The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Sinai, by Lina Eckenstein

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

Title: A History of Sinai

Author: Lina Eckenstein
Release Date: November 5, 2015 [EBook #50390]
Language: English
Character set encoding: UTF-8
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF SINAI ***

Produced by Giovanni Fini, Shaun Pinder and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

A HISTORY OF SINAI
BY
LINA ECKENSTEIN
AUTHOR OF WOMAN UNDER MONASTICISM
_WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS_
LONDON
SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE
NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, W.C.
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.
1921

PRINTED BY

WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

LONDON AND BECCLES.

FOREWORD
IN the winter of 1905-6 Professor Flinders Petrie undertook the
examination of the Egyptian remains in Sinai. After working at Wadi
Maghara he removed into the Wadi Umm Agraf to copy the inscriptions
and excavate the temple ruins at Serabit. His work is described in
Researches in Sinai, 1906, and the inscriptions are in course of
publication by the Egypt Exploration Fund. Among the workers at Serabit
was myself. I had long been interested in the hermit life of the
peninsula and in the growing belief that the Gebel Musa was not the
Mountain of the Law. The excavations at Serabit and the non-Egyptian
character of the ancient hill sanctuary supplied new material for
reflection. In the hours spent in sorting fragments of temple offerings
and copying temple inscriptions it occurred to me that we might be on
the site which meant so much in the history of religion. Studies made
after our return suggested further points of interest. The outcome is
this little history which will, I trust, appeal to those who take an
interest in the reconstruction of the past and in the successive stages
of religious development.
LINA ECKENSTEIN
_Easter, 1920._

APPROXIMATE DATING OF EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES

DYNASTY
I. B.C.
IV.
VI.
XII.
XV.

XVIII.

XIX.

5500.
4800.
4300.
3600.
2500.

1580.
1380.
13281202.
13001234.

Monument of Semerkhet in Sinai

Khufu

the Pepys

Amen-em-hats and Sen-userts

Hyksos Conquest
Time of Abraham and Joseph
Amen hotep and Tahutmes
Akhen-aten (Amen-hotep IV),(?) time of Moses
Ramessides
Ramessu II.

RULERS OF PHARAN AND THE CONVENT OF SINAI

LIST TENTATIVELY ENLARGED FROM CHEIKHO
BISHOPS OF PHARAN
Moses.
Natyr.

Macarius.
Photius.
Theodor.
BISHOPS OF SINAI
Constantine, 869.
Marcus I, 869.
Jorius, 1033.
John I, 1069.
Zacharias, 1103 or 1114.
George, 1133 or 1143.
Gabriel I, 1146.
John II, 1164.
Simeon (Archbishop), 1203-53.
Euthymius, 1223.
Macarius I, 1224.
Germanus I, 1228.
Theodosius, 1239.
Macarius II, 1248.
Simeon (? II), 1258.
John III, 1265.
Arsinius, 1290.
Simeon, 1306.
Dorotheus, 1324-33.
Germanus II, 1333.
Marcus II, 1358.
Job.
Athanasius.
Sabbas.
Abraham.
Gabriel II.
Michael.
Silvanus.
Cyrillus.
Solomon.
Macarius of Cyprus, 1547.
Eugenius, 1565-83.
Anastasius, 1583-92.
Laurentius, 1572-1617.
Joasaph, 1617-58.
(Nectarius)
Ananias (1667-77), 1658-68.
Joannicus I. (1677-1703), 1668-1703.
Cosmas, 1705.
Athanasius of Bari, 1706-18.
Joannicus II of Mytilene, 1718-29.
Nicephorus Mortales, 1729-49.
Constantius I, 1749-59.
Cyrillus II, 1759-90.
Dorotheus of Byzantium, 1794-96.
Constantius II, 1804-59.
Cyrillus III, 1859-67.
Callistratus, 1877-85.
Porphyrius, 1885.

CHIEF AUTHORITIES
_For other works and writers see Alphabetical Index and page referred

to._
BREASTED, J. H., Ancient Records of Egypt, 1906.
Perigraphe of Holy Mount Sinai, 1817. (In Greek.)
PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS, Researches in Sinai, 1906.
WEILL, RAYMOND, La Presqule de Sinai, 1908.
WILSON & PALMER, Ordnance Survey, 1870-71.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGE
FOREWORD
APPROXIMATE DATING OF EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES
RULERS OF PHARAN AND THE CONVENT OF SINAI
CHIEF AUTHORITIES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

I. INTRODUCTORY
II. SINAI A CENTRE OF MOON-CULT
III. THE SANCTUARY AT SERABIT
IV. THE EGYPTIANS IN SINAI. I.
V. EARLY PEOPLES AND PLACE NAMES

iii
v
vii
ix
xiii
1
8
17
30
41

VI. THE EGYPTIANS IN SINAI. II.

52

VII. THE ISRAELITES IN SINAI. I.

64

VIII. THE ISRAELITES IN SINAI. II.

74

IX. THE NABATEANS

X. THE HERMITS IN SINAI

83
94

XI. THE WRITINGS OF THE HERMITS

106

XII. THE BUILDING OF THE CONVENT

121

XIII. MOHAMMAD AND ST. KATHERINE

134

XIV. SINAI DURING THE CRUSADES

143

XV. THE PILGRIMS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. I.

155

XVI. THE PILGRIMS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. II.

165

XVII. THE CONVENT BETWEEN 1500 AND 1800

173

XVIII. SINAI IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

183

ALPHABETICAL INDEX

195

ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
1. SITUATION OF SANCTUARIES

PAGE
9

2. FIGURES OF BABOONS

11

3. SNEFERU RAVAGING THE LAND

13

4. KHUFU SMITING THE ANU BEFORE THOTH

14

5. AMEN-EM-HAT III, THOTH AND HATHOR

15

6. SANCTUARY SURROUNDINGS AT SERABIT

19

7. FIGURE WITH SEMITIC SCRIPT

23

8. PLAN OF CAVES AT SERABIT

27

9. UPPER HALF OF STELE OF AMEN-EM-HAT III

37

10. TEMPLE RUINS AT SERABIT

53

11. PLAN OF TEMPLE

55

12. AMEN-HOTEP III OFFERING TO SOPD

59

13. QUEEN THYI

61

14. MEN IN BURNING BUSH

69

15. AYUN MUSA

71

16. VIEW OF THE CONVENT

123

17. CHAPEL ON GEBEL MUSA

141

18. EL ARISH

145

19. ZIGIRET EL FARAUN

149

20. SKETCH OF CONVENT SURROUNDINGS ABOUT 1335

159

21. RITTER VON HARFF AND ST. KATHERINE

169

22. SULYMAN ABU SLM, A BEDAWY

187

23. MAP OF THE PENINSULA

193

A HISTORY OF SINAI

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY[1]
SINAI is the peninsula, triangular in form, which projects into the
Red Sea between Egypt and Arabia. The name used to be applied to the
mountainous region of the south, now it is made to comprise the land as
far north as the Mediterranean.
Sinai is famous for the part which it has played in the religious
history of mankind. It was at one time a centre of moon-cult, before
it became the seat of the promulgation of the Law to the Jews at the
time of Moses. In Christian times it was one of the chief homes of
the hermits, and the possession of the relics of St. Katherine in the
great convent of the south, caused Sinai to be included in the Long
Pilgrimage throughout the Middle Ages.
A history of Sinai deals with the people who visited the peninsula at
different times, rather than with its permanent inhabitants, who, in
the course of centuries, seem to have undergone little change. They
still live the life of the huntsman and the herdsman as in the days of
Ishmael, sleeping in the open, and adding to their meagre resources by
carrying dates and charcoal to the nearest centres of intercourse, in
return for which they receive corn.
The country geographically belongs to Egypt, ethnologically to Arabia.
It falls into three regions.
In the north, following the coast line of the Mediterranean, lies a
zone of drift sand, narrowest near Rafa on the borders of Palestine,
widening as it is prolonged in a westerly direction towards Egypt,
where it is conterminous with the present Suez Canal. This desert was
known in Biblical days as Shur (the wall) of Egypt. And Saul smote
the Amalekites from Havilah (north Arabia), until thou comest to Shur
that is over against Egypt (1 Sam. xv. 7). The military highway from
Egypt to Syria from ancient times followed the coast line of the
Mediterranean, the settlements along which were modified on one side by
the encroachment of the sea, on the other by the invasion of sand.
Adjoining this zone of drift sand, the land extends south with
increased elevation to the centre of the peninsula, where it reaches
a height of about 4000 ft., and abruptly breaks off in a series of
lofty and inaccessible cliffs, the upper white limestone of which
contrasts brilliantly in some places with the lower red sandstone.
This region is, for the most part, waterless and bare. It is known in
modern parlance as the Badiet Th (the plain of wandering). Its notable
heights include the Gebel el Ejneh and the Gebel Emreikah. This plain
is drained in the direction of the Mediterranean by the great Wadi el

Arish and its numerous feeders, which, like most rivers of Sinai, are
mountain torrents, dry during the greater part of the year, and on
occasion like the _fiumare_ of Italy, flowing in a spate. The Wadi el
Arish is the River of Egypt of the Bible (Gen. xv. 18; Num. xxxiv. 5),
the _Nahal Muzur_ of the annals of King Esarhaddon.
The Badiet Th is crossed from east to west by the road from Akaba to
Suez, along which the Holy Carpet, which is made at Cairo, was annually
conveyed to Mecca. Halfway between Suez and Akaba, at Kalaat el Nakhl,
the road is crossed by one coming from Gaza, which is prolonged south
in several directions down precipitous passes. Kalaat en Nakhl is an
important watering place, and was for a time a military station. It was
known in the Middle Ages as a _puteus Soldani_ (well of the Sultan).
The roads coming from Nakhl lead down the escarpment of Th to a belt
of sand and gravel, varying in width, which, with the arid stretches
adjoining it, covers an area of some thirty square miles. This is the
Gebbeter Ramleh (belt of sand). Its western parts including the Wadi
Jarf is the wilderness of Sin of the Bible (Exod. xvi. 1).
South of this great belt of sand, red sandstone reappears in shelving
masses leading up to the great mountainous district which forms
Sinai proper, the third region of the peninsula. These mountains are
traversed by many river-beds or wadies. Some of them, according to the
ways of the country, do not bear the same name throughout their course,
but the main stream frequently takes another name when it is joined by
a tributary. Thus the Wadi Nasb after its junction with the Wadi Beda
becomes the Wadi Baba, and so forth.
This sandstone district is cut into by deep gorges and canyons, that
have sheer falls of several hundred feet in places. It comprises the
mountains which yielded turquoise and copper, products that brought the
neighbouring people into Sinai. Beads of turquoise were found in the
pre-dynastic tombs of Egypt which probably came from Sinai, while there
was an increasing demand for copper in the surrounding countries from
the close of the Neolithic Age. If the name Milukhkha of the Babylonian
records refers to Sinai, these people also came there several thousand
years before our era.
Turquoise appears in a ferruginous layer in the sandstone at the height
of about 2650 ft. at Serabit, and at the height of about 1170 ft. at
Maghara above sea-level. The copper ore occurs in the Wadi Nasb, and in
the Wadi Khalig, somewhat extensively in the latter, together with iron
and manganese. Enormous slag heaps lie at the head of the Wadi Nasb
and near the outlet of the Wadi Baba, which bear evidence to former
smelting activity. Again, in the Wadi Sened, a dyke rich in copper
traverses syenite for a distance of nearly two miles.
The district which was worked by the ancient Egyptians was comprised
between the valley system of the Wadi Baba on the north, and that of
the Wadi Sidreh on the south, both of which have their outlet in the
direction of the coastal plain of El Markha. It was from this side
that the ancient Egyptians approached Sinai. The chief height of the
district is the Tartir ed Dhami (black cap), so called from the dark
basalt that forms its summit, which rises to a height of 3531 ft. There
is also the double-peaked Umm Rigln (mother of two feet) which rises
to the south of the Wadi Umm Agraf and dominates the height of Serabit.
To the south of the ancient mining district the sandstone is connected
in a manner highly interesting to the geologist with the plutonic rock

which gives its imposing character to the mountains of the south. Here
lies the Wadi Feiran, one of the best watered and fruitful valleys
of the peninsula, to the south of which Mount Serbal rises abruptly
from a comparatively low elevation to the height of 6734 ft. This
mountain has been described as one great lump of diorite, and its
majestic appearance led some recent travellers, including Lepsius[2]
and Bartlett,[3] to identify it as the Mountain of the Law. Further
south lies the great group of mountains which include the Gebel Musa,
7359 ft. high, and the Gebel Katrn with its three peaks, the highest
of which rises to 8527 ft. The Gebel Musa from early Christian times
was generally looked upon as the Mountain of the Law. At its foot lies
the great convent of Sinai, at one time known as the Bush, which has
carried on to the present day the traditions of the early Christian
hermits, who settled in the peninsula. The Gebel Katrn lying further
south, was looked upon during the later Middle Ages, as the height on
which the angels deposited the body of St. Katherine. Another imposing
height of the group is the Ras Safsaf, 6540 ft. high, which has been
put forward in recent times as a possible Mountain of the Law.
These mountains of the south contain many natural springs and fruitful
valleys, which were formerly the home of Christian ascetics. They are
divided from the Gulf of Suez on the west by the desert of El Kaa,
which drains a large amphitheatre of hills, and becomes a coastal plain
that extends as far as Ras Mohammad, the southernmost point of the
peninsula. The desert of El Kaa has a harder subsoil which is so tilled
that the accumulated moisture is thrown up at the coast near Tur, the
chief harbour of the peninsula, and possibly an ancient Phnician
colony. Near it lay Raithou, a place of many oases and large date-palm
plantations which were carefully tended by the monks during the Middle
Ages.
The south-eastern parts of the peninsula are rarely visited by
Europeans. There are some high mountains, including the Gebel Thebt
(7883 ft.), the Gebel Umm Shomer (8449 ft.), and the Gebel Umm Iswed
(8236 ft.), in districts that were recently explored by Dr. Hume.[4]
The eastern coast-line of the peninsula is relatively inaccessible.
There are some creek ports at Sherm, some ten miles north of Ras
Mohammad, and some palm trees with a good supply of water at Nakhb.
From here it is less than eight miles across the sea to Ras Fartak,
the nearest point of Arabia. Further north, opposite the coastland of
what is now reckoned the land of Midian, lies Dahab and, beyond it, Ain
en Nubeh, where the road that leads from the convent to Akaba at the
head of the Gulf of Akaba, reaches the coast. From Akaba the mountains
are prolonged in the direction of Palestine on both sides of the Wadi
el Arabah, the great depression that extends northwards to the Dead
Sea. This is the land of Seir, the country of Edom of the Bible (Gen.
xxxii. 3). Edom signifies red in Hebrew, and the land may have been so
called owing to the red sandstone of the district.
Sinai, generally speaking, is a country of stern desolation. Its
mountains are bare, its plains are swept by the wind, its river beds
are to all appearance waterless. But clusters of bushes that follow the
valley floors or rise from the plains, show that moisture percolates
the soil beneath the surface, and is procurable by digging down to the
harder subsoil, (_i.e._ striking the rock) as was done at the time of
the passage of the Israelites. Such digging is done by the Bedawyn at
the present day, the holes for water being called _hufrah_ in Arabic.
In some places, however, the water along the valleys is thrown up and
forms natural oases as in the Wadi Gharandel, the Wadi Feiran, and at
Tur. In others, it is raised by means of the mechanical device of a

water-wheel and by a _shaduf_.

Rain falls in the peninsula in sudden downpours, often in connection
with a thunderstorm. When we camped in the Wadi Umm Agraf in January
of 1906, it rained without ceasing for two days and a night, creating
rivulets and a waterfall down the mountain slope. A week later the
valley floor was carpeted with verdure and flowers, and the thorny
bushes were masses of bloom. Rainstorms may result in a spate, the
dreaded _seil_ of the Bedawyn, which often appears several miles below
where the rain has actually fallen. In the winter of 1914-15 the Wadi
el Arish was twice in spate, and left extensive pools of water behind.
The effect of a spate, seen on Dec. 3, 1867, in the Wadi Feiran by the
Rev. F. W. Holland, was described by him. In little more than an hour,
the Wadi Feiran, at this point about 300 yards wide, was filled with
a raging torrent from eight to ten feet deep. Men, animals, and trees
were swept past upon the flood, and huge boulders ground along the wady
bed with a noise of a hundred mills at work. In this spate perished
thirty persons, scores of sheep and goats, camels, and donkeys, and it
swept away an entire encampment that had been pitched at the mouth of a
small valley on the north side of Mount Serbal.[5]
Disasters of this kind are in part attributable to the reckless
deforestation of the country which has gone on unchecked for
thousands of years, and continues at the present day. To this is
attributable also the calamitous invasion of sand along the shores of
the Mediterranean recorded by Arabic writers. In ancient times wood
was extensively used for smelting purposes in different parts of the
peninsula, as is shown by enormous slag-heaps in the Wadi Baba and in
the Wadi Nasb. A great bed of wood ashes beneath the temple-floor at
Serabit showed that wood was freely used in offering the holocaust in
a district that is now entirely denuded of trees. According to the
Mosaic Law, charcoal was used in early times at the Temple service as
we gather from a censer full of burning coals (Lev. xv. 12).[6] For
domestic use it was exported during the Middle Ages, and was regularly
delivered by the Bedawyn as tribute to the Pasha in the nineteenth
century. Its export continues to this day.
The heathen past tried to stem the ravages of deforestation by marking
off certain valley floors, the use of which was reserved to the
sanctuaries. Inside this holy ground, the _hima_, no animal might be
hunted and no tree might be cut down. Many valleys of Sinai to this
day contain one tree of great age and often of prodigious size, which
is accounted holy and is therefore left untouched.[7] But the mass of
the trees and with them the hope of a copious undergrowth, has gone.
At the time of the passage of the Israelites, there must have been
extensive tamarisk groves, since it is the tamarisk which yields manna,
a product well-known in ancient Egypt. Its abundance must have made an
appreciable difference in their food-supply. Only a few tamarisk groves
remain in the more southern mountains at the present day, chief among
them the groves of Tarfat el Gidaran. Again neglect has destroyed the
palm groves of which enormous plantations existed in the Middle Ages.
We read of a plantation of over 10,000 date-palms at Tur, and the date
since the earliest times was a staple article of diet. According to
Arab tradition the land along the shores of the Mediterranean was of
great fruitfulness before it was invaded by sand drifts. It was the
same with the numerous fruit and vegetable gardens which were once
cultivated by the monks and the hermits. With the exception of the
garden belonging to the convent, they have passed away. Journeying
across the wide stretches of the country which were formerly a
wilderness and are now a desert, one wonders if a wise government

could not impose restrictions which would stop the destruction of

the undergrowth and regulate the water-supply. This would extend the
cultivation of the date-palm, the tamarisk and of other food products,
for the Bedawyn, the present inhabitants of the peninsula, live in
a state of semi-starvation. Their various means of subsistence have
steadily grown less with the centuries. Deforestation has influenced
the fauna to the detriment of the huntsmen. The herds of gazelles which
were numerous as late as the Middle Ages, are few and far between.
Pasture lands which formerly fed sheep and goats were encroached
upon by the introduction of the camel. The transport of goods and of
pilgrims which gave occupation to the owners of camels during the
Middle Ages has practically ceased. The convent formerly helped to tide
over difficult times by means of its resources, but the advent in the
east of the Turk reduced these resources to a minimum, and the convent
is nowadays hardly able to satisfy its own needs. In the face of this
state of things, it seems worth recalling the different periods in the
past when Sinai held the attention of the outside world and helped in
the making of history. For the recognition of her solitary ruins, and
of her literary wealth still enshrined in the convent, taken with the
needs of her people, may stimulate effort to inaugurate a new era to
the profit of Christian and of Moslim alike.

CHAPTER II
SINAI A CENTRE OF MOON-CULT
THE name Sinai is first mentioned in the Song of Deborah (Judges v.
5), which is dated to about B.C. 1000, and in the story of Exodus.
It perpetuates the early form of belief of the inhabitants of the
peninsula. For the word Sinai together with Sin (Exod. xvi. 1) and
Zin (Num. xiii. 21), all date back to Sin, a name of the moon-god in
ancient Babylonia.
The word Sin appears as part of the name of Naram-Sin, king of Accad
in Babylonia (_c._ B.C. 3700), whose great stele of victory, now
in the Louvre, represents his conquest of Elam (Persia). The acts
of Naram-Sin were considered in the light of lunar influence, for
his Annals state that the moon was favourable for Naram-Sin who at
this season marched into Maganna.[8] Maganna, otherwise Magan, was
frequently named in early annals and inscriptions, notably on the great
statues of King Gudea (B.C. 2500). It was the place where the diorite
came from out of which the statues were made. The same inscriptions
mention Milukhkha.[9] An ancient fragment of Assyrian geography which
was engraved about the year B.C. 680, but the original of which is
considered much older, names side by side: The country of Milukhkha as
the country of blue stone, and the country of Maganna as the country
of copper.[10] Of these names Maganna may refer to Sinai while the
word Milukhkha recalls the Amalekites who dwelt in the peninsula. In
any case the name Sin goes back to Babylonian influence, probably to
the Semites who were powerful in the land of Arabia in the days of
Khamurabbi.
[Illustration:
MAP OF THE VALLEY SYSTEM
OF MAGHAREH AND SERABIT

Fig. 1.Situation of Sanctuaries. (Petrie: _Researches in Sinai_.)]

The constant recurring changes of the moon caused this to be accepted
as the ruler of times and seasons by the huntsman and the herdsman
generally. The Hebrews came from a stock of moon-worshippers. It was
from Ur of the Chaldees, a centre of moon-cult, that Terah and Abraham
migrated to Haran on the way to Canaan about B.C. 2100.[11] The Arab
writer Al Biruni (_c._ A.D. 1000) in his _Chronology of the Ancient
Nations_, noted the connection of Haran with the moon-cult, and stated
that near it was another place called Selem-sin, its ancient name being
Saram-sn, _i.e._ _Imago lun_, and another village called Tera-uz,
_i.e._ _Porta Veneris_.[12]
The acceptance of moon-worship among the ancient Hebrews is confirmed
by Artapanus, some of whose statements were preserved by Alexander
Polyhistor (B.C. 140). Artapanus described the Syrians who came to
Egypt with Abraham as Hermiouthian (_i.e._ worshippers of Hermes),
and stated that Josephs brethren built Hermiouthian sanctuaries at
Athos and Heliopolis.[13] Heliopolis, the city On of the Bible (Gen.
xli. 45), was near the present Cairo; followers of Abraham were held to
have settled there. Athos has been identified as Pithom. More probably
it was Pa-kesem, the chief city of Goshen. The word Hermiouthian
indicates moon-worshippers, as Hermes, the Greek god, was reckoned by
the classic writers the equivalent of the Egyptian moon-god Thoth, as
is shown by the place-name Hermopolis, (_i.e._ the city of Thoth), in
Lower Egypt.
Another name for the moon-god was Ea or Yah, who was accounted the
oldest Semitic god in Babylonia, to which his devotees were held to
have brought the cultivation of the date-palm, an event that marked a
notable step in civilisation.[14] The emblem of Sin was the crescent
moon, the emblem of Ea was the full moon, who, in the Assyrian Creation
story is described as Ea the god of the illustrious (_i.e._ lustrous)
face.[15] On Babylonian seal cylinders Ea is shown standing up as a
bull, seen front face, with his devotee Eabani (_i.e._ sprung from
Ea), a man seen, front face also, who wears the horns and hide of a
bull.[16] This representation perpetuates the conception of the horned
beast as a sacrosanct animal that was periodically slain. We shall come
across this conception later in the emblem worn by the Pharaoh, and in
the story of the Israelites and the Golden Calf.
[Illustration: Sandstone Baboon from Serabit
Glazed Baboon from Hierakonpolis
Glazed Baboon from Abydos]
Fig. 2.Figures of Baboons. (_Ancient Egypt_, a periodical, 1914, Part
i.)
The monuments found in Sinai contain information which points to the
existence of moon-worship there at a remote period of history. These
monuments consist in rock-tablets which were engraved by the Pharaohs
from the First Dynasty onwards over the mines which they worked at
Maghara, and of remains of various kinds discovered in the temple
ruins of the neighbouring Sarbut-el-Khadem or Serabit. Maghara more
especially was associated with the moon-god and was presumably the site
of a shrine during the period of Babylonian or Arabic influence which
preceded the invasion of the peninsula by the Egyptians (Fig. 1).

Among the Egyptians, Thoth, the moon-god, had shrines at Hierakonpolis

and at Abydos in Upper Egypt, and in both these places he was
worshipped under the semblance of a baboon. He was worshipped also at
Hermopolis in Lower Egypt, but here he was represented as ibis-headed.
In Sinai we find him represented sometimes as a baboon and sometimes as
ibis-headed.
Thus the excavations of the temple-ruins at Serabit in 1906 led to
the discovery of several figures of baboons. One was the rude figure
some three inches high which is here represented; it was found in
the cave that was the treasure-house of the sanctuary. This little
figure is similar in appearance and in workmanship to figures found
at Hierakonpolis and at Abydos, the centres of moon-worship in Upper
Egypt. Several of these figures were found at Hierakonpolis.[17] At
Abydos more than sixty were discovered in the winter of 1902 in a
chamber at the lowest temple level, where they were apparently placed
when the later cult of Osiris superseded the earlier cult of Thoth.
This took place in pre-dynastic times.[18] The figure of the baboon
who stood for the lunar divinity in Egypt, was doubtless deemed a
suitable offering to the sacred shrine at Serabit in Sinai, because
of the nearness of this shrine to the centre of moon-worship of the
country. If the figure was carried to Sinai at the time when similar
figures were offered in Egypt, the establishment of the moon-cult in
the peninsula dates back to the pre-dynastic days of Egypt.[19]
[Illustration: Fig. 3.Sneferu ravaging the land. (_Ancient Egypt_, a
periodical, 1914, Part i.)]
Another baboon, carved life-size in limestone with an inscription
around its base, came out of one of the chambers of the adytum to the
sacred cave at Serabit, the work and inscription of which dated it to
the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. The presence of this figure suggests that
the Egyptians associated their moon-god with the moon-worship of the
peninsula.
[Illustration: Fig. 4.Khufu smiting the Anu before Thoth.]
The chief shrine or sanctuary of the moon god in the peninsula probably
lay in Wadi Maghara where mining on the part of the Arabs preceded that
of the Egyptians, for the Egyptians here fought for the possession of
the mines. This is shown by the tablets carved in the living rock,
which commemorate the Pharaohs from King Semerkhet (I 7) of the First
Dynasty onwards. They are represented as smiters of the enemy above the
mines which they worked. One of these tablets represents Sneferu, the
ninth king of the Third Dynasty, who wears a head-dress that consists
of a double plume which rises from a pair of horns as is seen in the
illustration. The double plume is well known, but the horns are foreign
to Egypt, and recall the lunar horns that are worn by Eabani, the
devotee of the moon-god Ea or ancient Babylonian seal cylinders. The
adoption of horns by the Pharaoh of Egypt seems to indicate that he has
usurped the authority of the earlier ruler of the place (Fig. 3).
[Illustration: Fig. 5.Amen-em-hat III, Thoth and Hathor. Maghara.
(Petrie: _Researches in Sinai_.)]
Other monuments found at Maghara point to the same conclusion. Thus one
rock-tablet represents King Khufu (IV 2), the great pyramid builder,
smiting the Anu in front of the ibis-headed figure of Thoth who stands
holding out his sceptre facing him (Fig. 4). Other Pharaohs are

represented as smiters. But after the Fifth Dynasty the opposition

which the Pharaohs encountered in Sinai must have come to an end, for
later Pharaohs were no longer represented as smiters, but are seen in
the double capacity of lord of Upper and of Lower Egypt standing and
facing the ibis-headed figure of the moon-god Thoth, who now holds out
to them his sceptre supporting an _ankh_ and a _dad_, the Egyptian
emblems of life and stability. Among the Pharaohs so represented was
Amen-em-hat III, sixth king of the Twelfth Dynasty, who is shown facing
the god Thoth behind whom the goddess Hathor is seen (Fig. 5). The
interpretation is that the Pharaoh is now acting in complete agreement
with the divinities of the place. Of these Thoth stands for the
moon-god who originally had his shrine at Maghara, and Hathor stands
for the presiding goddess who had her shrine at Serabit. This shrine
or sanctuary at Serabit is of special importance in the religious
associations of the peninsula.

CHAPTER III
THE SANCTUARY OF SERABIT
THE existence of the sanctuary at Serabit in Sinai was unknown to
Europeans till the year 1762, when it was chanced upon by Carsten
Niebuhr, who did not, however, record its name. Seetzen who visited it
between 1809 and 1810 noted this as Serrabit-el-Chadem.[20] _Sarbat_ is
Arabic for height, _khadem_ signifies slave. But Prof. Sayce claims for
the name a different derivation. In ancient Egyptian _ba_, plur. _bit_,
signifies hole or mine, _khetem_ signifies fortress. Serabit el Khadem
thus signifies mine fortress, with the prefix _sar_, which probably
stands for exalted.
Other place names in the district probably date from the ancient
Egyptians also. Thus the valley leading up from the coastal plain of El
Markha to the mine district is called Wadi Baba, _i.e._ mine valley.
Again, a tributary of the Baba, with its valley head close to Serabit,
is the Wadi Bateh, a name which probably includes the word for mine
also.
The sanctuary of Serabit[21] at the outset consisted of a cave, or
rather of two caves adjacent to one another, of which the larger, which
has been squared, measures 20 by 10 feet, the smaller one measures 6
by 4 feet with three steps leading up to a round-headed apse or recess
(Fig. 9).
These caves have separate entrances and lie in a knoll facing a plateau
in the midst of wild, upland scenery. The plateau lies some 2680 feet
above sea level, and is difficult of access on all sides (Fig. 6).
To the north it communicates with the Wadi Suweig along the steep and
tortuous Wadi Dhaba, which is marked number 6 on the map. The word
_dhaba_ signifies panther, probably in allusion to the feline animal
which was at one time associated with the presiding female divinity at
Serabit. Another valley, marked number 7 on the map, leads up to the
temple ruins, with a path passing the mines which contain inscriptions
in an early Semitic script. But it was not along these gorges, but
along a path leading up from the plain El Markha along the Wadi Baba
and the Wadi Nasb that the ancient Egyptians approached the sanctuary.

This path has been included in the Ordnance Survey of 1871. A rock
tablet marked P on the map, which commemorates the Pharaoh Amen-em-hat
IV (XII 7), lies near the watershed, and this shows that the Egyptians
passed here. A small Egyptian shrine (Q) was also discovered at the
western end of the plateau.
To the south of the plateau, and separated from it by several ravines
and valley heads, extends the Wadi Umm Agraf which is comparatively
remote from the valleys communicating with the Wadi Suweig and the Wadi
Baba, and relatively close to the sanctuary. The approach to the temple
from this side was unknown to Europeans till the winter of 1905-6,
when Prof. Flinders Petrie and his party, who worked at excavating the
temple ruins, pitched their tents here. A path was constructed from the
camp up the mountain side to the temple by clearing away the stones. In
parts an old path was re-used, the existence of which showed that there
was at one time frequent intercourse between the sanctuary and the Wadi
Umm Agraf. Some way down the Wadi Umm Agraf the valley floor is crossed
by a wall made of rough stones piled together, the purpose of which was
to mark off the upper reaches of the Wadi as is seen by a glance at the
map. These upper reaches evidently constituted a tract of land the use
of which was reserved to the sanctuary. A copious supply of good water
is obtainable at a well some miles down the valley. The separation
wall across the valley is undoubtedly old. A similar wall crosses the
Wadi Maghara, which was dated by Prof. Petrie to at least the Fourth
Dynasty. Its purpose, like that near Serabit, was to mark off the
upper reaches of the valley, which in this case may have represented
the _hima_ or tract of land that was originally appropriated to the
sanctuary of the moon-god.
[Illustration: VALLEYS OF SERABIT EL KHADEM
Fig. 6Sanctuary surroundings at Serabit. (Petrie: _Researches in
Sinai_.)]
The plateau of Serabit falls away abruptly on its southern and western
edge, and the stratum here appears which anciently yielded turquoise.
The wish to control access to this turquoise no doubt originally led
to the permanent occupation of the caves, and we shall probably not be
far wrong if we imagine this in the possession of a clan or hereditary
priesthood, who, in return for offerings brought to their cave, gave
turquoise or the permission to work it inside the appropriated area.
The offerings brought to the cave naturally led to a sacrifice and
feast which, in the course of time, would hallow the precincts of the
place. Prof. Robertson Smith remarked that almost every sacred site in
Palestine had its cavern or grotto which served to store the vessels
and utensils that were used at the sacrifice that took place near it.
No religious significance originally attached to the cave. But the
holiness of the sacrifice reflected on it, and in the course of time it
was identified as the abode of the divinity.[22]
The plateau in front of the caves at Serabit served as a High Place of
Burning. Such high places were in use in Canaan before and after the
Exodus. Prof. Robertson Smith showed how the barren and unfrequented
hill top would be one of the most natural places chosen for the
holocaust, and in this connection recalled the proposed sacrifice of
Isaac on the mountain.[23] We read in the history of Samuel how he
was called upon to sanctify the sacrifice on the height, of which the
people would not partake until it had received his blessing (1 Sam. ix.
12); also that Solomon visited Gibeon, where he burnt sacrificial flesh
and offered a thousand burnt offerings upon the altar (1 Kings iii. 4).

