DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMM. ENGG.

B.I.T., MESRA, RANCHI

EC6107

FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Module 1:
Introduction:
Generations of optical communication, Advantages. Elements of an optical fiber transmission
link.
(2)
Text Book:
1. G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
Module 2:
Optical Fiber:
Classification of Fibers, Fiber materials and fabrication methods, Ray optics representation &
Wave optics representation for step Index and Graded Index fibers, Modes, Phase & Group
velocity, Goos-Hanchen Shift, Power flow in Step Index Fibers.
(10)
Text Book:
1. G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
Module 3:
Attenuation and Dispersion in optical fiber:
Signal attenuation and distortion in optical fibers, Dispersion effects in optical fibers.
(5)
Text Book:
1. G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
Module 4:
Optical Sources:
Structure and materials of LED and LD sources operating characteristics and modulation
capabilities of the LED and LD sources.
(9)
Source to Fiber Power launching and coupling, Lensing schemes for coupling improvement,
Fiber to fiber couplings and alignment methods, Splicing techniques, Fiber Connectors.
(3)
Text Book:
1. G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
Module 5:
Optical Receiver:
Optical receiver configuration and performance, Pre-amplifier design for optical receiver, analog
and Digital receiver.
(3)
Point to point transmission links, Wavelength division multiplexing, Optical data buses, Link
power and rise time budget, Optical Amplifier.
(5)

Text Books:
1. G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
Module 6:
Optical Networking:
Fiber optics in LAN, MAN, SAN, WAN, FDDI architecture, SONET/ SDH architecture, SONET/
SDH network elements
(5)
Text Book:
1. Optical Networking and WDM, Walter Goralski, Tata McGraw-Hill.
Module 7:
Potential applications and future prospects of optical fibers, multimode intensity sensors and
single mode, Interferomatric sensors.
(3)
Text Book:
1. Fundamentals of Fiber optics in telecommunication and sensor systems, B.P.Pal, New
Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers, 2001.

Text Books:
1. G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
2. J. M. Senior, Optical Fiber Communications, PHI, 2nd Ed.
3. Ghatak & Thyagarajan, Introduction to fiber Optics, Cambridge University press.
4. J.H.Franz &V.K.Jain, Optical Communications, Narosa Publishing House.
5. Harold Kolimbiris, Fibre Optics Communication, Pearson Education.

TUTORIAL
EC6107

FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

MODULE-1 & MODULE-2:

1.

Draw a block diagram of an optical fiber communication system and describe the basic
elements. What is the difference between a connector and a splice?

2.

Describe the types of optical fibers. For each type of fiber, give typical core and cladding
diameters and sketch of their refractive index profiles.

3.

(a) List the advantages of using optical fibers as a transmission medium and compare it
with other cable systems.
(b) Explain the important fiber parameters, which determine the suitability of application
of an optical fiber for a suitable fiber optic communication system.

4.

(a) What are the functions of the core and cladding in an optical fiber? Would it be
possible for the light to be guided without cladding?
(b) A step index fiber has an acceptance angle of 20 o in air and a relative refractive index
difference of 3%. Estimate the NA and the critical angle at the core-cladding interface.

5.

(a) Define group velocity and phase velocity. Find an expression for group delay for two
waves with slightly different frequencies ( and +) and also find an expression for
group refractive index for a dispersion medium.
(b) Explain with diagram the following concept in optical fiber transmission:
(i)
The evanescent field
(ii)
Goos-Haenchen shift
(iii)
Mode coupling

6.

What are the requirements that material systems must satisfy for them to be used in the
fabrication of communication fibers? List two types of glass system, which fulfill these
requirements and the types of fiber produced by each system.

7.

(a) Distinguish between the outside vapour-phase deposition method and inside vapour
phase deposition method for manufacturing performs.
(b) Explain with diagram the VAD method for preparation of optical fibers. What are its
advantages?
(c) Approximately how much fiber with be obtained from a 12 mm diameter, 1 m long
perform if the fiber diameter is 50 m?

8.

(a) Compare and contrast with diagram, the outside vapour-phase oxidation (OVPO)
process and the modified chemical vapour deposition technique (MCVD) for the
preparation of low loss optical fibers.
(b) Draw a block diagram of the process used to draw the preform into a fiber. Describe a
suitable method for measuring the fiber diameter. Describe a method of fabrication of
multicomponent glass fibers.

