CHAPTER 9

Propagation Loss Prediction Models

MASAHARU HATA

9.1

INTRODUCTION

Propagation loss prediction models play a very important role in the design of cellular
mobile radio communication systems by specifying the key system parameters such as
transmission power, frequency reuse, and so on. Several prediction models have been
proposed for cellular mobile radio systems operating in the quasi-microwave frequency
band.
Some of them were derived in a statistical manner from measurement data, and some
were derived analytically based on diffraction effects. Each model uses specific parameters
to achieve reasonable prediction accuracy. For example, one relatively long-range prediction model, intended for macrocell systems, uses base and mobile station antenna heights
and frequency. On the other hand, a prediction model for short-range estimation that was
designed for microcell systems uses building heights, street width, and so on. When the
cell size is quite small, for example, for a specific area, deterministic methods such as ray
tracing are necessary for accurate prediction. Therefore, it is important for designing
mobile systems to select the most appropriate prediction model with the goal of efficient
cell coverage.
This chapter summarizes the propagation loss prediction models commonly used in
land mobile communication system design and discusses their applicability in various
mobile propagation environments.

9.2

EMPIRICAL MODELS

Table 9.1 summarizes the propagation loss prediction models used to design current
cellular systems. The Okumura-Hata model [1,2] is the empirical formula based on field
measurements made in a typical mobile propagation environment (see Fig. 9.1). The

Wireless Communications in the i r Century, Edited by Shaft, Ogose, and Hattori.

ISBN 0-471-155041-X 2002 by the IEEE.

169

.......

...L

Antenna height
below roof tops
Remarks

Applicable range
T, - R, distance
Less than 1 km
Frequency

Structure of buildings, roads

Parameters
T, - R, distance
Frequency
Antenna height

Category
References

1-10km
No
168-900 MHz
(in Ibrahim-Person model)
Not clear
No

1-20km
No
150-1500 MHz
(applicable up to 2.2 GHz)

hbase: 30-200 m
No
Flat urban
Simple formula

No

Empirical model
[3] 1982, [4] 1983

Lee Ibrahim-Person

Yes
Yes
Yes
(base station and mobile station)
No

[1] 1968, [2] 1980

Okumura-Hata

Propagation Loss Prediction Models for Cellular Mobile Radio Communications

Prediction Model

TABLE 9.1

Analytical model
[6] 1980, [7] 1988, [8] 1991,
[9-12] 1992

0.02-5km
Yes
800-2000 MHz
(in COST-231-WalfischIkegami model)
hbase: 4-50m
hbase: 20-100m
No
Yes
Applicable for flat urban and suburban areas
Data base of buildings and streets are needed

0.5-10km
Yes
450-2200 MHz

Yes
Yes
Yes
(base station and mobile station)
Yes (average rooftop level, average building
separation) (street width, street angle)

[5] 1991

Sakagami

Walfisch-Bertoni COST-231
(Walfisch-Ikegami) ITU-R
TG8/1 (Xia-Bertoni)

9.2 EMPIRICAL MODELS

171

__Base station

~ . _f

..............

hm

n~~~l
median path I
betw

Parameters used in Ok

umura-Hata model

nction of d, th e diistance
0'" L ts expre sse d i
fu . .
een the transmitter and receiver:
l.n logarithmic seal e as a linear
.

L(dB)-A
'
+ Slog(d)
quasi-smooth
Y'. and
base and. mo b'lie station
(9.1)
The formula for urban,
functions
of frequenc
terrain
is su
L (dB) = 69 55
mmanzed as follows' antenna heights.
h
were A and Bare

. 9+ 26.1610 g(f) + [44

where k(h ) .