In consequence of the building of the Temple at Jerusalem efforts were

made to draw to it all the offerings, but the High Places seem to have
continued till the Captivity. They finally came under the ban of the
ceremonial law.[24]
The use made of the plateau of Serabit as a High Place of Burning was
shown by the excavations. In front of the caves, beneath the stone
floor of the Temple buildings that were erected by the Egyptians after
their appropriation of the site, there was found a continuous bed of
wood-ashes which extended all across the temple area and out as far
as the buildings and stone walls on the south, in all fifty feet in
breadth. Outside the area covered by the stone floor the ashes would
be carried away by wind and rain. In the words of Prof. Petrie: We
must therefore suppose a bed of wood ashes at least 100 by 50 feet very
probably much wider, and varying from 3 to 18 inches thick, in spite
of all denudation that took place before the XVIII dynasty. There must
he on the ground about 50 tons of ashes, and these are probably the
residue of some hundreds of tons of ashes. The ashes are certainly
before the XVIII dynasty. In further explanation of the way in which
the sacrifice was treated, Prof. Petrie tells us that the fires were
not large, as the ash is all white, and no charcoal of smothered fire
remains. No whole burnt sacrifice was offered, as no calcined bones
were found; and some kind of feeding at the place is suggested by the
finding of a few pieces of pottery jars and of thin drinking cups.
These belonged to the age of the XII dynasty.[25]
The space in front of the caves was fenced in by a wall built of rough
stones loosely piled together, similar in construction to the walls
that cross the Wadi Umm Agraf and the Wadi Maghara. The temple area
which the wall enclosed varied at different periods. It was finally
200 feet in its greatest length and 140 feet at its greatest breadth.
Behind the caves across the knoll its course was doubled. It thus
enclosed a vast temenos of oblong form which included large open spaces
that were again partitioned off, besides the ground that was covered by
the Egyptian temple buildings (Fig. 11).
Outside the temenos wall and well in view of the knoll, rough circular
enclosures lie scattered here and there on the plateau, which were made
by clearing the ground of stones and piling these together in the same
way as the walls were built up. These stone enclosures are for the most
part four to six feet inside measurement, a few are larger, and many
of them contain one stone of larger size that was set up at one side
of the enclosure and propped up by other stones. There were also some
uprights without enclosures.
Similar uprights and enclosures are found in Syria; their devotional
and commemorative origin is apparent from incidents related in the
Bible.
Thus in the story of Jacob we read how, coming from Beersheba, he
lighted on a certain place that was holy ground, and tarried all night
because the sun was set. And he took of the stones of that place and
put them for his pillows (Gen. xxviii. 11; LXX at his head). In the
night he had his wonderful dream and on the following morning he set up
the stone and poured oil on it and called it Bethel (_i.e._ house of
El), saying, And this stone which I have set for a pillar (_mazzebh_)
shall be Gods house (Gen. xxviii. 22). On another occasion he made a
covenant with Laban in ratification of which he took a stone and set it
up for a pillar (_mazzebh_), and called his brethren to take stones and
make an heap (perhaps an enclosure), and they did eat there upon the

heap (Gen. xxxi. 45, 46). Again when the Israelites camped in Sinai,
Moses erected an altar, and set up twelve pillars (_mazzeboth_), and
when they crossed the Jordan, Joshua took twelve stones from the river
which he set up at the place which was known as Gilgal (Joshua iv. 1-9,
19-20). The name Gilgal in this case was associated with rolling away
the reproach of Egypt (Joshua v. 9). But the word Gilgal signifies
circle of stone.[26] In the Septuagint the word generally stands
in the plural Galgala (Joshua iv. 19, 20, etc). If the single stones
(_mazzeboth_) were set up inside circular stone enclosures, this would
correspond with the way the uprights were set up at Serabit.
In the course of the Twelfth Dynasty, the Egyptians secured a foothold
in Serabit where they erected inscriptions and steles, and commemorated
the female divinity of the place under the name of Hathor. A statuette
of Hathor was the usual gift to the shrine of the Pharaohs of this
dynasty. Her cult was at first coupled with that of the moon-god Thoth
as the representative of the neighbouring Maghara, later she appears
alone or associated with the local divinity Sopd.
At Wadi Maghara, Hathor appears on one tablet following the ibis-headed
Thoth, who faces the Pharaoh Amen-em-hat III (XII 6), as already
mentioned (Fig. 5). On a corresponding tablet found at Serabit she is
seen holding out to the same king a sceptre which supports the _ankh_
and the _dad_. There were many Hathors in Egypt, for Hathor here
took the place of earlier mother-divinities in much the same way as
the Virgin Mary took the place of local mother-divinities in Europe.
The goddess Hathor in Sinai was generally represented wearing a
head-dress that consists of a pair of horns which support the orb of
the full moon, and she is described as mistress of the turquoise land,
and later simply as mistress of turquoise (_mafkat_). Hathor stands
for the unwedded mother-goddess who appears as Ishtar in Babylonia,
as Ashtoreth in Canaan, and as the Queen of Heaven generally. At
Serabit her name appears in script which may be Semitic. One of these
inscriptions is on a figure of the usual squatting type that came out
of the sanctuary (Fig. 7). Another is on a peculiar sphinx that is
now in the British Museum. Others are on much-battered steles that
were carved on the rock in the mine along the valley marked number 7
(Fig. 6). The name consists of a sequence of four signs, which Dr. Alan
Gardiner reads as Ba-alat: Almost every Egyptian inscription from
Serabit names the goddess Hathor, and there could not possibly be a
better equivalent for the name of this goddess than Ba-alat.[27]
[Illustration: Fig. 7.Figure with Semitic Script. (Petrie:
_Researches in Sinai_.)]
The name Ba-alat recalls Alilat whom Herodotus (_c._ B.C. 450) named
as the chief divinity of Arabia (iii. 8), and who reappears as Al-Lat
in the Koran (_c._ A.D. 630). Al-Lat had her sanctuary at Taf, about
forty miles north-north-east of Mecca, which consisted of a cave in an
upland plain in which clothes, jewels, incense, silver and gold, were
stored. The goddess was held to be incarnate in a white rock that was
afterwards seen lying under the mosque, and which was described by
Hamilton and by Doughty as a mass of white granite now shattered with
gunpowder and shapeless.[28] Appropriated to the sanctuary at Taf was
a guarded and reserved tract of land, the _hima_, where no _idah_-tree
might be cut and no animal hunted, and the reluctance of Mohammad to
dislodge the goddess was shared by the Tafites, to whom the gatherings
near the shrine were a source of wealth.
Another cave sanctuary at El Nakhl, not far from Mecca, which was

associated with El Uzza, likewise consisted of a cave with accumulated

wealth and owned a reserved tract of land or _hima_.[29] The
arrangement at Serabit was apparently the same, and proves the Arabian
or Semitic origin of the place.
The excavations at Serabit, moreover, led to the discovery of temple
furniture such as served the Queen of Heaven elsewhere.
Thus several short stone altars were found, of which one, broken in
half, was 22 inches high with a cup hollow on the top, 3 inches wide
and one inch deep. Another was described as well finished, and on the
top the surface was burnt for about a quarter of an inch inwards, black
outside and discoloured below. This proves that such altars were used
for burning, and from the small size, 5 to 7 inches across, the only
substance burnt on them must have been highly inflammable, such as
incense,[30]
Two rectangular altars cut in stone were also found, each with two
saucer-like depressions, ten inches wide all over, and seven inches
across inside, which might well be for meat offerings, or cakes
of flour and oil, a kind of pastry.[31] According to a passage in
Jeremiah, the Israelite women, who repudiated visiting the sanctuary
of the Queen of Heaven without their husbands, which was forbidden to
them, said, And when we burned incense to the queen of heaven, and
poured out drink-offerings unto her, did we make her cakes to worship
her, and pour out drink-offerings unto her, without our men? (Jer.
xliv. 19). The utterance shows that offerings in food and drink as well
as incense burning was customary in the cult of the Semitic goddess.
Offerings that consisted of cakes continued in Arabia into Christian
times. For Epiphanius of Cyprus ( 403), in his book, _Against all
Heresies_, denounced certain Christians as Collyridians, from the
cakes which they placed under an awning and offered in the name of the
Virgin.[32]
Hathor, however, was not the only divinity whose cult was located at
Serabit. While the larger of the two caves was appropriated to her,
the smaller adjacent cave was associated with Sopd, who was repeatedly
named here from the reign of Amen-em-hat III (XII 6) onwards. One
inscription of the sixth year of this king named him together with
Hathor. Another of the forty-second year mentioned Sebek-didi who set
up an inscription and described himself as beloved of Hathor; mistress
of the _mafkat_-country; beloved of Sopd, lord of the east; beloved of
Sneferu and the gods and goddesses of this land.[33]
The special association of Sopd with the Pharaoh Amen-em-hat III is
shown by an open hall that was erected outside the temple at Serabit in
the course of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the decoration of which caused
Prof. Petrie to call it the hall of the kings. On the inner wall of
this building are the figures of the divinities and the kings who
were especially associated with Serabit. Among them is Sopd who is
seen holding in one hand an _ankh_, in the other a staff of justice,
and who follows the Pharaoh Amen-em-hat III.[34] Sopd during the
Eighteenth Dynasty was reckoned the equal of Hathor. For the entrance
to a mine that was opened conjointly by Queen Hatshepsut and her nephew
Tahutmes shows Tahutmes offering incense to Hathor and Hatshepsut in a
corresponding scene offering incense to Sopd.
The divinity Sopd has no place in the older Egyptian pantheon, and is
to all appearance an Egyptianised divinity of Semitic origin. He is

named among the gods who are favourable to the Pharaoh Sen-usert I (XII
2) in the so-called _Tale of Sanehat_, which describes an incident of
the time and is looked upon as a genuine historical account.[35] The
cult of the god seems to have gained a firm foothold in connection with
the forced retreat of the Mentu people. For it says in a nome text of
Edfu, Shur is here Sopd, the conqueror of the Mentu, lord of the east
country, and in Edfu golden Horns, son of Isis, powerful god Sopd.[36]
One mention of Sopd in Egypt is on a tablet of Sen-usert II (XII 4)
that was found in the temple of Wadi Qasus in the desert of Kossayr on
the borders of the Red Sea. On it Sopd is described as lord of the
eastern foreigners (_sut_), and of the east (Neb-Apti).[37]
The description lord of the east, refers to the cult of Sopd in the
land of Goshen, the twentieth nome of Lower Egypt, the capital of
which, Pa-kesem, was known also as Per-Sopd, _i.e._ the House of Sopd.
The amulet of Sopd at Per-Sopd was of turquoise, which bore out his
connection with Sinai. An Egyptian text, moreover, described Sopd as
noblest of the spirits of Heliopolis.
Now the Syrians or Hebrews, as already stated, had a foothold at
Heliopolis since the days of Abraham, while the land of Goshen, as we
know, was allotted to the Israelites. The inference is that Sopd who
had a sanctuary in Sinai, had sanctuaries in Heliopolis and in the land
of Goshen also. The study of these sanctuaries shows that they had
features in common with some of the early sanctuaries in Palestine.
The ancient city Per-Sopd in Egypt, known as Phakusa in Greek, and
as Kesem in the Septuagint, is now called Saft-el-Henneh. The change
from Sopd to Saft suggests a possible origin of certain place names in
Palestine, including Tell-es-Safi, which is situated between Jerusalem
and Gaza, and Safed, which is situated north of the Sea of Galilee.
Both of these were hallowed by ancient religious associations.
[Illustration:
CAVE OF HATHOR.

CAVE OF SOPDU.

Fig. 8.Caves at Serabit. (_Ancient Egypt_, a periodical, 1917, Part

iii.)]
Modern Safed occupies a conspicuous position on the summit of a
mountain. Together with Jerusalem, Hebron and Tiberias, it ranked as a
holy city of Palestine.[38] It is named Tsidphoth in the _Travels of an
Egyptian Mohar_,[39] and is Tsapheth in the Talmud, and Sephet in the
Vulgate of Tobit.
On the other hand Tell-es-Safi, situated between Jerusalem and Gaza,
was identified as a High Place of Burning by recent excavations.
Possibly it was Gath of the Bible, one of the five holy cities of
Palestine. The excavations at Tell-es-Safi led to the discovery of
features which recall the arrangements at Serabit in Sinai. At a depth
of 11 to 21 ft. the pre-Israelite ground was reached, on which stood
several pillars (_mazzeboth_), some of which were enclosed in the
largest of several chambers that were built on slightly higher level.
The long wall of the chamber which included the uprights, had a break,
roughly in the form of an apse that was 4 feet 5 inches wide and 2 feet
4 inches deep. A rude semicircle built of stone stood 20 inches high
from the ground a distance of a few feet, facing it.[40] This apse
corresponds with the recess at the back of the cave of Sopd in Sinai.

The likeness between the place names Per-Sopd, modern Safet in Egypt,
and the place names Sephet, modern Safed, and Safi in Palestine,
suggests that the cities in Palestine also were the site of a shrine
of the Semitic divinity who figures in Egypt and in Sinai under the
name Sopd. It is possible that Sopd is the verbal equivalent of the
Hebrew word _shophet_, Phnician _sufet_, which signifies judge. Among
the early Semites the sanctuary was the seat of justice, and the
priests were its administrators, who, in this capacity, gave out the
pronouncements. As such they were sacred and, with reference to the
joint divinities (El) of the tribes, they were at first called Elohim,
later Kohanim. The word shophet itself indicates the Supreme Judge,
as in the passage, Shall not the Judge (shophet) of all the earth do
right? (Gen. xviii. 25), while the relation between the Judge and
His administrators is indicated by the words, And the heavens shall
declare his righteousness, for Elohim is Shophet himself (Psa. l. 6).
The shrine of Sopd in Sinai
the one at Heliopolis also,
at Tell-es-Safi. The priest
towards the suppliant, who,

and the one at Per-Sopd in Egypt, perhaps

served the same purpose as the shrine
would stand in the recess with his face
at Safi, stood in the low semicircle.

In Sinai the cave of Sopd was adjacent to that of the moon-goddess

(Fig. 8). According to information already cited, a shrine at
Heliopolis where Sopd was noblest of spirits dated from the
Hermiouthians, who came there with Abraham, while Hermiouthian
sanctuaries were erected in Goshen by the brethren of Joseph. We are
left to infer that a shrine of Sopd, presumably a centre for the
administration of justice, was connected here also with the localised
cult of the moon.
Other features at Serabit confirm the non-Egyptian character of the
cult of Sopd. Thus, on the northern approach to the temple stood a
stone tank measuring 54 by 32 inches, with a hollow of 37 by 17 inches.
Inside the temple area, in one of the courts which were built in the
Eighteenth Dynasty, stood a circular tank, 31 inches across with a
hollow of 25 inches, and another rectangular tank, 44 by 30 inches
stood in the same court, and a further rectangular tank in the hall
on the approach to the lower cave. The disposition of these tanks was
such that the worshipper who approached the temple from the north,
passed the tank outside and the various other tanks on his way to
the lesser cave. The use of tanks outside and inside the temple, is
foreign to Egypt. They are in keeping with the _apsu_ or stone tank
of the Babylonian temple; and with the regulations of Moses regarding
the laver that stood between the entrance to the temple and the altar
(Exod. xxx. 18). In Jerusalem in the temple of Solomon was a molten
sea that was round about, and there were ten lavers of brass, five on
the right and five on the left side of the house. (1 Kings vii. 23, 38,
39). A similar arrangement prevails to this day in the Arab mosque.
Outside stands the well or place for legal washings _ghusl_, and inside
is the circular tank for ablution _wazur_.[41] The tanks at Serabit
were therefore connected with the cult of Sopd, and their presence
confirms the Semitic character of the place.

CHAPTER IV
THE EGYPTIANS IN SINAI I.

THE monuments which the Egyptians erected in Sinai are evidence of

their continued connection with the place. These were examined and
studied in the winter of 1906.[42] They comprised many monuments which
were carved in the living rock, and were found in the Wadi Maghara,
the Wadi Nasb and at Serabit. At Serabit, moreover, there were found
numerous offerings consisting of statuettes, vases, pottery, and other
objects which were brought from Egypt to the sanctuary. Outside this
sanctuary the Egyptians set up steles near the holy caves and on the
neighbouring hillside, and they built chambers and porticoes inside
the temenos, and covered these with scenes and inscriptions. Thus the
buildings outside the caves went on increasing till the place assumed
the appearance of a vast temple.
The baboon figure which was discovered in the temple of Serabit, and
the turquoise that was found in early graves in Egypt, show that the
Egyptians came to the peninsula in pre-dynastic days. The beginning of
dynastic history in Egypt was dated by Prof. Breasted (1909) to about
B.C. 3400,[43] and by Prof. Petrie (1914) to about B.C. 5500. Scholars
are more and more inclining to accept the earlier date.
At the beginning of the First Dynasty the Egyptians had secured a firm
foothold in the peninsula, as is shown by the inscriptions on the
living rock of the Pharaohs of this dynasty. These rock-inscriptions
are close to the mine holes in the hillside about 170 feet above the
valley floor. Besides these there were many inscriptions of kings of
the Third, Fifth and Sixth Dynasties. They were known to Europeans in
the eighteenth century, and some were drawn and described. But their
importance was not fully recognised and many perished in the blasting,
when the search for turquoise was renewed in the nineteenth century.
Among those which were ruthlessly destroyed was the great tablet of
King Khufu (IV 2), here reproduced. A full record was therefore made of
those which remained in 1906, and, in order to save the tablets, they
were removed to the Museum in Cairo. One only was left _in situ_. It
was the oldest of all, dating from King Semerkhet (I 7), seventh king
of the First Dynasty, which is engraved on the rock 394 feet above the
valley floor in a position which seems to guarantee its safety.
The earliest tablets in the Wadi Maghara represented the Pharaoh under
three aspects: as king of Upper Egypt, as king of Lower Egypt, and as
smiter of the enemy who crouches before him. There is, at first, little
wording beside the names and the titles of the king. As a smiter the
king holds a mace in one hand and a staff in the other, and the enemy
has a bold cast of countenance, abundant hair, a peaked beard, and
wears a loin-cloth. The Pharaoh holds him by the top-knot, together
with a carved object which he seems to have taken from him. This may be
a feather; possibly it is a boomerang or throwstick.
The rock inscription of Semerkhet was worked by cutting away the face,
and leaving the figures and the hieroglyphs standing in relief. A
little in front of the scenes, and worked on the same scale, was the
general of the expedition, who wears no distinctive dress, but the word
_Mer-meshau_ (leader of troops), written in hieroglyphs, is before
him. He is without head-dress and carries arrows and a bow of the
double-curved Libyan type.
Semerkhet was probably not the first Pharaoh who worked in Sinai. For
a small plaque found at Abydos represents Den-Setui, an earlier king
of the First Dynasty, who is seen in the same attitude as the Pharaohs

on the Sinai rock tablets, and the cast of countenance of the enemy is
also the same.[44]
Little is known of King Semerkhet outside Sinai. It is supposed that
the First Dynasty at his time was weakening. No records in Sinai
mention kings of the Second Dynasty, who were indigenous to the Nile
valley, and whose energies were devoted to reconstructing the older
elements of government at home.
A new spirit arose with the kings of the Third Dynasty, of whom
Sanekht (III 1) was represented at Wadi Maghara in the usual scenes
with the addition of the jackal-nome standard, one of the earliest
represented in Egypt, which may refer to the troops that accompanied
his expedition. The face of Sanekht is strongly Ethiopian in character,
not unlike the present Sudanys. The jackal-nome standard appears also
on the tablet of Zeser (III 2), the next Pharaoh recorded, who was
seen in the regular group of smiting with the addition of the familiar
titles, giver of purity, stability, life, gladness for ever.[45]
The intercourse between Egypt and Sinai found a new development under
Sneferu (III 9), who was represented wearing the horned head-dress
mentioned above, and the wording of his tablet described him as Great
god ravaging the lands, here reproduced. Sneferu worked not only at
Maghara, but was in contact also with the sanctuary at Serabit. To
this he presented the figure of a hawk, his favourite emblem, worked
in grey limestone, which was discovered in the winter of 1906 in the
sacred cave itself. Its work and inscription mark it as a contemporary
monument. It is now in the British Museum. Later ages looked upon
Sneferu as especially connected with Sinai, reckoning him as one of
the protecting divinities of the place, and his haul in turquoise was
referred to in the Twelfth Dynasty as exceptional. I obtained more
turquoise than any man since Sneferu.[46] The value which was set on
turquoise in Egypt during his reign is shown by one of the so-called
_Tales of the Magicians_, which relates how the damsels of the harim
of Sneferu went rowing on the lake. One dropped her jewel of new
turquoise into the water, which was recovered by magical means.[47]
The next Pharaoh who was commemorated at Maghara was Khufu (IV 2), the
great pyramid builder, who, as already mentioned, was figured smiting
the enemy before the ibis-headed figure of the god Thoth. At Maghara
several tablets recorded him, which were of large size and of excellent
workmanship. The chief one had fortunately been drawn and photographed
before it was entirely smashed during the recent blasting. On this
tablet, the Pharaoh, here named Khnumu-Khufu, was described as a smiter
of the Anu, a word written with three pillar signs, with a man as a
determinative (Fig. 4).
Next in date at Maghara was the tablet of Sahura (V 2), which was
framed by a colossal _Uas_-sceptre on either side and a row of stars
along the top. Sahura was described in the wording as smiter of the
Mentu. The same words were used to describe Ra-en-user (V 6), whose
tablet at Maghara measured 63 by 102 inches, and was the largest
of all. This tablet has the additional feature of an enormous vase
supported by two _ankhs_ with the words: The lord of foreign lands
(_neb Setui_) gave coolness, which suggests that a water supply was
made accessible by some local sheykh.
The Pharaohs at Maghara, between the First and the Fourth Dynasties,
were always represented as smiters. The tablets of the Fifth and Sixth
Dynasties are for the most part broken or destroyed, but what is left

of them points to more peaceful relations, and records the mining

expeditions with additional detail.
Thus the tablet of Dadkara (V 8) states that the expedition (_upt_)
was sent in the year after the fourth cattle census, which dates it to
the eighth or ninth year of the reign of this king. Again, a tablet
of Pepy I (VI 3) was dated by the year after the eighteenth cattle
census. These tablets, moreover, mention some of the dignitaries who
took part in the expedition. That of Dadkara named the ship-captain
Nenekt-Khentikhet; that of Pepy I the ship-captain Ibdu; a further
one of Pepy II (VI 5) the ship-captain Benkeneph.[48] This shows that
the Egyptians approached the mine-land by water. There is mention on
these tablets also of princes, of scribes, of a commander of recruits
(_hez-uz-neferu_), of inspectors (_uba_), of interpreters of princes
(_sehez-saru_), of the seal-bearer to the god (_neter sahu_), of
a chief of the land (_mer ta_), of a chief of the storehouse (_mer
ab_), of a chief of the elders (_mer uru_), and of others, which shows
how carefully the expeditions were organised. The tablet of Dadkara,
moreover, mentions for the first time the _Fkat_ country, _fkat_ being
short for _mafkat_, the ancient Egyptian word for turquoise. There is
always a difficulty in reading aright the names of precious stones.
_Mafkat_ was often rendered as malachite, and it needed the turning
over of the rubbish heaps at Serabit and the discovery of turquoise, in
order fully to establish the nature of the stone that was the product
of the area appropriated to Hathor of Mafkat.
The close of the Sixth Dynasty brought a break in the relations between
Egypt and Sinai, which is attributable, no doubt, to changes in Egypt
itself, of which we know little at this period. Perhaps there were
movements among the people of the east. Among those who threatened
Egypt from this side were the Mentu, who were Asiatics, and whose
successful defeat was achieved, as mentioned above, with the help of
the devotees to Sopd.
The Egyptians probably resumed work in Sinai during the Eleventh
Dynasty, since workmens pots, found in the Wadi Maghara, are dated
to this dynasty by their style.[49] The reign may have been that of
Mentu-hotep III (XI 7), for a group of four kings seated at a table
carved in stone was discovered at Serabit, with the names of the kings
along the edge of the table on which their hands were placed. They were
Sneferu (probably), Mentu-hotep III (XI 7), Amen-em-hat I (XII 1), and
his son Sen-usert (XII 2), who was probably the donor of the group.[50]
When work was resumed in Sinai in the Eleventh Dynasty, the attitude of
the Egyptians towards Serabit had undergone a marked change. In early
days they had approached the sanctuary as quasi-worshippers, presenting
offerings such as the baboon and the hawk. Now the sanctuary itself was
drawn within the sphere of their influence, and they erected uprights
or _mazzeboth_ on the approach to the cave on which they recorded their
mining expeditions.
Uprights of this kind are entirely unknown in Egypt. The _mazzeboth_
erected by the Egyptians in Sinai were therefore set up in deference
to the custom of the place. They were worked in red sandstone which
was quarried on the north side of the temple height judging by a great
square cutting that remains there, and the work of inscribing them
was done _in situ_ by Egyptian stone-cutters who were attached to the
expeditions. These steles are for the most part 6 to 12 feet high,
2 to 4 feet broad, and 6 to 8 inches thick. Their tops are rounded,
which gives them the appearance of gravestones, and this led some of

the earlier travellers to describe the height of Serabit as a place of

burial.
The oldest of the _mazzeboth_ were erected on a prominent spot outside
the temenos within sight of the sanctuary; later these steles were
placed along the approach to the cave, more and more crowding the
adytum. These Egyptian inscribed _mazzeboth_ all have a flat stone at
the base which suggests a place of offering, and their purpose seems
to have been to recommend the members of the expedition who set up the
stone to the good graces of Hathor of Mafkat.
In keeping with this, a statuette of Hathor was presented to the
shrine by the Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty, every one of whom
organised one, if not several, expeditions to Sinai, in order to
secure turquoise. Several of these statuettes, varying in size and in
workmanship, were discovered inside the temple area during the winter
of 1906; most of them were sadly mutilated.
One statuette was the gift of Amen-em-hat I (XII 1), the founder of the
dynasty, who erected a portal outside the lesser cave as was shown by
a stone lintel bearing his name, which was found here. His successor,
Sen-usert I (XII 2), added to this portal as was shown by a piece
of limestone bearing his name. The larger cave about this time was
squared, its walls were smoothed and a slab was fixed inside, on which
were placed the more important Egyptian offerings, including the hawk
presented by Sneferu, and the statuettes of Hathor. It served also
to hold a hawk worked in sandstone that was presented by Sen-usert
himself, which named him, his queen Khent, their daughter Sebat, and
Ankhab, chief or overseer of the north land.
The same Ankhab also set up a tablet of his own, inside the cave on
which he was represented offering loaves to Amen.
Of the next king, Amen-em-hat II (XII 3), there was found the usual
statuette of Hathor, which was presented by the ship-captain Sneferu.
Inscriptions on a hill at some distance from the caves showed that the
Egyptians now worked turquoise mines at Serabit on their own account on
land which they had acquired. One inscription was of the seventeenth
year of Amen-em-hat II, another of his twenty-fourth year. The latter
mentioned the mine chamber which Men, born of Mut, triumphant and
revered, excavated. Two steles erected in the approach to the
sanctuary likewise recorded the seventeenth and the twenty-fourth year
of the reign of the same king.
The next kings, Sen-usert II (XII 4) and Sen-usert III (XII 5), made
the usual gift of a statuette of Hathor. The latter was presented
by five officials, including Merru, two inspectors, a scribe of
the cattle, and an Amu or Syrian named Lua or Luy, a name which
corresponds to the Semitic Lvy.[51] This shows a Semite in actual
contact with the place. A stele of the same Pharaoh stood in a knoll
of hmatite on the plateau, the exposed position of which caused it to
fall and crumble long ago; its remains strew the ground.
The reign of the next Pharaoh, Amen-em-hat III (XII 6), marked a climax
in the intercourse of Egypt and Sinai. Of the forty-four years of his
reign, at least fourteen witnessed expeditions to Sinai, which were
commemorated by inscriptions set up in Wadi Maghara, in Wadi Nasb, and
at Serabit.
A great inscription of the second year, mentioned above, stands on a

boulder at the entrance to Wadi Maghara, which shows the king facing
the ibis-headed Thoth and Hathor, and the accompanying wording mentions
Khenti-hotep Khenemsu, who was commissioned to fetch turquoise and
copper, and who had with him 734 men. Another inscription was set
up by Harnakt, who crossed the sea and secured stones of great
excellence.[52]
At Serabit also Amen-em-hat III was commemorated by many inscriptions.
Large stone steles, set up on the plateau, recorded the 4th, 8th, 13th,
23rd, 30th, 44th, and 45th year of this reign. Several of these steles
mention by name the Retennu people, of whom we now hear for the first
time in Sinai.
[Illustration: Fig. 9.Upper half of Stele of Amen-em-hat III.
(Petrie: _Researches in Sinai_.)]
The stele of the fourth year contained in two columns the names and
titles of over a hundred persons who took part in the expedition. The
names start in fairly large hieroglyphs at the top, and diminish in
size lower down. A few additional names were roughly inscribed along
the edge of the stele as the result of an afterthought. This splendid
stele stood about ten feet high in the approach to the temple, but,
worn through at the base by the continued action of wind and rain, it
fell, and snapped in two in the falling (Fig. 9).
Not far from this stele stood one that was set up by Horoura,
describing an expedition which reached the mines in hot weather. The
desert burnt like summer; the mountains burnt like fire; the vein
seemed exhausted; the overseer questioned the miners; the skilled
workers who knew the mine replied, There is turquoise to all eternity
in the mountain, and at that moment it appeared.[53]
The reference is to the turquoise mines opened by Amen-em-hat II,
which were now further developed. The neck of rock which contained the
turquoise had hitherto been worked from the north. This neck of rock
was now attacked from the south, and, as the work became complex, a
shaft of about ten feet square was sunk from above, which brought light
and air into the passages. This shaft was wrongly described by some
travellers as a reservoir. The passages eventually extended about 220
feet into the rock. A great inscription on the rock, near the chief
opening, gives an idea of the offerings which the Egyptians made at
the sanctuary at this time; evidently in return for the permission
to work here. It mentions a thousand loaves, jars of beer, cattle,
fowls, incense, ointment, and everything on which the gods live.
The offerings in this case were presented by Sebek-her-heb, chief
chamberlain, who declared, I excavated a mine-chamber for my lord, the
workmen came in full quota, never was there any neglect.[54]
The same Sebek-her-heb erected the stele of the 44th year of
Amen-em-hat III on the plateau. It is inscribed on one side only and
stands in a rough stone enclosure with a flat stone at the base. The
inscription runs a royal offering to Hathor, mistress of turquoise
(_mafkat_), for the family spirit (_ka_) of the chief chamberlain
Sebek-her-heb, and the _ka_ of the seal-bearer, deputy of the overseer
of seal-bearers, Kemnaa, born of Ka-hotep.[55]
Another inscription of the 45th year of Amen-em-hat III, named Ptahwer,
triumphant, who described himself as delivering the Anu Sut (eastern
foreigners) to the Pharaoh, and bringing the Mentu to the halls of the
king.[56]

During the reign of Amen-em-hat III the caves at Serabit were

re-modelled to their present shape. The larger cave, without the
recesses, now measures 20 by 10 feet. A square pillar of rock was left
standing in its centre as a support to the roof. On one side of this
pillar the Pharaoh was represented facing the goddess Hathor, wearing
a high head-dress, who held out to him a sceptre. Beneath this scene
Khenum-su, Ameny-seneb, seal-bearer, and other officials were seen.[57]
The walls of the cave at the same time were smoothed and inscribed with
mortuary prayers. But their surface for the most part has crumbled
away, perhaps owing to intentional desecration, and the inscriptions
are lost.
Ameny-seneb who was represented on the squared pillar, also set up in
the cave an altar in the name of his king. This altar measured 40 by
26 inches, and probably stood at the back of the cave in a recess of
corresponding dimensions. It was found in another part of the cave.
This altar had the ordinary appearance of an Egyptian altar and was
worked in the red sandstone of the place. It apparently took the place
of an earlier stone or altar of different appearance, fragments of
which were also found inside the cave. The smashing of this altar also
points to an intentional desecration of the place.
The smaller cave which was appropriated to Sopd, was probably
re-arranged at the same time. There was here no sign of inscription or
tablet. It was simply a rounded apse with three steps leading up to it.
The other work which was done during the reign of Amen-em-hat III
included mining in the Wadi Nasb, where an inscription at the head of
the valley recorded his 20th year.[58]
The head of the valley floor of the Wadi Nasb is covered with an
enormous mass of slag, which points to extensive copper smelting. The
mass of slag is 6 to 8 feet deep, 300 feet wide, and extends about 500
feet down the valley. It may amount to 100,000 tons. The provenance
of the copper that was smelted here is insufficiently known. It can
hardly have been brought up from the mines in the Wadi Khalig. But even
at Serabit, now entirely denuded of trees, a crucible was found.
After the long reign of Amen-em-hat III came the short reign of
Amen-em-hat IV (XII 7), the last king of his dynasty. An inscription
in the Wadi Maghara recorded work done there in his sixth year, and,
at Serabit, the small rock tablet mentioned above, was set up on the
western side of the plateau. A portico-court about 10 feet square was
also built by him outside the larger cave. This court was roofed over
with slabs of stone, the roof being supported by two fluted columns
which, like the rest of the building, were worked in the red sandstone
of the place. The walls of this portico were inscribed, the subject
being Hathor seated with the Pharaoh offering to her, and a long row of
officials behind him. The same scene reversed was represented on the
other side of the entrance. But the surface of the wall has crumbled so
that the general character only of the scenes is visible and the names
of the officials have gone.

CHAPTER V
EARLY PEOPLE AND PLACE NAMES

THE ancient peoples and place names of Sinai claim separate attention.
The earliest Egyptian rock inscription at Maghara represents the
Pharaoh as a smiter, and describes him as such with the signs of a
hand, an eagle, and the determinative of hills. The term is held
to apply to no people in particular, and is therefore rendered as
barbarians.
King Khufu (IV 2), in addition, is described as a smiter of the Anu;
the word is written with the pillar sign. The word Anu was applied in
Egypt to cave-dwellers generally, more especially to those of Nubia.
The Anu are first mentioned on the Palermo Stone in connection with
a king of the First Dynasty whose name is broken away, but who was
probably King Den-Setui.
In the estimation of the historian Josephus (_c._ A.D. 60), the
inhabitants of Sinai at the time of Moses were cave-dwellers, for he
stated that Moses, in going to Sinai, went among the troglodytes
(_Antiq._, ii. 11).
Among the early inhabitants of the peninsula were the Horites. The
Babylonian kings who fought against the four kings of southern Syria
who revolted in the time of Abraham, smote the Rephaims in Ashteroth
Karnaim, and the Zuzims in Ham, and the Emims in Shaveh-Kiriathaim,
and the Horites in their mount Seir unto El Paran, which is by the
wilderness (Gen. xiv. 5-6). This associates the Horites with Mount
Seir, which extended along the depression between the head of the Gulf
of Akaba and the Dead Sea.
In the estimation of Prof. Robertson Smith the Horites of the Bible
were troglodytes, which would bring them into line with the Anu of
the Egyptian inscriptions. These Horites were accounted of low stock
by the Hebrews, and were probably in the stage through which the
Israelites had passed before they formed a confederacy. Prof. Robertson
Smith pointed out that the list of their so-called dukes (Gen. xxxvi.
20) is not a literal genealogy, but an account of their tribal and
local division, since five of the names are animal or totem names.[59]
The view that the Horites were cave-dwellers was based on the likeness
between the name Horite and the Hebrew word _hor_, which signifies
mountain. The connection between the names is now denied, and the
Horites of the Bible are identified with the Kharu or Khalu of the
Egyptian texts. The Kharu appear in the _Annals_ of Tahutmes III (XVIII
6) and of Amen-hotep IV (XVIII 10), among the people against whom the
Egyptians fought on the way to Naharain _i.e._ Mesopotamia.[60] But
the word Kharu on the Egyptian side has been interpreted as mixed
multitude.
The next people who are mentioned on the Egyptian monuments in Sinai
are the Mentu. King Ra-en-user (V 6) was described as great god of
the smiting countries and raider of the Mentu. Again, the tablet of
Men-kau-hor, mentioned a royal expedition to the Mentu; and Ptahwer in
Sinai of the Twelfth Dynasty was described as bringing the Mentu to
the kings heels.
The Mentu took part in the great Hyksos invasion of Egypt between the
Twelfth and the Eighteenth Dynasties. For when the tide of foreign
nations was rolled back, they were among the conquered. King Aahmes
I (XVIII 1), after seizing the foreign stronghold Avaris, made a

slaughter of the Mentu of Setiu, and going south to Khent-hen-nefer,

he destroyed the Anu-Khenti.[61] Among the conquered people who were
represented around the throne of Amen-hotep II (XVIII 7) are the Mentu,
who have the appearance of true Asiatics. An Edfu inscription, as
mentioned above, stated that the Mentu were thrown back with the help
of the devotees of the god Sopd.
The people who figured most prominently in the Egyptian annals of Sinai
were the Retennu, who were mentioned again and again on the steles
which were set up at Serabit in the course of the Twelfth Dynasty.
On three separate steles it says that the Egyptian expedition was
sped across the desert by the brother of the sheykh (_sen-heq-en_) of
the Retennu country, whose name was Khebdet or Khebtata, and who is
represented riding on an ass which is led by a man in front, with a
servant carrying his water flask behind him. On one stele six Retennu
are named.[62]
These Retennu who figure in the annals of the Sinai in the Twelfth
Dynasty are mentioned as dwelling in southern Syria in the Egyptian
_Tale of Sanehat_, otherwise _Sinuhe_. This tale describes how a
high-born Egyptian fled when news reached him of the death of King
Amen-em-hat I (XII 1). He was at the time on the western Delta and by
way of the Wadi Sneferu (unknown) reached the quarries of Khri Ahu
(perhaps Cairo), crossed the Nile and passed the domain of the goddess
Hirit, mistress of the Red Mountain (possibly Gebel Ahmar), and the
wall which the prince had constructed. He reached Keduma (or Aduma)
where Amu-anshi, sheykh of the Upper Tennu, took him for a sojourner or
son-in-law, and settled him in the adjoining Ya-a country, a land of
honey and figs, where wine was commoner than water. Sanehat remained
here many years till the death of the Pharaoh caused him to petition
his successor Sen-usert I (XII 2) for return to Egypt.[63] The name of
the land to which Sanehat fled was read either as Aduma which would be
the equivalent of Edom, but more probably (cf. Maspero and Dr. Alan
Gardiner) as Keduma, and is probably the land Kedem, _i.e._ the east
country, to which Abraham sent the sons of his concubines (Gen. xxv.
6). But the Retennu, who were peaceful neighbours of the Egyptians
during the Twelfth Dynasty, were among the peoples against whom they
afterwards waged war. Tahutmes I (XVIII 3) fought the Retennu on his
way from Egypt to Naharain, _i.e._ Mesopotamia; Tahutmes III (XVIII
6) again and again ravaged their country; and Sety I (XIX 2), whose
objective was Kadesh on the Orontes, was represented in his temple at
Karnak dragging after him the great sheykhs of the Retennu, whom he is
shown holding by the hair of their heads.[64] Again, Ramessu III (XX 1)
mentioned the tribute which was brought by the Retennu, in the great
inscription of his temple at Medinet Habu.[65]
The Retennu and their name survived in Sinai, for Ptolemy, the
geographer, named as its inhabitants the Pharanites, the Raithenoi and
the Munichiates. Again, in the year 1816 the traveller Burckhardt noted
that, attached to the mosque that stood inside the convent precincts,
there were certain poor Bedawyn called Retheny, whose duty it was to
clean the mosque. One of them had the dignity of _imam_, a leader in
prayer, and was supported by offerings.[66]
And not only did the Retennu continue, the language which they spoke
seems to have continued likewise. The sheykh who befriended Sanehat
about two thousand years before our era, was named Amu-anshi, as
recorded in the _Tale of Sanehat_. About the year A.D. 440 the
Christian community of Pharan in Sinai, in consequence of outrages
committed by the Arabs, lodged a complaint with their sheykh who stood