9.

(a) Briefly indicate with the help of diagrams the difference between meridional and skew
ray paths in step index fiber.
(b) What is the basis of ray optics? Using meridional ray construction prove that the
numerical aperture of a step index fiber is (n 21 n22) , where n1 is the refractive index of
the core, n2, the refractive index of the cladding.

10.

(a) Compare the advantages and disadvantage of multimode step index (MM-SI) and
single mode step index (MM-SI) fibers for use as an optical channel.
(b) Calculate the numerical aperture of a step index fiber having n 1 = 1.49 and n2 = 1.46.
What is the maximum entrance angle (c)max for this fiber if the outer medium is air with
n = 1?

11.

A single mode fiber has a core refractive index of 1.47. Sketch a design characteristic of
relative refraction index difference against core radius for the fiber to operate at a
wavelength of 1.30 m. Determine whether the fiber remains single mode at a
transmission wavelength of 0.85 m when its core radius is 4.5 m.

12.

A step index fiber can be considered as a symmetric dielectric slab waveguide. Derive
the characteristic equation for propagating even TE mode in a symmetric slab
waveguide.

13.

Design a symmetric slab waveguide with an NA = 0.45, an R number between 2.0 and
2.25, and a source wavelength of 0.82 m. Specify n1, n2 and d for the guide.

14.

A Single mode step index fiber has the following parameters:

Carrier wavelength
= 0.82 m
Carrier freq.
f = 3.66 x 1014 Hz
Core radius
a = 2 m
Core refractive index
n1 = 1.45
Cladding radius
b = 80m
Cladding refractive index n2 = 1.25
Compute
(a)
the phase constant in the core region
(b)
the phase constant in the cladding region
(c)
the phase constant in free space
(d)
the transverse propagation constant in the core region.
(e)
The transverse propagation constant in the cladding region.
Ans.: (a)
(b)
(d)

15.

1.11 107 rads/m

0.96 x 107 rads/m, (c)
8.0 x 106 rads/m,
(e)

7.67 x 106 rads/m

0 5.74 x 106 rads/m.

(a) Define normalized frequency for an optical fiber and explain its use in the
determination of number of modes in optical fiber.
(b) What do you mean by V Number of an optical fiber? Determine the normalized
frequency or V number at 0.82 m for step index fiber having a 25 m core radius, n1 =
1.48, and n2 = 1.46. How many modes propagate in this fiber at 0.82m a wavelength of
1.3 m? What percentage of the optical power flow in the cladding in each case?

16.

Find the maximum core radius necessary for single mode operation at 820 nm of a step
index fiber with n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.478. What is the numerical aperture and maximum
acceptance angle of this fiber?

17.

Calculate the number of modes at 820 nm and 1.3 m in a graded index fiber having a
parabolic-index profile ( = 2), a 25 m core radius, n1 = 1.48, n2 = 1.46. How does this
compare to a step index fiber?

18.

Design a multimode fiber for operation at = 0.82 m with V-number = 100 and
numerical aperture = 0.30. Specify n1, n2, for the guide.

19.

A manufacturer wishes to make a silica core step index fiber with V =75 and numerical
aperture=0.30 to be used at 820 nm. If n 1=1.458, what should be the core size and
cladding refractive index ? Take outside medium to be air.

20.

Calculate the cut off wavelength of a single mode guide designed as follows: core radius
a = 5 m.
Core r, I, n1 = 1.45
Index difference = .002.

21.

Derive the wave equation for electric field propagating along Z direction in cylindrical coordinate system for circular S I (Step index) optical fiber.

22.

Repeat the prob. 20 for magnetic field.

23.

Find out the characteristic equation for TF Om modes in SI fiber starting from wave
equation.

24.

Repeat the prob. 22 for TMOm modes.

25.

Repeat the prob. 22 for HE 1m modes.

26.

Derive the corresponding expressions for V number and numerical apertures (NA) of SI
(Step Index) fiber.

27.

Prove that if the following condition.

n1 k0 n2k0
(Terms having their usual meaning) is satisfied, then the propagating modes are bound
modes in step index fibers.