13.8210g(h )

. - 6.55 log(hb ) ] log(d)

b -

k(h

city:
r 0, mobile stu;ion antenna heights for
m IS the cor
.
me d'ium-sized
ci
rection
facto f
k(h
And for a Iarge city,

= [1.llog(f)

a small or

- 0.7]hm

[1.5610g(j) - 0 .8]

k(hm ) =_ 8.29[log(l.54h m )]2 -II

_ 3.2[log(l1.75h 2
For each k(h ) .
m)] - 4.97
m , If h m - I . 5 m, k(1.5) = 0 d
Applicable runge,

f, frequency (MHz)

(9.2)

f s 200 MHz
f 2: 400 MHz

B.

h , base station
150-2200 MHz
hb
antenna hei h (
m' mob ile stati
g t m)
30-20
d, distance fr on antenna height (m)
0m
m
om transmi .
1-10
tssion point (km)
1-20km

172

PROPAGATION LOSS PREDICTION MODELS

Based on the field measurement results, the applicable upper frequency range was
extended from 1500 to 2200 MHz [13]. In the formula, L is defined as the loss between
isotropic antennas. Therefore, if dipole antennas are used at base and mobile stations, the
first term of the right-hand side of Eq. (9.2) should be 65.25 instead of 69.55. The
following prediction formulas described in this chapter also consider the path loss between
isotropic antennas.
In the Okumura-Hata model, urban and quasi-smooth terrain is the base of the
prediction formula. The influence of irregular terrain is defined by terrain correction
factors and given by prediction curves [1]. For suburban and open (rural) areas, correction
formulas have also been produced based on measurement data [2]. However, how to select
correction formulas for an actual application remained uncertain; the environmental
definition was not really clear.
Considering that the categorization of urban, suburban, and rural area depends on the
degree of urbanization, a correction method using a ground cover factor was proposed by
Akeyama et al. [14]. The ground cover factor, a, is defined as the percentage of the area
covered by buildings within 500 x 800 nr'. The deviation from reference median path loss
S is shown in Figure 9.2 and expressed by:
S (dB) == -1910g(a) + 26

(5% :::; a)

-9.75[log(a)]2 - 3.74 log (a) + 20

(1%<a<5%)

(a :::; 1%)

20

(9.3)

The path loss with the Akeyama et al. correction is then given by:

L (dB) == L (dB) given by Eq. (9.2) - S(dB)

20

(9.4)

~~---------------------,

m 10

~
(/)
Q)

::J

ro

>

...

~
Q)

s...
s...

.. ... .

-10

I
5

10

20

30

50

70

Ground cover factor: a (0/0)

FIGURE 9.2 Akeyama correction considering the degree of urbanization.

9.2

EMPIRICAL MODELS

173

This correction makes the Okumura-Hata model applicable to suburban and rural areas.
With this correction, an adjustment constant is often added to the formula in actual
applications.
Several propagation loss prediction models were proposed after the Okumura-Hata
model. All of them also follow Eq. (9.1). In the Lee model [3], the median path loss is
given by

L (dB) == Al

+ fJlog(d) + F,

(9.5)

where A I is the path loss at a range of 1 km and fJ is the slope of the path loss curve. Term
F, is the adjustment factor for actual base station antenna heights, antenna gain, and
transmission power with respect to a reference. Values A I and fJ were derived from
experiments for urban, suburban, and rural areas. For an actual environment, it is necessary
to select A I and fJ by comparing the environment under consideration with the reference
environment that most closely resembles it. The influence of terrain is given as the
adjustment factor F, by calculating the effective base station antenna height.
The Ibrahim-Person model [4] uses two parameters, land usage factor (La) and degree
of urbanization (Ud ) to reflect the environmental condition; La is defined as the percentage
of the 500 x 500 m2 , which are covered by buildings, regardless of their height; Ud is
defined as the percentage of building site area, within the square, occupied by buildings
having four or more floors. The median path-loss formula is given by:

+ f 140 + 26log(f140)
- 86log[(f + 100)/156] + {40 + 14.15log[(f + 100)/156]}log(d)
+ 0.265La - 0.37Hg + x,

L (dB) == -20 10g(0.7hb )

810g(hm )

(9.6)