in the relation of phylarch to the Romans, and who dwelt at a place

described as twelve days journey from Pharan. The sequel of the
account makes it probable that it was Petra. The name of the sheykh was
Ammanus, which is the Latinised equivalent of Amu-anshi.
Another people who were associated with Sinai were the Rephaim who
are mentioned in the Bible among the people who were raided by the
Babylonian kings about B.C. 2100. They smote the Rephaims in Ashteroth
Karnaim (Gen. xiv. 5). The word Rephaim is related to Raphaka or
Raphia of the annals of Sargon II (B.C. 722-50).[67] It lies on the
high road from Syria to Egypt on the Mediterranean. Its modern name is
Rafa.
The Rephaim of the Bible were accounted giants. In Arabian tradition
we also hear of giants or tyrants, the Jababera. They were accounted
descendants of the Aulad bin Nuh (children of Noah), or Amalikah, from
their ancestor Amlah bin Arfexad bin Sam (Shem) bin Nuh. Masudi spoke
of the giants of the race of Amalekites who ruled in Syria at the time
of Moses.[68]
According to Arab belief the Amalekites were inspired with a knowledge
of the Arabic tongue, and settled at Medina, and were the first to
cultivate the ground and plant the date palm. In the course of time
they extended over the whole tract towards the Red Sea (El Hedjaz), and
the north-western part of the Indian Ocean (El Omar), and became the
progenitors not only of the Jababera, but also of the Faraineh (_i.e._
the Pharaohs) of Egypt.
In the Biblical genealogy Amalek appears as a descendant of Esau,
his mother, Adah, being a Hittite (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 12). But scholars
generally are agreed in assigning a high antiquity to the Amalekites.
The prophet Balaam, inspired by Jehovah, uttered the words, Amalek was
the first of the nations (Num. xxiv. 20).
Whatever their origin, the Amalekites were in the possession of Sinai
when the Israelites came there, since they opposed their entrance and
harried them on their way to the holy mount, and later attacked them
in Rephidim, where the Israelites carried the day (Deut. xxv. 17;
Exod. xvii. 8-16). Later, acting in concert with the Canaanites, they
smote the Israelites on their way to Hormah (Num. xiv. 25-45), and
in the time of Saul they still occupied the land from Havilah unto
Shur (from Arabia to the Wall of Egypt), which, according to another
account, was allotted to the sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 18). Saul waged
a fierce war against them.
The connection of the Amalekites with Sinai continued in the mind of
the Arab, for Makrizi ( 1441) speaking of Pharan, the city of Sinai,
described it as a city of the Amalekites.[69]
The Amalekites of the Bible and of Arab tradition are probably the
Milukhkha of the ancient annals. As mentioned above, they appear on
the statue of Gudea of about the year B.C. 2500, and in the Assyrian
fragment of geography of about B.C. 600.
Pharan, which the Arab writers described as a city of the Amalekites,
was from early times a place-name in Sinai. According to the Bible,
the Babylonian kings (_c._ B.C. 2100) pressed the Horites as far as
El Paran, which is by the wilderness, a phrase which the Septuagint
rendered as the terebinth of Pharan, as though it were a site marked
by a tree. Pharan, to all appearance, was a general name given to the

peninsula of Sinai. It is like the name Pharaoh, and this is apparently

the reason why the name Bath of Pharaoh, Gebel Hammam Faraun, is
given to a hill near the west coast, and the name Giziret el Faraun
to the island near Akaba, the idea of the Pharaoh leading to various
localised legends.
In the Bible we read that the Israelites, after leaving the Holy Mount,
passed through the wilderness of Paran on their way to Edom, which
would locate it to the Badiet Th. Again, King Hadad (_c._ B.C. 1156),
on his way from Midian to Egypt, passed through Paran (1 Kings xi. 17).
The Septuagint and the classical writers rendered Paran, as Pharan, and
Ptolemy, the geographer, named a village () P aran, t e position
of w ic corresponds wit t e seat of t e later C ristian bis opric in
t e Wadi Feiran. He also named t e sout ernmost point of t e peninsula,
t e present Ras Mo ammad, as t e promontory of P aran, and included t e
P aranites among t e in abitants of Sinai.
Again, Pliny ( A.D. 79) mentioned a variety of precious stone as
_sapenos_ or _p aranites_, so called from t e country w ere it is found
(xxvii. 40). Per aps turquoise is meant, in w ic case Sapenos, a word
ot erwise un
nown, may be connected wit t e name Sopd; P aranites
would refer to P aran or to P arao .
T e Egyptologist Ebers was t e first to suggest t at t e name Paran
s ows Egyptian influence, and may be t e place-name Ra an _plus_ t e
Egyptian article _Pa_, in t e same way as Pa-
esem is t e land of
Kesem, _i.e._ Gos en.[70]
T e word Ra an occurs in an Egyptian inscription of t e Twelft
Dynasty, according to w ic an envoy coming from Egypt crossed Des er
to t e Ra an country.[71]
T e word Ra a as a place continues in different parts of t e peninsula
to t e present day. T e nort -western part of t e T is called Gebel
er Ra a, and t e wide sandy plain t at extends nort of t e Gebel Musa
is t e Plain of Ra a.[72]
According to t e Bible, Is mael a wild man and an arc er, dwelt in
t e wilderness of Paran, and is mot er, w o was an Egyptian, too
im
a wife out of Egypt. T e Septuagint rendered t is as out of P aran
of Egypt (Gen. xvi. 12; xxi. 21). T e Is maelites in t e Bible are
referred to Abra am imself, w ic s ows t at t ey were regarded as an
allied stoc
by t e Hebrews, a certain inferiority being implied by
t eir aving Egyptian blood in t eir veins. T e acceptance of a joint
divinity El seems to ave made a bond of union between t e twelve
tribes of Is mael, as it did between t e tribes of Israel. According
to Genesis t e Is maelites dwelt from Havila unto S ur, living in
ouses and castles, or rat er in tents and boot s, as t e Septuagint
rendered t e passage (Gen. xxv. 16).
W ile Paran in t e Bible was associated wit Is mael t e adjoining land
of Edom was connected wit Esau, t e incidents of w ose story are more
or less myt ical, but a clue to t em is yielded by t e word Edom w ic
signifies red in Aramaic.
Esau was red- aired at birt . And t e first came out red, all over
li
e a airy garment; and t ey called is name Esau (Gen. xxv.
25). Again, Esau, in exc ange for is birt rig t, _i.e._ erds and
floc
s and precedence after is fat ers deat , too
very red food,

literally t e red, red t ing, w ic t e Septuagint rendered as fiery

red (). In the frther develment f the stry, the red thing
is described as a ttage f red lentils. And Esa said t Jacb, Feed
me, I ray thee, with that same red ttage; fr I am faint: therefre
was his name called Edm (Gen. xxv. 30). The hairiness f Esa has
been cnnected with Mnt Seir, a wrd signifying rgh;[73] n the
same basis the idea f redness cnveyed by the wrd Edm, is referable
t the red sandstne f the district.
The Edmites, accrding t the Bible, tk ssessin f the land f Uz
(Lam. iv. 21), which was the land f Jb (Jb i. 1). Uz was described
as the sn f Aram, the sn f Shem (Gen. x. 23), r, accrding t
Masdi ( 957), Ad, the sn f Aram, the sn f Shem.[74]
Uz and Ad are ths identified, and in keeing with this, Setagint
described Jb as dwelling in the land Asitis.
Ad was a divinity by whm a gr f Arabs tk their ath, and the
ele f Ad r Uz were amng the great ele f the Arab legendary
ast, wh were smitten by misfrtne. The calamities which befell them
are, erhas, reflected in the stry f Jb.
In the Kran the tterance was t int the lis f Mses, Hath nt
the stry reached thee f thse wh were befre thee, the ele f
Nah and Ad and Themd (xiv. 9).[75] And nt Ad we sent their
brther Hd ... and nt Themd we sent Saleh, bt the ele received
them nt as their rhets, and they were destryed (vii. 63). And we
destryed Ad and Themd (xxix. 38). Accrding t Masdi ( 957) Ad,
wh was sent t the Adites, and Saleh, wh was sent t the Thamdites,
lived immediately after the Fld, befre Abraham.[76]
Many stries were crrent amng the Arabs cncerning the wealth and
inflence f the Adites. They were said t have lived twelve hndred
years, when their sns the Shaddad, sbjected the cntry f the
Egytian, and in this they remained tw hndred years, and bilt the
city Ar r Awar.[77] The reference is t the great frtress f the
Hykss, the Hatar f the Egytians, the Avaris f Maneth-Jsehs,
sitated abt twenty miles nrth f Cair. If the Adites were
instrmental in erecting this city, they mst have taken art in the
great Hykss invasin which haened dring the Frteenth Dynasty f
Egyt, _i.e._ abt B.C. 2500.
Accrding t Makrizi ( 1441), the Adite king wh marched against
Egyt was Shaddad ben Haddad ben Shaddad ben Ad, and the Pharah whm
he cnqered was Ashmn ben Masir ben Beisar, sn f Cham, sn f
Nah, whse bildings he destryed and in his trn he raised yramids
(rbably illars), traced Alexandria and then left fr the Wadi el
Krah between El Nabyah and Syria. He bilt a series f sqare
reservirs, which reslted in many kinds f cltivatin, which extended
frm Raah (_i.e._ Raith) t Aila (at the head f the Glf f Arabia)
t the western sea (_i.e._ the Mediterranean). His eles dwellings
cvered the district between El Dathmar, El Arish, and El Gfar, in
the land f Shaleh (alng the Mediterranean sea-bard in nrthern
Sinai), where there were wells and frit-trees, and cltivatin
inclding that f saffrn f tw kinds and f the sgar-cane. This
land was ccied by Khdem ben El Airan, when Gd, becase f the
ver-bearing f the Adites, raised a strm, and sand f the desert
cvered the land they inhabited. Hence the wrds f the Kran, And
in Ad: when we sent against them the deslating blast, it tched nt
aght ver which it came, bt it trned it int dst.[78]

The Adites at ne erid cntrlled the gld and incense rte frm
Inner Arabia t Syria, and the Kran credited them with erecting
illars, rbably _mazzebth_, in high laces. Hast th nt seen
hw the Lrd dwelt with Ad at Iram, adrned with illars whse like
have nt been raised in these lands (lxxxix. 6). And again, Bild ye
land-marks n all heights in mere astime (xxiv. 128). Ptlemy, the
gegraher (A.D. 140), lcated the Oadit t the east f the Glf f
Akaba, and named as their chief city Aramava, which was an imrtant
watering statin n the way between Petra and Mecca. Aramava is erhas
Iram f the Kran.[79]
The Adites as traders were scceeded by the Thamdites, wh, accrding
t the Kran, hewed rcks in the valley (xxxix. 8). The reference is
ssibly t Petra. Accrding t traditin they ccied Aila.[80]
A rhet f the Thamdites was Saleh, wh has a secial interest fr
sthern Sinai, since the Ben Saleh, wh claim descent frm him, are
amng the ldest and mst werfl tribes f the eninsla. Saleh in
the Biblical recrd is named as third in descent frm Shem, and as the
rgenitr f Eber (Gen. x. 24).
The remembrance f the Thamdites srvives in the resent Diar (r land
f) Themd, in nrth-western Arabia, which incldes the great Wadi El
Krah which is fllwed by the ilgrims frm Damascs t Mecca. In the
Wadi El Krah lie the Medan (cities f) Saleh, and sme distance sth
f these, is the ass which is assciated with the destrctin f the
she-camel, the creatin f Saleh. Fr the ele f Themd t whm
Saleh was sent, did nt accet him. They asked fr a sign, wheren he
rdced frm the rck the Naga r she-camel that gave milk. Let her
g at large, was his cmmand, and feed n Gds earth, and d her n
harm. Drink there shall be fr her and drink there shall be fr y,
n a several day fr each; bt harm her nt, lest the nishment f
a tremends day vertake y. Bt the Thamdites hamstrng her, and
reented f it n the mrrw, fr the nishment vertk them.
This stry f the she-camel reserves the traditin f mans right t
the free se f an animal, which was indisensable t the well-being f
the man f the desert. Accrding t the Kran, it will be the end f
all things when the sn is flded , the stars fall, the mntains
rck, the she-camel is abandned and the wild beasts are gathered
tgether (lxxxi. 1).
In the year 1873 Dghty, cming frm Damascs, stayed at the Medan
Saleh, where he saw and described the well, nw enclsed in a twer,
where the she-camel was watered. He als visited the ass sme way
frther alng the rad, the Mbrak en Naga, where the she-camel was
killed.[81]
Accrding t ne traditin this was dne by Cdar el Ahmar (_i.e._
the Red), a name in which Cassin de Perceval, saw a likeness t
Chedrlamer f the time f Abraham.[82] This agrees with Masdis
statement that Saleh came t the resce f the Thamdites when their
existence was threatened by a descendant f Ham.[83] Saleh and King
Djnd fled t Sinai where they became hermits, and Saleh died and was
bried in El Ramlah. The tmb f Nebi Saleh is lcated in the resent
Wadi Sheykh near the Gebel Msa, and is the site f the great annal
encamment f the Arabs f sthern Sinai.
In the newly discvered annals f King Sargn f Assyria (B.C.

722-705), the ele f Tamd are named amng the Arabians living
at a distance in the desert f whm the Wise Men and the Magi knew
nthing, wh never brght tribte t (my father) the king, whm I
verthrew, and the remainder I carried ff int Palestine.[84]
This transrtatin exlains the re-aearance f the Thamdites in
different lcalities. Ptlemy knew f Thamdit wh dwelt alng the
Glf f Akaba, and f Thamden wh dwelt frther inland.[85] Didrs
Sicls (_c._ B.C. 50) mentined Thamdeans living in Arabia.[86] As
late as abt A.D. 452-3 a _Ntitia Dignitatm_ mentined _eqites
Thamdeni_, wh were in the service f Rme, f whm ne divisin, the
_eqites Saraceni Thamdeni_ camed n the frntier f Egyt, anther,
the _eqites Thamdeni Illyriciani_, were statined in Jda.[87] The
resent Bir Themed, in Sinai, sitated half-way between Akaba and
Kalaat en Nakhl, recalls the cnnectin f the Thamdites with the
eninsla.

CHAPTER VI
THE EGYPTIANS IN SINAI II.
AFTER the clse f the Twelfth Dynasty, the Egytians ceased fr
centries t cme t Sinai. The reasn was that freigners, fr ver a
hndred years, rled in the Nile valley whm the Alexandrian writers
called Arabians r Phnicians. The Egytians themselves called them
Hykss. T this erid rbably belng the inscritins in Semitic
scrit that were set  in sme mines in the Wadi Dhabah near Serabit,
and the fferings f a sqat figre and f a shinx inscribed in the
same Semitic scrit which were resented befre the shrine f the
gddess. These inscritins again and again mentin the gddess f
the lace in lettering which may be Ba-alat, and the scrit itself is
cnsidered f the highest interest in the stdy f Semitic characters
generally.
After thrwing back the freign invaders f Egyt, the Pharahs f the
Eighteenth Dynasty nce again sent exeditins t Sinai, where, as we
learn frm the inscritins and mnments, they wrked bth at Maghara
and at Serabit. At Serabit bilding was nw cntined n an extensive
scale tside the caves f the sanctary. Halls, crts, a yln, and
a lng rw f chambers were erected n the latea inside the temens,
which gave the sanctary the aearance f a vast temle. The bildings
were all cnstrcted f the red sandstne f the lace, which was
qarried n the hill sle jst belw the temle n the nrth side,
where great qarries remain (Fig. 11).
The fferings which the Egytians nw made t the shrine were smaller,
mre nmers and, with few excetins, f less imrtance than thse
f the Twelfth Dynasty. They inclded figres, bwls, cs, vases f
alabaster and glaze, ring-stands, _sistra_ r rattles, _menats_ r
endants, besides wands fr temle se, and rws n rws f beads.
Mst f these bjects are similar t thse which were in se in Egyt
in cnnectin with the clt f the gddess Hathr, bt many bear a
character which shw that they were made in deference t the lcal
assciatins f the lace.
[Illstratin: Fig. 10.Temle rins at Serabit.]

Ths, n sme f these fferings, beginning with the reign f

Hatshest (XVIII 5), a feline animal aears, which is smetimes a
cheetah and smetimes a serval, and which was directly assciated with
the gddess Hathr, as was shwn by a ring-stand n which the head f
the gddess aeared with a cat n either side.
This animal, cnsidering its varying frm, can hardly be intended fr
an Egytian nme-animal, sch as the cat f Bbastis. Rather shld we
lk n it as intended fr a lcal animal assciated with the temle.
In ther arts f the wrld, the early ttem animal was smetimes
assciated by a later age with the mther-divinity. Pssibly the
animal in the fferings in Sinai was f this kind. N traditins n
the sbject are reserved, bt the chief grge alng which the latea
f the temle is arached frm the nrth is called the Wadi Dhaba, a
wrd which signifies wild beast r anther in Arabic.
Of the smaller clt bjects which nw accmlated in the sanctary,
many were carried ff befre the winter f 1906, and are scattered
in varis msems. Bt the mass f the bjects that remained was s
great that their fragments cvered the grnd f the sanctary and the
rtic in frnt f the larger cave, in a layer tw r three inches
thick. Fragments als strewed the grnd tside the temle recincts.
Of these fragments several hndredweights were cnveyed frm the
temle t the cam, where they were laid t and fitted, bt althgh
days and weeks were sent in fitting them, and many bjects had a
distinctive aearance, n cmlete secimen f any kind was recvered.
The exlanatin is that the bjects were intentinally smashed, and
their fragments scattered tside the cave where they gradally
disintegrated. It was dbtless dne frm the same lst f icnclastic
zeal which cased the smashing f the statettes f Hathr, bt whether
dring sme ancient heaval r by the Mslim, wh can tell?
Amng the masses f fragments as many as 447 bre cartches f the
Pharahs, and this enables s t date them.
Ths Aahmes (XVIII 1), first rler f the Eighteenth Dynasty, was named
n a _sistrm_ and n _menats_; his daghter Merytamen was named n
a _menat_; and his sccessr Amen-hte I (XVIII 2) was named n a
_sistrm_, a _menat_ and a laqe f Hathr. The same Pharahs qeen,
Aahmes Nefertari, was named n a _menat_.
Of these kings, Amen-hte I restred the rtic f the cave f
Hathr, as was shwn by a erfect lintel slab with a cavett crnice,
22 inches high and 50 inches lng, bearing his name which was fnd
in frnt f the entrance. His sccessr, Tahtmes I (XVIII 3) gave a
_menat_ f himself and his qeen, a wand, and an alabaster vase, and
ttery vases. There was n mentin f Tahtmes II (XVIII 4).
[Illstratin: PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF SERABIT EL KHADEM
Fig. 11.Plan f Temle, redced. (Petrie: _Researches in Sinai_.)]
Great activity was shwn dring the reign f the next rlers,
Hatshest (XVIII 5) and her nehew Tahtmes III (XVIII 6), and their
names aear n a large nmber f small fferings, inclding several
which shw the feline animal. These rlers jintly wrked the mines at
Serabit which had been ened in the Twelfth Dynasty, and at Maghara a
tablet dated t their 16th year stands inside the entrance t a mining
gallery that is abt 24 feet lng, 60-70 inches wide, and abt 100

inches high. It is n this tablet that Hatshest is seen ffering

incense t the gd Sd, while Tahtmes ffers incense t the gddess
Hathr. The large rbbish heas tside this mine cntained mch
disclred trqise.
A new era nw began in the histry f the sanctary at Serabit. The
Egytians bilt rtices, halls, and chambers acrss the High Place
f Brning, which disaeared beneath them. These bildings were all
wrked in the red sandstne f the lace, and were decrated with
figres and hierglyhs in the frmal style f Egyt. The arrangement
and the dissitin f the bildings have nthing in cmmn, hwever,
with the temles f Egyt. Like the Twelfth Dynasty steles, which were
erected in cnfrmity t Semitic sage, the temle bildings f the
Eighteenth Dynasty reflect a nn-Egytian inflence.
A small hall was nw erected tside the lesser cave, the rf f
which was srted by tw illars, and the wall bre an inscritin
cmmemrating its bilding and naming the gd Sd. In this std the
rectanglar tank allded t abve (cmare lan).
On the arach t this hall was anther hall, measring abt 20
feet sqare, which in its cmlete state mst have been an imsing
strctre. Fr great sqare illars srmnted by the head f Hathr
srted the rf, with lng rf beams frm the illars t the
walls, and shrt rf beams between the illars that carried the
rfing slabs. These great illars were standing when Rell visited
the lace in 1817, nw nly tw are left. The clssal head f the
gddess srmnted the illars, and is fll f dignity and strength.
In the centre f the hall, srrnded by these fr illars std a
great circlar stne tank, nw brken acrss. There was, mrever, a
rectanglar tank bilt int the wall in ne crner f the same hall.
Inside the nrth entrance n the way t the sanctary, Qeen
Hatshest als erected a hall which was rfed ver and en at ne
side. The rf, in this case, was carried by fr flted clmns, ne
f which remains standing. The inside walls f this hall were cvered
with figres and writing, which gave an accnt f its bilding, and
a recital f the fferings that were made fr it. Amng the figres
reresented were Snefer, Amen-em-hat III, Sd, Qeen Hatshest,
and Hathr. The sitin f this hall sggests that it served fr the
frmal recetin f wrshiers wh entered the temle recincts frm
the nrth. It has a wide tlk ver the grges belw.
The bilding activity f Tahtmes increased, if anything, after the
qeens death. He set  tw small shinxes in the crt between the
arach t the larger and the lesser cave, ne f which was fnd _in
sit_. They were t large t cnvey, and were re-bried. He als bilt
a great yln with a frecrt (M), ver the drway f which, was an
inscribed lintel with mentin f him. This yln, which stands  high
amng the rins, at this erid frmed the entrance t the temle frm
the west. It was flanked by tw steles f the fifth year f the kings
reign. An ter crt (L) was erhas his wrk als.
Otside this entrance the next king, Amen-hte II (XVIII 7) added
tw small chambers (I H), which were again s cnstrcted that their
western side frmed a frnt t the temle. He als resented _menats_
and vases t the sanctary. Later rlers bilt additinal chambers,
shing the temle frnt t frther west. These chambers measred
abt 6 by 10 ft. each, with a seat n either side, and they eventally
extended in ne lng line frm the yln alng the whle length f

the temens, a distance f abt 200 feet. They had been bilt nder
shelter f a break in the hill and were rfed ver. Lse stnes were
iled  against their walls frm tside alng the whle length, which
cncealed them frm view and gave them a sbterranean character. Their
rse is a matter f cnjectre. Prbably they hsed the gardians
f the sanctary, and served as an adytm t the cave f Hathr. The
wrshier wh arached the sanctary frm the west, and entered the
termst chamber, wld feel himself in rximity t the cave while he
was in reality a lng way ff. As the treasres which were stred in
the cave mltilied, the device wld hel t ensre their safety.
The erectin f these bildings acrss the bed f wd-ashes t an
end t the se f this sace as a High Place f Brning. The site fr
ffering the hlcast was therefre remved, rbably t a site n
the nrth side f the temle which had been sqared in the crse f
qarrying stne fr temle bildings. Crn was grwing n this site in
the winter f 1906, which revented its being dg dwn t the rck.
Bt the ecliar fertility f the accmlated sil which rendered the
grwing f crn ssible, sggested that, here als, there might be an
accmlatin f wd ashes de t extensive brning.
His sccessr, Tahtmes IV (XVIII 8), frther extended the mines f the
Twelfth Dynasty, and recrded his ding s by a tablet which is dated
t the frth year f his reign. Tablets f the fifth and the eighth
years f his reign have als been mentined by travellers, bt these
were sght fr in vain in the winter f 1906.
The next Pharah, Amen-hte III (XVIII 9), als added frther chambers
t the temle arach (G F), and flanked the new entrance with tw
steles which recrd mining exeditins f his 36th year.
[Illstratin: Fig. 12.Amen-hte III (XVIII) ffering t Sd.
(_Ancient Egyt_, a eridical, 1917, Part iii.)]
The fragments f many beatifl bjects which dated frm this reign
were fnd in and near the cave f Hathr. They inclded _menats_
and wands, and sme cs in lts frm f alabaster f exqisite
wrkmanshi. There were als ieces f glazed inlay f tw clrsan
ancient art f Egyt which was revived at this time. A find f
cnsiderable imrtance was the relief, here rerdced, n which
Amen-hte III is seen ffering t the gd Sd wh faces him wearing
the dble lme; in his ne hand the staff f ryalty. This shws
that secial significance was attached t the gd f nn-Egytian
rigin at the crt f a Pharah wh had strng Syrian affinities.
The cnnectin was frther emhasised by the discvery f the head
f a statette f Qeen Thyi, the cnsrt f the magnificent mnarch
Amen-hte III. This, in sme ways, was the greatest find f all. In
the wrds f Prf. Petrie, It is strange that this remtest settlement
f Egyt has reserved her rtrait fr s, nmistakably named by
her cartche in the midst f her crwn. The material is dark-green
schistse steatite, and the whle statette mst have been abt a ft
in height. Unfrtnately n ther fragment has been reserved. The
haghty dignity f the face is blended with a fascinating directness
and ersnal aeal. The delicacy f the srfaces arnd the eye and
ver the cheek shw the greatest care in handling. The crisly
drawn-dwn lis with their flness and delicacy, their disdain witht
malice, are evidently mdelled in all trth frm life.[88] The
reader will recall that Qeen Thyi als was f Syrian rigin, and that
Amen-hte III and Thyi were the arents f Amen-hte IV (XVIII 10),
better knwn as Akhen-aten, the great religis refrmer f Egyt.

Signs f a cnnectin f Sinai with the refrming king himself were nt
wanting, fr amng the wrk fnd inside the temens f the temle was
an inscribed limestne tablet, artly brken, which shwed a figre
careflly wrght in the ecliar style f art which was favred by
Akhen-aten as we knw it at Amarna. The figre was Ramess I, the
fnder f the Nineteenth Dynasty, wh was described n the tablet as
rince f every circit f the Aten, a title which was intrdced by
the religis refrmer.[89] The se f the term is therefre relatively
late, and sggests that the adherents f the religis refrmer after
his dwnfall sght and fnd a refge at the relatively remte centre
f Serabit.
In the estimatin f the resent writer, the Exds f the Israelites
was cnnected with the reactin in favr f the lder Egytian
religin which fllwed the dwnfall f Atenism, and Mses visited the
sanctary at Serabit befre the rise f the Nineteenth Dynasty. If s
he saw it as it was left standing at the time f Amen-hte III (XVIII
8); and the accnt f the bilding activity f the later Pharahs at
the sanctary shld therefre fllw the accnt f the assage f the
Israelites. Bt as athrities differ as t the Pharahs wh were in
cntact with Mses, it seems referable here t cmlete the accnt
f the Egytian activity in Sinai befre dealing with the stry f the
Exds.
Many small bjects similar t thse brght dring the Eighteenth
Dynasty were resented at the shrine by the Pharahs f the Nineteenth
and Twentieth Dynasties, wh wrked extensively at the mines, where the
clt f Hathr cntined. N inscritin mentins Sd, whse clt,
which lasted frm the Twelfth t the Eighteenth Dynasties, was nw at
an end.
Of the kings f the Nineteenth Dynasty King Sety I (XIX 2) made the
sal small fferings, and erected a cmmemrative stele n a hillck
at sme distance frm the temle which is still visible frm afar. He
added tw crts (B and A) t the rw f chambers which extended acrss
the temens, enclsing the stele which had been set  by Amen-hte
III, and carrying the rw f chambers beynd the temens wall. These
nw extended well nigh 200 feet beynd the actal cave, the remteness
and safety f which were thereby ensred. With the wrk f Sety ended
the grwth f the temle, His sccessr, Ramess II (XIX 3), rebilt
inner arts f the sanctary, and erected several cmmemrative steles.
He als made a large nmber f small fferings. Again, Meren-tah (XIX
4) inscribed the yln, carving his name acrss that f Tahtmes III,
and made the sal small fferings. Sety II (XIX 6) and Ta-sert (XIX
7) made small fferings f glazed ttery als.
[Illstratin: Fig. 13.Qeen Thyi. (Petrie: _Researches in Sinai_.)]
The last f the steles recrding a mine exeditin was erected by King
Set-nekht (XIX 9), n the sth entrance t the temle. After him
Ramess III (XX 1) arriated t his wn se steles set  by earlier
kings which he reinscribed in the way sal t him. He als made many
small fferings, inclding tw vases, cylindrical in frm, with scenes
in relief mdelled arnd them in different clrs, which, in their
cmleteness, were bjects f great beaty. Fragments f them nly
were fnd which made restratin imssible. One f these vases was
wrked in dark grey, green and light green. The sbject was the king
seated, with a girl standing befre him hlding a bqet f flwers.
On the ther side f the vase were cnventinal reresentatins f
tw tall bqets and garlands between them, with a dck flying abve

the garlands. Arnd the t was a wreath f etals, arnd the base
the sal arrangement f etals. The smaller vase is mre elabrate.
The figres are nt nly in relief bt brightly clred, yellw n
a vilet grnd; the etals at the base are green, vilet, r white.
The same sbject is reeated n site sides f the vase. King
Ramess III is seated, hlding the _dad_; his cartches are befre
him, while a girl stands ffering tw bqets t him.... Sch fine
relief-mdelling is nt knwn n any ther vases, bt it belngs t
the same schl as the glazed tablets with figres f freign sbjects
f Ramess III fnd at Tell el Yehdiyeh. The art f these has a
relatinshi t that f the finely mdelled and clred reliefs f
stcc fnd at Knsss.[90]
The annals f Ramess III, reserved in Egyt, bear witness t
his activity in Sinai. The _Harris Payrs_, after mentining
the destrctin f the ele f Seir f the tribes f the Shash
(Bedawyn), and the exeditin t Pnt (Arabia), stated that he went
t Atika and the cer mines which are in this lace. Part f the
exeditin went by water, and art tk the land jrney with asses.
This had nt been dne befre. Pssibly Atika stands fr Sinai. Ramess
als says, he sent t my Mther Hathr, mistress f trqise,
silver, gld, ryal linen, and things nmers as the sand. And they
brght back t the king wnders f real trqise in nmers sacks,
sch as had nt been heard f befre.[91] The same king bilt the great
temle at Medinet Hab, the inscritin f which mentined as his gifts
t it myrrh, silver, gld, every slendid cstly stne, the imst f
the Retenn as tribte, and amng the stnes lazli and trqise.
(_Ibid._, iv. 27-30). The trqise was n dbt art f the great hal
he made in Sinai.
Of later Pharahs, Ramess IV (XX 2) bilt a rch in the temle
at Serabit and altered the dr f the sanctary, making the sal
small fferings. Ramess V (XX 3) was named n sme small fferings,
inclding bracelets. Ramess VI (XX 4) inscribed the illars f a
chamber (O), and gave a c and a bracelet. After that, n trace was
fnd f any cnstrctin r ffering made by the Egytians in Sinai.

CHAPTER VII
THE ISRAELITES IN SINAI I.
THE assage f the Israelites thrgh Sinai frms the mst thrilling
eisde in the histry f the eninsla. The hw and when and where
f this jrney eridically engage attentin. A hndred years ag it
was a matter f cmmn belief that Mses wrte the five bks that are
assciated with his name. On the cntrary, Biblical criticism nw hlds
that, regarded as a histry f ancient migratins f the Israelites
and their establishment as a religis and litical cmmnity in
Canaan, the Hexatech cntains little mre than a general tline n
which t deend.[92] Bt the stdy f the eisde reviewed in the
light f mdern research, reveals an nexected accracy, and nce mre
shws that traditin is f vale in rrtin t r wer f reading
it aright.
Different views were t frward regarding the date f the Exds and
f the Pharahs wh were in cntact with Mses.

Accrding t the Bk f Kings it was in the 480th (LXX 440th) year
after the children f Israel were cme t f the land f Egyt, in the
frth year f his reign, that Slmn began t bild the Temle at
Jersalem (1 Kings vi. 1).
Slmn rled frm _c._ B.C. 974 t B.C. 935. His frth year wld be
970, and the Exds, n this basis, haened either in B.C. 1450, r in
B.C. 1410 accrding t the Setagint.
Prf. Brgsch lked n Ramess II as the Pharah f the Exds.
Prf. Petrie endrsed the view, acceting the date f Ramess II as
B.C. 1300-1234, and f the Exds as _c._ B.C. 1220. One f his
reasns fr ding s was that the Israelites, as stated in the Bible,
wrked at the city Raamses (Exd. i. 11), which, as excavatins have
shwn, was a creatin f the Ramessides. Bt the exressin the land
f Rameses, was sed in cnnectin with the stry f Jseh (Gen.
xlvii. 11), which deals with events that were lng anterir t the
Ramessides, shwing that the cmilers f Exds sed exressins that
were crrent at the time when they wrte.
The identificatin f Ramess II, a king f the Nineteenth Dynasty, as
the Pharah f the Exds, clashes with the infrmatin reaching s
thrgh Alexandrian and Syriac srces, which sggests that Mses was
befriended by Amen-hte IV, better knwn as Akhen-aten (XVIII 10),
the great religis refrmer, and that the Israelites left Egyt nder
ne f his immediate sccessrs. This cnnectin between Mses and the
great refrmer f Egyt strikes the imaginatin, all the mre as it is
in keeing with the Egytian kings Syrian affinities. The athrities
are wrth recalling.
Chief amng these were Demetris Phaleres (B.C. 345) and Maneth
(_c._ B.C. 260) wh were qted by Jsehs (A.D. 80) and Esebis
(A.D. 320); and Artaans f nknwn date, assages f whse wrk were
reserved by Alexander Plyhistr (B.C. 140) and acceted by Esebis
and the Chrnicn Paschale. The infrmatin f Demetris, Maneth,
and Artaans is ecliar in that it takes n accnt f Scritre.
Mrever, Artaans cmared what the ele f Memhis and the
Helilitans reserved regarding the assage f the Red Sea. Anther
writer was Phil f Alexandria (A.D. 40) wh wrte a _Life f Mses_.
The _Chrnicn_ f Esebis cntains the Egytian dynasties as derived
frm Maneth, and in the list f kings f the Eighteenth Dynasty, Ors
stands fr Amen-hte IV (_i.e._ Akhen-aten). Against his name stands
the entry, the Birth f Mses.[93] In agreement with this, Eihanis
in his bk _Against all Heresies_, mentined Thermthis, the daghter
f Amenhis, wh adted Mses,[94] while the Syriac writer Barhebrs
( 1218), wh had access t many srces, held that the rincess wh
adted Mses was Tremthisa, in Hebrew Damris, the daghter f
Amnhatiss.[95] The histrian Jsehs called her Thermthis, and
related that she intended Mses fr her fathers sccessr (_Antiq._,
ii. 9).
On the ther hand, Artaans gave the name f the Pharah as
Palmanthis, adding that he bilt sanctaries at Kessa (erhas Akhet
at Amarna) and at Helilis. His daghter Merris wh was childless
adted Mses. She was betrthed t Chenefres.[96] The Chrnicn
Paschale called him Chenebrn.[97]
Varis traditins int in the same directin. Ths, the Arabs held

that Mses was saved by the eldest f seven little rincesses, wh were
daghters f the Pharah.[98] Stdents f Tell el Amarna will recall
the reresentatins f the little daghters f Akhen-aten, f whm as
many as six are seen with their arents n the wall scltres f the
tmbs. On the Egytian side we knw that the marriage f Meryt-aten,
Akhen-atens eldest daghter, with Ra-smenkh-ka (XVIII 11) his
c-regent and sccessr, was witht isse.
Accrding t the Artaans Mses sent his early manhd in the service
f the hsband f the rincess wh adted him, and led a camaign
against the Ethiians (_Pr. Evang._, ix. 27). In keeing with this,
Stehen Martyr ( _a.d._ 36) said that Mses was well nigh frty years
ld befre it came int his heart t lk after his brethren, the
children f Israel (Acts vii. 23). The exlits f Mses against the
Ethiians were described by Jsehs (_Antiq._, ii. 10).
The identificatin f a daghter f Akhen-aten as the rincess wh
adted Mses sggests anther ssible date fr Exds. The reign f
Akhen-aten was dated by Prf. Breasted t _c._ B.C. 1375-1350, and
by Prf. Petrie t _c._ B.C. 1383-1365. If Mses left Egyt dring
the reign f ne f his immediate sccessrs, erhas nder that f
Tt-ankh-amen (XVIII 12), _c._ B.C. 1353-1344, the date f Exds n
the basis f the Egytian chrnlgy as nw acceted, wld be abt
B.C. 1350, as against the date B.C. 1410 r 1450 as stated in the First
Bk f the Kings.
Accrding t the Bible, Mses slew an Egytian wh had smitten a
Hebrew, wheren the Pharah sght t slay Mses, and he fled (Exd.
ii. 12-15). Accrding t Artaans, the Pharah, after the death f the
rincess, called n Chanethtes (Canthis) t kill him. Mses, warned
by Aarn, crssed the Nile at Memhis, intending t escae int Arabia.
Chanethtes lay in ambsh, wheren Mses, in self-defence, slew him.
Mses then dwelt in the land f Midian, where he watered the flck
ket by the daghters f Reel (called Ragel in Nmb. xi. 29). Reel
befriended him and tk him fr a sjrner and sn-in-law (Exd. ii.
21). A frther assage states that Mses ket the flck f Jethr, his
father-in-law, wh is described als as a riest (Exd. iii. 1), and
a Kenite. Artaans named Ragel, describing him as rler () of
the outy, ad said that he desied to make a expeditio ito Egypt
i ode to seue the o fo Moses ad his daughte, but Moses
efused.[99] Bahebus says that Moses maied a daughte of Jetho,
ad desibes Jetho as a so of Raguel.[100] This suggests that Raguel
as the fathe of the tibe. Philo of Alexadia also efes to Moses
laim to the o of Egypt.
I the sevie of Jetho, Moses led the flok to the bakside of
the deset, ad ame to the moutai of God, to Hoeb (Exod. iii.
1). Hee he foud himself o holy goud. The pesee of a piest,
of a moutai of God, ad of a eseved tat of lad, poit to a
aiet satuay, ad ou thoughts atually tu to Seabit, fo
may etuies a High Plae of Buig, a ete of moo-ult ad a
shie of the Semiti god Sopd. The all of ough stoes aoss the
Wadi Umm Agaf maked the limit of the goud that as eseved to the
satuay. This ould be the bakside of the deset fom hih Moses
appoahed the moutai.
The agel o messege of God ho spoke to Moses did so fom a Buig
Bush iside the limit of the holy goud (Exod. iii. 5). Pehaps he
as set thee as a guadia to the plae. Duig ou stay i Siai the