28.

(a) Indicate the major advantage of GI fiber with regard to multimode operation. Derive
an expression for the number of modes in graded index optical fiber.
(b) A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has a
diameter of 50 m. The fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2.Estimate the total number of
guided modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a wavelength of 1m.

(c) A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index profile core has a refractive
index at the core axis of 1.5 and a relative index difference of 1%.Estimate the maximum
possible core diameter which allows single-mode operation at a wavelength of 1.3m.
29.

Find an expression for numerical aperture in G I (graded index) optical fiber.

30.

Find out the condition for bound modes in GI fiber.

31.

Calculate the radius within which 50% of the HE 11 mode power is contained, 80% radius,
90% radius.

32.

Derive an expression in terms of the mode number for the inner and outer turning points
r1 and r2 of the step profile and parabolic profile waveguide.

33.

Prove the following relations for step index fiber:

(i) M = V2/2, M no. of modes
V v no. of fibers
(ii) P cladd = 4/3 M 1/2
P total

34.

(a) Define MFD, How is it related to the V, parameter.

(b) Define modal birefringence and beat length of a SM fiber. Explain the effect of modal
birefringence on pulse propagation in SM fibers.

35.

The modal birefringence of a typical SM fiber is in the range of 10 -6 10-5. Calculate (a)
the range of when the fiber is operating of = 1.30 m and (b) the range of the beat
length.

36.

Assuming a fiber to have a 25 m Core radius,

n1 = 1.48, = 0.91,
Plot the refractive index profile from n 1 to n2 as a function of radial distance r a for a
graded index fiber that have values 1, 2, 4, 8, ..

37.

Two particular fibers have core and cladding refractive index 1.465 and 1.460
respectively. Their core diameters are 50 and 100 m. In each case calculate the optical
wavelengths, which correspond to the Cut Off frequencies of the lowest order modes.

38.

A particular fiber has a pure silica cladding and a core doped with a maximum of 13.5%
germanium, giving = 0.0147. The fiber is required to propagate in a single mode when
excited by a laser source of wave length 1.55 m. Calculate the maximum permissible
core diameter with each of the three profiles x = , 2 & 1.

MODULE- 3:
1.

(a) Discuss the absorption losses in optical fibers, comparing and contrasting the
intrinsic and extrinsic absorption mechanisms.
(b) Describe scattering losses in optical fibers with regard to
(i)
Rayleigh Scattering
(ii)
Mie Scattering
(iii)
Waveguide Scattering

(iv)
Absorption
(c) Discuss the bending losses (Micro-bending and Macro-bending) in optical fibers. How
would it be minimized in SM and MM fibers?
(d) Draw the spectral attenuation curve of optical fiber.
2.
3.

Find the radius of curvature R at which the number of mode decreases by 50

percent in the graded index fiber, given that =2, n 2=1.5, =0.01, a=25m
,wavelength of guided light =1.3 m
Derive an expression for material dispersion in a single mode fiber. Discuss how it
can be minimized.

4.

(a) Explain: (i)Intermodal distortion (II) Intermodal dispersion (iii) Polarization

mode dispersion
(b).
Derive an expression for waveguide dispersion in single mode fiber.
Compare it with the material dispersion for a particular single mode fiber and
for a particular source.

5.

Find an expression for intermodal delay in multimode fiber (Step index) using ray
theory.

6.

Discuss how the dispersion mechanisms affect information capacity of an optical

waveguide. Discuss how choosing a particular refractive index profile increases
the bandwidth of G.I. fiber.

7.

Derive an expression for group delay in graded index fibers.

8.

At the wavelength at which d 2n/d2 = 0 estimate the broadening caused due to the
term d3n/d3.

9.

A certain optical fiber has an attenuation of 1.8 dB/Km at 1500 nm. If 0.5 nm of
optical power is initially launched into the fiber, what is the power level in
microwatt after 10 km?

10.

An optical signal has lost 55% of its power after traversing 4.5 Km of fiber. What is
the loss in dB/Km of this fiber?

11.

An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 55 nm. What is the pulse
spreading in ns/km due to material dispersion? What is the pulse spreading when
a laser diode having 4 nm spectral width is used?