Applicable range:

f,

frequency (MHz)
168-900 MHz
hb , base station antenna height (m)
hm , mobile station antenna height (m)
< 3m
d, distance from transmission point (km)
1-10 km

where Hg is the correction term for average ground height, and K; == 0.087Ud - 5.5 for
highly urbanized areas, otherwise K; == O.
In the models described above, the distance d is more than 1 kIn and the base station
antenna height hb is higher than the rooftop level of surrounding buildings. This means
that the models are suitable for macrocell systems. To reduce the applicable range to less
than 1 kIn, a prediction formula has been proposed by Sakagami et al. [5]. As the model
was based on measurement data considering detailed data on the buildings and streets in
the prediction area, the formula uses many parameters indicating the layout of buildings
and roads:

L (dB) == 100 - 7.1log(W) + 0.0238

- [24.37 -

+ 1.4log(hs ) + 6.1log(H)
3. 7(H1hbo ) 2 ] log(hb ) + [43.42 - 3.1log(h b ) ] log (d)

+ 20 log(f) + exp] 13[log(f) - 3.23]}

(9.7)

174

PROPAGATION LOSS PREDICTION MODELS

Applicable range :

f,

frequency (MHz)

d,

distance from transmission point (km)

450-2200 MHz

T,

street width (m)

(),

street angle to the base station (deg .)

hs '

building height along the street (m)

5-50 m

(H) , average building height (m)

hb ,

0.5-10 km
0-90
5-80 m

5-50 m

base station antenna height above the mobile station ground (m)

20-100 m

hbQ' base station antenna height from the base station ground (m)
H, building height near the base station (m)
H S hbQ
The Sakagami model may indicate the ultimate empirical formula for short-range pathloss prediction. For smaller area prediction, it seems necessary to consider the actual
propagation paths between base and mobile station antennas using precise environment
data of the prediction area .

9.3 ANALYTICAL MODELS

To overcome the range limitations of the empirical formulas and try to explain the
propagation mechanism, analytical models have been proposed [6-12] . As seen in the
Sakagami model , the influences of buildings and streets are significant factors determining
the path loss in small-area propagation environments.
Figure 9.3 shows the parameters used in the Walfisch-Bertoni model [7]. The median
path loss, L (dB), is expressed as the summation of three independent terms: the free-space
Base station (BS)

Mobile station (MS)

- .~

~h b

hb

'" ' "

".

rRoad

(in Walfisch-Ikegami model)

FIGURE 9.3

Parameters used in Walfisch-Bertoni model.

hm

9.3

175

ANALYTICAL MODELS

loss (L f s) , the diffraction loss from rooftop to street (Lrt s) ' and the reduction due to plane
wave multiple diffraction past rows of buildings (Lm d ) :
(9.8)
where L f s is a function of wavelength and distance; L rt s can be calculated by the
geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD) [15], and is a function of average rooftop level,
mobile station antenna height, street width, and wavelength; L m d has been evaluated in
closed forms by Xia and Bertoni [9] and is a function of average rooftop level, average
separation distance between the rows of buildings, base station antenna height, street
width, wavelength, and distance.
Recently, simplified formulas have been proposed by Xia [12]. For base station
antennas above the average rooftop level, the prediction formula is given by:

L(dB) == _10l0g(~)2
-10 log [_A (~ __1_)2]
4nd
2n
e 2n + e
2r

_ 1010g[(2.35i

( ~:b

A) 1.8]

(9.9)

When the base station antenna is near the average rooftop level, the path loss is given by:

(_A_) -10 log [_A (~e__+ e

2

(dB)

==

-10 log

2n 2r

2V1nd

2n

1_)2]

- 1010gGY

(9.10)

For base station antennas below the average rooftop level, the path loss is given by:
-10 log

(_A_)
-10 log [_A (~ __
2V1nd
2n
() 2n + ()

-1010

I[

L (dB)

==

1_)2]

2r

]2 J~h~A+ b ( -4>1 -2n-1+-4>)21

b
2n(d - b)

(9.11 )

where A is the wavelength and d is the distance between base and mobile station. The other
parameters, I1h b , I1h m , b, and w, are defined in Figure 9.3, and r, and are defined by:

e,

= ~h~ + (w/2)2

e == tan- l [l1h m/(w/2)]

