Lecture 3:

Near-Wall Modeling and Transition Modeling

15.0 Release

Turbulence Modeling Using ANSYS Fluent

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Topics to be Discussed
Near wall modeling options
Low Reynolds number turbulence models
V2F model
Laminar to turbulent transition in boundary layers

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Importance of Near-Wall Modeling

Walls are main source of vorticity and turbulence
The presence of walls usually gives rise to turbulent momentum and thermal
boundary layers: the steepest variations are in the very near-wall regions

Successful prediction of frictional drag for external flows, or pressure drop for

internal flows, depends on fidelity of local wall shear predictions

Pressure drag for bluff bodies is dependent upon extent of separation zones
Thermal performance of heat exchangers, etc., is determined by turbulent wall
heat transfer whose prediction depends upon near-wall modeling

Use of very fine mesh to resolve the steep profiles is still too expensive for
many industrial CFD simulations
Hence accurate near-wall modeling is important for most industrial CFD
applications
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Near-Wall Modeling Issues

k-e and RSM models are valid in the turbulent core region and
through the log layer

Some of the modeled terms in these equations are based on isotropic

behavior

Isotropic diffusion ( m t / s )
Isotropic dissipation
Pressure-strain redistribution
Some model parameters based on experiments of isotropic turbulence

Near-wall flows are anisotropic due to presence of walls

Special near-wall treatments are necessary for these models since
equations cannot be integrated down to wall
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Flow Behavior in Near-Wall Region

Velocity profile exhibits layer structure
identified from dimensional analysis

U/ut

Inner layer

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viscous forces rule, U = f ( r, tw , m , y )

Outer layer
dependent upon mean flow
Overlap layer
log-law applies

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TKE Budget in Near-Wall Region

Turbulent kinetic energy production
and dissipation are nearly equal in
the log-law region

Turbulent equilibrium

dissipation >> production in the

viscous sublayer region

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Near-Wall Modeling Options

In general, wall functions are a collection or set of laws that serve as boundary
conditions for momentum, energy, and species as well as for turbulence quantities

Wall Function Options

The Standard and Non-equilibrium Wall Function options
refer to specific sets designed for high Re flows

The viscosity affected, near-wall region is not resolved

Near-wall mesh is relatively coarse
Cell center information bridged by empirically-based wall
functions

Enhanced Wall Treatment or Low-Re Option

This near-wall model combines the use of enhanced wall

outer layer

functions and a two-layer model

Used for low-Re flows or flows with complex near-wall

phenomena
Generally requires a very fine near-wall mesh capable of
resolving the near-wall region
Turbulence models are modified for inner layer

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inner layer

Wall Functions
Wall functions consist of wall laws for mean velocity and
temperature and formulas for turbulent quantities

The Universal Wall Laws

Viscous sublayer

Local equilibrium

u+ = y+
Log layer

k = ut2/Cm1/2
e = ut3/ky
Precludes transport of turbulence in
log layer
k and e are functions of ut only

Formulas for k and e

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ln( y ) C; u

April 23, 2014

U
ut

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Standard Wall Functions: Velocity

Fluent uses Launder-Spalding Wall Functions
U=U(r,t,m,y,k)
Introduces additional velocity scale, U*, for general application
1/ 4 1/ 2
y* yv*
U * y*
U
C
P
m kP
*
where
for
U

y* yv*
tw / r
U * 1 ln Ey *
k

1/ 4 1/ 2
r
C
m k P yP

y
m

In an equilibrium boundary layer, where production is equal to dissipation, u* and

u+ are identical (see right hand side of Slide 8)
Similar wall laws apply for energy and species

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Standard Wall Functions: Turbulence

Wall Functions does not just mean the velocity profile
Turbulence quantities also require special consideration
Generally, k is obtained from solution of k transport equation
Cell center is immersed in log layer
Local equilibrium (production = dissipation) prevails
kn = 0 at surface
e calculated at wall-adjacent cells using local equilibrium assumption
e = Cm3/4 k3/2 / k y

Wall functions less reliable when cell is down to the viscous sublayer
Due to the fact that production << dissipation in the viscous sublayer while
production is roughly equal to dissipation in the log-law layer
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Limitations of Standard Wall Functions

