TTTTTTTTTTTT?

Fundamentals of Geological
and Environmental
Remote Sensing

Robert K. Vincent
Bowling Green State University

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Contents

Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1

xi
xiii

Introduction and Overview

From the Human Eye to the Multispectral Scanner
Organization of Presented Material
6
Cited References
7

Chapter 2

1
1

Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Natural

Materials on Earth's Surface
Electromagnetic Radiation and the Search for Compositional
Information
8
The Effect of Single-Grain Indices of Refraction
and Absorption on the Reflectance Properties of a Beach
11
The Effect of Grain Size on the Reflectance Properties of a Beach
16
Separation of Compositional and Grain Size Effects and Extrapolation
from Beaches to Soils and Rocks
22
Review
26
Exercises 27
Cited References
27
Additional References (Uncited)
28

vi

Contents

Chapter 3

Spectra of Earth Materials

Vegetation, Water, and Snow
29
Minerals and Rocks
34
Examples of Silicate Minerals
36
Examples of Ferric Oxide and Ferric Hydroxide Minerals
Examples of Carbonate Minerals
49
Examples of Sulfate and Sulfide Minerals
51
Examples of Igneous Rocks
54
Examples of Sedimentary Rocks
55
Examples of Metamorphic Rocks
68
Review
74
Exercises
76
Cited References
76
Additional References (Uncited)
78

Chapter 4

47

Spectral Radiance from Earth's Surface and Its Measurement

by Electro-Optical Multispectral Sensors
Reflected and Emitted Radiance Available for Detection
Multispectral Electro-Optical Sensors for Remote Sensing
Splitting the Light
85
Hyperspectral Imaging Devices
90
Radiometric and Geometric Corrections
93
Measured Spectral Radiance
95
Review
97
Exercises
98
Cited References
98
Additional References (Uncited)
98

Chapter 5

29

Multispectral Image Processing Methods

Introduction
100
Elimination of Atmospheric Path Radiance and Additive
Electronic Offset
102
Histogramming and Dark-Object Subtraction
102
Calibration of Thermal Infrared Spectral Bands
108
The Electronic Display and Human Perception of Color
Spectral and Temporal Ratioing
112
Spectral Ratioing in the Reflective Wavelength Region
Temporal Ratioing and Vegetation Indices
116
Thermal Infrared Spectal Ratioing
121
Imaging of Gases
127

Principal Component Transformation and Multispectral

Classification
131
Principal Component Transformation
13 J
Multispectral Classification 135
Review
144

113

80

80
84

100

110

Contents
Exercises
146
Cited References
146
Additional References (Uncited)
Chapter 6

vii

148

Spatial Image Processing Methods

150

Introduction
150
Automatic Linear Feature Mapping
151
Geophysical Imaging
155
Digital Photogrammetry
163
Integration of Remote Sensing Data and Geographic Information
Systems
169
Review
178
Exercises
178
Cited References
179
Chapter 7

Remote Sensing Applications to Mineral Exploration

Introduction
181
The Use of Remote Sensing in Exploration for Metals
182
Uranium Exploration
182
Copper Exploration
184
Lead, Zinc, Silver, and Tungsten Exploration
189
Gold Exploration
190
Geobotanical Remote Sensing for Metal Exploration

181

195

The Use of Remote Sensing in Exploration for Diamonds and Rare Earth
Minerals
199
Exploration for Diamonds
199
Exploration for Rare Earth Minerals

202

The Use of Remote Sensing in Exploration for Industrial

Minerals
203
Review
208
Exercises
210
Cited References
211
Additional References (Uncited)
213
Chapter 8

Remote Sensing Applications to Petroleum and Ground Water

Exploration
Introduction
214
The Use of Remote Sensing for Petroleum Exploration

215

Struc tural Mapping

216
Remote Sensing Exploration for Ancient Hydrocarbon Seeps
225
Geobotanical Remote Sensing and Oil Slick Mapping for Petroleum
Exploration
234

The Use of Remote Sensing for Ground Water Exploration

Ground Water Exploration in Igneous, Metamorphic,
and Sedimentary Karst Terrain
243

241

214

viii

Contents
Ground Water Exploration in Nonkarst, Sedimentary
Terrain
245
Review
251
Exercises
252
Cited References
253
Additional References (Uncited)
256

Chapter 9

Remote Sensing Applications to Environmental Studies

and Geological Engineering
Introduction
257
Remote Sensing Applications for Solid Waste Landfills
and Open Pit Mines
258
High-Resolution Topographic Mapping for Landfills
and Open Pit Mines
259
Mapping Chemical Indicators Around Landfills
and Open Pit Mines
260
Remote Sensing Applications for Forests and Wetlands
270
Remote Sensing Applications for Farm Land and Coastal Erosion
Remote Sensing Applications for Pipelines and Highways
281
Review
284
Exercises
286
Cited References
287

Chapter 10 Remote Sensing Applications to Global Monitoring

257

274

291

Introduction
291
Global Monitoring of Geological Hazards
293
Flooding and Mass Wasting
294
Volcanic Eruptions
301
Earthquakes
304
Monitoring of Human Contributions to Global Changes
315
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols Added to the Atmosphere by
Human Activities
315
Ozone-Destroying Gases Added to the Atmosphere B;y Human
Activities
318
Monitoring of Natural Contributions to Global Changes
320
Changes in Ice and Snow Coverage
320
Changes in Sea Surface Temperature
322
Changes in Plate Tectonic Activity
324
Review
329
Exercises 332
Cited References
332

Epilogue

337

Contents

ix

Appendix A Integral Equations

339

Appendix B Multispectral Sensor Systems

342

Appendix C LANDSAT TM and MSS Brightness and Ratio

Codes of Minerals, Vegetation, and Snow

345

Index

359

Color Plate Captions

367