guads ho ee appoited to ath ove ou eampmet ea Seabit,
settled ea some bushes to hih they added bushood, so as to fom a
iula shelte, ith a opeig o oe side, ad i this they spet
thei time, mostly sittig aoud a small fie. The appeaae of the
shelte fom outside as that of a buig bush (Fig. 14).
The Diviity i Siai evealed himself to Moses i the ame of Yahveh
o Jehovah, ad subsequetly delaed himself the God of Abaham,
Isaa, ad Jaob (Exod. iii. 6), but by my ame Yahveh as I ot ko
to them (Exod. vi. 3). Cosideig the oetio of Abaham ad of
Joseph ith Haa ad the Hemiouthia satuaies metioed above,
thei God as pesumably the moo-god. The od Yahveh ude hih the
Diviity o maifested himself, pobably epesets the moo-god as
Ea o Ya ude a late ad moe spiitualised aspet. I ou Bible the
tem is edeed as I am that I am (Exod. iii. 14), hih ealls the
itepetatio by the Septuagit as , the Self-existet Oe. Fom
the Sog of Deboah e gathe that Yahveh ame to Siai fom Sei ad
the field of Edom (Judges v. 4), hih leaves us to ife that he had
satuaies thee also. This explais ho it as that duig the late
pogess of the Isaelites, Yahveh spoke to Moses at Kadesh o the
bodes of Edom (Num. xx. 7), at Ho (Num. xx. 23), ad agai i the
Red Sea, ad ho it as that the pophet Balaam as ispied by Yahveh
(Num. xxiv. 13). Vaious allusios ede it pobable that the ult of
Yahveh as peulia to the Keites hose home lay i Edom. Jetho, ho
befieded Moses, as at oe a piest of Midia ad a Keite (Judges
i. 16).
The epesetative of the Diviity fom the Buig Bush ommaded
Moses to pesuade the eldes of Isael to big foth the people out
of Egypt, i ode to seve God o the moutai, goig thee days ito
the ildeess i ode to saifie to the Lod, the ome bigig
ith them all available jeels of silve ad jeels of gold (Exod. xi.
2, xii. 35). The pilgimage is alled a feast (Exod. v. 1, x. 9), hih
may have bee simila to the mode Aab _hadj_, a od hih sigifies
a eampmet o eetio of tets. This tem, ad the geeal laims
that ee advaed, sho that it as questio of a pilgimage to a
ell-ko ete, the thought of hih aused o supise to the
Egyptias. Oe of its featues as the offeig of aimals. Suh
offeigs amog the Hebes ee made to keep off the plague; they
foestalled the saifie of the fist-bo, hih as the meas they
used to stay the plague oe it had begu. The Phaaoh, ho as axious
to pevet the Isaelites fom goig the pilgimage, poposed that they
should saifie i Egypt istead. Moses efused o the plea that thei
doig so might be itepeted as saifiig the abomiatio, _i.e._
tampeig ith a saed-ome aimal of Egypt (Exod. viii. 26). Whe the
Phaaoh, futhe ought upo, said that the people aloe might go,
Moses isisted that they must have heeith to saifie, ad that
thee must be attle, sie e ko ot ith hat e must seve the
Lod util e ome thithe (Exod. x. 26).
[Illustatio: Fig. 14.Me i Buig Bush.]
This sevig the Lod ith aimals shos that a holoaust as i
otemplatio, ad beas out the belief that the objetive of the
pilgimage as a High Plae of Buig.
The pilgimage as plaed ould have bee udetake i spig, fo
the plagues ay us though a yeas ouse i Egypt, ith the Nile
uig ed he it is at its loest i Apil; ith fogs aboudig
he the iudatio omes i July; ith dakess ad sadstoms i the

moth of Mah. Spigtime ame oud agai befoe the Isaelites left,
afte saifiig the lamb of the Passove.
Rallyig i the ity of Rameses, pobably at the peset Tell e Rotab,
i a mashy valley, they moved to Suoth, the Thuku of the aiet
Egyptias, ad eamped at Etham (LXX, Othom), beig led by a pilla
of loud i the day ad by a pilla of smoke at ight (Exod. xiii.
20-22). Doughty desibes ho o the _hadj_ of the Moslim, essets
of io ages ae set up o poles, ad ae boe to light the ay upo
sevig-mes shouldes i all the ompaies.[101] The buig fie at
ight ould atually take the appeaae of a pilla of smoke i the
daytime.
At Etham the Isaelites tued south, makig fo Pihahioth, betee
Migdol ad the sea, ove agaist Baal-zepho (Exod. xiv. 2). Pihahioth
of the Bible is Pa-qahet of the Egyptia isiptios, hile
Baal-zepho is a Semiti ame, eallig Zepho, the god of dakess.
Pihahioth ad Baal-zepho lay est ad east of the bah of the Red
Sea hih at this time exteded so fa oth as to ilude the peset
Bitte Lakes. Hee, oig to the bloig of the east-id (LXX, south
id), the ates et bak ad the Isaelites ossed (Exod. xiv. 21),
at a spot hih should be sought some thity miles oth of Suez. They
otiued to move south thee days, though the ildeess of Shu,
stoppig fist at Maah, hee the ates ee seeteed, ad the
at Elim, ith its telve ells ad sevety palm-tees. Elim has bee
idetified as the Caadaa of Pliy (vi. 23), the Aadaa of the lady
Etheia (of about A.D. 450), ho desibed ho the ates disappeaed
ito the goud ad eappeaed, hih applies to the peset Wadi
Ghaadel. If this idetifiatio be oet, the foutai hih Moses
haged fom bitte to seet pesumably lay about half-ay betee
Baal-zepho ad Wadi Ghaadel, hee the peset Ayu Musa o Wells of
Moses ae foud; possibly it lay eae to the Bitte Lake.
[Illustatio: Fig. 15.Ayu Musa.]
Leavig Elim, the Isaelites eteed the ildeess of Si, hih is
betee Elim ad Siai (Exod. xvi. 1). A mumu aose beause of
the lak of food,pehaps of food suitable fo keepig the full moo
festival, the movemets of the Isaelites beig timed by the phases of
the moo. Fo they left Egypt afte keepig the Passove, a full moo
festival hih omes o the 14th (Exod. xii. 6) o 15th of the moth
(Josh. v. 10); ad a moth late o the 15th day of the seod moth
afte they had depated out of Egypt, they eteed the ildeess of
Si. Moses held out the pomise of help, ad, as they looked toads
the ildeess, the gloy of the Lod appeaed i the loud (Exod.
xvi. 10). The gloy of the Lod pobably idiates the moo. Quails
appeaed betee the to eveigs. They ee pletiful i Siai i
the days of Josephus (_Atiq._, 88), ad otiue so at etai times
of the yea to the peset day. Maa as gatheed i lage quatities
hih took the plae of bead. This shos that the Isaelites ee
movig amog goves of the tamaisk, fo maa is the seetio hih
exudes fom the tamaisk, oig to the putues of a iset duig
six to eight eeks, begiig i May. A yea late, he the Isaelites
ee i the deset of Paa o Zi, they agai gatheed maa at the
same seaso (Num. xi. 8), ad otiued to do so evey yea duig the
yeas they spet i the ildeess (Exod. xvi. 35). Maa appeas ude
the ame _meu_ i the otempoay eods of Egypt, ad is still
olleted i Siai ad expoted.
The Isaelites ee o i Rephidim, the lad of the Amalekites ad,

as thee as a lak of ate, Moses as diviely dieted to smite the
ok. The ates hih he aised ee Massah ad Meibah (Exod. xvii.
7); the ate hih he stuk ea Kadesh, a yea late, as Meibah
also (Num. xx. 13), hee the plae as alled Meibath Kadesh (Ezek.
xlviii. 28). A tehial tem fo ate-fidig seems to be meat. I
aiet Egyptia _me_ sigifies hael, ad _ba_, as metioed above,
sigifies hole, hih suggests a possible deivatio. Fo heeve
ate peolates the soil ith had ok beeath it i the deset,
it is possible to eah ad aise it by uttig ito the soil to the
sufae of the ok. The patie is still esoted to by the Beday,
ho ae adepts at stikig ate he they ae o the mah.
I Rephidim the Isaelites ee attaked by the Amalekites, ho haied
them hile they ee o thei ay (Deut. xxv. 17). The plae hee
the eoute took plae is ot speified, o the losses hih ee
iued.
The umbe of the Isaelites as tabulated i to lists of the
otigets of eah tibe hih ee da up, the fist he they
eamped befoe the Holy Mout (Num. i. 46), the othe he they
ee o the poit of eteig the Pomised Lad (Num. xxvi. 51). The
iteal evidee is stog that these esus lists, hih eumeate
the umbes of eah tibe, ae a fist had eod. At the same time
the umbes aived at by listig up the otigets of eah tibe,
603,550 i the oe ase (Num. i. 46), ad 601,730 i the othe
(Num. xxvi. 51), ad 600,000 speakig geeally (Exod. xii. 37; Num.
xi. 21), ae looked upo as i exess of the populatio hih the
lad of Goshe ould otai, ad the lad of Siai ould eeive.
Poeti liee o a mistake of the sibe as theefoe put foad
as a explaatio. Pof. Petie poposed a diffeet solutio.[102]
The od _alaf_ i Hebe sigifies thousad, but it also sigifies
family o tet-settlemet. If e ead the esus lists as peseved
i Numbes takig the so-alled thousads to sigify families o
tet-settlemets, ad the hudeds oly as applyig to the people, the
esus lists otai hat appeas to be a easoable statemet. Thus,
the tibe of Judah, istead of umbeig 74,600 pesos, umbeed
74 tet-settlemets, otaiig 600 pesos, _i.e._ about eight
pesos to eah tet-settlemet; the tibe of Issaha, istead of
umbeig 54,400 pesos, umbeed 54 tet-settlemets, otaiig
400 pesos, ad so foth. O this basis the Isaelites, at the fist
esus i Siai, umbeed 598 tet-settlemets, ith 5550 pesos;
ad at the seod esus, o the ety ito Caaa, they umbeed
596 tet-settlemets ith 5730 pesos. The umbes 600,000 ad so
foth ae attibutable to a mistake of the sibe ho added up the
otigets of the esus lists, eadig the od _alaf_ as thousad,
istead of tet-settlemet.

CHAPTER VIII
THE ISRAELITES IN SINAI II.
HAVING eahed the goal of thei pilgimage, the Isaelites eamped
ea the Mout of God, Ha-ha-elohim (Exod. xviii. 5), a od hih
a also be ead as height of the piests. If e idetify this goal as
Seabit, it follos that they eamped ea the outlet of oe of the
goges o the othe side of the plateau i the dietio of the Wadi

Sueig, pobably ea the outlet of the Wadi Dhaba. This as the side
fom hih thee as diet aess to the ave of Sopd, ad the side o
hih the Semiti isiptios ee foud i the mies.
The physial featues of the plae ae i losest ageemet ith the
equiemets of Siptue. Fo hee is a moutai ith a ildeess
at its foot, isig so shaply that its base ould be feed i hile
yet it as easily aseded, ad its summit ould be see by a multitude
fom belo.[103]
If e go fom the satuay do i the dietio of the Wadi Dhaba ad
tuig bak, look up, e see the temple uis stadig agaist the
skylie, ith the squae uttig, hee the holoaust at this peiod
pesumably took plae, just belo it to the ight.
Whe the Isaelites ee eamped, Moses as sought by Jetho, the
piest, ho aied out the hoie of a aimal ad took a but
offeig ad saifies fo God (Exod. xviii. 12). Moses himself
aseded the Mout, ad afte his etu satified the people,
ho ee o alled upo to patise abstiee duig thee days,
avoidig thei ives, ad ashig thei lothes agaist the thid day,
he the Lod ill ome do i the sight of all the people upo
Mout Siai (Exod. xix. 11). This aagemet as appaetly pat
of a idespead Semiti usage, fo i the Koa e ead of simila
estitios fo the thee days peedig the appeaae of the e
moo (Koa, ii. 193).
O the thid day thee ee thudes ad lightigs, o athe,
voies ad flashes, ad the soud of a tumpet (Exod. xix. 16),
ad the people ee led out by Moses ad stood o the ethe pat
of the Mout fom hee they itessed the theophay. Fie appeaed
fist, the smoke (Deut. v. 23), hih shos that they ee out befoe
daybeak. Ad Mout Siai as altogethe o a smoke, beause the Lod
deseded upo it i fie: ad the smoke theeof aseded as the smoke
of a fuae, ad the hole mout quaked geatly (Exod. xix. 18). The
voie of the tumpet axig loude, Moses spoke ad God aseed him by
a voie (Exod. xix. 19), heeupo he et up ad as haged to set
bouds about the Mout. O his etu he delaed to the people the
statutes ad judgmets (Deut. v. 1; Exod. xx. 1), hih ee vouhsafed
to him.
The eemoy poits to a ell-established itual hih has its oots
deep do i Semiti usage. Fo a tumpet of ho as souded o
speial oasios amog the Hebes log befoe the Exodus. Blo up
the tumpet (_shopha_) i the e moo i the time appoited, o ou
solem feast day. Fo this as a statute fo Isael ad a la of the
God of Jaob. This he odaied i Joseph fo a testimoy, he he
et out though the lad of Egypt, hee I head a laguage that I
udestood ot (Psa. lxxxi. 3-5).
I the Moslim old, oadays, it falls to the _mu-ezzi_ to all the
aouemet o paye (the _aza_) fom the toe of the mosque i the
ealy moig, he a ma of piety may espod.[104]
The theophay o high beaig itess to the pesee of the Diviity,
Moses pepaed fo the tibal saifie belo by eetig a alta ad
settig up telve pillas (_mazzeboth_). The youg me sle the oxe,
ad Moses spikled the blood o the pillas ad the people. The,
takig ith him thee piests ad sevety eldes, he et up ito the
moutai. Ad they sa the God of Isael, ad thee as ude His

feet as it ee a paved ok of sapphie stoe ad as it ee the vey
heave fo leaess (Exod. xxiv. 10, 11). Ad they ate ad they dak
thee.
We ead that Moses seod stay i the Mout lasted foty days ad
foty ights, duig hih he fasted (Exod. xxxiv. 28). The Moslim
idetified this fast as Ramada, hih, befoe Mohammad itefeed
ith its date, happeed duig the heat of summe.[105] The Isaelites
at the foot of the moutai, pobably obseved the same fast, sie
Aaos easo fo makig the alf as that to-moo shall be a feast
of the Lod, _i.e._ at the olusio of the fast, thee as feastig,
dikig, thoig off of lothes, daig ad muh oise (Exod. xxxii.
6, 17, 25). I this ase it as a questio of a full moo festival,
fo, o a late oasio, Jeoboam made to alves of gold, oe of
hih he set up i Bethel ad oe i Da, ad odaied a feast o the
15th day (1 Kigs xii. 28, 32).
I the Mout, Moses as dieted to make a potable satuay o the
model of atual aagemets hih he as sho. Ad let them make
me a satuay; that I may dell amog them. Aodig to all that I
sho thee, the patte of the tabeale, ad the patte of all the
istumets theeof, eve so shall ye make it (Exod. xxv. 8, 9). Ad
thou shalt ea up the tabeale aodig to the fashio theeof
hih as shoed thee i the Mout (Exod. xxvi. 30). Hollo ith
boads shalt thou make it; as it as shoed thee i the mout, so shall
they make it (Exod. xxvii. 8). The fuitue iluded a ak o hest,
hih otaied a vase ad to stoes, _i.e._ the stadads of apaity
ad eight, ad the mey seat hih as upo the ak (Exod. xxv.
17). Thee as also a stadad of legth, pehaps the od of Aao.
The stit adheee to these stadads as heefoth a matte of
eligious duty ith the Isaelites. Ye shall do o uighteousess
i judgmet, i mete-yad, i eight, o i measue. Just balaes,
just eights, a just ephah, ad a just hi, shall ye have (Lev. xix.
35, 36). These stadads ee of Babyloia oigi, ad ofim the
pesee i the Mout of stog Semiti ifluee.
The ak futhe otaied the to tables of testimoy, hih ee ut
i stoe, but hih ee so bittle that they easily boke, heeupo
Moses egaged to povide othes (Exod. xxiv. 12; xxxii. 19; xxxiv. 1;
Deut. x. 1). The ommadmets hih they otaied osisted, fo the
most pat, of a pohibitio that as folloed by a peept. I this
they esemble the ommadmets that have ome out of Babyloia, hih
otai peepts suh as these, Thou shalt ot slade, speak hat is
pue. Thou shalt ot speak evil, speak kidly.[106]
The tablets ee i the itig of God (Exod. xxxii. 16), hih
aises the questio as to the laguage ad sipt that ee used.
Moses, as e ko, as leaed i all the isdom of the Egyptias
(Ats vii. 22). He as etaily familia ith hieoglyphs, ad the
fat that the ommadmets ee peseved i to texts that diffe
(Exod. xx; Deut. v.), suggests that they ee itte i a laguage
that as ot Hebe. But the disovey of a pimitive Semiti sipt at
Seabit itself, puts a diffeet omplexio o the matte. The itig
of God as possibly a Semiti sipt.
Ove ad above the ommadmets, Moses eeived a olletio of itte
ustoms fo the guidae of those ho ee heefoth to deide
i ite-tibal disputes. They ae ko as judgmets (Exod. xxi.
1), hih is i keepig ith thei beig give out at a satuay,
hee Yahveh as aepted as Supeme Judge. I the Yahveh ult the

poouemets ee o loge subjet to the deisios at loal

etes. They ee set do i itig ad assoiated ith the holy
tet, ad it as by aeptig the loal Baals ad Ashtoeths that the
Hebes fell fom the oveat ad lapsed ito a ealie babaism.
The disovey of the Code of Khammuabi ad the poits of likeess
betee its odiaes ad those of the ode aepted ude the ame
of Moses, futhe ooboate the Semiti o Aabia ifluee of the
eligious etes hee the odiaes ee eeived.
Moses had may ommuigs i the Mout, ad a yea had goe by he the
tabeale as set up o the fist day of the fist moth, i ode
to elebate the Passove (Exod. xl. 2; Num. ix. 1). O the tetieth
day of the seod moth i the seod yea the fies ee extiguished
ad the Isaelites moved out of the ildeess of Siai hile a loud
lay o Paa (Num. x. 11-12). They ee led by Hobab, the Keite. Hobab
is desibed i oe passage as the so of Raguel the Midiaite, Moses
fathe-i-la (Num. x. 29), i aothe as the fathe-i-la of Moses
(Judg. iv. 11). The Septuagit edes the tem i both passages as
bothe-i-la (_i.e._ ) of Moses. The tems of el tionship
e difficult to fix,
ut if R uel
e ccepted s the ti
l f the,
s le dy suested, Jetho nd Ho

m y
e looked upon s youne
mem
es of the ti
e, peh ps his sons.
The fist st tion w s c lled T
e h
ec use of the Bunin. Hee
m nn w s  in plentiful (Num. xi. 8), which shows th t the distict
w s wooded. The next pl ce w s c lled Ki
oth-H t - v h, _i.e._
ui l
pl ce of T - v h,
ec use of those who died of the pl ue nd wee

uied. Hee  in qu ils wee plentiful, which the wind

ouht up
fom the se (Num. xi. 31). The next stoppin pl ce w s H zeoth (Num.
xi. 35), the l st st tion
efoe they enteed the wildeness of P  n
(Num. xii. 16).
Ro
inson loc ted H zeoth t Ain Hudhe .[107] But if the oiin l o l
of the Is elites w s Se
it, they would
e movin in nothely o
noth-e stely diection. In the openin lines of Deuteonomy occu
the wods H zeoth nd Diz h
(Deut. i, 1), fo which the Septu int
su
stitutes Aulon, ich in old ( or ).[108]
Th word uo igifi r vi, whih ugg h  H zroh mu b
ough omwhr og h  rpm of h B di Th, or p i of
w drig. Th m p of Si i i orh- ry dirio how W di
H fr , whih h  om i
 o H zroh. Th Bir Sh wi d h
Bir Thmd r pri  w whih h pop woud ri
 if hy
movd i orh-orh- ry dirio.
Th x oppig p  w  i h widr of P r  (Num. xii. 16).

ordig o h Bib, i h fir moh (_i.._ v moh fr

 vig h Hoy Mou), h Ir i bod i K dh, whr Miri m
did d w  burid (Num. xx. 1). Mo o mor ru
w r from h
ro
, h w r  bfor w  Mrib h (Num. xx. 13), h h  m of
h p  Mrib h-K dh (Ez
. xviii. 28). Th  m K dh if
ugg  u ry, d Mo hr g i h d ommuig wih Y hvh
(Num. xx. 7).
K dh pp r  C d i h if of Hi rio ( 307), whih w 
wri by Jrom. Th  i w hr o  diip p ig by
Eu (modr Kh   ).[109] Thr i i K di or G di m r
d o
h modr m p. Robio, howvr, ough K dh of h Ir i  r
Mou Hor,  h pr i  W ib .[110]

K dh  y i h urmo bordr of Edom, d h Ir i woud

ow h v m rhd hrough Edom,
pig og h
ig highw y.
Prh p h ro d og h Mdirr   i m . Bu Edom rfud
(Num. xx. 21). Thy wr hrfor obigd o 
 ry io C  
by omp ig h  d of Edom, whih m  urig i   ry
dirio ow rd Mou Hor, d h i ouhry dirio o h
Guf of
b , h o- d Rd S (Num. xiv. 25).  ir  d
p  g i Duroomy   h  h hidr of Ir  oo
hir
joury from Broh of h hidr of J
 o Mor ; hr ro
did (Du. x. 6). Th w mu hrfor b ough o o Mou
Hor, d m y b h o- d W of Mo, whih r  md  uh
by h mdiv  pigrim. Th modr m p mio W di Mu , whih
joi h r b h omig from Pr . Th Boo
of Numbr o d h
d h of ro i Mou Hor, by h (bordr, o) o  of h  d
of Edom (Num. xx. 23). Hr h Lord o mor po
 o Mo, whih
ugg h xi of  u ry.
Eubiu (_._ 320) wro, Mou Hor, i whih ro did, hi  r
h iy Pr .[111] Mou Hor i h modr Gb H rou or Mou of
ro, fw mi orh-w of h  i  Pr . Th diri 
h im w  pp ry i h poio of h Ki, i h
proph B  m,  d upo by Kig B 
of h Mo bi, o ur h
Ir i, forod h f  of h m 
i, d, oo
ig ow rd
h Ki, d rd Srog i hy dwig p , d hou pu
hy  i ro
(Num. xxiv. 21). Thi ro
, rm whih h
Spu gi rdrd  Pr , w  prob by h H - ( r bi _i _,
mou i f) of h Bib,  m h gd o Jo
h fr i
 pur by m zi h (_._ B.C. 800, 2 Kig xiv. 7).

 K dh h Ir i h d b od o g you io h widr

by h w y of h Rd S (Num. xiv. 25), _i.._ hy movd ouh
from Mou Hor. Th ir  d p  g furhr  md G dgod h d
Job h,  d of broo
 d w r (Du. x. 7; LXX, Eb h ). Th
modr m p mio E T b i h dprio bw h Rd S d
h D d S , whr Rom  prpu d h xi of  u ry
i h  m d Di  m,  r Gh di  . Thi movm brough h
Ir i io ofi wih h m 
i d h C  i, wih
whom hy fough d wr diomfid v uo Horm h (Num. xiv. 45;
LXX, Hrm ), prh p h pr E H mim .
ordig o r b r diio, Johu fough g i S mid b H gb r
b M 
, h m 
i
ig of Syri i h  d of i d
id
him. o Mo, fr h d h of ro, rd h  d of h
pop E Ei,  d E Sr h, d dv d o h dr B b. Thr
w  h  r i  impor  iy  d  b um or zyou.[112]
Thi zyou w  Eziogbr bid Eoh (_i.._ i ) o h hor of
h Rd S i h  d of Edom (1 Kig ix. 26). I w  h por o
h Guf of
b whih w  ud by Kig Soomo. By w y of hi h
Ir i p d io h p i of Mo b. d wh w p d by from
our brhr h hidr of E u whih dw i Sir, hrough h w y
of h p i from E h, d from Eziogbr, w urd d p d by
h w y of h widr of Mo b (Du. ii. 8).

i of  io wih furhr  m  d i Numbr (xxx. 12,

13, 17-30), whih fford o guid d ofu h iu. I i
ow oo
d upo  po-xii oio of  r v  rou whih
h rib who ompid h Boo
of Numbr iorpor d io hi
ou, prh p b u h umbr of  io  md i i w 
fory, orrpodig o h fory y r w drig. og om rou

i mio h  io h  pp r i h  rr iv i Exodu d

Duroomy, bu v hr wih dvi io.
H vig p d by h dprio  r h Rd S , h Ir i wr
i diri h  wr oupid by h id Mo bi d Midi i.
Thy rd io fridy r io wih h Midi i;  r hy
w gd ru w r g i hm.
Th froir of Midi  wr w y v gu. ordig o h Bib Mo
m Jhro i h  d of Midi , whih ugg h  h piu
of Si i w  iudd i Midi   h im. Midi  i  d M di  i
h Spu gi d by h r b wrir. oiu M ryr (_._ _ .d._
530) hd h  h iy Ph r , iu d bw h ov d Egyp,
w  i h  d of Midi  wih i ih bi  ddd from Jhro
(. 40).
M
rizi ( 1441) dribd M di   of wid x iudig m y
ii, hif mog whih wr E Kh   d E S uo. O h id
of h  of K zou (_i.._ Suz) d E Tor h ii of M di 
r F r , E R g h (_i.._ R ihou), Kozoum, i d M di . I h
ow of M di  hr r i o-d y wodrfu rui d gig i
oum.[113]
I modr p r  h rm Midi  i ppid o h  r hor of
h Guf of r bi , bw
b d Muwih, whih h  m d om
wrir biv h  Mo w io hi p r of r bi , d furhr
d o h idifi io of Jhro of Sripur wih Shoib, proph
of h  d of Midi .
Sir Rih rd Buro i 1877 viid h rui of h iy of Midi ,
h poiio of whih grd wih h  of M di m miod by
Pomy.[114] Th v y whih hr u io h high p i of Ndhd
o id h rm i of ivr, oppr d god mi, d  r h
iy wr gr  oui u io h ro
whih wr
ow  h
Mugh ir ( v of) Shoib.
Shoib w  o of h proph of h r b p . I h Kor  w r d,
d w  o M di , hir brohr Shoib. H  id, O my pop,
worhip God, o ohr God h v you h  H: giv o hor wigh d
m ur: I  idd h  you rv i good hig, bu I f r wih
you h puihm of h  omp ig d y.... d wh our dr
 m o p , w divrd Shoib d hi omp io i f ih, d
vio mp ovroo
h wi
d, d i h morig hy wr foud
pror  i hir hou  if hy h d vr dw i hm. W  o
M di  wp off v  Thmoud w  wp off? (xi. 89). ordig o
ohr p  g,   rhqu
 pu  d o h dwr i  y
,
h for of M di , who r d hir po  i r (vii. 90,
xxix. 30).
Th  m of Shoib ow  h o h v y i Si i i whih i
h gr  ov, d r diio idifid Shoib of h for
of Midi  wih Jhro, h pri of Midi  of h Bib. Thir
idifi io i  id by Sir Rih rd Buro o go b 
o h r b
wrir E F rg of bou .D. 800.
I w  dord by Euyhiu, p ri rh of x dri (935-940),
who  d h  Mo fd o h H dj z d dw i h iy of
M dy , whr Jhro (whom h r b   Shoib) w  pri of h
mp.[115] Bu M udi ( 951), whi pig h  h d ughr
of Shoib m rrid Mo, poid ou h  hi Shoib, hif of h

Midi i, w  vry diffr pro from Shoib h proph, who

w  miod i h Kor . Thr r uri bw h wo
Shoib.[116]
Th idifi io of Jhro wih h proph Shoib m y b du, i
h fir i , o h  im whih h proph m d o hir
pop. Mo, who w  i o  wih Jhro, rivd h  d rd
of wigh d  p iy i h Mou, h ri dhr o whih w 
hforh m r of rigiou obrv  o h pop. Shoib,
ordig o h Kor , imprd upo h pop of h for h
d o giv m ur d wigh i f ir, d h dirg rd o hi
omm d w  h  u of hir druio (Kor , xxi. 88, xxvi.
178).

CH PTER IX
THE N B TE NS
THE   Ph r oh who iviy w  rordd i Sr bi w  R mu VI
(B.C. 1161-1156), fr who rig iform io bou h piu
 d for vr  uri. Th ro d og h orh w  rodd
by h Egypi  wh h oury w  i fridy r io wih Kig
Soomo (B.C. 974-35) d h
ig of Jud . I w  rodd o by
h yri  rmi whih iv dd Egyp udr E rh ddo (B.C. 670),
d udr hurb ip  (B.C. 668-626). hough w h r ohig of h
 u ry  Sr bi i impor  mu h v oiud. For i h
i of mp whih m d gif o Niori o h o io of hr
dopio by h Ph r oh P m
I (XXVI 1), bou h y r B.C. 654,
gif w  m d of hudrd _db_ of br d by h mp of S i,
of Buo, d by h hou of H hor of M f
 _i.._ Sr bi, d by
Pr-Spd, _i.._ h  u ry of Sopd i h iy of Goh.[117]
I h hird ury bfor Chri, Egyp p d udr h ru of
h Pomi. Pomy Phi dphu (B.C. 250-247), m  of wid
ouoo
, bui rio (orh-  of h  r Suz) o rv 
por i p  of h i Hropoi, whih w  iig up. H
furhr  ou  xpdiio o xpor h o  of h Rd S
udr h h rg of rio. Diodoru Siuu (_._ B.C. 20), quoig
g h rid (B.C. 110), d h gogr phr Sr bo (_._ .D. 24),
quoig rmidoru (B.C. 100), giv  ou of h iform io
h  i prrvd rg rdig Si i. fr dribig h wr
hor of h Rd S wih i ouri d i ih bi  who wr
Ihhyoph goi (fih- r), d Trogody ( v-dwr) or om d,
d h d gr whih hr d hippig from orm d  d-b 
,
Diodoru, i hi ou, p d o h ohr id of h Guf. Hr
rio rd   r  Npuium or Poidium. From h o h
mouh of h Guf, i p  og h  -o  of gr  m mog
h ih bi  for h profi i yid hm; i i  d h G rd
of P m-r (Phoi
o), b u hy boud hr, d r o vry
fruifu h  hy yid uffii boh for p ur d iy.
Bu h who oury x djoiig i diu of rivr d broo
,
d yig o h ouh i v burd up by h h  of h u; d
hrfor hi fruifu r  h  i mog dry d b rr rgio
(rmo from i g d improvm), d y fford uh py of
food d proviio, i juy, by h b rb ri , ddi d o h
god. For hr r i i m y fou i d ruig r m  od 

ow, by whih m  h rgio from o id o h ohr i w y

gr d fourihig, d vry w d p   o h viw. I hi
p  hr i  i  r of h rd o, wih  iripio i
od d igib h r r; whr m  d wom , h  xu
hr h pri offi durig hir iv, h v h h rg of h
grov d  r. Thy r pro of qu iy d gr  m h  bid
hr, d for f r of h b , h v hir bd (hy r upo)
i h r.[118] I h orrpodig ou Sr bo miod o
 r, bu h m  d wom  who gu rdd h r.[119]
Th Phoi
o or p m grov of h wrir, w  omim o d 
R ihou; prh p h o  yu Mu i m .
Diodoru h miod h I d of h S - v o h o  of
r bi , d h promoory (_i.._ Si i) h  hoo ou ow rd
hi i d, dribig hi  ovr g i Pr i r bi d
P i o whih h Grrh  d Mi  brig i. H h
miod h M r   d G rid   ( m whih r  M r d
W di Gh r d, h C r d r of Piy), who dw og h o , d
r d how h M r   wr b o hir quiqui  fiv ,
 rifiig f d  m o h god of h grov d fhig
prig w r, wh h G rid  
id ho who wr f bhid
d h murdrd ho who rurd d izd hir oury.