Wall functions become less reliable when flow departs from the
conditions assumed in their derivation:
Local equilibrium assumption is not valid in the following:
Strong pressure gradient p (strong acceleration or deceleration of the flow)
Transpiration through wall
Strong body forces
Large curvature
Stagnation and stream-line re-attachment
Highly 3D flow (e.g., cross flows)
Rapidly changing fluid properties near wall
Low-Re flows are pervasive throughout model
Small gaps are present
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Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions

Log-law is sensitized to pressure gradient for
better prediction of adverse pressure gradient
flows and separation

Relaxed local equilibrium assumptions for TKE

in the turbulent region of the wall-neighboring
cells
~
r C1m/ 4 k1/ 2 y
U C1m/ 4 k1/ 2
1

ln E
k
tw / r
m

where
2
y yv
yv
yv
dp
~
y
1
U U
ln

1/ 2
1/ 2
2 dx
y
rk
m
rk
k
k
v

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Rij , k , e are estimated in each

region and used to determine
average e and production of k

Scalable Wall Functions

For k-e models, the scalable wall functions introduces a limiter in the y* calculations
~
such that y* = max ( y*, 11.225 )

Essentially like saying if the first grid point is too close, the wall surface is shifted so that the

first cell centroid is just outside the viscous sublayer

In an equilibrium boundary layer where u* = u+, 11.225 is the value of y* where the viscous
sublayer velocity profile and the logarithmic velocity profile intersect

Can help to reduce y+ dependency when wall functions are employed

Its not magic: adequate resolution of boundary layer is necessary

Example: Grid sensitivity for
simulation of heat transfer in a
sudden pipe expansion

Standard WFs
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Scalable WFs
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Enhanced Wall Treatment

Enhanced wall functions
Momentum boundary condition based on blended

law-of-the-wall (Kader)
u e
Similar blended wall laws apply for energy, species, and w
Kaders form for blending allows for incorporation of additional physics
Pressure gradient effects
Thermal (including compressibility) effects

Two-layer model

lam

e uturb

A blended two-layer model is used to determine near-wall e field

Domain is divided into viscosity-affected (near-wall) region and turbulent core region
Based on wall-distance turbulent Reynolds number:
Re y r k y / m
Zoning is dynamic and solution adaptive
High Re turbulence model used in outer layer
Simple turbulence model used in inner layer
Solutions for e and m t in each region are blended, e.g., e mt outer 1 e mt inner
The Enhanced Wall Treatment is an option for the k-e and RSM turbulence models
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Comparison of EWT and Scalable Wall Functions

Enhanced Wall Treatment (EWT) and Scalable Wall Functions are both y+
insensitive near wall modeling approaches
This means that as the grid is refined, the solution will not show excessive sensitivity to the y+

value of the first cell, as on the left hand side of Slide 13

Scalable wall functions are not grid sensitive like standard or non-equilibrium wall functions
but that does not mean they are more accurate

In addition to being a y+ insensitive approach, EWT is also a viscous

sublayer resolving approach
This means that when it is used with a mesh that is fine enough to capture the flow behavior
in the viscous sublayer, more accurate results would be expected with EWT than with
scalable wall functions
EWT must be used to get accurate results in such a case (details in a later slide)

In a case where the first grid point is always in the log layer, there should
not be much difference between EWT and scalable wall functions
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Two-Layer Zonal Concept

Approach is to divide flow domain into two regions
Viscosity affected near-wall region
Fully turbulent core region
Use different turbulence models for each region
One-equation ( k ) near-wall model for the viscosity affected near-wall
region
High-Re k-e or RSM models for turbulent core region

Wall functions, and their limitations, are avoided

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Two-Layer Zones
The two regions are demarcated on a cell-by-cell basis:
Based on Rey = r k1/2y / m
Rey > 200, it is called the
turbulent core region
Rey < 200, it is called the
viscosity affected region
y is the shortest distance to the
nearest wall
zoning is dynamic and solution
adaptive
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Models Used in the Two-Layer Zones

In the turbulent region, the chosen high-Re turbulence model is used
In the viscosity-affected region, a one-equation model is used

k equation is same as high-Re model

Length scale used in evaluation of m t is not from e

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m t = r Cm k1/2 lm
lm = cl y ( 1 exp (- Rey /Am ))
cl = k Cm3/4
Dissipation rate, e , is calculated algebraically (not from transport equation)
e = k3/2/le
le = cl y ( 1 exp (-Rey /Ae ))
The two e - fields can be quite different along the interface in highly nonequilibrium turbulence