In the COST-231-Walfisch-Ikegami model [8], the angle of incident wave l/J shown in
Figure 9.3 is also used as an additional parameter. The diffraction loss from rooftop to
street, Lrt s , and the multiscreen diffraction loss, Lm d , in Eq. (9.8) are given by:

Lrt s (dB) == -16.9 - 10log(w) + 10 log(f)

for L rt s < 0

+ 20 10g(l1hm ) + Lori
(9.12)

176

PROPAGATION LOSS PREDICTION MODELS

where
Lori

== -10 + 0.354tj1

L md (dB)

for 0 ~ tjI < 35

2.5 + 0.075(tjI - 35)

for 35

tjI < 55

4.0 - 0.114(tjI - 55)

for 55

tjI ~ 90

== L bsh + ka + kd log(d) + kf log(f) - 9 log(b)

for L m d < 0

(9.13)

where
L bsh

== -1810g( 1 + ~hb)

o
ka == 54
54 -

for hb < hroof

for hb > hroof
0.8~hb

54 - 0.8
kd

for hb > hroof

for d

~hb(d/0.5)

0.5km and hb ~ hroof

for d < 0.5km and hb == hroof

== 18

for hb > hroof

18 - 15 ~hb/ hroof for hb < hroof
kf == -4 + 0.7(//925 - 1)
for medium-sized cities and suburban centers with
moderate tree density
- 4 + 1.5(//925 - 1)

for metropolitan centers

The applicable range in the COST-231-Walfisch-Ikegami model is

f, frequency (MHz)
800-2000 MHz
hb , base station antenna height (m)
4-50 m
hm , mobile station antenna height (m)
1-3 m
d, distance from transmission point (km)

0.02-5 km

The Walfisch-Bertoni model supports distances less than 1 km and base station antenna
heights lower than rooftop level. This means the model is suitable for microcell systems.
However, if the model is applied to a street microcell system whose base station antenna
heights are below the average rooftop level, the prediction error may be large. This is
because it is necessary to consider not only free line-of-sight propagation but also wave
guiding and diffraction at comers. The model does not correspond to this situation.
Figure 9.4 shows the two-path model with street canyon propagation. A calculation of
the theoretical signal level for the two-path process showed that it roughly followed a free
space power law close to the base station before making a transition to the faster
attenuation rate of the inverse fourth-power law. As shown in Figure 9.5, measurement
results also showed that close to the base station the propagation followed the free space
power law, and beyond this distance the propagation followed the inverse fourth-power law

9.3 ANALYTICAL MODELS

-----,

177

""" <

Base station

.....-.:..... -

-.
'.

'"

........

Canyon of
buildings

... . .

'.

-,

Street

FIGURE 9.4

Mobile statio n
............

.- ,~

Ground

Geometry of the two-path model for street microcelIs.

[16, 17]. The distance at which the path-loss law changes is called the breakpoint distance
and given by:
(9.14)
where ), is the wavelength, and hm and hb are the mobile and base station antenna heights,
respectively. The factor k takes values from 11 to 411, and depends on the actual

20

Median signa l level for

5.3m base site antenna
height

co

"0

15 -2010gd d<145.5m
60 -41 log d d> 145.5 m

Qj

>

roc

-20

.!2'
C/)

"0
Q)

.<::

-40
Mobile antenna
height = 1.6 m

Q)

oQ)
0:::

-60
I

I I I

I I I

10

I I I I II

100

I I I I I

1000

Distance from the base site (m)

FIGURE 9.5 Microcellular propagation laws that characterized the measurement data taken in the
Ginza of Tokyo.