ordig o Diodoru (i quoig rio) hr wr fw h rbour

og h hor i h dirio of h  i promoory whr dw
h r bi   d N b  , who hd o oy h o  bu  rg
diri i d. Th N b   h v pi  ir for Si i,
i h umrou rough ro
-iripio og h w di of h
ouh, whih og puzzd h  rd, r ow gr y ribud o
hm.
Jophu o d N b  bw Syri d r bi xdig from
h Euphr  o h Rd S , d od h  m N b   wih
Nb joh, who  m  d fir i h ofdr y of h Ihm i
rib (G. xxv. 13).[120] O h ohr h d Sr bo, i
 Diodoru
Siuu, o d hm i orh-wr r bi , xdig  f r ouh
 Lu
o
om o h Guf of r bi .[121]
Th xi of N b   i diri h   y f r p r i xp id
by h ry diovrd   of yri . I h og i of
pop r m   of hm, who wr r idd by S hrib (_._
B.C. 705), mio i m d of h N b u, of whom  rg umbr wr
 rrid off io yri .[122] g i, wh hurb ip  (B.C. 668-626)
 ou o oqur r bi , Kig V ih of r bi ough rfug wih
N h ,
ig of N b , who p  i rmo. Th N b   wr
g i r idd, d umbr of hm wr r p d. Th ro d o
D m u I  ud hir f o r d.[123] Th rmo hom of h
N b   w  d by M
rizi ( 1441), who  d hm wih h
M gi, h Idi  d h Chi. Th did h Food b u i
h d vr pr d o hm, d r d hir origi, o o No h, bu
o K jum h.[124]
Th ffor of h r p d N b   o rm i i ouh wih hir
hom  u ri, m y h v opd hir y o h poibiii
of r d. I h fourh ury bfor Chri, hy r d h
io of h wr word by izig Pr , h H -S of
iquiy, whih  y h f-w y bw h h d of h Guf of
b
d h D d S  h poi whr h od god d i rou
from r bi o D m u w  rod by h ovr d rou from Idi

o Egyp. Thi ppropri io g v h N b   h oro of h

E r r d. I ordr o h
hir progr igou Cyop,

ig of Syri d P i i B.C. 312,  hu d  rmy
g i hm. Th rmy r hd Pr  h im wh h N b  
wr b o pigrim g. Thy  iy ovr m h gd, h wom
d hidr, d izd  ormou booy i piry d ivr. Bu
h rurig N b   ovroo
d w igh droyd h iv dig
for. ohr rmy w   udr Dmriu o iz Pr , d
h i h N b  . Bu h drw h my og dr r 
,
d h iv dr hivd ohig.[125]
Hforh h N b   d  rogid  io, who
ig from
bou B.C. 200 hd hir ow by h id of h
ig of Jud . Of
h
ig r  I (_ r bi_ H rih), h ompor ry of iohu
Epiph  (B.C. 173-164), rivd h fugiiv H mo  (2 M .
v. 8); M ho I dw  Pr d ru
oi g; r  III w 
m r of D m u d
ig of C-Syri . Thir oro ovr h
r d-rou xdd i m y dirio. og h Mdirr  
o h orh o  of Si i hy urd foohod f r byod h
imi of C-Syri mo  f r  h T ii mouh of h Ni.
For x v io m d  Q r Gh i or Ou i bw K  r d
K i d o h diovry of N b    u ry wih N b  
iripio.[126]

 h Rom  dv d hir froir, hy wr brough io o 

wih h
ig of N b . M ho II i h y r B.C. 47, uppord
h Rom  udr C r, d rd io  grm wih hm. 
ru, Rom   x-oor ridd  Lu
o
om, h ouhrmo
poi of N b . fr h oqu of Egyp i B.C. 30, h Rom ,
hir im gi io fird by h hough of h uod w h of r bi ,
rd io  grm wih h N b  , d  ighy bo ,
wih  hou d m, iudig fiv hudrd Jw d hou d
N b  . Th  id from rio roud Si i i B.C. 25 o iv d
d oqur r bi . I w  i v i h  Syu, h Rom   x-g hrr
 Lu
o
om, urgd h  h r bi  wr rih i mrh di oy.
Th xpdiio  dd,  m wr h rrd d h Rom  rd h
oury. Bu hr hy foud  d b r of food d w r, d o o
o od wih. Th xpdiio w  mir b f iur, bu Syu
who rid o prv i, w  ud of r hry d odmd o
d h.[127]
Th N b   h d origi y b o wih p or  purui. For
im hy b m pir  d h d i 
iff, wih whih hy
dpoid  ohr mrh  who r ffi
d i hir  . Thir
obviou iio w  o pro h r d og hir ovr d rou
whih umd gr  proporio  w  r from h rm r
 of Sr bo.
O r o of hir u i hi dirio w  hir xiv u
of h  m  m  of r por. Thr r m y rfr i
h yri    o h  rg umbr of  m whih wr brd i
r bi . hurb ip  (B.C. 668-626)  y h  fr hi oqu of
r bi ,  m i
 hp I diribud d  ud o ovrfow o h
pop of yri dwig i my oury.  m for h f h
,
i h f h
 of ivr, hy wr v ud for  h g .[128]
Th N b   mpoyd  m i uh umbr h  Sr bo po
 of
hir ovoy of  m (), whch moved between Petra and
Leukokome n the land of Nabat, wth so many people and camels that
they resembled armes. The camels moved to and fro at certan perods
of the year, beng tmed by the arrval at Leukokome of the boats from
the East. In between they were drven to pasture n the frutful wads

whch lay near the caravan routes. It was to the men herdng these
camels that the wads of southern Sna owed ther nscrptons.
These nscrptons consst, for the most part, of a few words,
ncludng a name or a greetng, whch are roughly ncsed on rock or
boulder at about the heght of a man above the valley floor. Some
are accompaned by sgns or by the rough drawng of anmals or men,
sometmes there are drawngs and sgns wthout wrtng. The anmals
are chefly camels, gazelles or cattle. There are some horsemen and
some nondescrpt anmals. Among the sgns that are used are the
Egyptan _ankh_, the Greek _alpha_ and _omega_, and the Chrstan
cross, showng that a great varety of persons passed there. The words
are wrtten wthout regularty, the anmals and men are drawn wth poor
skll. They are, for the most part, unattractve scrawls, the nterest
of whch les n the nformaton whch they ndrectly convey.
The nscrptons n the wads of southern Sna were frst noted by the
lady Ethera who vsted the pennsula about the year 450. A century
later they attracted the attenton of Cosmas, whose second name,
Indcopleustes, marked the extent of hs travels. Cosmas was n Sna
about the year 545, and n hs _Chrstan Topography_ wrote of the
nscrptons, whch he attrbuted to Israelte ndustry.
And when they had receved the Law from God n wrtng and had learnt
letters for the frst tme, God made use of the desert as a quet
school and permtted them for forty years to carve out letters on
stone. Wherefore, n that wlderness of Mount Sna one can see, at
all ther haltng places, all the stones that have been broken off
from the mountans, nscrbed wth Hebrew letters, as I myself can
testfy, havng travelled n those places. Certan Jews too, who had
read these nscrptons, nformed me of ther purpose whch was as
follows: the departure of so and so of such and such a trbe, n such
and such a year, n such and such a month,just as wth ourselves,
there are travellers who scrbble ther names n the nns n whch they
lodge.And the Israeltes, who had newly acqured the art of wrtng,
contnually practsed t, and flled a great multtude of stones wth
wrtng, so that all those places are full of Hebrew nscrptons,
whch, as I thnk, have been preserved to ths day for the sake of
unbelevers. Anyone who wshes, can go to these places, and see for
hmself, or at least can enqure of others, about the matter, when he
wll learn that t s the truth whch we have spoken.When the Hebrews
therefore had been at the frst nstructed by God, and had receved a
knowledge of letters through those tables of stone, and had learned
them for forty years n the wlderness, they communcated them to the
Phncans at that tme when frst Cadmus was kng of the Tyrans, from
whom the Greeks receved them, and then n turn the other natons of
the world.[129]
After the tme of Cosmas we hear no more of the nscrptons, tll
the seventeenth century when they attracted the attenton of Petro
della Valle about the year 1618.[130] In the eghteenth century copes
were brought home of some of them whch attracted further attenton.
In 1762 Nebuhr went to Sna wth the ntenton of vstng the
Gebel Mukattab, or mountan of wrtng. He was taken, nstead, by hs
sheykh to the nscrbed runs of Serabt. Some of the rough Snatc
nscrptons appeared n the _Transactons of the Royal Socety of
Lterature_ n 1832; others were ncorporated by Lepsus n hs work on
Sna. They were frst clamed for the Nabateans by Lvy n 1860.[131]
Prof. Palmer of the Ordnance Survey collected over 3000 between
1868-70, and endorsed the vew that they were the work of traders and

carrers. Prof. Eutng recently publshed over 300 n facsmle and

collected smlar nscrptons along the wads west of Petra between
Damascus and Palmyra, and elsewhere.[132] It s sad to be habtual n
Araba to scrawl trbal marks on walls and rocks n order to show the
rghts of the trbe, a name and a greetng beng frequently added as a
notce to knsmen and frends passng that way. These casual marks and
nscrptons have recently ganed a new nterest, for the lght whch
they throw on the development of the Arabc scrpt.
Most of the nscrptons along the wads of Sna are n Aramac or
other Semtc scrpt, a few are n Greek, a few are n Kufc. The
larger number are pagan, and ther character s ndcated by such as
the followng, Remember Zalu, son of Walu, son of Btasu (no.
11).[133] Thnk of Sambu, son of Nasagu (_Ibd._, no. 120). Many
names are those of the Bble, ncludng Jacob (no. 510) and Moses (no.
337). How the sght of these names must have rejoced the heart of
Cosmas! Others nclude names that are current n Araba at the present
day.
In Greek scrpt stand the words Be mndful () of Chalios the son
of Zaidu (no. 253). One inscription consists of an Egyptian _ankh_
with the _alpha_ and _omega_ on either side, and the Greek words _Kyrie
eleison_, with the figure of an animal that may be intended for a camel
(no. 380). Again, in Greek stand the words An evil race! I, Lupus,
a soldier, wrote this with my hand (no. 613). Another inscription
consists of a cross with the words Amen, one God, our Saviour (no.
581).
A definite date is conveyed by the following: Blessed be Wailu, son of
Sad Allahi, this is the 85th year of the eparchy (no. 463). And again,
Think of Aallahi, son of Iali, in the year 106, which is that of the
three emperors (no. 451). In the year A.D. 105 Trajan attacked the
Nabateans in Petra, which he conuered, and he established the Roman
headuarters at Bosra, from which the so-called era of Bosra was dated.
The first of the inscriptions which mentioned the 85th year, therefore
indicated A.D. 189; the second inscription, which mentioned the 106th
year, indicated _a.d._ 211, the year in which the three emperors
Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Geta succeeded one another.
Some authorities also make the Nabateans responsible for the circular
huts built of stone, the so-called Nawamis, groups of which are found
in the Wadi Wutah, the Wadi Sigilliyeh, and elsewhere. About the
year 450 Etheria saw some on her way to the Mount of the Law, and
looked upon them as houses built by the Israelites. The huts served
at different times as store-houses, places of burial, and hermitages;
their origin is uite uncertain. Besides these huts, rectangular huts
were noticed in the Wadi Aleyat, the Wadi Nasb, and elsewhere. These
also cannot, at present, be claimed for any age.
The introduction of the camel to the wadis of Sinai dealt one more blow
at the vegetation of the peninsula. For the camel is to all purposes
a huge goat, and, like the goat, is a most destructive animal. His
introduction was necessarily followed by the loss of verdure which
resulted in loosening of the soil and spread of the desert. In Egypt
the introduction of the camel during Roman times depleted the flora and
altered the fauna. Gazelles and antelopes sought pasture elsewhere,
and the crocodile that lay in wait for them when they came to water,
altogether disappeared. In Sinai the effects were eually marked.
Gazelles, still numerous in early Christian times, are found now in the
remoter wadis only, and the depletion of the soil which began with the

destruction of trees for purposes of smelting and charcoal-burning, was

carried one stage further by the havoc wrought among the lower growth
by the camel.
The conuest of Petra by Trajan in the year 105 set a term to the
existence of the kings of Nabat. The greater part of their domain was
now incorporated in the Roman province of Arabia, which was firmly
and wisely administered by the prefect Aulus Cornelius Palma, who
left Nabatean religious cults untouched. The annexation of Damascus
followed, through which the control of the trade of the East altogether
passed under the Romans.
The frontier line between Egypt and Asia during the period of Roman
rule began at Raphia, modern Rafa, and ran in a westerly direction,
then turning sharply south towards Arsino near the present Suez. The
coastal province was called Augustamnica Prima according to Ammianus
Marcellinus. It included a number of cities which, by virtue of being
situated in a province belonging to Egypt, were later included in the
patriarchate of Alexandria.
The first of these cities on the road from Syria was El Arish, situated
near the Wadi el Arish, the river or stream of Egypt of the Bible
(Isa. xxvii. 12). El Arish was accounted a very ancient city by the
Arabs. Its land was cultivated soon after the Deluge and was called
the Gate to Paradise. Abraham passed here. Makrizi ( 1441) relates
a tradition regarding the building of reed huts there, which recalls
an incident preserved by Diodorus Siculus (_c._ B.C. 20), the origin
of which may be sought in the wish to explain the later name of the
city which was Rhinocorura or Rhinocolura. According to Diodorus, King
Actisanes of Egypt, possibly Hor-em-heb (XVIII 14), having conuered
Egypt, collected all who were suspected of thieving, and after their
judicial conviction, caused their noses to be cut off, and sent them
to colonise a city built for them at the extremity of the desert.
Here, being destitute of means of subsistence, they resorted to the
device of splitting reeds, which they wove into nets and stretched out
along the sea shore to catch uails. The incident of the noses (uasi
= curt, al. . ), determned the name of the
place.[134] Its Egyptan name was probably Zaru (Fg. 18).
The cty ganed n mportance durng Roman tmes. Strabo called t a
cty of Phnca, close to Egypt, and an emporum of Indan and Arabc
merchandse, whch was dscharged at Leukokome and conveyed va Petra
to Rhnocorura, where t was dspersed.[135] The cty s now partly
enclosed by walls of consderable thckness, and les half a mle from
the coast on the edge of the desert. Accordng to the travellers, Irby
and Mangles, t contans some notable Roman remans. From ths perod
probably date the marble columns, later approprated to the churches
whch were eventually transported to Caro.
West of Rhnocorura lay Ostracne, the ste of whch s nowadays
surrounded by marshland whch s flooded at certan tmes of the
year. The cty was formerly fed by a canal that brought water from
the Tantc branch of the Nle. The strategc mportance of Ostracne
attracted the attenton of the emperor Vespasan. For the road comng
from Syra dvded at Ostracne. One branch led north of the Serbonan
bog, _va_ Casum, Gerra and Pelusum to Alexandra; another passng
south of the bog, was the old mltary road to Memphs wth statons at
Kata and Kantara. A thrd road led from Ostracne to Arsno (near the
present Suez), whch Plny descrbed as mountanous and desttute of
water (asperum montbus et nops aquarum).[136]

Ostracne has recently been excavated by Cldat. It conssted of two

parts, an nland part wth a fortress and a church whch have been
excavated, and a martme port, Ostracne Majumas, where Roman remans
were found, ncludng mosacs and sculpture, now transferred to the
museum at Ishmala. The buldngs were not constructed of brck, but
of stone, whch ponts to a certan wealth. Here also there were the
remans of a church. The name Ostracne sgnfes shell, a meanng
reproduced n the Arabc El Flousyeh the name of the vllage that now
occupes the ste of the nland part of the town.
West of Ostracne lay the Serbonan bog whch stood out n mens mnds
as the scene of the dsaster whch befell the nvadng Persan forces
n the year B.C. 350. On the northern sde of the bog, beyond the
break n the narrow strp of land confnng t, lay Casum, whch had
a hll wth a temple dedcated to Zeus Casus or Jupter Ammon. On the
flank of ths hll a tumulus marked the place where the beheaded body
of Pompey the Great was bured. Pompey was murdered when he landed on
the coast after hs defeat at Pharsala; and Hadran, at a later date,
erected a monument to hs memory of whch remans were found near
Pelusum.
West of Casum lay Gerra, from Greek _gerrhon_, a sheld, a name whch
corresponds n meanng wth Shur, Hebrew for wall, n the Bble. Shur
that s before Egypt as thou goest toward Assyra (Gen. xxv. 18).
Brugsch dentfed t as the Egyptan Aneb.[137]
Gerra was known also as the camp of Chabras, the Athenan general, who
entered the servce of the Pharaoh Nectanebo (XXX 1, B.C. 378-61), and
later commanded the forces of hs successor Zeher (XXX 2), n opposng
the Persan nvason of Egypt. The ctes along the Medterranean coast
were at the dstance of a Roman days march, about 14 mles, from each
other. Ttus on hs march from Egypt for the conquest of Jerusalem,
ptched hs camp n successon near the temple of the Casan Jupter,
at Ostracne, at Rhnocorura and at Rapha, as recorded by Josephus
(_Wars_, IV. 11, 5). On the _Table Peutnger_, the Roman road map of
the second century, land and water are roughly marked wth the statons
along the roads of communcaton. On ths Table along the shore of
the Medterranean we note _Gerra_ (?) mles to _Casum_, 26 mles to
_Ostracne_, 24 mles to _Rhnocorura_, 28 mles to _Rapha_.

CHAPTER X
THE HERMITS IN SINAI
A NEW era n the hstory of Sna began wth the advent of the
Chrstan hermt. The desert has ever been the home of lberty. The
desre to follow the New Way, coupled wth the need of escapng the
Roman governor, drove many Chrstans nto the wlderness, where,
remote from the clams and the unrest of ctzen lfe, they embraced
lfe n a form whch meant reducng physcal needs to a mnmum.
Ths lfe n tself was no new departure. Agan and agan n the course
of hstory, a recol from cvlsaton led men to seek enlghtenment
n remoteness, smplcty and soltude. Eljah the Tshbte, wth
rough mantle and flowng locks; John the Baptst, who lved on locusts

and wld honey; the Essenes n Palestne, and the Therapeut near
Alexandra, were one and all actuated by the belef that a hgher lfe
s possble here below, provded that the amentes and the comforts of
ths world count as nothng.
The hermts who came to dwell n Sna, settled n the mountans of
the south where many natural sprngs rendered possble the cultvaton
of vegetables and frut, ther staple artcles of det. Here they were
outsde the sphere of Roman nfluence. The extent of ths nfluence can
be gauged by the _Table Peutnger_.
On ths Table two roads, the one comng from Syra, the other from
Egypt, lead to _Pharan_ n Sna proper. The road from Egypt passed
_Arsno_, _Clesma_, _Lacus Mar_, and a staton, the name of whch
s oblterated, but whch Well reads as Medea. From ths t was 80
mles to Pharan. The road from Syra, startng from Jerusalem, passed
_Oboda_, _Lyssa_, _Cypsana_, _Rasa_, _Ad Danam_ (later Ghadana),
.e. _Ala_, from where t was 60 mles to _Pharan_. Pharan was no
doubt the , _i.e._ village P aran of Ptolemy, t e later seat
of t e episcopate. T is was, t erefore, t e sout ernmost point of
Roman administration in t e peninsula. It was beyond t is, among t e
mountains of t e sout and on t e coast near Tur, t at t e ermits
settled by preference.
T e in abitants of t e peninsula at t is period were called Is maelites
or Saracens. T e origin of t e word Saracen as been muc discussed.
Ptolemy, t e geograp er, located Sara
ene on t e borders of Egypt, and
t e Sara
eni east of t e Gulf of A
aba.[138] According to Euc erius
( _c._ 449), t e Arabs and t e Agarenes in is time were called
Saracens.[139] But t e istorian Sozomenus ( 443) eld t at t e
Is maelites deliberately called t emselves Saracens in allusion to
Sara , because t ey resented t e association wit Hagar.[140] Sprenger
connected t e word wit _sara
a_, Arabic for robber; t e present view
is t at it signifies easterner.
T e Saracens are mentioned in a letter w ic Dionysius, bis op of
Alexandria, wrote about t e year 250, in w ic e mentioned t at t e
C ristians fled to t e desert to escape persecution. Many were seized
in t e Arabian mountains by t e eat en Saracens and carried off into
captivity.[141] By t e Arabian mountain e probably meant t e ills
between t e Nile valley and t e Red Sea, but e may be referring to
Sinai.
An early ermit of Sinai was St. Onop rius, w om Nectarius, in is
_Epitome of Holy History_, numbered among t e founders of ascetic
life.[142] Onop rius dwelt in a grotto in t e Wadi Leyan, sout of t e
Gebel Musa, w ic was visited during t e Middle Ages by pilgrims and is
still pointed out to travellers.[143]
Pap nutius ( _c._ 390), a mon
of Egypt, came across Onop rius on is
wanderings and wrote a life of im. Onop rius told im t at e ad been
in t e desert seventy years. Originally e dwelt in t e T ebaid wit
about a undred mon
s, but earing of Elija and Jo n t e Baptist, e
decided t at it was more meritorious to dwell alone in t e desert, so
e wandered away, led by an angel, and met a ermit w o urged im to go
five days furt er w ere e reac ed Calidiomea (per aps a corruption
of _calybem_, a ut), near w ic stood a palm tree w ere e remained.
He suffered from unger and t irst, from cold and eat, and lived on
dates, is clot es gradually dropping from im. He too
Pap nutius
into is ut, and t ey were conversing toget er w en a sudden pallor

overspread is countenance, and e intimated t at Pap nutius would

bury im. He died t ere and t en, and Pap nutius tore a piece off is
own cloa
, in w ic e wrapped im and laid im in a crevice in t e
roc
.[144]
Onop rius was per aps t e unnamed ermit w o was visited by a mon

of Rait ou, w ere stood seventy palm trees in t e place w ic Moses
reac ed wit t e people w en e came out of Egypt. T is mon
described
ow, on is wanderings, e came to a cell in w ic e found a dead mon

w ose body dropped to dust w en e touc ed it. In anot er place e came
upon a ermit w o ad lived in an ascetic community at Heropolis,
but e associated wit a professed nun, and yielded to temptation,
w ereupon e fled into t e distant desert w ere, as time went on, is
air grew and is clot es dropped from im.[145]
Of similar appearance was t e ermit w om Postumianus was bent on
seeing w en e went from Italy into Sinai some time before 400. In t e
_Dialogues_ of Severus t e words are put into is lips: I saw t e
Red Sea and I climbed t e eig t of Mount Sinai (jugum Sina Montis),
t e summit of w ic almost touc es eaven and cannot be reac ed by
uman effort. A ermit was said to live somew ere in its recesses, and
I soug t long and muc to see im, but was unable to do so. He ad
been removed from uman fellows ip for nearly fifty years and wore no
clot es, but was covered wit bristles growing on is body, but of
divine gift e
new not of is na
edness.[146]
Anot er ermit w o was drawn to Sinai was Silvanus, a native of
Palestine, to w om on account of is great virtue, an angel was wont
to minister. He lived in Sinai and afterwards founded, at Gerari (?
Gerra), in t e wadi, a very extensive and noted cnobium for many good
men, over w ic t e excellent Zac arias, afterwards presided.[147]
Li
e ot er ermits, Silvanus s ared is cell wit a yout ful disciple,
and cultivated a garden t at was surrounded by a wall and served by a
water conduit. Various anecdotes told of im bear witness to is good
sense and umility.
A certain brot er once came to Sinai w ere e found t e bret ren ard
at wor
and e said to t em, Labour not for t e meat t at peris es.
Silvanus, w o over eard t e remar
, directed is disciple Zac arias
to give im a boo
and lead im to an empty cell. W en t e nint our
came, t e brot er loo
ed towards t e entrance expecting to be called to
a meal, but no one came, so e went to Silvanus and said, Fat er, do
not t e bret ren eat to-day? Silvanus replied, O yes, t ey ave eaten.
T en w y was I not called? Because, said Silvanus, t ou art a spiritual
man w o needs no suc food. We ot ers, being carnal, must eat, and
t erefore we wor
. T ou ast in trut c osen t e better part, and art
able to study all day requiring not ing. On earing t is, t e brot er
saw t at e was at fault, and said, Fat er, forgive me. Silvanus
replied, Surely Mart a is necessary to Mary, it was due to er t at
Mary was able to pray. Silvanus imself wor
ed wit is ands, c iefly
at bas
et-ma
ing, so as to earn is living and not depend on alms.
T e bas
ets, we gat er from ot er remar
s, were used to pac
dates for
export. Li
e ot er ermits, Silvanus ad visions. One day e sat for a
long time wit out spea
ing and t en burst into tears. It was, e said,
because e saw men of is own
ind going to ell, w ile many secular
persons went to eaven. Among t e sayings attributed to im was t is
one, Woe unto im w o as more renown t an merit.[148]
Ot er early ermits were Galaction and is wife Episteme, w ose

experiences were noted in t e _Menology_ of Basileus,[149] and were

wor
ed up into a longer account by Simeon Metap rastes. T ey were from
Emesa and too
ten days to reac t e eig t called Pouplios (? _Rubus_,
t e Bus ), near Mount Sinai ( ), whee they fud te
hemts wh wee jed by Galact. Epsteme dwelt at sme dstace
wth fu vgs. But the Rma gve (Usus) set f Galact.
Epsteme, appsed by a deam, came fwad t de f hm. Bth
edued the pealty f death, ad Eutlms, at e tme the slave,
ecveed ad bught back the bdes.[150]
The settlemet whee Epsteme dwelt was aftewads alltted t
the slaves wh wee bught t a ad appted t seve the
cvet by the empe Justa ( 563). The settlemet lay  a
slpe th-east f the cvet facg the valley, ad was pted
ut t Bshp Pccke  the yea 1734.[151] The exstece hee f a
settlemet f wme, ad the value whch was set  the bdes f the
hemts, ae wth tg  cect wth the fdg f the bdy f
t. Kathee f Alexada, t whch we shall etu late.
Othe sats wh wee cected wth a wee the well-kw Csmas
ad Damaus, Aab dcts wh taught Chstaty. Thee ae 
tadts egadg the cmg t a, but the ames wee
attached t a hemtage, w dlapdated, whch std at Thlas,  the
Wad Tlaah, ad was dedcated t them.
It was custmay at the tme f the hemts t wade fm place t
place. Amg the famus hemts wh vsted a was Jula abbas (
363), wh left hs cell ea Oshee (Edessa), ad, wth a few devted
fllwes, sught the emteess f a whee he emaed sme
tme. O eachg the desed heght ( ), he bult
a chuch ad set up a alta  the ste  whch Mses, pce f
pphets, ested. Thedet (_c._ 450), wh elated ths, stated that
the alta emaed  hs day.[152] Atus Maty (_c._ 530) ted
the exstece f a aty abve Phaa, wth ts alta  the stes
whch suppted Mses whe he payed.[153] The pla ad us f a
aty ae fgued  the Odace uvey (pl. X), whch pbably mak
ths spt. Its eect helped t lcate the stuggle f Mses ad the
Amalektes  ths valley, whch, accdg t the vews, tk place
futhe suth.
The hemts at ths ped ccuped caves ad huts, a lde ma,
called _abbas_, _.e._ fathe, usually dwellg wth a yuge
dscple. But as tme we  the cells wee me ad me guped
aud a cete whee the hemts assembled ce a week f elgus
sevce. These cetes  chuches smetmes cssted f a suae
twe bult f ste, ts etace ased abve the gud, ad 
these the hemts sught efuge  tmes f dage. Oe such twe 
chuch std ea Rathu, ad fmed pat f the late cvet f t.
Jh; athe, the Aba, w  us, std  the Wad Laya, ea
the gtt f Ophus; a thd was ea the Bush, ad was cluded 
the peset cvet. Tadt clamed that the twe ea the Bush,
was bult by Helea, the mthe f the empe Cstate, ad was
dedcated t the Thetks  de t cmmemate the spt whee the
Ld appeaed t Mses  the Bug Bush.[154] The twe was pted
ut t Buckhadt, ad was descbed by hm as f lde cstuct
tha the cvet.[155] The plgmage f Helea t the East  the yea
326 s well authetcated, but thee s  ctempay efeece t
he eteg a. If thee wee, t wuld be the ealest asscat
f the ste f the cvet wth the cmg f Mses.

We fst hea f bshps establshed  ctes f a  cect

wth elgus dscusss ad dffcultes. At the begg f the
futh cetuy Aus ased dubts egadg the fudametal tuth f
the Dve shp, ad a syd f thee huded ad ety bshps met
at Nca  the yea 325 t dscuss the uest. Amg thse wh set
the sgatue t the declaat f fath whch ejected the clams
f Aus was Pete, bshp f Ahla, _.e._ Ala, a cty whch, by
vtue f ts stuat was cluded  the pvce f Paleste.[156]
As a seuel t these dscusss a Cucl was held  the chuch f
t. Thekla at eleuca  eptembe f the yea 359 by de f the
empe Cstatus, at whch thee wee peset a huded ad sxty
bshps, abut tw-thds f whm wee sem-Aas. Thectstes,
bshp f Ostace, was amg them.[157] He was theefe depsed by
Athaasus, patach f Alexada ( 371), wh appted,  hs
stead, eap.[158] But the epesetatves f the eghbug see
f Rhcua fmly held by Athaasus, ad zmeus ( 443), afte
pasg the hemts f Nta, wte f Rhcua, celebated at
ths ped f ts hly me, wh wee t fm abad, but atves
f the place. Amg the mst emet phlsphes wee Melas, wh
the admsteed the chuch  the cuty; Dysus, wh pesded
ve a mastey t the th f the cty; ad l, the bthe
ad success f Melas  the bshpc. Whe, wg t a decs
f ales (_c._ A.D. 364), thee was a eact  favu f Aus,
ffces appeaed at Rhcua wh wee chaged wth des t eject
thse ppsed t Aasm. Melas, wh dd the lwlest wk, ffeed
a meal t the ffces, watg  them hmself, ad declaed hs
wllgess t g t exle. Hs bthe l gave up cmmece 
de t embace the mastc lfe. The chuch f Rhcua havg
bee thus fm the begg ude the gudace f exemplay bshps,
eve aftewads sweved fm the pecepts ad pduced gd me. The
clegy f ths chuch dwell  e huse, st at the same table, ad
have eveythg  cmm.[159] Amg these bshps was Plybus, a
dscple f Epphaus, bshp f alams  Cypus ( 403), wh wte
a supplemet t the _Lfe f Epphaus_.
The elgus dffcultes, cmbed wth the geeal uest whch
fllwed the cjt ule f the mpeal bthes, aleta ad
ales (364-367), ae eflected  the accut tld by the Egypta
mk Ammus f what happeed at the tme whe he was  a vst t
a wth the hemts at the Bush. The accut whch he wte 
Cptc s peseved  Geek,  yac, ad  Lat.[160] It s a
cmpst f csdeable met, t whch the cdesed accut,
whch fllws, ca d but scat justce.
It ccued t me, wte Ammus, as I sat  my lttle cell ea
Alexada at the place called Capus, that I culd g a juey ad
thus escape the pesecuts (by the Aas) f the fathful, wh
cluded u hly bshp Pete (II, 372-380), wh was blged t g
t hdg, fst at e place ad the at athe, ad was theeby
hdeed fm msteg t hs flck. I was, meve, fed by the
dese t see the memable places, cludg the Hly epulche, the
place f the Resuect, ad thes that wee asscated wth u
Ld Jesus Chst. Afte wshppg at these places, I decded t seek
the hly muta called a, gg the deset juey tgethe wth
thes wh wee bet  the same pupse, ad I jueyed ththe (fm
Jeusalem) wth the help f Gd  eghtee days. Ad whe I had payed
I emaed wth the hly fathes  de t vst the seveal cells
t the pft f my sul.

A descpt fllws f the ccupats f the hemts, the sltay

lfe  week-days, ad the gathegs  chuch  udays. The
aspect was that f agels, f they wee palld ad, s t say,
cpeal, wg t the abstag fm we, l, bead, ad the
fd that teds t luxuy, lvg  dates ly, just eugh t keep
themselves alve.
A few days late, Ammus ctued, aaces, whse sheykh (
kg) had ded, fell up the fathes  the cells ad slew them,
s that I, tgethe wth the supe Dulas ad thes sught efuge
 the twe, whle the babaas slew all the hemts wh wee 
Thambe (yac, Gethabb),[161] Cheb (Heb), Keda (Cda), ad
the places. They wuld have dealt the same wth us, but a geat fe
appeaed  the muta whch scaed them s they fled, leavg behd
the wme, chlde ad camels. We wh saw ths fm the twe, gave
thaks t Gd, ad the salled fth t the the settlemets. We
fud 38 hemts wh wee dead. Twelve belged t Thambe, cludg
Isaah ad abbas wh wee badly hut. Isaah ded whle abbas
lameted that he was t  the cmpay f the sats. But he ded fu
days late ( the last day f the yea).
They wee lametg hs death whe a Ishmaelte bught the ews that
the fathes wh dwelt at Elm (Rathu) had bee aded als. Rathu
s descbed as a level pla, stuated at a dstace f abut twelve
mles, wth mutas t the east lke a wall, whch thse ly culd
css wh wee famla wth the cuty. T the west was the Red ea,
whch exteded t the cea. The wds cectly descbe the dstct
abut Tu.
The settlemet hee was attacked by the Blemmyes, a mad ace f
Nuba, f whm we w hea  a f the fst tme. Pses, a
fugtve hemt, wh aved  the wake f the Ishmaelte, gave
Ammus patculas egadg the hemts at Rathu, ad the
message. He had lved 20 yeas at Rathu hmself, he sad; thes
had lved thee 40, 50, ad 60 yeas. Thee was Abba Mses f Phaa,
wh had the pwe f excsg dems, ad wh had cued Obedaus,
a sheykh f the Ishmaeltes, whch led t may cvess. Thee was
als abbas, f whm Pses was a dscple, but the way f lvg f
abbas was s had that Pses left hm. Aga, thee was Jseph fm
Ala, wh bult hmself a cell wth hs w hads at a dstace f tw
mles fm the spgs.
Fty-thee hemts dwelt ea Rathu, t whch place the ews was
bught that the Blemmyes had sezed a Egypta bat whch was bud
f Clysma, ad wee cmg acss the sea. The me f Rathu at ce
cllected the camels, the wme ad chlde, whle the hemts
sught efuge  the chuch. The babaas spet the ght  the
she, ad the bud the sals t the bat whch they left  chage
f e f themselves, ad came acss the muta t the spgs whee
they wee met by the me f Rathu. But the vades wee the me
sklful aches, ad klled 140 me, the est fled. The they sezed
the wme ad chlde, ad ushed t the twe  chuch, expectg t
fd teasues, ad wet ud t sceamg ad utteg theats  a
babaus laguage whle the hemts sde payed ad lameted.
Paul f Peta, wh was the supe f the settlemet, utteed wds
whch wee full f dgty, ad ccluded wth sayg: O athletes f
Gd, d t eget ths gd cflct; let t yu suls be fat,
ad d thg uwthy f yu cwl, but be clthed wth stegth ad
jy ad maless, that yu may edue wth a pue heat, ad may Gd

eceve yu t Hs kgdm.

I the meatme the babaas, ecuteg  esstace, heaped
tee-tuks agast the wall fm utsde, bke pe the d f the
chuch, ad ushed , swd  had. They sezed Jeemah, wh was
sttg  the d-sll, ad cmmaded hm thugh e wh acted as
tepete, t pt ut the supe. Whe he efused, they bud
hm had ad ft, ad teag ff hs clthes, used hm f a taget.
He was the fst t ga the cw (f matydm). The the supe
Paul came fwad declag hs detty, ad they bade hm eveal hs
teasues. I hs usual getle vce he epled: Fsth, chlde,
I w thg but ths ld ha-clth gamet that I am weag. Ad
he held t ut, dsplayg t. But the babaas huled stes at hm,
shutg: Out wth yu teasues, ad, afte ll-usg hm, cleft
hs head  twa wth a swd.The I, mseable se, ctued
Pses, seeg the slaughte ad the bld ad the vscea  the
gud, bethught me f a hdg place. A heap f palm baches lay 
the left-had ce f the chuch. Utced by the babaas, I a
t t, sayg t myself, If they fd me, they ca but kll me, whch
they ae sue t d, f I d t hde.
Fm hs hdg place he saw the babaas cut dw the hemts wh
wee  chuch. He saw them seze the yuth egus, whm they wuld
have dagged away wth them, but he satched a swd fm a babaa
ad ht hm acss the shulde, wheeup he was cut dw hmself.
The babaas afte kllg the hemts, seached f teasues t
kwg that the sats w thg hee  eath, the hpe beg f
the wld t cme. Fally they ushed ff tedg t embak. But the
ma wh was left  chage f the bat, beg a Chsta, had cut the
pe, s that the bat a ashe ad fudeed; he hmself escaped t
the muta. The babaas, wh wee at a lss what t d, mudeed
the wme ad chlde, ad the lt a fe ad cut dw ad but
ealy all the palm tees f the place.
I the meatme the Ishmaeltes fm Phaa, sme sx huded 
umbe ad all f them expet aches, dew ea at daw ad attacked
the babaas, wh, seeg  chace f escape, met them bavely ad
peshed, t a ma. Of the me f Phaa eghty-fu wee klled,
thes wee wuded. The hemts wee all dead except Adew, wh was
wuded ad ecveed, Dmus, wh ded f hs wuds, ad Pses, wh
was left t tell the tale. The me f Phaa left the dead eemes t
the beasts f the eath ad the fwls f the a. They bued the
w dead at the ft f the muta abve the spgs, ad made a
geat walg. The, led by the sheykh Obedaus, they bught cstly
gamets,  whch, wth the help f Pses ad Adew they bued the
sats. Pses hmself the left Rathu, whch was deseted, f the
Bush, whee he begged t be allwed t stay wth Dulas, a euest
whch was eadly gated. The accut ccludes wth sayg that
Ammus wte all ths dw afte hs etu t Memphs, ad the wds
ae added  e M., I, pesbyte Jh, fud ths accut wtte 
Cptc  the cell f a hemt ea Naukats, ad, kwg Cptc, I
taslated t t Geek.
*

The attacks made  the hemts wee pat f a wde mvemet. Hsty
elates that Mava ( Maa), the wdw f the phylach  kg f
the aaces, cllected he fces ad led them  pes agast
Paleste ad Egypt. The Rmas, because they had t d wth a wma,
expected t uell the dstubace wthut dffculty. But the advatage

was  he sde, ad the expedt was celebated  sg amg the
aaces. Mava pffeed peace t the Rmas  cdt that Mses,
a cveted aace, shuld be csecated bshp f Phaa, ad Mses
wet t Alexada ude a mltay esct. But hee a ew dffculty
ase. The patach Pete II (372-380), the same t whm Ammus
efeed, was stll abset. The Aa pelate Lucus (_c._ A.D. 378)
ccuped hs see, ad Mses efused t be daed by hm. The sty
was tld by zmeus ( 443), ad by cates ( _c._ 478), bth f
whm lved s afte the evet.
I accut myself deed uwthy f the saced ffce, Mses sad,
but f the exgeces f the state eue my beag t, t shall
t be by Lucus layg hs had  me, f t has bee flled wth
bld. Whe Lucus tld hm that t was hs duty t lea fm hm the
pcples f elg ad t t utte epachful laguage, Mses
epled, Mattes f fath ae t w  uest: but yu famus
pactces agast the bethe suffcetly pve that yu dctes
ae t Chsta. F a Chsta s t a stke, evles t, des
t fght, f t becmes t a sevat f Gd t fght. But yu deeds
cy ut agast yu by thse wh have bee set t exle, wh have
bee delveed up t the flames. These thgs whch u w eyes have
beheld ae fa me cvcg tha what we eceve fm the ept f
athe. As Mses expessed these ad lke setmets, hs feds
tk hm t the muta, that he mght eceve dat fm the
bshps wh lved  exle thee. Mses havg bee csecated, the
aace wa was temated, ad s scupulusly dd Mava bseve the
peace thus eteed t wth the Rmas that she gave he daughte 
maage t ct the cmmade--chef f the Rma amy. uch wee
the tasacts  elat t the aaces.[162]
The fame f Mses ctued. I the _Iteay f Wllbald_ (_c._ 750)
we ead that, afte hs etu fm Paleste, he was eceved by Ppe
Hada  Rme at a tme whe t. Bface was askg f help  hs
mss t evagelse the Gemas. The Ppe,  hs dese t pesuade
Wllbald t udetake the task, efeed t Mses the hemt, famus
f umeable macles  the deset, wh was t away fm the
sltay lfe he was leadg at the euest f Quee Maa t the Rma
empe, ad placed as bshp ve the at f the aaces, ad  a
sht tme he w t Chst that mst fece at, ad clthed them
 the fleece f lambs.[163] The ame f Mses was scbed  the
Rma Matylgy  Feb. 27. I Egypt the feast f Mses, a veeable
bshp, wh at fst lved a sltay lfe  the deset, ad the,
at the euest f Mauva, uee f the aaces, beg made bshp,
cveted that mst fecus at  geat pat t the fath, ad
made glus by hs mets ested  peace.[164]
Mses was fllwed  the see f Phaa by Naty, a dscple f
lvaus, wh was a stct ascetc.