12.

A 6 Km optical link consists of multimode step index fiber with a core refractive
index of 1.5 and a relative refractive index difference of 1%.Estimate :
(a) The delay difference between the slowest and fastest modes at the fiber
output.
(b) The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on the link;
(c) The maximum bit rate that may be obtained without substantial errors on
the link assuming only interposal dispersion;
(d) The bandwidth-length product corresponding to (c)

13.

Calculate the material dispersion component of delay distortion for equal to (i)
800 nm and (ii) 1500 nm for a fused silica single mode fiber. Assume the factor

2d2n/d2 is 0.025 at 800 nm and 0.006 at 1500 nm. The source line widths are 4
nm and 5nm respectively. The guide length is 8 Km.
14.

A single mode SI fiber has a zero dispersion wavelength of 1.29 m and exhibits
total first order dispersion of 3.5 ps nm -1 Km-1 at a wavelength of 1.32 m.
Determine the total first order dispersion in the fiber at a wavelength of 1.54 m.

15.

Describe the techniques employed and the fiber structures utilize to provide:
(a) Dispersion shifted SM fibers.
(b) Dispersion flattened SM fibers.

MODULE- 4
1.

An engineer has two Ga1-x AlxAs LEDs, one has a band-gap energy of 1.540 of
and the other has x= 0.015.
(a) Find the aluminum mole fraction x and the emission wavelength for the first
LED.
(b) Find the band-gap energy and the emission wavelength of the other LED.

2.

AlGaAs LED fabricated from fairly lightly doped material has an effective
recombination region of width 0.1 m. If it is operated at a current density of 2 x
107 A m-2 estimate the modulation bandwidth that can be expected.

3.

Describe the basic operating characteristics

semiconductor LED and laser diodes.

4.

Describe the following LED structures:

(a) Surface emitting type
(b) Edge emitting type
Define internal quantum efficiency of LED.
What are the principle materials that are used in fabricating LED
(a) In the short wavelength region (800 900 nm)
(b) In the long wavelength region (1100 1600 nm?

5.

of

hetrojunction

structured

6.

An empirical relation that given the band-gap energy in terms of x and y is

Eg (x, y) = 1.35 + 0.668x 1.17y +
0.758x2 + 0.18y2 0.069xy
-0.322x2y + 0.03rxy2 ev.
Find the band gap energy and the peak emission waves length of In 0.74 Ca0.26 As0.56
P0.44

7.

In the radiative and non-radiative life times of the minority carriers in the active
region of an LED are 3 ns and 100 ns, find the internal efficiency and the bulk
recombination life time in the absence of self absorption and recombination at the
heterojunction.

8.

In the above prob (7) if the surface recombination velocity at the hetrojunction
interfaces is 5000 Cm/s, what are the lifetime reductions for 1 and 2 thick
active layers? Assume that the condition LDS/D << 1 bolds.

9.

Derive an expression for excess electron Concentration n (x) within the active
region in a N-P-P heterostructure (N- GaAlAS / P-GaAs-P-Ga AlAs) LED.

10.

Using the expression for n (x) in the above problem (Q.9) find an expression for
average effective carrier lifetime when surface recombination is important.

11.

Show that the expression for effective Carrier life time reduces to
1

eff

1 2s

Under the Condition

LD a << D and d << LD
(Terms have their usual meaning)
12.

13.

(a) The peak optical power in a D H structure Led source at wavelength is

P=hc/r
Derive an expression for internal quantum efficiency when interface
recommendation and self-absorption are important.
(b) The radiative and non-radiative recombination lifetimes of the minority carriers
in the active region of a double heterojunction LED are 60 ns and 100 ns
respectively.Determine the total carrier recombination lifetime and the power
internally generated within the device when the peak emission wavelength is 0.87
m at a drive current of 40 mA.
Describe the basic principle of operation of laser.

14.

Define spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, and population inversion. Find

an expression for lasing threshold optical gain.

15.

Describe the different modes and radiation pattern of laser diode.

16.

(a) The monochromaticits of a laser beam depends on longitudinal modes

explain.
(b) Explain with diagram Fabry-Perot type laser diode .Compare it with DFB laser
diode.

17.

