. Adult

Grasshopper eggs with one egg split

showing a young nymph about to emerge.

Egg pods are oval to elongate and often curved. Often the size of kernels of
rice, eggs may be white, yellow-green, tan or various shades of brown
depending on the species.
Eggs hatch into nymphs, which look like little adults without wings and
reproductive organs. Nymphs resemble small, wingless adults.
Newly hatched nymphs are white, however, after exposure to sunlight, they
assume the distinctive colours and markings of adults. Nymphs molt their
skins many times as they grow to be adults.

Female grasshoppers try to choose a good place to lay their eggs, however,
this is the only parental care they provide. Grasshoppers do not take care of
their young once they have hatched.

Complete metamorphosis

Most insects undergo complete metamorphosis. Each stage of the life cycle egg, larva, pupa,
and adult looks different from the others. Entomologists call these insectsholometabolous (holo =
total).
The larvae of holometabolous insects bear no resemblance to their adult parents. Their habitats and
food sources may be entirely different from the adults as well. Larvae grow and molt, usually multiple
times. Some insect orders have a unique name for their larval forms: butterfly and moth larvae are
caterpillars; fly larvae are maggots; and beetle larvae are grubs.
When the larva molts for the final time, it transforms into a pupa. The pupal stage is usually
considered a resting stage, although much activity occurs internally, hidden from view. The larval
tissues and organs break down entirely, then reorganize into the adult form. After the reorganization is
complete, the pupa molts to reveal the mature adult with functional wings.

BREAD MOLD

Rhizoids are simple hair-like protuberances that extend from the lower
epidermal cells of bryophytes
A sporangium is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be
composed of a single cell or can be multicellular.

In biology, a spore is a unit of asexual reproduction that may be adapted for

dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavorable
conditions.
In biology, stolons (from Latin stol "branch") are horizontal connections
between organisms
A sporangiophore is a stalk that holds a sporangium.

Metamorphosis refers to the process through which insects develop, grow and change form.
Metamorphosis actually infers "change." The term is of Latin and Greek origins: meta means
change and morphe means form. Metamorphosis describes the series of changes through
which an insect passes in its growth from the egg stage (some insects, such as aphids, may
produce eggs and/or give birth to live young) through the immature stages (ex., nymph, larva or
pupa) to the adult stage.

II. Complete Metamorphosis (Egg > Larva (more precisely: larval instars) > pupa > adult )
Insects with complete metamorphosis have four (4) life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult.

Larvae are very different in form from the adult. The active immature stages are known generally
as larvae.
These insects also have a resting stage known as a pupa. The pupal stage is a transition stage,
when the larva transforms into the adult. Wings, if present, develop internally within a pupa. The
pupa molts to the adult form.
Insects with complete metamorphosis include lacewings (Order Neuroptera), beetles (Order
Coleoptera), butterflies and moths (Order Lepidoptera), true flies (Order Diptera) and wasps and
bees (Order Hymenoptera). In some insect orders, larvae are referred to by other names, such
as maggots (flies), caterpillars (butterflies and moths) or grubs (beetles). Larvae of insects with
complete metamorphosis usually have chewing mouthparts; many are pests of various crops.

Mushroom

Internal Structure

Spine:
The primary structural framework upon which the fish's body is built; connects to the skull at the
front of the fish and to the tail at the rear. The spine is made up of numerous vertebrae, which
are hollow and house and protect the delicate spinal cord.
Spinal Cord:
Connects the brain to the rest of the body and relays sensory information from the body to the
brain, as well as instructions from the brain to the rest of the body.
Brain:
The control center of the fish, where both automatic functions (such as respiration) and higher
behaviors ("Should I eat that critter with the spinning blades?") occur. All sensory information is
processed here.
Lateral Line:

One of the fish's primary sense organs; detects underwater vibrations and is capable of
determining the direction of their source.
Swim (or Air) Bladder:
A hollow, gas-filled balance organ that allows a fish to conserve energy by maintaining neutral
buoyancy (suspending) in water. Fish caught from very deep water sometimes need to have air
released from their swim bladder before they can be released and return to deep water, due to
the difference in atmospheric pressure at the water's surface. (Most freshwater anglers in Florida
need not concern themselves with this!) Species of fish that do not possess a swim bladder sink
to the bottom if they stop swimming.
Gills:
Allow a fish to breathe underwater. These are very delicate structures and should not be
touched if the fish is to be released!
Kidney:
Filters liquid waste materials from the blood; these wastes are then passed out of the body. The
kidney is also extremely important in regulating water and salt concentrations within the fish's
body, allowing certain fish species to exist in freshwater or saltwater, and in some cases (such
as snook or tarpon) both.
Stomach and Intestines:
Break down (digest) food and absorb nutrients. Fish such as bass that are piscivorous(eat other
fish) have fairly short intestines because such food is easy to chemically break down and digest.
Fish such as tilapia that are herbivorous (eat plants) require longer intestines because plant
matter is usually tough and fibrous and more difficult to break down into usable components. A
great deal about fish feeding habits can be determined by examining stomach contents.
Pyloric Caeca:
This organ with fingerlike projections is located near the junction of the stomach and the
intestines. Its function is not entirely understood, but it is known to secrete enzymes that aid in
digestion, may function to absorb digested food, or do both.
Vent:
The site of waste elimination from the fish's body. It is also the entry to the genital tract where
eggs or sperm are released.

Liver:
This important organ has a number of functions. It assists in digestion by secreting enzymes that
break down fats, and also serves as a storage area for fats and carbohydrates. The liver also is
important in the destruction of old blood cells and in maintaining proper blood chemistry, as well
as playing a role in nitrogen (waste) excretion.
Heart:
Circulates blood throughout the body. Oxygen and digested nutrients are delivered to the cells of
various organs through the blood, and the blood transports waste products from the cells to the
kidneys and liver for elimination.
Gonads (Reproductive Organs):
In adult female bass, the bright orange mass of eggs is unmistakable during the spawning
season, but is still usually identifiable at other times of the year. The male organs, which
produce milt for fertilizing the eggs, are much smaller and white but found in the same general
location. The eggs (or roe) of certain fish are considered a delicacy, as in the case of caviar from
sturgeon.
Muscles:
Provide movement and locomotion. This is the part of the fish that is usually eaten, and
composes the fillet of the fish.

Pileus/cap- is the prominent horizontal component of a mushroom bearing

lamellae/gills or tubes on the underside.

Hymenium- is the spore-bearing layer containing asci or basidia in a fruiting body of

a fungus

Annulus- is a ring like structure found on the stipe of a mushroom. This is a remnant
of the partial veil.

Stipe/stalk- is present in most mushrooms and can be attached to the centre, offcentre or to the side of a pileus.

Volva- is part of the universal veil found at the base of some mushroom stipes,
either as a cup like structure or as scaly remnants.

Veils Some mushrooms have membranes referred to as veils that cover and protect
the immature mushroom or the immature lamellae. There are two types of veils.
The membrane protecting the immature lamellae is called the partial veil and the
membrane covering the immature mushroom is called the universal veil. As the
mushroom matures these membranes break, sometimes leaving remnants on the
stipe or the pileus.