CHAPTER XI
THE WRITING OF THE HERMIT
THE wtgs f the hemts fm the ffth cetuy wads thw lght
 the aspats ad the atttude f md f these me f the deset,
t whm the teests f day makd wee as thg.

Femst amg these wtgs ae thse f Nlus, a ma f leag

wh, afte ccupyg a hgh pst at Cstatple, vsted the
hemts, wth whm he emaed. Hs _Naates_ cta valuable
fmat  heathe sacfce at the tme.[165]
Abut the yea 420 Nlus decded t sepaate fm hs wfe  de t
vst the Bush at the ft f the hly muta  whch Gd cfeed
wth the peple, takg hs yuthful s wth hm. The babaas,
he tells us, dwelt fm Aaba t Egypt, fm the Red ea t the
Jda, eve eady t daw the swd, hutg wld beasts, attackg
tavelles, ad makg use f the camel-dmedaes f sacfces
whch they devued wth dg-lke vacty. They had  egad f Gd,
but aded the Mg ta (Lucfe, ), t whch they
sacfced the best pduct f the chase,  bys f cmely appeaace,
 a alta f ugh stes. Falg these, they tk a fatteed whte
camel wthut blemsh whch they made t keel. They eccled t
thee tmes t the sud f chatg, wheeup the sheykh wh acted
as leade, made a thust at the beasts eck, ad all f them hastly
dak f the bld that gushed fth.
The whle bad the fell up the vctm,
ad devued a pece f the beasts flesh
the te that the whle vctm wth bdy,
was de away wth befe the ays f the
hz (p. 613).

ad each pes hacked ff

ad sk. It was the ule f
bes, bld ad etals,
su appeaed abve the

I ctast t ths lfe was that f the hemts wh dwelt  huts
ad ck sheltes wth call f e athe, emved fm the clams
f the tax-gathee, ad emulatg Mses ad Eljah  the fastg
ad humlty, sme cultvatg c f bead, whle thes lved 
vegetables ad gee meat, cmg tgethe ce a week  a uday.
Nlus was amg them, havg cme dw fm the hly muta wth hs
s  a vst t the hemts wh dwelt ea the Bush. They happeed
t be  chuch, whe a babaa hde swept dw  them lke a
whlwd, sezed the fd whch they had sted  the cells agast
the wte, ad the called t the hemts t cme ut f chuch,
t stp ad t stad accdg t age. They cut dw the pest
Theduls, ad slew the fathes Paulus ad Jh, ad the sezed the
yug me, bddg the lde es be ge. May ushed up the muta,
whch they geeally avd sce Gd std up t ad cfeed wth
the peple (p. 631). Nlus std eslute, whe hs s Theduls,
whm the babaas had sezed, sged t hm t be ge. O why, he
exclamed, dd t the gud pe ad swallw them lke the ss f
Kah? Why had the macles f a ceased, ad  thude lled, 
lghtg flashed t scae them  the wckedess?
Whe the babaas had ge, Nlus helped t buy the dead, ad was
pesetly jed by e f the yuths wh had bee caed ff but
escaped. He descbed hw the babaas eected a alta, cllected
wd as a pepaat f sacfcg t Lucfe. Ths he was tld by
a fellw captve wh udestd the laguage. The yuths lay bud
eady f sacfce, but he escaped by wgglg away  the gud
lke a sake. Hs accut flled Nlus wth appehes as t the fate
f hs s, but  hs msey he was upheld by the cuage f a wma
f Phaa, whse s had actually bee mudeed.
As thee had bee the utages, t was decded  the cucl ()
 Ph r  o odg omp i wih h phy rh or
ig of h
b rb ri  (p. 663). Hi r io o h Rom  mpir w  pp ry

h  h mu
p h p  d  fgu rd ho who p d hrough

hi rriory, i rur for whih h rivd gr  (_ o_). O
muh h  m b i, h hy
h of Si i udr Briih ru, r
rpoib for
pig h p , i rur for whih hy riv
gr  i moy whih hy mu   for i pro  Suz.
Evoy wr hrfor dp hd o h phy rh. Thy  rrid bow
d rrow, d o for ri
ig fir, whih woud  b hm o
iv by
iig d ro ig g m, for hr i wood i bud 
h  rv  firwood, i o o f r i h dr (p.
663). Durig hir b Niu d ohr w h roud of h
ighbourig m, whr h hrmi h d b  
d. 
Bhr mb (or Thr mb) hy burid Prou;  S  [166] hy burid
Hyp iu; M  riu d M ru hy foud d d i h dr; Bj mi
h d b  i  Eim; Eubiu w  i iv  Tho ; i dz
hy foud Ei  d d (p. 663).
Th voy o hir rur brough word h  Kig mm u w  xiou
o m i i hi r io wih h mpir, d w  prp rd o m

good h o whih h d b iurrd. H b d ho who h d  im
o pp r bfor him. Niu d ohr ordigy  id forh. O
h ighh d y Niu, who w  oo
ig for w r, u y  ugh igh
of h  mpd S r ; o h wfh d y of jouryig hy r hd
h d of hir joury, (whih m y h v b Pr ). Hr Niu h rd
h  hi o w  iv d h d b od io  vry  Eu . O h
w y hihr, h m m  who h d u y  him, d o goig io
h hurh  Eu , h foud hi o Thoduo, who h d b m d
door
pr of h hurh by h bihop of h p . Thoduo od hi
f hr how h d ohr  y boud o h groud  igh  r h
 r wih word, b o, phi  d i bid hm. Bu h
b rb ri  dr 
h viy  igh d ovrp hmv, d h
u ood bov h horizo wh hy wo
, o h o io for h
 rifi w  forfid. Thy hrfor movd o o Sou
(prh p
vi g, prh p m r
, r bi _u
_), from whr hy od Thoduo
io  vry. Niu d hi o ow didd o  prm y mog
h hrmi oo
ig forw rd o p   if. fr big ord id by
h bihop of Eu hy rurd o Si i whr hy pp ry dd
hir d y. Thir mmory hr oiu o b
p o hi d y. Thir
bodi wr r id oghr wih ho of ohr i h rig of h
mpror Juiu Juior (565-578), d wr r  d o h Churh of
h Hoy po  Co iop.[167]
I h our of h fifh ury h dipu rg rdig h du 
 ur of Chri rd furhr  g wh Noriu, who h d b
udr h ifu of Thodor of Mopui , d w  promod o
h  of Co iop, r id objio o h rm God-b rr,
, as appled t the g. By dg s he ased a stm f
dsset, the veeat f the g beg wdespead ad deep-seated,
patly wg t havg bee egafted  a eale mthe-cult.
Ppe Celestus (422-432) called up Nestus t ecat, but he
efused, ad a Chuch Cucl theefe met at Ephesus  431 t
dscuss the matte. Amg the tw huded bshps wh declaed agast
Nestus wee Hemgees f Rhcua, Abaham f Ostace,
ad Lampetus f Casum.[168] The utcme f the dspute was that
Nestus,  the yea 435, wet t pepetual bashmet. Hemgees
f Rhcua was pased as a ma f mdeat ad humlty, by
Isdus ( 449), a mk ad plfc lette-wte f Pelusum.[169]
Afte the Cucl at Ephesus, Hemgees wet  a mss t Rme

wth Lampetus f Casum, ad was succeeded  hs bshpc by Ze,

wh was succeeded by Alphus.[170] It was, pehaps, ths Alphus wh
sded wth Lampetus (pssbly the bshp f Casum)  the dffculty
egadg the vagat ascetcs called Massala  Euchtes, me ad
wme, wh gave themselves t paye ad lved by beggg, efusg
t wk. They wee cesued at the syd f Ephesus,[171] ad the
cdemat hecefth acted as a deteet t the wadegs f
hemts geeally. I cseuece f hs cuse f act Alphus
was blged t esg hs see. He was succeeded by Ptlemus f
Rhcua, wh acted  ccet wth Tmthy, patach f Alexada.
A futhe dffculty was ceated whe the Chuch Cucl met at
Chalced ude the auspces f the empess Pulchea ad he husbad
Maca, ad  451 lad dw atcles as t the atue f Chst whch
ema t ths day the stadad f the Cathlc fath. Of the bshps
f the sees  a ly Beyllus, bshp f Ala, set hs sgatue
t the declaat.[172] Ad whe Juveal, bshp f Jeusalem
(451-458), etued t hs see ad declaed hs tet f abdg
by the decs, the faatcal mks sezed the cty, tued hm ut
ad set the Egypta mk Thedsus  hs place. It was  va that
Juveal sught t settle the matte by leecy. Thedsus uled 
Jeusalem dug twety mths. Whe he was fally expelled he fled
t a. The empe Maca heeup addessed a lette t Bshp
Macaus ad the mks f a, wag them agast Thedsus, wh
wet fm place t place speadg heesy, ad wh s w  Mut
a ( ) whee thee ae mastees whch ae dea t
yu ad whch have u espect,  whch he s wkg agast the tue
belef.[173] The empe als wte t Juveal sayg that he had
wtte abut Thedsus ad hs adheets t the mst wthy bshp
Macaus, t the achmadte ad t the mks, wag them f hs
false agumets, ad askg them t eject hm ad had hm ve wth
hs satelltes t the pefect f the pvce.[174] It s ukw what
became f t.
Othe wtgs f the hemts gve a sght t the speculatve zeal
ad budless cedulty f these devtees t a smple lfe, t whm
eveythg supsg appeaed  the lght f a macle. Cllects
f _aygs f the Fathes_ (eba eum), ad cdets  the
lves, wee a favute bach f lteatue at the tme. Aastasus
(_c._ 561-614), a mk f a, Jh Clmacus ( 609), wh dwelt
at Thlas, ad the at the cvet, ad Jh Mschus ( 619), wh
habtually dwelt  Jeusalem, but wet abut vstg, wee amg
thse wh cllected aecdtes ad saygs egadg a.
Plla sats at ths tme wee attactg attet ea Atch.
Thee was a lde me wh ded  460, ad a yuge me wh
ded  596. A mk f Rathu wet t me hpg t be eleved
f a dem. But me bade hm etu t Rathu, ad thee seek the
assstace f Fathe Adew, wh had the pwe f expellg dems.
Adew spke t Mschus f hs pwe t d s, whch he attbuted
t me tyltes.[175] Aga, Mea, als f Rathu, deseted hs
pst ad sught the plla sat, wh, awae f hs falg, bade
hm etu, as Abbas egus tld Mschus (. 118). Thee was als
Eusebus wh was accsted by a ma  mksh gab, wh asked t be
admtted t the cmmuty. Eusebus bade hm utte the wd Tty,
ad he vashed (. 119). Thse wh dwelt  emte dstcts fte
ded uatteded. me fsheme wee be by ctay wds t
Pteles whee they fud  a cell the bdes f tw hemts, whch
they caed t Rathu f bual (. 120). Aga, tw hemts
dwelt  a slad  the Red ea, fm whch they wet  she

f wate. They lst the bat, ad wee fud dead  the slad,
e f them havg set dw  wtg that hs cmade lved f
twety-eght days wthut dkg, whe he ded, whle he hmself
had lasted thty-seve days at the tme f hs wtg (. 121).
Thee was gwg, at ths tme, a feelg that the devtees t a
smple lfe shuld ema statay. Jh Clx, abbt f Rathu,
wh wte cmmets  sme f the chaptes f Jh Clmacus _Ladde
f Paadse_, pased a mk wh ctued at Rathu f sevety
yeas, lvg  gee meat ad dates. He had bee thee hmself f
sevety-sx yeas, ad he admshed the bethe  wds ecded
by Mschus, t t ful the place whch the fathes had cleaed f
dems, ad always t ema  esdece (. 115).
The cllect f aecdtes f Aastasus, a mk f a, mets
seveal hemt settlemets whch have bee lcated  wads ea
the cvet, whee us f huts ad gade walls ema t ths
day. Accdg t a tadt peseved at the cvet, the mks
 the pesula at e tme wee betwee sx ad seve thusad 
umbe.[176]
Amg these settlemets was Malcha, pehaps stuated  the Wad
Malga, th f Ras afsaf. Ths was at e tme the hme f
Epphaus, wh was s devted t ascetc pactces that he had
the pwe f seeg dems (. 21).[177] Malcha at athe tme
habued tephe, whse platat was avaged by amals, hee called
, _.e._ pkes, pssbly they wee hyas. But tephe
eaed a lepad (pbably a pathe) fm a cub whm he set t guad
hs platat (. 13). Ths tephe gally ccuped a cell ea
the cave f Eljah, whch he left f dde, stuated abut sevety
mles fm the twe, pehaps  Wad deh, a lwe each f the
Wad Umm Agaf. He the etued t hs cell whee he fud hs tw
dscples ad ded fm exhaust.[178] Hs bdy was cveyed t
the cvet, whee t was set up at the etace t the cypt. The
_Pegaphe_ f 1817 stated that he s stll at the cvet, t
cfed by cff  sacphagus, but stadg upght wth cssed
hads ad bwed head.[179] Ad thee the shvelled fgue weag
hemt clthg emas stadg t the peset day.
At dde we als hea f a hemt wh was walkg e day  the deset
ad saw a aace appachg, wheeup he tasfmed hmself t
a palm tee. It was ly athe hemt, ad s he etued t hs
atual appeaace.
May stes wee tld f Jh the abate wh dwelt f a tme at
Malcha. He was walkg e day acss the deset wth the mpeal
ule (_achate_) Demets, whe they came up the ftmaks f a
dag. Demets ppsed that they shuld fly, but Jh sad they
wuld pay, wheeup the dag, was caed alft ad was thw
back t the gud shatteed t peces (_Aast._, . 14). Athe
sty tld f Jh the abate shws hw the magay wld was t
these me the geate ealty. He was dwellg  the mst dstat
deset, whe a fellw mk came t see hm, wh,  eply t hs
uest hw the mks faed, epled, They ae well, thaks t yu
payes. He the asked afte a mk wh had a bad eputat, ad head
that thee was  chage  hs behavu. Aftewads he fell asleep
ad had a vs f the cucfed Chst, ad hmself keelg. But
Chst called t Hs agels ad thust hm fth, sce he had passed
judgmet  a fellw mk, thus atcpatg dve judgmet. As he was
thust fth, hs cwl caught  the gate ad he lst t. He awke,
but the thught f hs cwl lst  hs deam, shwed hm that Gd had

wthdaw fm hm, ad he wadeed  the deset seve yeas, eatg
 bead, sleepg  the pe ad speakg t  e, utl he had
athe deam  whch the Ld ested hs cwl t hm (_Aast._, .
17).
Jh the abate als dwelt at Asela (a place t detfed), whee
he was appached by a female pke ( hya) wh lad he bld
yug at hs feet. He mxed hs spttle wth eath ad appled t t
the eyes f the ceatue whch became seeg. O the fllwg day the
mthe-beast eappeaed daggg a emus cabbage whch she lad at
the feet f the ld ma. But he smled, chagg he wth stealg t
fm athe mas gade, ad bade he take t back, a cmmad whch
she fthwth beyed (_Aast._, . 15).
Asela was the hme als f a tme f a ceta Gege, wh was
fetched t the cvet t pay f l, as the ste had gve ut, ad
the ad t Paleste was held by the babaas. Hs payes bught
l t the cask, lke Eljahs t the wdws cuse, ad lke that f
the cuse, t eve faled. The cask was placed ude the ptect
f the g (_Aast._, . 9). The eed f l led the mks t
cultvate the lve  the gades, whch they dd wth csdeable
success, lves beg amg the pduce whch attacted the attet
f the Aab wtes.
At Thlas, whch was meted  the eale accuts, Jh Clmacus
dwelt f fty yeas, at the cclus f whch he became head f the
cvet. The Wad Tlaah s e f the few valleys whch has peseved
ts chaacte. Pf. Palme descbed t  glwg tems  the
Odace uvey.
Athe hemtage was at Gda, stuated fftee mles fm the Hly
Bush (_Aast._, . 31). Jh the abate was lvg hee wth tephe
f Cappadca, whe Fathe Matys aved wth a yuthful dscple,
wh was Jh Clmacus. Jh the abate, havg the gft f fesght,
ecgsed the futue supe f the cvet  hm (_Aast._, . 6).
Ths tephe f Cappadca tld Jh Mschus that he was ce  the
chuch at Rathu whe tw me eteed, wh wee wthut clthes.
N e saw them but hmself. He fllwed them ut ad begged t be
allwed t accmpay them. But they bade hm stay whee he was, ad he
saw them walk away acss the Red ea (_Mschus_, . 122).
Thee was als the mk ses, wh dwelt  the hemtage f t.
Athy betwee the Red ea ad Egypt, whee he was vsted by a mk
f Phaa wh tld hm that t was te mths sce he had see a huma
beg. T whch ses epled that t was eleve mths sce he had
see e hmself.
The hemt lfe  a was at ts heght whe the lady Ethea
vsted the pesula, tet  detfyg the stes f whch she had
ead  the Bble. He eageess seems t have sted the magat
f the mks, ad led t decss as t lcaltes whch wee accepted
as authetc f cetues t cme. The accut f Ethea calls f a
few wds f cmmet.
The M. f he juey was dscveed  the lbay f Aezz by
Gamu  1883. It was cmplete ad ts auth was t amed.
Gamu pvsally clamed t f t. lva f Autae, ad
dated the juey betwee 378 ad 383. But the abb Ft[180] has
sce pted ut that aleus (_c._ 650), abbt f a mastey ea

Astga  pa, wte a lette I pase f the blessed Ethea, 

whch he descbed hw ths u wth a bld heat udetk a juey
acss the wld. He meted detals f he juey whch establsh
beyd a dubt that the wte f the Aezz accut was meat.[181] A
Gema wte, Kal Meste,  the teal evdece f the accut,
heeup dated the juey betwee 534 ad 539. But he velked the
fact that Ethea,  cect wth he vst t eleuca, meted
by ame he dea fed, the _dacssa_ Matbaa, wh s amed als
as e f the dstgushed wme f the place by Basleus, bshp f
eleuca wh ded  the yea 456.[182] Thee wee cvets  the
suth f Face befe the clse f the ffth cetuy, as we kw fm
the ules dafted by Csaus, bshp f Ales (501-573); the date f
Ethea may be abut 460.
The M. accut dscveed at Aezz was cmplete. But the accut,
 ts cmplete fm, was appaetly  the hads f Pete the Deac
whe he cmpled hs lttle bk _O the Hly Places_, abut the yea
1157, f Gudbald, abbt f Mte Cass. I ths bk Pete cted
passages fud  the accut that was dscveed at Aezz tgethe
wth thes whch seem t be take fm the pat f the wk whch s
watg. I the accut whch fllws, the tal passages ae uted
fm the bk f Pete  the assumpt that they wee take fm the
accut f Ethea.
Ethea ad he paty eteed ad left a fm Egypt.
Befe yu each the hly Mut ya, stads the ft Clesma  the
Red ea whch the Isaeltes passed dyshd. The maks (_vestga_)
f the chat f the Phaah ae vsble  the gud t ths day.
But the wheels ae fathe apat tha thse f the chats (_cuus_)
f u days as they ae see  the Rma empe, f betwee wheel
ad wheel s a space f twety-fu feet  me, ad the wheeluts
(_bt_) ae tw feet wde. These maks f the Phaahs chat lead
dw t the she whee he eteed the sea whe he wated t seze the
Isaeltes. O the spt whee the Phaahs wheeluts ae vsble, tw
sgs ae set up, e  the ght, ad e  the left, lke lttle
clums (_clumella_).[183]
Osus (_c._ 400)  hs _Hsty f the Uvese_, als meted
the maks f the chat wheels f the Phaah, whch wee stll
vsble.[184] Csmas Idcpleustes abut the yea 550 efeed t
them as a sg t ubeleves.[185] The csesus f p f
these wtes suggests the exstece f sme featue that attacted
attet. The wd _Clysma_ tself sgfed beach  jetty. Pehaps
the uts wee the maks made by the keels f the bats that wee hauled
,  whch case the lttle clums wee pehaps the bllads  whch
the pes wee wked.
Beyd the place f cssg lay the deset hu ad Maa wth ts
tw wells that wee sweeteed by Mses (pbably the Ayu Musa). Thee
days juey lay Aadaa, the place called Helm, whee the ve, 
places, dsappeaed  the gud ad whee thee was much hebage ad
may palm tees. Fm the cssg f the Red ea ea u thee was 
pleasate place. The descpt ad the ame Aadaa pt t the
peset Wad Ghaadel.
Ethea was bet  seeg all the stes, cludg the place whee
t aed maa, the cells wth Hebew wtg, the deset f Phaa
whee thee wee ethe felds  veyads but wate ad palm
tees, the place Faa, whee Amalek ppsed the Isaeltes, the place

whee the Isaeltes called f wate, ad the place whee Jeth met
Mses, hs s--law, the spt whee Mses payed whle Jshua fught
Amalek, s a hgh, steep muta abve Phaa, ad whee Mses payed
thee s w a chuch (Petus, ed. Geye, p. 118). Ths was pbably
the chuch meted abve whch was fuded by Jula abbas.
Fm Phaa Etheas paty mved t a place whee the mutas peed
themselves ut, ad fud a geat valley beyd whch appeaed ya,
the hly Mut f Gd, whch s uted wth the place whee ae the
Gaves f Lust (_.e._ Kbth Hata-avah). The guads sad that t was
custmay t ffe payes.  the we dd. Fm hee t the Mut
f Gd t was pehaps fu mles altgethe, the legth f the valley
beg sxtee mles (c. 31) The pla was pesumably the peset pla
f E Raha.
Accdg t Ethea the Isaeltes wated  ths pla whe Mses
wet up t the Mut f Gdthee was als the place whee the calf
was madet was the valley at the head f whch was the place whee
hly Mses was whe he fed the flcks f hs fathe--law whe Gd
spke t hm fm the Bug Bush. But as the ute was fst t
asced the Mut f Gd at the sde fm whch they wee appachg
because the ascet was ease, ad the t desced t the head f
the valley whee the Bush was, thece etacg the steps s as
t see the places meted  cptue, they spet the ght at a
ceta mastey whee kdly mks dwelt ad whee they wee all
well eceved. Thee was a chuch thee ad a pest (ths place has
t bee detfed). It was the ght pecedg the abbath, ad
ealy  the fllwg mg they made the ascet f the mutas
e by e wth the pests ad the mks that lved thee. Ad yu
must g staght dw each muta utl yu ave at the ft f
the cetal e, whch s stctly called a. Ad s, Chst u
Gd cmmadg us, ad ecuaged by the payes f the hly me wh
accmpaed us, althugh the labu was geat, f I had t asced 
ft because the ascet culd t be made  a cha (_sella_), yet I
dd t feel t. At the futh hu they eached the peak f a
whee the Law was gve, the place whee the majesty f Gd desceded
 the day whe the muta smked, ad the they fud a chuch,
small because the summt f the mut whee t std was small, but
wth a lage measue f gace. They wee jed by the pest f the
mastey wh seved the chuch, f  e pemaetly lved  the
muta whee was the cave ad the chuch whee hly Mses was (c.
33). Passages wee ead f the bk f Mses, the paty cmmucated
ad eceved a peset f fst futs (_pms_) fm the mks, ad
Ethea asked uests abut the vaus stes, cludg the cave
whee Mses was whe he asceded the muta a secd tme t eceve
the tables ad the stes, bth thse whch we asked t see, ad
thse abut whch they themselves kew. But ths I wuld have yu kw,
lades, veeable sstes, that the mutas whch we had at fst
asceded wthut dffculty, wee as hllcks cmpaed wth the cetal
e  whch we wee stadg. Ad yet they wee s emus that I
thught I had eve see hghe, dd t ths cetal e vetp them
by s much. Egypt ad Paleste, the Red ea ad the Pathea (_.e._
Medteaea) ea, whch leads t Alexada, als the budless
tetes f the aaces, we saw belw us, had thugh t s t
beleve; all whch thgs these hly me pted ut t us (c. 34).
As a matte f fact, the Red ea s t vsble fm the Gebel Musa,
but fm the Gebel Kat. Etheas met f a chuch  the heght,
hweve, shws t was the Gebel Musa she asceded.
Fm the Mut f Gd they desceded t the muta jed t t

called Heb, whee thee was a chuch ad whee they saw the cave
whee Eljah hd ad the ste alta (_sc_) whch he bult. Ths
descpt ad the late accut f Atus Maty (cf. belw)
shw that at ths ped Heb was accuted a dffeet heght fm
the Mut f the Law. Afte seeg a geat ck wth a flat suface
 whch std Aa ad the sevety eldes whe Mses eceved the
Lawad  the mddle thee s a st f alta made f stesthe
paty bega the descet at abut the eghth hu ad at the teth hu
they eached the Bush; t s alve t ths day ad puts fth shts.
Hee thee wee may cells, a chuch, ad a gade wth the Bush,
ad the paty patk f a lght meal  the gade ad emaed the
ght (c. 35). O the ext day they expled ad saw the fllwg:
the place f the camp f the Isaeltes,the place whee the calf was
made, a geat ste s fxed  that place t ths day,the spt
fm whch Mses watched the Isaeltes dacg,the ck  whch
the tables wee bke,the dwellg places f the Isaeltes f
whch the fudats made  ccula fm ema t ths day,the
place whee the Isaeltes a fm gate t gate,als the place
whee the calf was but, ad the steam ut f whch the Isaeltes
dak,the place whee the sevety eceved the spt f Mses (Num.
x. 25),the place whee the Isaeltes lusted (Num. x. 34),the
place whee the camp tk fe (Num. x. 2), ad the place whee t
aed maa ad uals. The eade s awae that accdg t the
Bblcal accut, these latte stes wee fa emved fm the spt
whee the Law was gve. Thus havg see all the places whch the
ss f Isael vsted bth gg ad etug, Ethea ad he paty
stated back t Phaa, dstat thty-fve mles. They the stayed
at a stat (_mas_)  the deset f Phaa; the ea the cast,
ad the at Clysma (ea the peset uez), whee they ested, f we
had stutly made u way thugh the sl f the deset. Ethea had
pevusly passed thugh Gshe  he way fm Egypt t a; but
she w decded t fllw up the places vsted by the Isaeltes. 
she jueyed t Mgdl wth ts ft ad a ffce cmmadg the
sldey  accdace wth Rma dscple, ad passed Epauleum (LXX
f Phahth)  the futhe sde f the wate; ad athe ft
Balsef; als Oth (LXX f Etham), uccth ad Pthm. The
peset Pthm s w a ft, she wte, ad eached He, acet
Hepls. Hee the paty eteed the bdes f Egypt leavg behd
the tetes f the aaces (c. 39), ad mved  t the cty f
Rameses, descbed as a cme (_.e._ ) situated near t e present
Tell er Rotab. Finally t ey reac ed t e city of Arabia, and met its
bis op. Probably t e ancient Per-Sopd, later P acusa, t e capital
of t e nome, is meant. A bis op of P acusa is mentioned.[186] From
ere t e road went from t e T ebaid to Pelusium by way of Tat nis,
probably t e Gree
Dap ne, t e Ta pan es of Jeremia , following t e
course of an arm of t e Nile to Pelusium. Et eria ad been before on
er way to Alexandria. S e now journeyed along t e coast passing
several stations, and t en entered Palestine (_c._ 40).
T e detailed account by Et eria and er location of t e various oly
sites in Sinai was t e first of its
ind, and apparently remained t e
only one for centuries to come. Before er pilgrimage we only ear
of a c urc built above t e valley of P aran w ic commemorated t e
struggle between Moses and t e Amale
ites, w ile t e Bus , Horeb, and
Elim were names of settlements w ic ad been c osen by t e mon
s in
remembrance of Moses and Elija w om t ey accepted as t eir patrons. On
t e same basis a monastery or laura near Jerusalem, mentioned as t e
abode of Jo n Mosc us, was called P aran. T e names w ic were given to
settlements in Sinai may ave caused t ese places to be loo
ed upon as
t ose t at were actually visited by Moses and Elija .

T e Bus was mentioned wit out furt er comment by Ammonius (_c._

372) as a settlement. It was described as t e Bus at t e foot of t e
mountain w ere God conferred wit t e people by Nilus (_c._ 449).
About t e same time Et eria (_c._ 450) spo
e of a c urc in t e place
w ere t e Bus is, w ic Bus is alive to t is day, w ile Procopius,
t e secretary of Justinian, remar
ed (_c._ 550) in a more cautious
strain, ere it was t at Moses was said to ave received t e Laws
from God and proclaimed t em. It was Et eria w o claimed to ave seen
during a single day all t e places visited by t e Israelites including,
in t e plain below, Tabera , t e place of Burning (Num. xi. 2) and
Kibrot Hata-ava (Num. xi. 34), w ere t e Israelites stayed long after
t ey left t e oly mountain.
T e mon
is settlement Horeb or C oreb was mentioned also by Ammonius
(_c._ 372), and, judging from is description, it was quite separate
from t at of t e Bus . As a eig t, Horeb was also eld separate from
t e Mountain of t e Law bot by Et eria and by Antoninus. But Et eria,
and ot ers after er, loo
ed upon Horeb not only as t e site to w ic
Elija fled after crossing t e desert, but as identical wit t e place
w ere e set up t e great altar at w ic e confounded t e prop ets of
Baal.
Elim, again, was mentioned as a mon
is settlement by Ammonius (_c._
372), and is description leaves no doubt t at Rait ou near t e present
Tur on t e coast, two days journey from t e Bus , is meant. T is
settlement retained its name, Elim, till recent times. Some of t e
medival pilgrims loo
ed upon it as t e actual Elim of t e Bible. T us
t e Ritter von Harff, w o visited it in 1497, eld t at t e Israelites
ere left t e Red Sea, and asserted t at bones t at lay on t e s ore
were t ose of t e pursuing Egyptians. But Et eria and Cosmas (_c._ 550)
wit a better appreciation of possibilities, located t e passage of t e
Israelites near Clysma (near t e present Suez), and soug t Elim of t e
Bible, not at Rait ou, but at Arandara, t e present Wadi G arandel.

CHAPTER XII
THE BUILDING OF THE CONVENT
FROM t e reign of t e emperor Justinian (527-563) dates t e
fortification of t e ermit settlement
nown as t e Bus , w ic
was t ereby transformed into a convent, and as suc , braved t e
vicissitudes of many centuries. T e fortification was apparently part
of a wider sc eme by w ic t e emperor used t e peninsula of Sinai as a
bulwar
against t e invasion from t e east. Movements among t e Eastern
people were t reatening t e frontier line of t e Roman empire at t e
time, and its internal organisation was by no means secure.
T e care w ic was bestowed on t e convent itself may ave been due to
t e favour w ic t e monop ysite form of belief found for a time wit
Justinian, and more especially wit is wife, t e empress T eodora (
548). It was owing to er influence t at Ant imus I was raised to t e
see of Constantinople, but a synod convened in t e year 536 deposed
im. At t is synod t ere were present Paulus II, bis op of Aila,[187]
and T eonas, w o described imself as presbyter of Holy Mount Syna,
and legate of t e c urc of P aran and t e ermitage of Rait ou.[188]

T eonas apparently acted as legate owing to t e age and infirmity of

P otius, bis op of P aran. His appointment s ows t e close connection
t at existed at t e time between t e t ree c ief ermit settlements
in Sinai proper. T e presence of T eonas at Constantinople no doubt
furt ered, if it did not originate, t e idea of fortifying t e convents
of Sinai.
T e building activity of Justinian began about t e year 535. Procopius,
is secretary, wrote an account of is relations wit Sinai and
described t e life of t e mon
s as a careful study of deat . T ey
t erefore soug t t e solitude t at was dear to t em. T e emperor, e
says, built a c urc for t em w ic was dedicated to t e T eoto
os, so
t at t ey mig t spend t eir life in continual prayer in t e service of
God, not on t e summit of t e mountain, but below it, for on t e summit
t under and ot er eavenly p enomena were eard at nig t, w ic made it
impossible to spend t e nig t t ere. Here it was t at Moses is said to
ave received t e Laws of God and proclaimed t em. At t e foot of t e
mountain Justinian built a military station, so t at t e Saracens mig t
not unawares attac
Palestine.[189]
A later age produced a decree of Justinian dated to 551, w ic declared
t e independence of t e foundation. T e decree is no doubt a forgery,
but t e independent standing of t e convent was generally accepted. T e
terms of t e alliance w ic secured t e safety of t e settlement were
first set fort by Said ibn Batric
, ot erwise Eutyc ius, patriarc of
Alexandria (933-40), to w om we owe a full account of t e building of
t e convent.
T e mon
s of Sinai, e wrote, earing of t e piety of Justinian, and
t e delig t t at e too
in building c urc es and monasteries, went to
im and described ow t e Is maelite Arabs armed t em by plundering
t eir food stores, invading and emptying t eir cells, and entering
t eir c urc es w ere t ey devoured t e euc arist. W en t e emperor
enquired into t eir wis es, t ey said: We beg for a monastery in w ic
we s all be safe. For at t at time t ere was no convent building in
w ic t e mon
s could congregate. T ey dwelt scattered in t e mountains
and along t e valleys near t e Bus from w ic t e Lord spo
e to Moses,
aving only a large tower above t e Bus w ic is standing to t is day,
and a c urc dedicated to t e Virgin, w ere t ey soug t protection w en
t ose approac ed w om t ey dreaded. T e emperor despatc ed wit t em
a legate wit full aut ority to t e prefect of Egypt, as
ing t at e
s ould be supplied wit building materials, wit men and provisions
in Egypt. He was c arged to build a monastery at Kelzem (Clysma), and
a monastery at Raya (Rait ou), and one on Mount Sinai, t is to be so
fortified t at no better could be found. After building t e c urc
of St. At anasius at Clysma, and t e monastery at Rait ou, t e legate
came into Sinai, w ere e found t e Bus in a narrow valley wit t e
tower near it, also bubbling springs and t e mon
s scattered along
t e valleys. He intended building t e monastery on t e summit of t e
mountain, leaving t e Bus and t e tower below, but e altered is plan
because of t e lac
of water on t e mountain, and built t e monastery
near t e Bus enclosing t e tower, and a c urc on t e summit of t e
mountain w ere Moses accepted t e Law. T e name of t e superior was
Doulas. But t e c ange of plan so annoyed t e emperor t at it cost t e
legate is life.
[Illustration: Fig. 16.View of t e Convent. (Petrie: _Researc es in
Sinai_.)]
In order to safeguard t e building, Roman slaves were broug t from

t e Blac
Sea (traditionally from Wallac ia), a undred in number,

and transferred to Sinai wit t eir wives and c ildren, toget er wit
a undred men wit t eir wives and c ildren from Egypt. Dwellings
were erected for t em in Mount Sinai so t at t ey mig t safeguard t e
monastery and t e mon
s; t ey received t eir supplies from Egypt. T eir
settlement was
nown as t e Deir Abid (_i.e._ monastery of slaves),
and t eir descendants continued t ere till t e spread of t e Moslim
fait . Moreover t e Benu Sale were appointed to act as _g afirs_ or
protectors to t e mon
s, t at is, t ey were responsible for t ose
moving to and fro across t e desert, in return for w ic t ey received
largess in t e form of food.[190] T e same terms were mentioned by
Ma
rizi ( 1441) in is _History of t e Copts_,[191] and by t e
_Perigrap e_ in its Arabic translation of t e year 1710.[192] According
to t is t e Benu Sale , t e Saidi and t e Halig (Aleyat) were attac ed
to t e service of t e convent w ic , in return, supplied t em wit food.
T e importance w ic t e agreement attac ed to t e Benu Sale , was in

eeping wit t e ancient establis ment of t is tribe in t e peninsula,
and t eir association wit rites of religious importance in close
vicinity to Gebel Musa and on Gebel Musa itself. T e tomb of Nebi Sale
lies in t e Wadi S ey
at a distance of a few miles from t e convent.
It is t e scene of an annual tribal festival w ic concludes wit a
pilgrimage alf-way up t e Gebel Musa, w ere a s eep is sacrificed over
a natural ole in t e roc
. T is is loo
ed upon as a footprint of t e
oly camel, no doubt originally of t e Naga, w ic was t e creation of
Nebi Sale .
Early references and t e nature of t e festival leave no doubt as to
its antiquity.
T us, t e writer Antoninus Martyr, w o, about t e year 530, entered
Sinai from Gaza, journeyed by way of Elat (Elusa), at t e beginning
of t e desert t at goes to Sinai, and mentioned a festival t at was
about to ta
e place. T e people w o entered t e greater desert were in
number twelve t ousand (c. 36). On t e eig t day after leaving Gaza,
e reac ed t e place w ere Moses broug t fort water from t e roc
, and
came to Horeb, w ic , in is estimation, was distinct from Sinai.
Mount Syna, e wrote, is stony, and t ere is little eart , and in
its neig bour ood are many cells of men w o serve God, t e same in
Horeb. And in t is part of t e mountain t e Saracens ave an idol of
marble w ite as snow. A priest (_sacerdos_) of t eirs dwells t ere,
w o wears a dalmatica and a linen cloa
(_pallium_). And w en t e
time of t eir festival comes previous to t e appearance of t e moon
(_prcurrente lun_), before it appears on t e festive day, t e marble
begins to c ange its colour, and w en t ey begin to adore it, t e
marble is blac
as pitc . T e time of t e festival being over, it
returns to its former colour. At t is I wondered greatly.[193]
T e rites t at are accounted oly in t is neig bour ood are associated
wit different prop ets. Prof. E. H. Palmer ( 1882) remar
ed t at
t e Bedawyn often fail to discriminate between Nebi Sale , Moses and
Mo ammad. T us, t e footprint of t e camel w ic was venerated at t e
conclusion of t e festival of Nebi Sale , as been incorporated in a
tradition regarding Mo ammad, w o after deat was carried aloft by a
camel of so prodigious a size t at it stood wit one foot in Damascus,
one in Cairo, one in Mecca, and one in Sinai.[194]
T e mon
Antoninus Martyr made a s ort stay at t e convent, and wrote
t at t e days of t e festival of t e Is maelites were drawing to a