For coherent optical transmitter systems what are the noises that have to be taken
into account? How can these noises be minimized?

18.

(a) Assume is the average carrier lifetime in this recombination region when the
injected carrier pair density is nth near the threshold current density J th. That is, in
the steady state we have
( n)
0, so that
t
nth

J th
qd

If a current pulse of amplitude I P is applied to an unbiased laser diode, show that

the time needed for the onset of stimulated emission is.
t d ln

Ip
Ip Ith

Assume the drive current I = IA, where J is the current density and A is the area of
the action region.

(b) If the laser is now prebiased to a current density J B = IB/A, so that the initial express
carrier pair density is nB = JB /qd, then show that
t d ln

Ip
I p ( I B I th )

(c) Explain threshold condition in a laser device. Find an expression for optical gain at
Lasing threshold.
19.

Discuss the probable sources of/noise in LED and Laser diode. How can these be
reduced?

20.

A laser diode has lateral (Q =0o), respectively. What are the transverse and lateral
power distribution coefficients for this device?

21.

An LED with a circular emitting area of radius 20 m has a lambertion emission

pattern with a 100W/(cm2. Sr) axial radiance at 100 mA drive current. How much
optical power can be coupled into a step index fiber having a 100 m core
diameter and NA = 0.22? How much optical power can be coupled from this
source into a 50 m Core-diameter graded index fiber having = 2.0, n1 = 1.48
and = 0.01?

22.

A fiber is excited by a surface emitting LED. Calculate the input power, coupled
power, and coupling efficiency if the fiber and LED can be described as follows:
a=30 m
=1.5%
=1.95
B=2.0*102 W/cm2/S

23.

Calculate the individual intrinsic and extrinsic splice-loss effects (in dB) for a splice
whose transverse offset is 10%, axial tilt is 10% and mismatch is 10%. For the
transmitting fiber =1.6 and for the receiving fiber =1.5. Assume longitudinal
offset is zero and fiber cores of equal diameter.

MODULE- 5
1.

Draw a functional block diagram of a receiver and briefly explain the function of
each component.

2.

Explain the working of transimpedance preamplifier.What is its advantages over

high impedance FET pre-amplifier?

3.

Describe the principle of operation PIN photo detector and APD photo detector?

4.

Define quantum efficiency and responsivity of

(a) PIN photodiode and (b) APD photodiode.

5.

Describe RAPD Structure. Explain why it is reach through.

6.

Discuss the different types of noises that may affect the signal to noise ratio (S/N)
in the optical receiver of fiber optic system. Find an expression for S/N ratio for an
APD photo detector with avalanche gain M.

7.

From the above prob. (Q.28) find an optimum value of M (avalanche gain) for
maximum S/N ratio.

8.

An InGaAs pin photodiode has the following parameters:

Operating wavelength, =1300nm, ID=4nA, RL=1k, =0.65,
power =300nW, Receiver B.W. =20MHz.
Assume Surface leakage current is negligible.
Calculate (i) Quantum noise current
(ii) Thermal noise current for the receiver.

Incident optical

9.

An APD has the following parameters:

IL=1nA,
ID=1nA,
=0.85,
F= M1/2 , RL=1K
BW=1 KHz
Consider a sinusoidal varying 850nm signal of modulation index m=0.85 and
average power level of =50dBm to fall on the photodetector at room temperature
calculate S/N at M=20 & 100.
At what value of the M does the (S/N) max occur?

10.

A Si PIN photodiode has a depletion layer width of 20 m. area of 0.05mm2 and a

dielectric constant Ks =11.7. If the photodiode is to operate with a 10K load resistor
at 800nm, where the absorption coefficient s=1000cm-1, compare the RC time
constant and the career drift time of this device.

11.

Describe the simplest point-to-point optical fiber link. What are the key system
requirements for analyzing a link? In this contrast discuss the choice of the
Components.

12.

What is the basis of link power budget analysis? Give a brief account of optical
loss model. Find an expression for total loss in a point-to-point fiber optic
transmission link.

13.

Compute the maximum attenuation-limited transmission distance of the following

system operating at 30 Mb/s:
GaAlAs laser diode: -0dBm fiber coupled power
Silicon APD -55dBm sensitivity
G.I. fiber -2.5dB/Km attenuation at 8950nm
Connector loss- 1dB/connector

14.