178

PROPAGATION LOSS PREDICTION MODELS

environment such as vehicular traffic, trees, and traffic signals. For the example shown in
Figure 9.5, it has been reported that k == 2n.
Based on this fact and measurement results, a path-loss prediction formula for street
microcells was proposed by Ichitsubo et al. [18]. For a line-of-site street, the path loss is
given by:

L (dB) == P(L I )

15.510g(WI) + Floss

+ 59.9

(9.15)

For a street with intersections, the path loss is given by:

L (dB) == P(L I , L2 )

20.210g(wI) - 7.810g(w2)

+ Floss + 59.8

(9.16)

For parallel streets, the path loss is given by:

+ 40.410g(L2 ) + 18.610g[(L2 +L3)/L2 ] 19.91og(wz) - 8.510g(w3) + Floss + 40.6

L (dB) == P(L I )
-

15.410g(WI)
(9.17)

9.4 DETERMINISTIC METHODS

:.-e:::..~:.

FIGURE 9.6

179

Cross st reet

Parameters used in street microcell path-loss prediction.

The parameters used in the formula are defined in Figure 9.6;

dependency.

Fl oss

represents frequency

9.4 DETERMINISTIC METHODS

The history of path-loss prediction models shows that information about buildings and
streets is necessary and geometrical paths between transmitter and receiver should be
considered for accurate prediction . The ray-tracing method is a relatively precise approach
for small areas such as indoor picocells and street microcells [19-21].
In the ray-tracing method, rays are launched from the transmitter, and geometrical
reflection, transmission, and diffraction are repeated for walls and edges of buildings, as
shown in Figure 9.7. The rays arriving at the receiver are tracked as traces, and the field
strength at the receiving point is calculated by summing the electric fields of all arrival
rays. The field strength of each ray is determined by calculating all reflection, transmission,
and diffraction losses in the propagation path. The reflection and transmission losses are
usually calculated using Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients, and diffraction
loss is calculated by using the geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD). This means that the
prediction accuracy depends on how to find exact ray paths between the transmitter and
receiver.
As shown in Figure 9.8, there are two approaches to ray tracing: the imaging method
and the launching method. In the imaging method, the reflection and transmission points
are determined geometrically by considering the transmitter 's equivalent image. The rays
reaching the receiving point are located by examining all combinations of reflection,
transmission , and all diffraction points between the transmitter and receiver. This method
offers good prediction accuracy but needs long computation time when a lot of images

180

PROPAGATION LOSS PREDICTION MODELS

FIGURE 9.7

Reflection, transmission, and diffraction between T, and R,.

must be considered. In the launching method, a ray is launched at every angle 110 from the
transmitter , and its path is traced through reflection, transmission , and diffraction. The rays
that reach reception area I1S are considered to have arrived at the reception point. Since ray
tracing is performed for each discrete angle 110, the computation time is shorter than that
of the imaging method . The prediction accuracy of this method depends on the chosen
values of 110 and I1S. A combination of these two methods has been reported to simplify
three-dimensional ray tracing [22].
With both methods, there is a trade-off between the prediction accuracy and the
computation time. How to reduce the reflection, transmission , and diffraction points, or
how to find the paths that most strongly contribute to the receiving level is the key to
optimizing this trade-off. The other way to reduce the computation time is to model the
buildings and roads in the prediction area. Regarding roads, for example, each intersection
and the street between intersections can be transferred to a node and an element
component, and the data of street width and building height are stored as the component

ReceptionArea
L'lS Reflecting Object
Reception Point
Rx

Reflecting Object
Rx

,,
",

Tx

:.

Launching Angle
L'l8 ,

.. .. . . .... .
Image ofTx
Tx

Imaging Method
FIGURE 9.8

Launch ing Method

Imaging and launching methods for ray tracing.

9.5 SUMMARY

181

....

....

Building

................Delay profile
L..

:: 'I,

~
a .: I
0..

-0 . :::

j ."~
" ~",~I~
II ~
Ray arrival time

,.L....1......J

O . :(~ ~)

FIGURE 9.9 Example of ray-tracing results for macrocell system.

factors. In a similar manner, the prediction area can be transformed into a plane with
pixels, and each pixel holds data on terrain and buildings. By introducing such modeling to
the database structure, preprocessing becomes possible before the ray-tracing process, and
it also becomes possible to refer to the database quickly during the calculations .
When the ray-tracing method is applied to a wide area, a huge database is required, and
computation time exponentially increases with the number of traces. However, the
enormous increase in the processing performance of computers and the commercialization
of CD-ROM map, including the data of terrain and obstacles, has increased interest in this
method for microcell and macrocell system design tools [23, 24]. Figure 9.9 shows an
example of a ray-tracing result for a macrocell system.