close, and t e order went fort t at no one s ould remain in t e desert

t roug w ic we ad come, so some returned to t e Holy City (_i.e._
Jerusalem) t roug Egypt, ot ers t roug Arabia (c. 39).
T e wor
of feeding t e Arabs w o came to t e convent was no mean
underta
ing. Anastasius, t e mon
, wrote t at t e Armenians more
especially came t ere,it was t eir custom as it was t e custom
of every one. T ere were six undred of t em on one occasion, and
a man among t em w o waited on t em and t en disappeared. In t e
estimation of Anastasius t is was Moses imself, w o came to receive
is visitors (no. 7). T e number of pilgrims at t is time (_c._ 600)
was less, e remar
ed, t an t irty years before, w en as many as eig t
undred came and ascended t e oly mountain, w ere t ey saw a vision of
God and a miracle, t e summit of t e mountain appearing enveloped in
fire (no. 38). T e appearance of fire on t e mountain ad previously
been mentioned by Ammonius about t e year 372. It may ave formed part
of a system of signalling adopted by t e Bedawyn.
T is confusion between t e different prop ets is reflected in a
statement in t e _Perigrap e_ in t e Arabic translation of 1710, w ic
described Sale as a C ristian w o ad is tomb not far from t e
monastery.[195] T is tradition s ould be compared wit one current
in t e Middle Ages t at Mo ammad t e Prop et was t e disciple of a
C ristian mon
.
T e tomb of Sale in t e Wadi S ey
was noticed by Bis op Pococ
e in
1726 (i. 141), and Burc
ardt, in 1816, mentioned t e celebration eld
ere w ic too
place in t e last wee
in May (p. 489). T is festival
was described in detail by Tisc endorf w o saw it in 1846,[196] and by
Prof. E. H. Palmer, w o witnessed it in June of 1870.[197]
T e festival too
place at t e time w en t e dates ripened, and lasted
t ree days. Tribes from all parts of t e peninsula, including women and
c ildren, assembled in t e Wadi S ey
near t e insignificant-loo
ing
tomb w ic consisted of a domed c amber cemented over, wit an empty
coffin standing inside. Pieces of clot , ostric eggs, tassels and
ot er parts of camel equipment were broug t as offerings and suspended
from t e roof. T e first step in t e festivity consisted in renovating
and w itewas ing t e tomb. In a large tent erected outside forty to
fifty men assembled and sat in a circle, w ile t e first of all t e
s ey
s barefoot and wearing t e w ite garment (_Imam_) and a w ite
turban over is red fez, sat near t e fire. A procession eaded by t e
women encircled t e tomb. T e young men t en broug t out fifty to sixty
lambs w ic were cut on t e fore ead, and blood was drawn before t ey
were slaug tered, s
inned and cut up. W ile t e food was boiling a
camel race too
place, four to six camels racing at a time. Four to six
persons t en sat around eac lambs
in w ic was spread on t e ground,
and on it t eir s are of boiled lambs fles was poured out, w ic
t ey ate using t eir fingers. Besides t e fles t ere were meal-ca
es
(_bilaw_), and water to drin
. A dance followed in w ic men and women
too
part, and w ic was timed to singing and clapping of ands.
Besides t is, two women danced figures outside t e group. Men and women
remained conversing in couples till late at nig t. T e celebration
struc
Tisc endorf as dignified. At its conclusion some of t e Bedawyn
repaired to t e summit of t e Gebel Musa, w ere t ere stood a small and
ig ly revered mosque (mentioned as early as 1335), w ic t ey entered,
wearing t e _Imam_ or w ite garment. Over t e natural ole, called t e
footprint of t e prop ets s e-camel, t ey sacrificed a s eep.
A furt er festivity too
place in former days near t e summit of

t e Gebel Musa w ic we ear of in t e sixteent century only and

not again. Early writers agree t at no ermit or mon
ever spent a
nig t on t e summit of t e mountain. Nilus (_c._ 400) remar
ed t at
t e eig t was generally avoided since God conferred t ere wit t e
people, w ile Et eria and Antoninus Martyr simply noted t at no ermit
spent t e nig t t ere. T is fact Procopius (_c._ 550) connected wit
eavenly p enomena. At a later date t e ermit Simeon, for a time,
dwelt on t e summit of Mount Sinai, w ere t e Law was given, a place
deserted because of t e restless Arabs.
T is avoidance of t e mountain-top at nig t by t e C ristians finds
its explanation in t e account of Gregor, prior of t e Cart usian
ouse of Gaming, w o came into Sinai wit Martin Baumgarten and
ot ers in t e year 1507. T e party decided to spend t e nig t on t e
Mount of t e Law, w ere t e building t at was close to t e summit was
t e scene of a Saracen festivity of so noisy a c aracter, t at t e
C ristian pilgrims ardly slept all nig t. It included a bestial
service in t e belief t at t ose w o were ere conceived were endowed
wit a oly and prop etic spirit (proles enim ic concepta, sancto et
prop etico spiritu plena ab eis stimatur).[198] T e spot c osen seems
to ave been a cave between t e c apel of Moses and t e small mosque.
Similar unions led, from t e same belief according to Tobler, to t e
desecration at one time of t e oly cave at Bet le em.[199] T is cave,
according to a statement of Jerome, was connected wit t e cult of
Adonis in ancient times. Per aps t e old w ic t e Saracens ad on t e
Gebel Musa in early days was anot er reason w y t e convent builder
c ose t e lower site.
No furt er mention is made of t e c urc of St. At anasius w ic t e
emperor Justinian ad constructed at Clysma. T e monastery w ic e
built or fortified at Rait ou frequently served as a refuge to t e
mon
s of t e convent in times of stress. Its c urc was dedicated
to St. Jo n t e Baptist, and continued till t e period of Tur
is
domination w en it was destroyed.
T e convent of t e Bus alone continued. It ad an independent
standing, per aps owing to its being originally merged wit t e
bis opric of P aran. T e ead of t e ouse was c osen from its inmates,
and e called imself bis op. Later e assumed t e title of arc bis op.
Owing, owever, to is peculiar standing e was referred to as
arc bis op at a time w en e called imself bis op only, as we s all
see later.
T e convent at first served as t e nucleus of t e numerous ermitages
in sout ern Sinai. Later, as t ese disappeared, it continued in proud
isolation. In addition to t e ouse at Rait ou, it acquired property
and built priories in many outlying districts, and rose to a position
of importance t at was in every way exceptional.
T e convent retains to t is day its original appearance. It is enclosed
by walls built of well-dressed bloc
s of grey granite forming an
irregular quadrangle, 280 feet at its greatest lengt , and 250 ft. at
its greatest breadt . T e walls enclosed t e old tower, a c urc , and
t e convent buildings, wit t e cells for t e mon
s, a guest- ouse,
ba
eries, stables, and a library. Adjoining t ese buildings was t e
garden, w ic extended on one side, along t e valley about 200 feet,
wit several springs of good water, and plantations of fruit trees,
including olive, pomegranate, almond and peac , pear and apple trees.
T e produce of t ese remained famous t roug out t e Middle Ages.

T e c urc was a basilica in t e Byzantine style. It was lig ted by

five windows on eit er side, and t e entablature of t e nave rested on
round arc es w ic were supported by six pairs of granite columns wit
leafy capitals. T e roof was of cypress wood covered wit lead, and
contained t ree contemporary inscriptions. One of t ese commemorated
our oly
ing, Justinian t e Great; anot er was devoted to t e
memory of T eodora, w o died in 548; t e t ird called a blessing on
t e builder, Step anos and is family. Lord God, w o didst appear on
t is spot, save and bless t y slave Step anos, t e builder of t is
monastery, from Aila, and Nonna ( is wife), and give rest to t e souls
of t eir c ildren, George, Sergius, and T eodora.[200]
T e c urc was dedicated to t e Virgin, as we learn from Eutyc ius,
w ose statement was confirmed by Magister T ietmar in 1217, and by
t e Papal Bull of 1226. In t e Middle Ages it was sometimes spo
en
of as t e c urc of St. Kat erine, and later still as t e c urc
of t e Transfiguration. T e latter name was due to a great mosaic
representation on t e apse w ic is s own by its style to belong to t e
sevent or eig t century. T e mosaic was first drawn and described
by Laborde and Linant.[201] On t is mosaic t e yout ful C rist was
represented soaring towards eaven, wit Elija on one side pointing to
Him, w ile Moses on t e ot er side stands wit and upraised. Jo n is
seen
neeling, James also is represented
neeling, Peter is prostrate.
Eac figure is named. T is scene is framed by t irty medallions, w ic
represent t e Twelve Apostles, Paul, t e superior of t e convent, w o
is not named, and sixteen prop ets. Above, to t e rig t, Moses is seen

neeling before t e Bus ; to t e left, e is represented olding t e
Tables. Below, are two angels wit extended wings and two furt er
portraits of w ic t e one s ows a bearded man wit flowing loc
s, t e
ot er a woman wit close-fitting ead-dress. T ey are sometimes pointed
out as Constantine and Helena, sometimes as Justinian and T eodora, but
t eir identity remains un
nown. Below, stand t e words in Gree
, In
t e name of t e Fat er, t e Son, and t e Holy G ost, t e w ole of t is
wor
was executed for t e salvation of t ose w o contributed towards it
by Longinus, most oly priest and superior (
).[202] The flr was cvered with a msaic which was
trn  by the Arab treasre seekers in the fifteenth centry, bt
restred by Bish Anastasis (1583-1592).
Tw cryts inside the cnvent walls served t hse the bnes f the
dead. Their crses were first laid fr tw r three years n an irn
grating in a cellar; the skll was then transferred t ne cryt and
the bnes t the ther. The bnes were srted and added t the iles f
crresnding bnes, s that the femrs, the tibias, etc., lie iled
tgether. The archbishs crses were, hwever reserved intact, and,
wearing their rbes,[203] were laced in mmmy cffins. The se f the
irn grating and the cryts dates back t the earliest days f the
cnvent, fr amng the stries cllected by Anastasis, ne described
hw tw crses were laid side by side n the grating, bt the ne,
disliking the rximity f the ther, reeatedly mved, thrwing it t
f lace, ntil it was fficially adjred nt t d s.
The cnvent inclded a hstel fr the aged and fr ilgrims, bilt by
a certain Isars (_qdam Isar_). It attracted the attentin f
Pe Gregry the Great (592-604), wh, hearing f it, frwarded t
Jhn Climacs, wh was serir at the time, wllen cverings and
bedding fr fifteen beds, tgether with mney wherewith t rchase
feather-beds. At the same time he wrte t Father Palladis, t whm
he frwarded a cwl r tnic. The Pe had revisly written t Jhn
Climacs, cmlimenting him n having reached a harbr f safety while

thers were tssing n a sea f religis difficlties.[204] He seems

t have made a ermanent grant t the cnvent. A ilgrim f 1341
mentined that the day f St. Gregry was ket at the cnvent, since he
had bestwed n it alms t f the treasry f the Chrch, by which the
nmber f cnvent inmates was raised t fr hndred.
The interest which Pe Gregry tk in the cnvent was rbably
cnnected with a ilgrimage made by the Rman atrician lady
Rsticiana. In the year 592 she tk her daghter, wh was ill, t
Sinai in the he f effecting a cre. The hsband f the daghter was
als f the arty. They started frm Cnstantinle and retrned sner
than was exected. This we learn frm a letter which Rsticiana wrte
t Pe Gregry.[205]
In Sinai the mnk Anastasis recrded the visit f a atrician lady wh
came with her daghter and wished t cnslt Father Orntis, wh was
s filled with divine fire that he cld hld his hand in the flame,
and brn incense n the alm f his hand. On ne ccasin, hwever, he
lst a finger by brning. Bt Orntis refsed t see the ladies, he
sent them sme graes instead. When the demn wh was in the daghter,
saw the graes, he cried t: Father Orntis, why d y cme here?
And he dearted t f her (n. 18). It was dbtless the same hermit,
in this case called Ornts, wh nce came int chrch with his cwl
all awry. When his attentin was drawn t it, he said that all things
being awry in the chrch, his cwl was in keeing with them. If they
wld set things straight there, he wld see t his cwl.
A great featre f the cnvent f Sinai was its library, where
the mnks amassed bks and manscrits, and added t the wrlds
literatre by cying and writing. The lace was a lyglt centre.
Antnins Martyr fnd three Fathers there wh ske Latin, Greek,
Syriac, Egytian (Ctic), and Bessam (Persian), and many interreters
in each langage (c. 37). The hermit Simen, wh came int Ere abt
the year 1025, ske Egytian, Syriac, Arabic, Greek and Rman (_i.e._
Latin).
The cntents f the library, in site f lsses incrred at different
times, are still cnsiderable. Amng its mst ntable treasres was
the _Cdex Sinaitics_, dated t abt the year 400, which heled
t revise the text f mst f the Greek Old Testament, f the New
Testament, and f sme imrtant early Christian wrks, inclding
the _Sheherd f Hermas_. Attentin was attracted t this _Cdex_ by
Tischendrf, wh came t the cnvent in 1844 t insect the MSS., and
having identified sme f its ages, retrned in 1853, in 1854, and
in 1859, when he finally acqired it fr Petrgrad, a facsimile cy
being desited at the cnvent. A few leaves are at Leizig. Anther
ntable treasre was a Syriac _Cdex_ f the Gsels f a very early
date, which was discvered as a alimsest and htgrahed by the
sisters, Mrs. Smith-Lewis and Mrs. Gibsn, in 1893. Again, there was
the _Evangeliarim Thedsianm_, a cllectin f assages frm the New
Testament written in gld lettering n archment, which was seen and
described by Brckhardt in 1816, and is dated t abt the year 1000.
The Greek MSS. that are in the library were recently examined
and catalged by Prf. Gardthasen f Oxfrd. The list cntains
1230 entries f MSS. that are all f a religis character. Prf.
Gardthasen nted the names f ver tw hndred scribes, and ther
details which shw that sme f the MSS. came frm Crete, Cair, and
Cyrs.[206] The Syriac and Palestinian-Syriac MSS. were catalged
by the ladies Smith-Lewis and Gibsn. They are ver three hndred

in nmber. The Christian Arabic MSS. catalged by the same ladies,

amnted t six hndred and eighty entries.[207]
The imrtance which was secred t the cnvent reacted n the standing
f the bishric f Pharan, the reresentative f which seems t have
remved t the cnvent. When Peter, atriarch f Jersalem, (524-544)
smmned his bishs t a synd in 538, Phtis, bish f Pharan, wh
was clse n seventy years f age, was nable t leave Mnt Sinai,
which sggests that he lived there. Stehen f Caadcia, mentined
abve, Dlcetis and Zsims were deted t reresent him. We again
hear f Zsims as ne f three mnks f Sinai, whm Allinaris, the
rthdx r Melkite atriarch f Alexandria (550-568), smmned t
Alexandria. Of these he cnsecrated Thedr bish f Lentlis,
an nnamed mnk, bish f Helilis, and Zsims bish f Babyln
(Cair). Bt Zsims had n taste fr the eiscate, and sn
retrned t his cell in Sinai.[208]
Likewise d we hear that Gregris, wh had resided ver the mnks in
Sinai, was chsen t scceed Anastasis, bish f the see f Antich
wh was evicted in the year 569. Accrding t infrmatin rvided by
Evagris (593), he had there been besieged by the Kenite Arabs.[209]
The cntry generally seems t have been at the mercy f the Arabs,
which reslted in the abandnment f the hermitages, while it added t
the restige f the cnvent.
Abt this time the cnvent became the hme f a yng mnk wh was
always silent. He was the nly srviving sn f the emerr Marice,
and was saved by his nrse when all the ther sns were t t death by
Phcas (602-608).[210] When he died his bdy disaeared. Perhas it
was carried by Gd t the realms f the living, was the verdict f the
mnk Anastasis (n. 29).
The last bish f Pharan we hear f was Thedr, wh rsed the
s-called mnthelite mdificatin f the mnhysite dctrine, hing
thereby t secre re-nin with the Chrch. In its interest he went t
Cnstantinle, where he was hnrably entertained by the atriarch
Sergis (610-638), wh imressed Pe Hnris (625-638) in Thedrs
favr. Objectin was, hwever, raised t the new dctrine by the mnk
Shrnis, wh later became atriarch f Jersalem (634-638), and
disarval f it was exressed by the Lateran Synd f 649,[211] and
by the Sixth General Cncil f Cnstantinle in 681.
In the Wadi Feiran lie the rins f a cnvent and a chrch f sme
imrtance which were described by the _Ordnance Srvey_ (i. 210), and
are witht dbt the remains f the eiscal seat f Pharan.

CHAPTER XIII
MOHAMMAD AND ST. KATHERINE
THE cllase f the Rman wer in the East reared the way fr the
Mslim cnqest f Sinai and Egyt. Dring the lifetime f Mhammad
changes were effected alng eacefl lines. The effrts f the Prhet
were directed, in the first lace, against standing abses and bslete
cstms in Arabia itself. Bt the strng desire fr exansin westwards
amng the Arabs drew his attentin tside the limits f Arabia rer,

and we hear f his entering int relatin with neighbring centres.

Ths it is said that Tahhieh Ibn Rbah f the rt f Aila, waited n
the Prhet when he was staying at Tarbk, and that he received frm
him a wllen garment in retrn fr aying a ll-tax. Ibn Ishak cited
by Makrizi ( 1441) stated that ths _firmn_ was dated t the ninth
year f the Hegira, _i.e._ 530-531, and assred rtectin t Tahhieh,
the ele f Aila, the bish and all n land and water. And the city
did nt cease t rser.[212]
The garment which Makrizi called a clak f the Prhet, was
sbseqently rchased by the Calih f the Ben el Abbas. Aila
cntined t flrish, and Mkaddisi (_c._ 985) described Wailah
as a ls and beatifl city amng many alm trees with fish in
lenty, and the great rt f Palestine and emrim f the Hedjaz,
bt the tre Aila lies near by it and is nw in rins.[213]
A later age claimed that the cnvent f Sinai als secred a _firmn_
nder the hand f the Prhet. It was alleged that Mhammad, n ne
f his jrneys with Ali, alighted nder the wall f the cnvent, and
that Ali enned the _firmn_, t which Mhammad, wh cld nt write,
set the mark f his blackened hand. The mnks tld Brckhardt that
the Ottman Sltan Selim, after the cnqest f Egyt (A.D. 1517),
arriated it and carried it ff t Cnstantinle, bt that a cy
f it remained with the mnks. This he was shwn, bt declared it
t be a frgery.[214] Bish Pccke als saw anther cy f it in
Cair, which he cied, and f which he blished a translatin in the
aendix t his bk. It claims t have been written in the secnd
year f the Hegira, and granted rtectin t the Nazarenes, declaring
that the laces where the mnks dwelt shld be rtected; als that
they were exemt frm aying the ll-tax, and shld receive tithes,
and that the Christians generally shld nt be called n t ay a
ll-tax exceeding ten drachm.[215]
The fllwers f the Prhet, after verrnning Syria, attacked Egyt.
They seized Damietta which was gverned by Ab Thr, a Christian Arab,
and were sed by an army f 20,000 men. Bt Ab Thr was seized,
and the invaders sread int Egyt. The descendants f Abbas, the ncle
f the Prhet, nw reigned ver large ssessins, f which Egyt was
art, frm the year 750 t 868. After a break the ld line f rlers
retrned frm 905 t 969.
Under the Mslim system f administratin the whle f Sinai was
inclded in the rvince Hedjaz, which cmrised Tr, Faran, Raya
(_i.e._ Raith), Klzm (_i.e._ Clysma), Aila, Midian, and its
territry, El Oweid, El Hamr (r El Hr), Beda and Shaghb.[216]
The Christians were declared a tlerated sect, bt they were srely
ressed nder Abd-el-Melek ibn Merwan (705-708), and by Qrrah Sherig
(709-714).
Dring the reign f Abd-el-Melek (705-708) an attack was directed
against the cnvent f Sinai, where many f the slave latin, wh
had been settled there by Jstinian, were slain, thers fled, thers
became Mslim,whse descendants t this day remain in the mnastery
and are called Ben Saleh, being reckned their descendants,frm them
srang the Lachmienses. The mnks themselves destryed the hses f
the slaves, lest anyne shld dwell there and they are in rins at the
resent day (_c._ 930).[217]
It is related in an aendix t the stries f Anastasis hw the
Christian Saracens, wh dwelt near the twer f Pharan and the Hly

Bsh, sght refge in the hly mntain, bt cld nt resist the
nmers invaders, and therefre decided t accet the faith f the
Prhet. One man was abt t fly, when his wife begged him t kill her
and the children rather than leave them at the mercy f the barbarians.
He did s, and then fled t Hreb, where, like Elijah, he dwelt with
wild beasts till he felt the arach f death. Then he reaired t
the Hly Bsh, where he lay in the gest-hse, and where sme f the
mnks, still amng the living, saw him and heard him describe the
shining figres which he saw araching as he lay n the int f
death. They were, I believe, the angelic bands f the martyrs wh came
frth t greet him (n. 45).
In Egyt itself, the Christians cntined t be ressed. A gvernment
srvey, ndertaken by the minister f finance, Obeidallah Ben Hab-Hab,
reslted in a ll-tax being levied n them in additin t the sal
land-tax. Again, Osanna ben Said el Tanchi cnfiscated the rerty
f the Christians, branded each mnk with a sign n the hand, and he
wh had n sign frfeited his hand. Hence the Cts f Egyt t this
day are marked with a crss n the hand. Mrever, every Christian wh
had n legitimatin aers was mlcted ten dinars. In 737, in 750, and
again in 831 r 852 the Cts f Egyt were in revlt.[218]
In site f the Arab cnqest, Sinai, like Jersalem and Rme,
cntined t stand t as a gal f Christian ilgrimage. Accrding
t the accnt f a mnk f Redn in Brittany, a certain Frmnt and
his brther, men f high standing, went there. They had mrdered their
ncle, an ecclesiastic, and reented, and went befre King Lthair
(855-859). His bishs decreed that the brthers shld be chained and
bnd tgether and shld d enance by ging t Rme, Jersalem and
Sinai. In Rme they were received by Pe Benedict III (858-888), wh
gave them his blessing, and they tk bat fr Jersalem, where they
sent several years. Frm there they went int the Thebaid, where they
fasted with the mnks, and they finally reached Sinai, where they sent
three years. Still wearing the chains that bnd them tgether, they
retrned by way f Rme t Rennes, where the ne brther died. Frmnt
then went t Redn, and nce mre started fr Rme. Bt he retrned t
Redn where, his enance being at an end, his chain was taken frm him,
and where he died.[219] Bish Pccke was shwn a cell sme way  the
Gebel Msa where tw brthers dwelt wh were chained tgether.[220] The
brthers frm Rennes are rbably meant.
Anther accnt which seems t date frm the first half f the ninth
centry described the Hses f Gd, and ths described Sinai. In hly
Mnt Sina there are fr chrches, ne where the Lrd ske t Mses
n the smmit f the mntain; ne dedicated t St. Elijah; anther
dedicated t St. Eliss; and a frth in the mnastery f St. Mary.
The abbt is Elias, wh has nder him thirty mnks. The stes that lead
 and dwn the mntain are 7700 in nmber.[221]
A list f the archbishs f Sinai was cmiled at the cnvent in
the seventeenth centry, which begins with Marcs, whse date is
given as 869.[222] Bt the fficial rert f the Frth Synd held
at Cnstantinle, in 869-870, cntains the signatre f Cnstantine,
bish f Syna.[223] Anther bish was Jris, wh died and was
enshrined in Bethne in Belgim in the year 1033. A hymn there written
in his hnr described him as bish f Sinai.[224] He was rbably
travelling fr the rse f cllecting alms fr his cnvent.
Frm the histrian Rdlfs Glaber (_c._ 900-1044) we hear that the
dkes f Nrmandy, mre esecially Dke William (927-942) and his

sccessrs, were liberal in their gifts t chrches and cnvents, and

that mnks frm Mnt Sinai came every year t Ren, frm where they
dearted laded with gifts (_exenia_) in gld and silver.[225] It was
in cnnectin with these grants that the fame f St. Katherine f
Alexandria sread t Ere in the crse f the eleventh centry.
The clt f St. Katherine, virgin saint and martyr, is amng the
cris develments f legendary histry, fr her name aears fr the
first time abt three hndred years after her reted existence. She
is first named in the _Life f Pals Jnir_ ( 956), wh was called
a Latr frm Mns Latrs, where he dwelt. The accnt f his life was
written by a cntemrary.[226] It describes hw three hndred mnks
frm Sinai and Raith sght refge in Mnt Latrs in Karia frm the
ersectins f the Saracens (C. 8).
The mnks cntined in clse cnnectin with Sinai. Gabriel sang the
Psalms f David as he had dne at the Bsh, and when a ilgrimage
was ndertaken t ray fr rain, Gabriel btained the desired reslt
(C. 18). The fame f the mnks f Sinai as rain-makers was nted by
Rbinsn and by Prf. Palmer.[227] Pals himself was devted t
varis saints, amng whm was the martyr Aekatherina; the thght f
her filled him with jy, and gave him a secial wer. One day the
mnks were sitting dwn t a meal in the en air when a rain cld
came . Pals bade them remain seated, and nt a dr f rain fell
ntil they had finished their meal, when it red.
Direct infrmatin n St. Katherine, in this case called Aekatherina,
stands in the _Menlgy f Basiles_ which is dated between 957-1027.
It stated that the saint dwelt at Alexandria, and was the daghter f
a wealthy king. She was dignified in aearance and learned in Greek
letters, hilshy, and langage. After witnessing a festival f the
Greeks, she arached the emerr Maximians (A.D. 307) and blamed him
fr ignring the living Gd and adring lifeless idls. The emerr
smmned fifty learned men t meet her in argment, threatening them
with death if they failed t cnfnd her. Bt the learned men were
cnvinced by the lady and acceted batism, wheren they were t t
death. Aekatherina was beheaded.[228]
A detailed accnt f the martyrdm was written by Simen Metahrastes
( _c._ 956), with discssins between the learned men and the lady,
and with frther incidents inclding the cnversin f the general,
Prhyris; the interest which the Agsta tk in Katherine; the
fashining f siked wheels fr trtring the saint, which brke
f their wn accrd; the flw f milk instead f bld when she was
beheaded, a rf f her virginity; and the taking  f the bdy f
the saint after death by angels wh carried her t Mnt Sinai.[229]
On trning t the writers wh lived abt the time alleged, we find
that Emerr Maximians, as recrded by Esebis (_c._ 320), actally
visited Alexandria, where he seized high-brn wmen fr adlters
rses. Amng them was a mst distingished and illstris lady wh
vercame his intemerate and assinate sl. Hnrable n accnt f
wealth and arentage, she esteemed all things inferir t chastity, and
the emerr, wh cld nt bring himself t t her t death, nished
her with exile and cnfiscated her rerty.[230] Esebis did nt
mentin the ladys name, bt the details f his stry fit the legend
and may nderlie it.
The name Aekatherina (_i.e._ the re ne) was rendered in Latin as
Katherina r Catherina. Her assciatin with Sinai added the clt f a

Christian saint t that f Saleh, Mses and Mhammad. It was chiefly

the veneratin f St. Katherine which brght ilgrims t Sinai dring
the Middle Ages. Accrding t Gistiniani certain knights, as early
as 1063, banded tgether in a semi-religis rder t garantee safe
cndct t these ilgrims in Sinai, in the same way as the Knights f
the Hly Selchre rtected the ilgrims t Jersalem.[231] The date
mentined seems rather early and may need revisin.
A great imets was given t the clt f St. Katherine in Ere by the
visit t Ren f the hermit Simen abt the year 1026. His jrney
was described in an accnt by Eberwein, abbt f St. Martins at
Trves, wh knew him,[232] and in the _Translatin f the Relics f St.
Katherine t Ren_, which was written sn after the event.[233]
Frm these accnts we learn that Simen was frm Cnstantinle, and
went t Bethlehem and then t Sinai, where he served fr several years
in the cnvent befre he became a hermit near the Red Sea. Bt here he
was s mch distrbed by the sailrs and thers wh came fr the il (?
etrlem), that flwed frm the rck near his cell, that he remved
first t the smmit f Mnt Sinai, where the Law was given, a lace
deserted becase f the restless Arabs, and then t the cnvent itself.
It was the time f the great famine in Egyt, (rbably that f 1017),
bt in the cnvent there was lenty f fd fr the brethren and fr
the Arabs wh crwded there with their wives and children.
Frm the _Chrnicle_ f Hg f Flavigny (_c._ 1096) we learn that it
was cstmary fr the mnks at the cnvent t take trns in ascending
the mntain n the sabbath, in rder t celebrate mass at the shrine
f St. Katherine and cllect the il that flwed frm the bnes.[234]
This shws that the bdy f the saint at this time lay enshrined n
a mntain which was rbably the Gebel Msa itself. Fr an ancient
rayer cntains the wrds Lrd, wh didst give the Law t Mses n
the smmit f Mnt Sinai, and wh, n the same st, didst desit,
thrgh thy hly angels, the bdy f the blessed Katherine, virgin
and martyr.[235] At a later date we hear f bdies f saints lying
enshrined in the small chrch that std n the smmit f the Gebel
Msa. The fact that il flwed frm the bnes is tld f many saints.
Cntrary t the sally acceted belief, the scientific exlanatin is
rbably as fllws. The bdy lay in a cffin f cedar wd r ther
wd that is natrally charged with il. If the heat generated in the
cffin is great, it wld case the il t ze and cllect n the
bnes r any ther cld sbstance, frming int drs.
The mnk Simen was serving his trn at the shrine, and drawing ff the
il that had cllected int a glass hial, when three small (finger)
bnes f the saint came lse and were carried dwn with it. Simen
tk charge f them as a riceless treasre. As an envy was needed
t g t Nrmandy t cllect the sal alms, he started, carrying
the relics with him. He travelled by way f Egyt, bt the Italian
galley in which he sailed was seized by irates. He escaed by jming
verbard and eventally reached Antich, where he fell in with a band
f ilgrims, with whm he jrneyed t Nrmandy by way f Belgrad and
Rme. In the meantime, Dke Richard III, dke f Nrmandy (993-1026),
had died, bt an abbey was in crse f cnstrctin near Ren, and
Simen desited the relics with the abbt Isambert befre he left fr
Verdn and fr Trves. The relics wrked wnders. Isambert sffered
frm tthache and was divinely directed t the il which brght him
relief. Other miracls cres fllwed. And the Abbey f the Trinity
near Ren gained sch renwn that it came t be knwn as the Abbey f
St. Katherine.[236]

[Illstratin:
[_Pht: Exclsive News Agency._
Fig. 17.Chael n Gebel Msa.]
A wave f enthsiasm fr St. Katherine nw swet acrss Ere. Her
name was inscribed n the lcal Nrman Kalendar,[237] her stry was
written and re-written in Latin and in the vernaclar, in rse and in
verse. A Latin versin was the wrk f Amands, a il f Isambert f
Trves, and a semi-Saxn versin was written dring the reign f Henry
II. An early French versin f abt 1200 was erhas the wrk f a
nn. There were a hst f thers, many f which are in MS. and await
tablatin.[238] All accnts cnclde with the translatin f the bdy
t Sinai; the earlier nes dwell n the il, a cre fr all ills. And
the stry was nt nly read. In 1119 Geffry f Grham came frm Paris
t Dnstable and wrte a _Lds de Katerina_, which was erfrmed by
his schlars, n which ccasin the clthes that had been brrwed,
tk fire and were brnt.
Chrches and chaels were nw bilt and laced nder the rtectin f
the saint. In 1148 Qeen Matilda fnded the hsital and chrch f
St. Katherine near the Twer which cntined till 1825, when it was
destryed t make rm fr the dcks. In 1229 King Lis f France
bilt a chrch f St. Katherine in Paris, which had been vwed by his
knights at the Battle f Bvines. First the University f Paris, and
then the University f Pada, acceted St. Katherine as its atrn
saint, and in the year 1307 the Dge Pietr Gradenig fnded the
_Festa dei Dtti_ in Venice, in hnr f her. The nmers incidents
in her stry slied ictrial art with a new cycle f sbjects. The
scene f the martyrdm and translatin t Sinai were first reresented
n small ictres f a great anel ainted by Margaritne dArezz
(1216-93), which is nw in the Natinal Gallery.
In Sinai itself the imrtance f St. Katherine was mre tardily
recgnised. We lk in vain fr mentin f her in the accnt f the
_Annyms Pilgrim_ f the eleventh centry, and in the bklet _On the
Hly Places_, which Fretells, archdeacn f Antich, wrte fr the
Cnt f Tlse abt the year 1130. It is nt till the year 1216,
when Magister Thietmar visited Sinai that we hear f the exhibitin t
a ilgrim f the relics which had nw been translated frm the height
f the mntain t the cnvent chrch.