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Blended e equations
The transition (of e field) from one zone to another can be made
smoother by blending the two sets of e equations (Jongen, 1998)

k P3 2

e aPe P anbe nb Se P 1 e e P
e
nb

Re y Re*y
1

with e 1 tanh

2
A

Outer layer

De
aPe P anbe nb Se P
Dt
k nb
3

Inner layer

3 e

k 2
eP P
e

Wall
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Blended Turbulent Viscosity

Turbulent viscosity ( m t ) is also blended using the individual
formulations
e m t outer 1 e m t inner
m t outer r Cm

k2

m t inner r Cm

Re y

k m , m c y 1 exp
A
m

m t outer r Cm

Outer layer

k 2
e
e

m t inner r Cm

Inner layer

Wall
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k2

e
k m

Blended Wall Laws

Mean velocity
u

turb

lam

u e u

ln E y

u turb
a y

, a 0.01 c ,
1 b y
4

u lam y

5
E
, c exp 1
c
E

where
u lam y
u turb

ln E y

Blended wall laws for temperature and species as well

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Wall Law Sub-models and Options

Pressure Gradient Effects option
Always available - deactivated by
default

Thermal Effects option

Available only when energy equation is
turned on - deactivated by default
Accounts for
Non-adiabatic wall heat transfer effects
Compressibility effects - takes effect when
ideal-gas option is chosen
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Sub-models and Options

The base laws-of-the-wall (mean velocity and temperature)
are modified using (White and Christoph, 1972) :

du
1

1 u u 2

dy ky pressure
gradient
thermal effects

effects

Pressure-gradient contribution comes from:

t tw

dp
dp
y, w
dx
t wut d x

Thermal contribution comes from:

rw
1 u u ,
r
2

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s q u
t w t ,
C pt w Tw

s t ut2

2 C p Tw

heat transfer parameter

compressibility parameter

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Wall boundary conditions for w equation

In SST and standard k-w, the wall value of omega can be given as
r u*
ww
w
m
2

In the viscous sublayer we have w

And in the log layer we have

i y

1 du turb

* dy

A blending function is used to switch automatically from the sublayer

form to the log layer form depending on the grid
The use of the blending function means that the SST and k-w models can be used in a robust

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manner on meshes suitable for wall functions

However, keep in mind that many of the applications these models are intended to address
require the viscous sublayer to be resolved for optimum accuracy

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Grid Considerations (1)

Cases where the highly resolved Low-Re meshes can be
afforded or are absolutely necessary
The viscous sublayer is resolved
Can use
k-e family or RSM with EWT
S-A, k-w, SST
transition models

1st cell centroid at y+ ~ 1

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Grid Considerations (2)

Cases where the resolving the viscous sublayer is
unaffordable Majority of industrial 3D flows.
WFs bridge the gap between the wall
and the fully turbulent region where
the first cell centroid is placed
Can use
k-e family or RSM with WFs

1st cell centroid at 30 < y+ < 300

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Example in Predicting Near-wall Cell Size

During the pre-processing stage, you will need to know a suitable size for the first layer of grid
cells (inflation layer) so that Y+ is in the desired range.

The actual flow-field will not be known until you have computed the solution (and indeed it is
sometimes unavoidable to have to go back and remesh your model on account of the computed
Y+ values).

To reduce the risk of needing to remesh, you may want to try and predict the cell size by
performing a hand calculation at the start. For example:
Air at 20 m/s

The question is what height (y)

should the first row of grid cells be.
We will use SWF, and are aiming for
Y+ 50

r = 1.225 kg/m3
m = 1.8x10-5 kg/ms

Flat plate, 1m long

For a flat plate, Reynolds number (

Rel

rVL
)
m

gives Rel = 1.4x106

Recall from earlier slide, flow over a surface is turbulent when ReL > 5x105
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Calculating Wall Distance for a Given y+

Re is known, so use the definitions to

Begin with the definition of y+ and rearrange:

r Ut y
y
m

ym
y
Ut r

calculate the first cell height

C f 0.058 Rel0.2 .0034

The target y+ value and fluid properties are known,

so we need Ut, which is defined as:

t
Ut w
r

t w 12 C f rU 2 0.83 kg/ m s 2

Ut

tw
0.82 m/s
r

The wall shear stress ,tw ,can be found from the skin We know we are aiming for y+ of 50, hence:
friction coefficient, Cf:
2
t w 1 C f rU
2

A literature search1 suggests a formula for the skin

friction on a plate thus:

ym
y
9x10 -4 m
Ut r

our first cell height y should be

approximately 1 mm.