9.5

SUMMARY

Figure 9.10 shows the applicable areas and simplicity of the major prediction models. The
cell size of current cellular systems in urban areas is shrinking to cope with increasing
demand. For designing of microcells and indoor picocells, the ray-tracing method is now
practical. The Walfisch-Bertoni model is also useful for microcells somewhat larger than
street microcells. Macrocells with cell radii larger than 1 km are still needed for suburban
and rural areas to realize cost-efficient systems. The Okumura-Hata model with the
Akeyama correction and terrain correction is useful in these application areas due to its
simplicity.
Each prediction model has its own applicable conditions. In particular, the range of
application area is different from each other. Prediction accuracy of each model is assured
under the indicated applicable conditions . Therefore , when we design cellular mobile radio
systems, it is important to select the prediction model appropriate for the intended cell size.
In actual case, it is necessary to use one or several prediction models for determining the
path loss [25].

182

PROPAGATION LOSS PREDICTION MODELS

' :8 burban .
c

::l

co
o

.~

Ci

(]j

.. .. .. . . . . . . .

::: <: : : r Mitbp~ll.: .

:>

: Mi3ct66~11

1 km
Applicable Cell Size
FIGURE 9.10

. : : : ::

~e~acell

10 km

Application areas and simplicity of prediction models.

The applicable frequency range of propagation loss prediction models proposed so

far is up to around 2 GHz. The third-generation mobile communication system, the international mobile telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000), will be introduced in the 2-GHz
frequency band. IMT-2000 will use the bandwidth of more than 5 MHz to support user bit
rates of up to 2 Mbitsjs. The wideband characteristics of the propagation channel, for
example, the characteristics of individual paths in multipath propagation are necessary for
such system design. The fourth-generation system will provide multimedia services
beyond IMT-2000 by using microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands and so
will require even wider bandwidth . In such a situation, microcells and picocells will be
introduced to compensate the increased path loss. The space-time equalization technology,
which combines adaptive equalizers and adaptive array antennas, may be the breakthrough
needed to overcome the increase in path loss and delay spread [26]. The path loss,
the direction of arrival (DOA) and the time of arrival (TOA) of each path are essential
characteristics in developing these technologies. The ray-tracing method appears
to be most effective in these cases and so will become more important in future system
designs .

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and UHF Land Mobile Service," Rev. Elec. Commun . Lab., Vol. 15, pp. 825-873, 1968.
2. M. Hata, "Empirical Formula for Propagation Loss in Land Mobile Radio Services," IEEE Trans.
Veh. Tech., Vol. 29, pp. 317-325, Aug . 1980.
3. W. C. Y. Lee, Mobile Communi cation Engineering, McGraw-Hill , New York, 1982.
4. M. F. Ibrahim and 1. D. Person, "Signal Strength Prediction in Build-up Areas . Part I : Median
Signal Strength ," lEE Proc., Vol. 130, Part F, pp. 377-384, 1983.
5. S. Sakagami and K. Kuboi, "Mobile Propagation Loss Prediction for Arbitrary Urban Environments ," Elec. Commun. Japan , Part I, Vol. 74, No. 10, pp. 87-99, 1991.

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6. F. Ikegami and S. Yoshida, "Analysis of Multipath Propagation Structure in Urban Mobile Radio
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Zone Design Method in Local Cities," Rev. Elec. Commun. Lab., Vol. 30, pp. 308-317, 1982.
15. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1974.
16. E. Green, "Measurements and Models for the Radio Characterization of Microcells," IEEE
ICCS'90 Proceedings, pp. 1263-1267, Singapore, Nov. 1990.
17. E. Green and M. Hata, "Microcellular Propagation Measurements in an Urban Environment,"
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