Repeat the above problems for the following system operating at

InGaAsP LED: (-) 12dBm fiber coupled power
InGaAs pin photodiode: -40 dBm Sensitivity
Connector loss: 1 dB/connector.
Allow a 6 dB System margin.

15.

An Engineer has the following Components available:

(a) GaAlAs laser diode operating at 850 nm and Capable of Coupling 1 mW into a
fiber.
(b) Ten sections of cable each of which is 500 m long have a 4 dB/km attenuation
and have connectors on both ends.

1300nm.

(c) Connector loss of 2dB/connector.

(d) A pin photodiode receiver.
(e) An avalanche photodiode receiver using these components, the engineer
wishes to Construct a 6 Km link operating at 10 Mb/sec. If the sensitivities of the
pin and APD receivers are -46 to -59 dBm respectively, which receiver should be
used if a 6 dB system operating margin is required?
16.

What is the basis of rise time budget analysis? Find an expression for total system
rise time in case of a point-to-point fiber optic transmission link.

17.

Assuming a Gaussian temporal response at the output end of a fiber. Prove that
the time required for the pulse to reach to 1/2 maximum value is
1/ 2
t1 / 2 2 ln 2
, r.m.s pulse width.

18.

From the above problem (q. 39) find an expression for 3dB optical bandwidth.

19.

Show that if te is the full width of the Gaussian pulse at the 1/e point then the
relationship between the 3 dB optical band width and t e is given by
f 3dB 0.53 te

20.

In a 90 Mb/s NRZ data transmission system uses a GaAlAs laser diode having a 1
nm spectral width. The rise time of the laser transmitter output is 2 ns. The
transmission distance is 7 km over a graded- index fiber having an 800 MHz km
bandwidth distance product.
(a) If the receiver bandwidth is 80 MHz and the mode-mixing factor q = 0.7, what
is the system rise time? Does this rise time meet the NRZ data requirement of
being less than 70% of a pulse width?
(b) What is the system rise time if there is no mode mixing in the 7 Km. link, that is
q = 1.08?

21.

A 1550 nm single-mode digital fiber optic link needs to operate at 565 Mb/s over
50 Km without repeater. A single-mode InGaAsP laser launches an average
optical power of -13 dBm into the fiber. The fiber has a loss of 0.33 dB/km and
there is a splice with a loss of 0.1 dB every kilometer. The coupling loss at the
receiver is 0.5 dB and the receiver sensitivity is -39 dBm. Excess noise penalties
are predicted to be 1.5 dB. Set up an optical power budget for this link and find the
system margin.

22.

Design the encoder logic for an NRZ to optical Manchester converter.

23.

What is the difference between time division multiplexing and wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM)? Discuss the basic principle of WDM system and the
components based for implementing such system.

24.

Consider a star-coupled optical fiber network with 16 inputs and 16 outputs

operating at 10 Mb/s. Assume this system has the following parameters: Lc = 1.0
dB, star coupler insertion loss Ls = 5dB, and a fiber loss of 2 dB/km. Let the
source be InGaAsP LEDs having an output of -16 dBm from a fiber flylead and
assume InGaAsP pin photodiodes with a -49 dBm sensitivity are used. Assume
that a 6 dB system margin is required. What is the maximum transmission
distance if a transmission star coupler is used?

MODULE- 6 & 7
1.

Name the four network topology components. List the advantages and
disadvantages of a star topology connection.

2.

What are the advantages of tree topology? Name the disadvantages of ring
topology.

3.

Describe the advantages of ATM in relation to LAN and WAN networks.

4.

Develop the SONET STS frame and bit rate. How is the SONET frame structured?

5.

What is the relationship between SONET and T1 format? Describe the

multiplexing process of a SONET frame.

6.

What is the overhead to payload ratio of all SONET speeds? Draw a block
diagram of SONET architecture and describe its operation.

7.

What are the advantages of fiber optic sensors? Explain the working principle of
multimode fiber optic sensors for measuring different physical parameters.

8.

What are modulation techniques used in optical fiber sensors? Explain with
diagram the working principle of phase modulated fiber optic sensors.