C f 0.058 Rel0.2
1 An equivalent formula for internal flows, with Reynolds number based on the pipe diameter is C = 0.079 Re -0.25
f
d
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Damping-Function Low-Re Models

Standard k-e model modified by damping functions: f m , f1 , f 2
e transport equation

De

Dt x j

mt

se

e e
2

f1 C1e mt S r f 2 C2e e
x j k

turbulent viscosity

mt r f m Cm

k2

k and e equations solved on fine mesh (required) right to the wall

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Typical Damping Functions

Damping functions written in terms of Reynolds numbers:
r k2
r ky
r m e / r 1/ 4 y
Ret
; Re y
; Re
me
m
m
e.g., Abids model:

f m tanh0.008Re y 1 4 Ret

3 / 4

f1 1
2
Ret 2
Re y
1 exp
f 2 1 exp

12
9
36
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Low-Re k-e Models

Several full low-Re k-e models now available
Lam Bremhorst
Launder-Sharma
Abid
Chang et al.
Abe-Kondo-Nagano
Yang-Shih
Enables modeling of low-Re effects including transitional flows
Implementations are problem specific
Features are not visible in GUI
Access from TUI
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V2F low-Re k-e Model

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Durbin (1990) suggests that wall normal fluctuations, v , are

responsible for the near-wall transport
v 2 behaves quite differently than u 2 and w2
attenuation of v 2 is a kinematic effect
2
whereas the damping of u is a dynamic effect
Model mt ~ v 2T instead of mt ~ kT

Requires two additional equations:

transport equation for wall-normal fluctuations, v 2
equation for an elliptic relaxation function, f
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V2F k-e Model Equations

e transport equation

De

D t xj

mt e 1
2
m
C1e m t S r C2e e
s e x j T

v2 transport equation
D v2

Dt
xj

m t v2
2 e

r
k
f

r
v

x
s
k

k
j

Relaxation equation
2 f
C1 2 v 2
m t S 2 N 1 v 2
f L

C2

xj xj T 3 k
rk
kT
2

Scales

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k3
k

3
2
2
T max ,6 ; L CL max 2 , C

e
e
e
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V2F k-e Model Pros and Cons

Very promising results for a wide range of flow and heat
transfer test cases
at least as good as the best of the damping function approaches in most
test cases

Still an isotropic eddy-viscosity model

Needs 2 additional equations, so requires more memory and
CPU than damping functions

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Modeling Laminar to Turbulent Transition

Until recently, most engineering CFD simulations did not include laminar to
turbulent transition
Low Re turbulence models cannot reliably predict transition

The transition process strongly affects heat transfer, skin friction and flow
separation that are central to the efficiency of many technical devices

Fluent includes three turbulence models developed specifically for prediction

flows with laminar to turbulent transition
Models can predict laminar to turbulent transition in boundary layers
Models can predict numerous transition regimes
Natural transition, bypass transition, separation-induced transition,
crossflow transition
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Transition Models in Fluent

Three transition models are available
Transition SST (Menter and Langtry, 2004)
Correlation based model using transport equations and local formulation
Uses SST k and w equations plus two additional transport equations

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(intermittency and Req )

Intermittency Transition Model (ANSYS, R15)
Correlation based model using transport equations and local formulation
Uses SST k and w equations plus one additional transport equation for
intermittency
Only model that can predict crossflow transition
k-kl-w (Walters and Cokljat, 2007)
Based on laminar kinetic energy concept
Uses k and w equations plus one additional transport equation (laminar
kinetic energy)

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Appendix

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Guidelines for Transition Model Usage

Mesh
First cell centroid at y+ ~ 1
Stretching (expansion ratio) of grid in wall normal direction should not exceed ~ 1.1

Transition SST

Converge 2 equation SST

Switch to Transition SST
Leave intermittency as it is
In initialize panel see what value you will get for Req when you initialize from the inlet (4th transport
equation) and use that value to patch Req into the field
Ensure that all schemes and all URF are the same for all 4 turbulence equations
Use Coupled PBNS solver

k-kl-w

Converge any k-w model (optional)

Switch to 3 equation k-kl-w model
Inflow value of kl should be 10-6

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