CHAPTER XIV
SINAI DURING THE CRUSADES
VARIOUS circmstances cmbined t raise the cnvent f Sinai t great
rserity dring the early Middle Ages. On the ne side it received
reglar cntribtins in mney frm Ere; n the ther it attracted
the attentin f the ilgrims wing t the increasing fame f St.
Katherine. Frther it secred the direct rtectin f the Mslim
rlers f Egyt wing t a develment in trade.
When the Arabs cnqered Egyt, the desire arse fr a direct

cmmnicatin by water t Arabia, and the fresh-water canal which

cnnected the Nile with the Red Sea was cleared. Crn was nw shied
n the Nile fr Djar, the rt f Medina, where gds cming frm India
and China were disembarked and re-shied fr Egyt. Bt wing t a
diste between the rler f Egyt and his ncle at Medina, in the year
775, the rt f Djar was clsed t the Egytians. The shis bearing
Eastern gds fr Egyt fr a time landed at Rman Clysma, near Sez,
which secred a new lease f life as Arabic Klzm. Bt Klzm like
Arsin, silted , while Sez as a rt was nt yet in being. On the
west cast f the eninsla f Sinai lay Raith, near which a landing
stage ffered the advantages f a natral harbr. Shis therefre
landed near Raith, called Raya by the Arabs, where the gds were
transferred t camel-back fr cnveyance t Cair and Alexandria.
The mnks f the cnvent f Sinai were in direct cnnectin with the
mnks at Raith, wh wned large alm grves, and dbtless cntrlled
the landing stage. Fr the lace which here grew  came t be knwn as
Tr, an Arabic wrd signifying height, which was first alied t the
cnvent f Sinai. Mkaddisi (_c._ 985) mentined Tr Sina and nted
that the Christians had a cnvent there, and sme well-cltivated
fields, and live trees f great excellence.[239] The Christians called
it Prta Santa Katerina r simly Santa Katerina (1383). The se f Tr
as a rt brght the Sltan f Egyt int relatin with the mnks, and
acted as a safegard t the cnvent.
In 1010 the Saracens bre dwn n the Chrch f the Hly Selchre
at Jersalem and destryed it. They then mved n t Sinai with the
intentin f destrying the cnvent als, bt they were warned ff by
seeing the mntain aglw with fire. The chrnicler, Ademar, stated
that when the rert f the rsed attack reached the Sltan, he and
his Saracens reented.[240] An attack n the rt f Aila may have
cased a frther deviatin f trade t Tr. Makrizi ( 1441) recrded
that Aila was illaged by Abd Allah ben Edirs ben Dgfair, gvernr f
El Krah, with the hel f the Ben el Garrah.[241] This t a st
t the transit f gds via Aila t Damascs, and the Eastern gds
fr Syria as well as thse fr Egyt were nw disembarked at Tr.
This change is reflected in the fact that Tr, smetime between 1020
and 1050 tk the lace f Klzm as a cstms statin, althgh it
remained fr sme time s r a lace that the aintment there was
cnsidered eqal t a disgrace.
The rle f the Mslim ntil nw had brght endless brdens and
ressin t the Christians in Egyt. The chrches had been rbbed,
the cnvents had been mlcted and their inmates had been disgraced
by the emir wh acted fr the Sltan. Bt a change nw tk lace.
Bnnis, a Benedictine mnk frm Blgne, came t Cair in 1025,
having btained an interview with the Sltan t reqest that the
Christian risners shld be set at liberty. Bnnis als visited
Sinai and Jersalem.[242] In 1045 the atriarch wh had hithert dwelt
at Alexandria, remved t Cair, and we nw hear, in the sarse annals
f the cnvent, f direct relatins between the mnks and the Sltan.
In the year 1069 Jhn the Athenian, bish f Sinai, was killed dring
his stay in Egyt nder circmstances that are nt recrded. He was
cannised at the cnvent. In the year 1103 the bish Zacharias was
mentined in a _firmn_ ( ) f Em Elmume, a tem
explaed as _mpeat fdelum_; pehaps t was Am Abu Masu
(1101-1130). The ext bshp, Gege, was als ecgsed by the ulta
 1133. Hs success at the cvet amed Gabel, wh was meted
 1146, was leaed  Aabc, ad wte sems as s shw by a

Aabc bk  the cvet. He was  tuch wth the ulta Kam
Impes Rhala, wh was pehaps Zaf Abu el Masu Ismael (1149-1151).
The ext pelate was Jh, whse date s fxed at 1164 by a Aabc
lette whch he addessed t the mks at Rathu. The ext bshp was
me.[243]
[Illustat: Fg. 18.El Ash. (_Tmes Hsty f the Wa._)]
Of the elgus lfe f the ctes alg the Medteaea cast
lttle s kw at ths ped. The last bshp f Ostace kw by
ame was Abaham, f the yea 431. At Rhcua called El Ash by
the Mslm, late bshps wee Ptlemus ad Gegus. Leue made
the mstake f detfyg Rhcua wth Fama, ad meted the
Jacbte pelates f Fama as pelates f Rhcua. Fama, famus
f ts palm gves, was ea the us f the acet Pelusum.
El Ash ctued a mptat cty ude Mslm ule, but ts
achtectual featues wee t espected. Abu aleh, the Amea, wh
wte a accut f the chuches ad mastees f Egypt abut the
yea 1071, meted El Ash  Rhcua. I ths eg thee
ae tw lage chuches whch have std fm acet tmes ad ae w
 us, but the walls ema up t u tme; ad the wall f the
cty whch a alg the sde f the alt ea, s stll exstg. It s
sad that f all the mable ad clums whch ae t be fud at Ms
(_.e._ Ca) the geate pat ad the lagest specmes came fm El
Ash.[244] (Fg. 18.)
The cect f the mks ad the ulta attacted the attet
f Aab wtes t the cvet. Edz (_c._ 1153), Ib Zbe (_c_.
1183), meted ts exstece  geeal tems. Bejam f Tudela,
the Jewsh abb wh acted f a tme as vze t Add ( 1171), the
last f the Fatmte ules, held that t was ccuped by ya mks,
wh wee subject t the ulta. He als emaked that at the ft f
the muta lay Tu a, a lage tw, the habtats f whch spke
the laguage f the Tagum (_.e._ yac). It was clse t a small
muta ad fve days juey fm Egypt.[245]
The tade va Tu atually bught the mks t ctact wth the
Futhe East. Fetellus f Atch (_c._ 1130) declaed that the mks
f a, fm the cfes f Ethpa t the utmst buds f the
Pesas, wee veeated  evey tgue, pssessg the ppety
feely ad uetly amg themselves. They had cells thughut Egypt
ad Pesa, aud the Red ea ad Aaba, fm whch all they eued
flwed mst lbeally.[246] I addt t ths, gats wee made t
them by the Cusades  the lads whch they cueed.
The Ppe, fm the fst, had favued the Cusades as a meas f
extedg the fluece f Lat Chstaty. Whe Jeusalem was
cueed  1099, the Geek patach happeed t be abset. He
was passed ve ad a Lat patach was appted  hs stead.
The authty f ths pelate was exteded wth the advace f the
Cusades. Gdfey was pclamed kg f Jeusalem  1099. He was
succeeded by Baldw, wh,  1115, made a expedt t Mut Oeb,
cmmly called Oel, _.e._ Mut H ea Peta, the peset Gebel
Hau. tatg fm hee, Baldw vecame the deset places ad
vast sltudes by cveyg a uatty f fd  mules, ad eached
Ala, whch he fud deseted, ad f whch he tk pssess.
Hee he head f the mks, wh dwelt  a, ad seved Gd, ad
he desed t g t them acss the muta  de t pay. But
he was peveted by a message fm the mks wh feaed that the
Mslm maste mght be ayed by the kgs vst, s he gave up

the dea.[247] He tued back, ad  hs way t ya he cueed

Peta, ea whch he eected the ftess f Meale. He the mved
alg the shes f the Medteaea as fa as Fama, whee he ded 
1117. Accdg t Makz he but dw the msue ad peshed  ts
flames. Rge f cly  1155 cmpleted the wk f destuct by a
descet  Fama, whch he set  fe ad pllaged.
Whe Baldw, dsappted f hs vst t a, sezed Peta,
ths became a Lat bshpc, ad the Lat patach f Jeusalem
evetually had ude hm fu bshps, f Tye, Csaea, Nazaeth,
ad Peta.[248] The ame f the Lat bshp f Peta s t
peseved.[249] Accdg t Jacues f ty ( 1244) the bshp
f Peta had e suffaga, _.e._ the bshp f a, supe
t the cvet f t. Kathee the g, ad the mks f that
cvet.[250] I a tself  ecd f a Lat pelate was
peseved. But egulates  the success suggest that the Lat
bshp f a was me, wh advcated the cause f the mks wth
the Ppe.
O the the sde f the pesula, the apppat f Ala by the
Cusades called f tefeece. aladd,  1170, had a fleet
bult, wth whch he saled aud the pesula, ad attacked ad
etk Ala. But the etepsg Reaud de Chatll (the Alas f
Makz) cllected mateal f shps  the Dead ea, cveyed them t
the Gulf f Akaba  camel-back, ad sezed Ala fm whee he pllaged
the cast, ad made patcal descets  the shppg f ve a yea.
The small slad, Itabe, late Emag, the peset Zget el Faau,
les at a sht dstace fm Ala. It has  habu, but s almst
etely bult ve by a castle wth suaed twes  the medval
style. The wk was pbably begu  Rma tmes, but was added t by
Reaud de Chatll. But  1184 Melek el Adel (Abu Bak, 1199-1218),
the bthe f aladd (1171-1193), came wth a fleet t Ala ad
attacked ad fally uted the Faks. Advacg acss the cuty he
e-cueed Peta, whch hecefth emaed ude Mslm ule.
I the meatme the mks wee pftg by the gd gaces f
eghbug pelates. I 1203 the achbshp f Cete, descbed as
a lve f t. Kathee, the g, bestwed  the mks f a
ppety  Cete whch epeseted a aual cme f fu huded
ducats,[251] wheeup me, bshp f a wet t Cete, whee
he bult a py (). I 1204 the eetas acued the whle
slad f Cete by puchase fm Bface, maus f Mtfeat, ad
me wet t ece whee lsses cued by the mks, wee made
gd t hm.[252] A lette s extat f the Dge Pet Za f 1211,
 whch he cfmed the ule f Mut a  the pssesss whch
he held  Cete. It descbes the ule as achbshp, whch seems
t be the ealest use f ths ttle. Cete emaed  the pwe f
the cty f ece tll 1645, ad lettes ae extat fm successve
dges whch cfm the ghts held by the mks  the slad.[253]
Fm ece me pbably wet t Rme, whee a geeal syd was
cveed by Ppe Icet III (1198-1216)  1211. Its pupse was t
dscuss the state f the Hly Lad, whee the s f the bdswma
(_.e._ Haga), the mst detestable Agaees, hld u Mthe f
all the fathful  bdage.[254] A sem  Aabc, wtte by
me, bshp f a, s amg the M. f the atca.[255] I
the _Regesta_ f Ppe Hus III (1216-27) we cme acss epeated
met f me, bshp f a. A gat f 1217 gave the ptect
f t. Pete t the Mastey f the g at the ft f the muta
ad t ts pssesss; athe cfmed the bshp f a ad hs

chapte  thse pssesss whch they held at the tme f the geat
syd (f 1211)  had acued sce; thes advsed the bshp f
Cete t espect the mks ad hld them exempt fm payg tthes
 the ppety whch they held  Cete.[256] I the yea 1226 Ppe
Hus gated a bull t me ad the mks f a, f the de
f t. Basl. It s dffcult t pcue the text; ts wdg was
pbably much the same as that f a bull gated  cfmat f
t by Ppe Gegy IX (1221-41), f whch a cpy was peseved at the
cvet. Ths bull eumeated the pssesss whch the cvet held 
thse cutes ve whch the Ppe clamed authty by vtue f the
cuests made by the Cusades.
[Illustat:
[_Pht: Exclusve News Agecy._
Fg. 19.Zget el Faau.]
The bull[257] fst amed Rbe, Fuca, Luach, places that have t
bee detfed. Met was the made f Rayt (_.e._ Rathu),
wth ts palm gves ad ppety; f huses ad ppety ea the
cty f Egypt (_.e._ Ca); lad  the Red ea; ppety ad palm
gves  Faa; ghts (_bedeta_)  the chuch f t. Mchael 
Alexada, ad lbety f tast by lad ad wate; veyads ad
lve gves  the valley f Mses (_.e._ ea Peta);  Meale,
huses, a mll, veyads ad lve gves; ppety  Cce (t
detfed);  Jeusalem, ghts  the chuch f t. Mchael, huses
ad a bakehuse;  Jaffa, huses ad lad; ea Ace, huses ad
the chuch f t. Kathee;  Ladchea (ea the suces f the
Otes), the hsptal f t. Demets ad a huse;  Damascus,
the chuch f t. Gege, huses ad ppety; at Odavesa (t
detfed), huses, lad ad veyads; ea Atch, a huse ad a
bakehuse; ea Cstatple, ghts  the chuch f t. Gege f
Magaa;  Cete, extesve ppety, cludg seveal chuches wth
lad petag theet, seveal mlls, veyads, etc.;  the slad
f Cypus, huses, veyads, wds, ghts f pastue ad f tadg.

me, wh secued the Papal ecgt t these ghts, was bshp
f a fm 1203 t 1253, accdg t Gegades. But the lst f
bshps whch was cmpled at the cvet by Nectaus amed Euthymus
 1223; Macaus (I)  1224; Gemaus  1228; Thedsus  1239;
ad Macaus (II)  1248, wh was amed als  a acet Aabc
M.[258] I the yea 1258 the ule was aga me. me wtes hld
that ths was the same me wh wet t Eupe, ad pssbly he was
the suffaga f the Cathlc bshp f Peta. The statemets egadg
hm ae dffcult t eccle. Accdg t Gegades, the mks f
a, wg t the lbealty f the Cusades, wed ppety als 
Tpl ad Gaza, ad the pduce f these places ad that f Damascus
was s pletful as almst t supply the ete eeds.
I the yea 1216 a tuce was ccluded betwee the ulta f Egypt ad
the Chstas, whch ested feedm f mvemet t the plgms.
Magste Thetma,[259] wh was  the Hly Lad, avaled hmself f
t t cay ut hs fevet wsh t vst the bdy f the blessed
t. Kathee whch exuded the saced l (c. 8). I de t d s
wth mputy he adpted the appeaace f a Gega mk (c. 28),
ad jueyed by way f Mut Abam, whee Mses ded, Mut Neb,
Mut Phasga (Psgah) ad Mut Phag  the lad f the Mabtes ad
Mda. By way f Rba he eached Cach ad Peta,  Gallc Meal,
 aacec cbach, whee thee was a geat ftess that belged

t the ulta f Babyl, ad whee Chstas ad aaces dwelt 

the sububs. Hee a Gallc wdw gave hm advce ad pvded hm wth
fd, ad the Bdws (Bedawy) udetk t take hm t Mut a
alg a ad that was kw t e but themselves ad t bg hm
back dead  alve. Leavg Kadesh Baea  the ght, he cssed the
deset f Phaa, ad eached the Red ea ad a ft (Ala), whee
captve Faks, Eglsh ad Lats lved  fshg (c. 17). Thee days
late he eached Mut a, whch the aaces called Tu . He
was much mpessed by the chuch f the g whch was espledet
wth mable, ad fed wth lead, ad ctaed may hagg lamps.
The mks wee Geeks ad yas, ad the fd cluded fsh whch
was bught fm the Red ea ad may thgs fm Babyl (Ca). The
gal Bush f Mses beg  lge  exstece, a glde bush
(_aueus ubus_), hug wth glde mages f the Ld ad f Mses, had
take ts place. mall stes, egaved wth a bush, wee cut  dug up
(_effdatu_) whch seved agast all fmtes. Whe the ulta
(pbably Melek el Adel, 1199-1218) came thee, he tk ff hs shes
befe eteg the chapel (c. 20).
I the cvet chuch std the tmb f t. Kathee, a small chest f
whte mable. The bshp, heag f the aval f Thetma ad hs
wsh t see the elcs, appached the chest wth paye ad cese,
ad had the cve emved. Thetma saw the elcs f t. Kathee ad
kssed he baed head. The lmbs stll hug tgethe ad wee steeped
 l, whch exuded fm the bes, t fm the sacphagus, lke
dps f sweat.
Whe I ued abut he taslat fm the muta t the
chuch, wte Thetma, I was tld that a ceta hemt wh dwelt
 athe pat f Mut a fm that  whch the bdy f t.
Kathee was lad by the agels, feuetly saw, by day ad by
ght, a lght f geat bghtess   ea the place whee the
bdy lay. Wdeg what t was, he wet t the chuch at the ft
f the muta, ad descbed the sght that he saw ad the place
whee he saw t. The mks, afte fastg, asceded the muta,
 a pcess that was led by hm. Whe they fud the bdy, they
geatly wdeed whse t was, whece t had cme, ad hw t was take
thee. As they std thee wdeg, a aged hemt fm Alexada
declaed, lke Habakkuk the pphet wh spke t Dael, that the bdy
had bee bught t a by the gace f Gd, ad he assued thse wh
dubted, that t was the bdy f the blessed Kathee, ad had bee
caed thee by agels. At hs stgat, the bshp ad the mks
taslated the bdy t the chuch because the place whee t lay was
ute accessble (c. 19).
Thetma the asked t be take t the heght  Mut a, whee
Mses eceved the Law, ad  hs way ththe he saw the chapel
whee the g met the mks wh,  accut f the lack f fd,
ad the vemus cdt f the cvet, wee abut t leave,
but she bade them tu back (c. 22). He als saw the spt whee the
g pmsed the mks a pletful supply f l f the lamps;
lkewse the chapel f Eljah  Heb; the mpt  the ck f
the bdy f Mses; ad the place whee the bdy f t. Kathee was
lad by the agels (c. 23). Befe leavg the cvet he eceved
sme f the pecus l (c. 27). Hs hme ad the place t whch he
wet ae ukw. A accut f the Mslm fath whch he added t hs
aatve, eflects a lbeal spt, ad, take tgethe wth hs
Latty, dcates a ma f leag ad udestadg.
The call f Ppe Icet III,  1211, sted up aew the spt

f the Cusades, but effts wee w dected,  the fst place,
agast the ulta  Egypt. Dametta, whch lay  the Tatc muth
f the Nle, whee the Mslm had a ft, was the scee f may
stuggles. Fm Jauay, 1218, t Nvembe, 1219, t was ccuped by
the Faks. I the meatme, the empe Fedeck vaded Paleste
 hs w accut, ad  1229 secued a tuce by whch the Chsta
plgms wee ce me eabled t tavel t Jeusalem. The advatages
whch he eceved wee ffeted, hweve, wg t uaels amg
the Chstas themselves. The ulta mached  Gaza  1244,
ad attacked Jeusalem, whch was fally lst t the Chstas.
It was  va that the Fech kg Lus IX,  1249, ccuped
Dametta ad pllaged Ostace, whch altgethe dsappeaed. But
Lus was take pse ad the estat f Dametta was pat f
hs asm. Chages amg the Mslm ules hued  evets. The
Mgls, pessg  fm the East, vethew the Calph f Baghdad
ad destyed the ya kgdm. A descedat f the tue Pphet
was establshed  the the f Egypt as a mal ule, whle
the geeal, Bbas ( 1277), wth the ttle f ulta, exteded
hs authty ve the geate pat f Aaba ad ya. Bbas
successfully led the campag agast the Cusades. Atch fell 
1268, Tpl  1289, Ace  1291. By these lsses the spt f the
Cusades was bke.
Of the bshps f a dug ths ped, lttle s kw. I
success t me (I  II), Jh III uled fm 1265 t 1290, ad
was fllwed by Asus, wh was a bk lve. eveal bks  Geek
whch ae w  the cvet lbay wee wtte at hs stgat,
ad e f them was wed by hm.[260] The ext bshp was me (II
 III), wh uled fm 1306 t 1324, ad was fllwed by Dtheus
(1324-1333), wh secued a _fm_ fm the ulta,[261] ad a bull
fm Ppe Jh XXII, wh was at Avg at the tme. I ths bull,
dated 1328, the ppe called up Hugh, kg f Cypus, t espect the
ghts whch fme kgs f Cypus had gated t the mks f a.
He als ecgsed the ght f bual  the chuch f t. me at
Famagusta  Cypus, ad gated e yeas dulgece t plgms wh
vsted the she f t. Kathee  Mut a.
It was pesumably Bshp Dtheus wh eceved Duke Hey II f
Buswck  a  1330, wh came beag a lette fm the Geek
empe t hs dea elatves, the Geek pelates. Accdg t the
Gema ecd, the achbshp f a eceved the duke  pes,
ad bestwed  hm, amg the elcs, a th fm the cw f
Chst, whch he had hmself eceved fm the kg f Face t whm
he was set as evy. Duke Hey eceved als l, ad pehaps a be,
fm the she f t. Kathee, whch, tgethe wth the th, he
depsted  the chuch f the mastey f Walkeed afte hs etu
t Gemay.[262]
The ule  success t Dtheus was Gemaus III, ad he was
fllwed by Macus wh s amed  a Aabc M., ad wet t Rme 
1376 t cllect alms f hs cvet. It was pbably wg t hs
fluece that a bull had bee gated t the mks by Ppe Icet I
 1360.[263]
Late bshps cluded Jb, whse ame appeas  a scpt 
the cvet chuch, ad the fllwg, wh wee amed  a Aabc M.
wthut ecd f the date: Athaasus (I); abbas; Abaham; Gabel
(II); Mchael; lvaus; Cyllus. Met s als made f e lm,
whse ame s t thewse ecded.

CHAPTER X
THE PILGRIM OF THE MIDDLE AGE I.
A KEEN teest  the Nea East was aused  Eupe by the Cusades.
At the cclus tavelles f evey kd, me especally plgms
ad mechats, stated f Paleste ad a, eage t vst the
hly places, ad t see sme f the mavels f whch the Cusades
had bught back accuts t the hmes. The mvemet was f a tme
hdeed by the dffcultes whch wee ased by the ulta, wh
suspected a futhe allace betwee the Faks ad the Tatas. But
the pces f Eupe tefeed  behalf f the plgms, ad ulta
Melk el Nas, wh uled wth sme teupts fm 1293 t 1341,
was a ma f wde utlk, wh eteed t dplmatc elats wth
the Ppe, the kg f Aag, ad the kg f Face. He dd hs utmst
t ptect the plgms. Cwds f them w stated f the Hly Lad,
a ceta umbe extedg the vyage t the she f t. Kathee
 a, a vst t whch fmed pat f the s-called Lg Plgmage.
The flw f plgms was atually flueced by the scal ad
pltcal evets f the day. Of thse wh tk the Lg Plgmage,
sx,[264] betwee the yeas 1331 ad 1346, wte a accut f the
juey, ad made met f a. Afte ths thee was a beak, 
dubt attbutable t the Black Death whch swept acss Eupe 
1348-49, ad t the wa whch Pete, kg f Cypus, waged  Egypt,
whch led t the sack f Alexada  1365. Twads the clse f
the cetuy plgms aga became umeus, ad sx futhe accuts
betwee the yeas 1384 ad 1397 descbe a vst t t. Kathee.[265]
Aga, dug the fst half f the ffteeth cetuy vsts t t.
Kathee wee elatvely few, wheeas lage pates f plgms sught
the cvet betwee 1460 ad 1497, seveal membes f the same paty
smetmes wtg a descpt f the juey.
The plgms, f the mst pat, saled fm a pt  Italy, me
especally fm Gea  ece,  galleys, whch wee tmed t meet
the caavas whch bught the pduce f the East t Alexada
ad Jaffa. Fm Alexada they wet t Babyl (Ca), whee they
pcued a _fm_ fm the ulta whch establshed the peaceful
tets  the eyes f the Bedawy (Baldesel, p. 343; Fescbald,
1384, p. 99, etc.). O they wet t Jaffa ad Jeusalem whee thse
wh wshed t exted the plgmage t a pceeded  mule-back
t Gaza, whee camels wee chateed f cssg the deset. Tavel
was facltated at the tme by the pemaet fthld whch the
Facscas, fllwg  the wake f t. Facs hmself (1226), had
secued at Jeusalem ad at Gaza, ad by the establshmet,  vaus
ctes, f csuls whse chef duty t was t befed ad ptect the
plgms. The ctes f Flece, ece, Gea, ad the Catalas each
had a csul  Alexada  1384 (Fescbald, p. 72). ece had a
csul  Jaffa  1413, ad e  Jeusalem  1415.[266] Thee was
a huse  hstel set apat f the use f plgms  Ca  1384
(gl, p. 16), whee fd was gve t p plgms wh wee 
the way t t. Kathee (Mate, p. 596).
Amg the eale accuts was that f the fa Atus f Cema,
wh set ut fm Ca t a wth seve Lat plgms  1331,
gg  t Jeusalem by way f Gaza. The wsh t vst the she f

t. Kathee was aused  hm by patgs, epesetg he sty,

whch wee a gft t hs cty by a mechat f Paceza (p. 170).
Aga, thee was the Itala tay, Jacp f ea, wh, afte a
stay  the Hly Lad  1335, pceeded t Gaza, whch he left 
August 28, avg at the cvet  eptembe 10. Jacp meted as
stppg places betwee Gaza ad the cvet, Ncale (Kalaat e Nakhl)
 u laguage called Phufu (? ba), ad Clebmale. At Ncale
at the Futa f the ulta (_Puteus lda_) he met ve twelve
thusad plgms wth sx thusad camels, wh wee  the way back
fm Mecca, ad wh mved  bads accdg t the cutes t whch
they belged, a aagemet whch geatly mpessed Jacp (p. 228).
At the _Puteus lda_ the egeu dAglue wh was  hs way
fm Gaza t the cvet  Octbe f 1395, met te thusad Mslm
plgms (p. 45).
Athe plgm, Wlhelm de Baldesel,  the summe f 1336, de 
hseback fm Ca t the cvet  te days, much t the supse
f the mks. Fm hee he wet  t Jeusalem (p. 344). Aga, Ludlf
f udhem, dug the thtee yeas whch he spet tavellg  the
East vsted the cvet sme tme betwee 1336 ad 1341, ad  Jh
Maudevlle was thee sme tme  the cuse f hs twety-fve yeas
f tavel. These plgms, lke Thetma,  1216 fud the elcs f
t. Kathee eshed  a mable chest  sacphagus whch std 
the cvet chuch, ad wee allwed t see them afte they had bee
the usual ud f the sghts (Ludlf, p. 840).
The elcs f t. Kathee cssted f the head ad sme f the
lmbs. Jacp stated that, besdes these, the mks had bes sted
away  athe chest  _aca_ (p. 230). Maudevlle wtes he saw
the head f t. Kathee lled  a bleedg clth, ad may the
hly ad veeable elcs, whch I lked at caefully ad fte wth
uwthy eyes (p. 60). Wlhelm de Baldesel fst ted a slve scp
 sp whch was used f takg up the dps f l whch exuded
t fm the sacphagus, but fm the bes (p. 344), ad whch was
gve  small glass phals t the plgms (Jacp, p. 230). Ths use
f a scp shws that the l flwed less pletfully tha at the tme
whe the chest that ctaed the bes std  the heght, whee t
was daw ff by me.
The vew was w held that the bdy f the sat was gally lad
by the agels, t  the Mut f the Law, but  the Mut f t.
Kathee, as we lea fm Atus. Hee the mpess made by the
bdy  the ste was shw, whch duced the plgms t make the
ascet f the Gebel Kat. The mpess f the bdy was see als by
Rudlf v Faymaspeg, wh vsted a  1346 (p. 359), by me
gl  1384 (p. 84), ad by thes. Accdg t dffeet accuts,
the bdy lay expsed  the heght tw  thee  fu  fve huded
yeas befe t was bught t the cvet.
Othe legeds ae elated by the plgms. Atus stated that
abut a huded aves wee fed evey day at the cvet ktche 
memy f Eljah, wh was fed by aves (p. 167).  Jh Maudevlle
mpved  ths statemet by elatg that all aves, chughs ad
cws f the dstct flew ce a yea  plgmage t the cvet
beag a bach f bay  lve (p. 59). I cect wth these
legeds, bth the sty f Eljah, ad the aves that flcked t the
cvet, t s well t bea  md that the wds f ave ad Aab
sud alke  Aabc.
May hagg lamps wee w kept bug  the cvet chuch, the

umbe f whch Jacp estmated as thee huded.  Jh held that
they dcated the pesece f as may mks, ad he added that whe
the pelate f the abbey ded, hs lamp wet ut ad lt aga f ts
w accd, f hs success wee wthy (p. 60).
O the Mut f the Law std the small chuch whch at e tme
ctaed the elcs f t. Kathee, ad whch ctued t cta
bdes f sats as late as 1384. Nea t was the cave  whch Mses
std whe the Ld passed (gl, p. 82; Maudevlle, p. 62). Beyd
t was the small msue whch the aaces sught  plgmage, ad
whch t Atus was a dl f abmat (p. 168).
[Illustat: Fg. 20.ketch f cvet suudgs abut 1335.]
The elatve pst f these buldgs ad stes s shw  the
tpgaphcal sketch made by Jacp, whch s hee epduced (Fg.
20). O t we te the cvet chuch wth ts twe, ad we ae tld
that sde the cvet walls thee std lkewse a msue wth a
twe f ts w, fm whch the _cazes_,  pest f the aaces,
pclamed the Mhammeda fath, a pceedg t whch the _kalge_
 mks culd ase  bject, sce they wee ude the dm
f the ulta wh wuld have t s (_c._ 1335, p. 321). Ths msue
f the _maladetta fede_ was tced als by the paty f dstgushed
Italas wh came t a fm Ca  1384. These cluded Lead
de Nccl Fescbald fm Flece, me gl fm ece, ad a
ceta Gg d Messe Gucc d D, each f whm was atteded by
hs sevg ma.
The sketch f Jacp futhe shws the path leadg up fm the cvet
t the Mut f the Law whee the law was gve t Mses, wth the
chapel whee the Blessed May appeaed; the chuch f t. Eljah; ad
the msue f the aaces. Thee s als a gade wth a futa, ad
a zgzag path leadg up t a hghe muta whee lay the bdy f
the Blessed Kathee. Fm the summt f ths muta Jacp saw the
Red ea, ad watched the shps that caed peppe, gge, cam,
ad the spcey fm Ida. He als wet the tw days juey t
Tu, whch he called Elm, whee he bathed  the Red ea. Hee he saw
the place whee the Isaeltes came ut f the wate, ad emas f
the Phaah, appaetly bes, lyg  the sea she. I the belef
that ths was Elm f the Bble, he tced that thee wee hee, t
sevety palm tees as stated, but te thusad date palms, the pduce
f whch the mks sld at a hgh pce at Ca (p. 237). Fm a
Aabc suce we hea that specal attet was gve t Tu  the
yea 1378, by alah ed D Ib Guam, gad vze f Egypt.[267]
The umbe f plgms fm Eupe wh vsted a s dffcult t
estmate. The gude wh was egaged t cduct the Italas fm Ca
t the cvet  1384, had take plgms alg ths ute sevety-sx
tmes (gl, p. 15). The kghts wh wshed t be elled as Kghts
f the Ode f t. Kathee, hug up the ams  the cvet chuch
(Tafu: _dexe ms ams_), ad eceved a badge whch shwed a bke
wheel that was peced by a swd. me plgms ted the ames ad
scutches f eale es, whch, tgethe wth cats f ams, wee
scatched  the wall spaces.
The zeal f the plgms was espsble f futhe develpmets 
the sty f t. Kathee. Ludlf f udhem  1341 sught the spt
utsde Alexada whee the sat was beheaded (p. 827); the Italas
f 1384 detfed the ps  whch she was cfed, the clums
 whch wee placed the spked wheels that bke f the w accd,

ad he dwellg place whee w stads the palace f the lamelech,
_.e._ the em f the ulta (gl, p. 90; Fescbald, p. 82).
The clums whch wee f ed pphyy wee tced als by Thmas f
wybue, a Eglshma ad may f Bdeaux at the tme, wh pad
a hued vst t Egypt ad a  1392, f whch hs cmpa,
Bggs, wte a sht accut.
Ad me tha ths. The ldest accut f Kathee clamed f he
yal descet. The _peculum_ f cet f Beauvas (_c._ 1190-1264)
gave he fathes ame as Cstus. Athe le f tadt called
hm Cstatus ad made hm t a kg f Cypus, whee the mks
f a had pssesss  the yea 1216. A chapel dedcated t t.
Kathee stuated ea alama  Cstata  Cypus, was vsted
by Ludlf  1341 (p. 826). I the yea 1394 Nccl de Mate, the
Itala tay fm Cala, whse dese t each the dm
f the blessed g  a tk hm t the East, wet fm
Famagusta  Cypus t Cstata, whch  hs estmat was bult
by Cstatus, the fathe f t. Kathee. Hee he saw the palace
ad the chambe, w  us, whee t. Kathee dwelt, ad ea
t he chapel, whch may pess sught  plgmage (p. 632). Fm
Famagusta he vsted a slad t whch t. Kathee wet at the
suggest f he mthe,  de t csult a hemt egadg he
maage. Hs advce was that she shuld wed Chst, ad  the ght
a agel appeaed, wh gave he a g (p. 633). Ths s the fst we
hea f the mystc maage f t. Kathee, whch hecefth fmed
a cdet  he leged ad was futhe develped. The _Hsty f
t. Kathee_, whch was wtte by the Augusta mk Capgave
abut the yea 1430, descbed hw a hemt amed Ada was set t
Alexada by the Quee f Heave. He tk the mad t the deset
whee Chst appeaed t he  a deam ad gave he a g.[268] Ths
cdet des t appea  the sty f t. Kathee as tld  the
_Legeda Auea_ f Jacp f age, whch was wtte abut the
yea 1255. But the Eglsh ves f the _Glde Leged_, whch was
pted by the Caxt Pess abut the yea 1483, descbed the gft f
a actual g, futhe develpg the sty. F accdg t ths
accut Cstus, kg f Cypus ad the fathe f the sat, was the
s f Cstatus, kg f Amea, whse secd wfe was Helea,
the daughte f Kg Cle f Bta, ad the mthe f the empe
Cstate. Thus t. Kathee was lked up wth the kgs f Bta
 the e sde, ad wth the empes f Rme  the the!
I the cvet f a  attet was gve t these develpmets,
ad the _Lfe f t. Kathee_ that was ead  the cvet cfed
tself t the facts elated by me Metaphastes.
The cvet eached the hgh-wate mak f ts pspety dug
the futeeth cetuy. It dew a lage cme fm ts utlyg
pssesss, t eceved gfts fm the ulta ad fm the plgms,
t leved tbute  the gds that wee ushpped at Tu. The bass f
ths aagemet s t dectly stated, but the wte Plt, abut
the yea 1440, declaed that the tax leved  the gds at Tu was 10
pe cet. f the value,[269] ad the Rtte v Haff, abut the yea
1497, held that the mks wet shaes wth the ulta  the pft
made  the gds.[270]
The Italas wh vsted the cvet  1384 fud tw huded mks 
esdece, f whm e huded ad ffty seved the cvet chapels,
ad ffty the chapels  the Mut f the Law. Thee wee besdes a
vey lage umbe f Mslm, wh dwelt sde the cvet peccts
(Fescbald, p. 121).

Fd was cked  the cvet ktche evey day f fu huded
pess,  huge caulds that came fm ece, ad wee cveyed
acss the deset  camel-back (Fescbald, p. 167). Lagess was
dstbuted daly t a thusad Aabs f the deset (_Ibd._, p. 121).
I the yea 1393 the mks ad the depedets wee tw huded ad
eghty  umbe, ad tw laves wee gve daly t each plgm ad
t evey Aab ad mae, f whm lage cwds appled f fd at the
cvet (Mate, p. 608).

me f the plgms supply fmat  the aaces  Bedawy,

wh all thugh shwed a depedet spt. Dug the whle f
the Mameluk dyasty (1250-1517), they wee cmplete mastes f uez.
Wlhelm de Baldesel, callg them Rdelbm, stated that they lved
 the camels ad gats, ethe swg  eapg, ad eatg
such bead as they pcued  ya ad Egypt. They wee bw,
fleet-fted, ad caed a sheld ad a spea, de  camels, wapped
themselves  le, ad ackwledged the authty f the ulta,
wh, hweve, gave them pesets sce they culd easly expel hm ad
ccupy ya ad Egypt (p. 345). Atus  1331 als emaked that
the Aabs had  fea f the ulta (p. 165), ad Ludlf held that the
ulta lavshed  them gfts ad flattey, sce they culd easly
subjugate hs tety (p. 89).
The atttude f these Bedawy  mattes f elg was peplexg t
the Eupeas, wh bega wth lkg up Mhammad the Pphet as the
caat f all wckedess, ad the ealsed that hs fllwes
had a stadad f dgty ad hsptalty whch wee by  meas
despcable. Ludlf,  1341, ted that the aaces dd hmage t t.
Kathee (p. 66), ad Fescbald emaked that the aaces held the
mutas f a  veeat. Ad be t kw, he ctued,
that the aaces eveece the g May, t. Jh the Baptst, t.
Kathee, ad all the patachs f the Old Testamet ad hld that
Chst was the geat pphet pevus t Mhammad; als that Chst was
t b f the flesh, but that the Dve Fathe, thugh the lps f
a agel, set the Dve Wd, ad that  may ways they appxmate
u fath (pp. 91, 101).
A Eglsh pem f abut the yea 1425 s extat, whch descbes the
chef stes f plgmage at the tme. They cluded the she f t.
James f Cmpstella  pa, the cty f Rme, Jeusalem, ad Mut
a. The pem s abut 1500 les lg, f whch abut thty deal
wth Mut a, ad ae as fllws (the spellg s mdesed):
I that mut up hgh
Is a mste f u Lady:
The mste f the Bush, me call t,
Whee the bdy f t. Kathee was put.
Als behd the hgh alta
Is whee Jesus dd appea
I that chuch t Mses,
Whe he kept Jeth f Mdas sheep tuly.
I the mdst f that hll s a place
Whee dd peace the pphet Eljah;
O the heght f that hll, by Cleks saws,
Gd gave t Mses bth the Laws
Wtte  tables, wthut mss.
Pleay emss the t s.
A gade thee s at  dstace
Whee Ous (_.e._ Ophus) dd hs peace.

Athe hll als s thee,

T whch agels dd bea
The blessed bdy f t. Kathee,
he was a hly vg.
Ude that hll tust thu me,
Thee ueth the Red ea.
At each f these places, that I tld,
Is II yeas, ad II letez,[271] be thu bld.
Thus fm a wuld I skp
Ad tell f the plgmage f Egypt; etc.[272]

CHAPTER XI
THE PILGRIM OF THE MIDDLE AGE II.
THE wa f etalat, whch the ulta waged agast the kg f
Cypus, teupted the flw f plgms t the East  the fst
half f the ffteeth cetuy. Meve, the sultas, me especally
Busba (1423-38), bega t sueeze the Chsta mechats. The
gevaces ased the e f Emmauel Plt, a atve f Cete, wh
spet twety-fve yeas  Egypt ad ya, ad acued csdeable
sght t affas geeally. He was mved t cmpse a mssve whch
he addessed t Ppe Eugeus I (1431-47). I ths he spke f the
achevemets f the Cusades, sstg that Mhammad had called f
tleat f the Chstas, a call that was dsegaded by ulta
Busba, wh ppessed them gevusly. The esuces f the ulta
wee emus. He uled fm Mecca t Ida, ad had full ctl f
the spcey that was ushpped at Te, as the pt f t. Kathee
s w called. He leved 10 pe cet.  the value f these gds, t
ce, but seveal tmes ve, as they passed thugh hs dms.
Why, asked Plt, dd t the head f all Chstedm ase  defece
f the Chstas, sally fth lke the Cusades, cue Ca, ad
supplat the ultaate? I dg s, he wuld have the suppt f the
Aabs f the deset.
The Chuch f Rme, hweve, was bet  ppagada alg me peaceful
les. Afte the Cusades the Facscas, statg fm Jeusalem,
peetated t Tatay ad Cha. The pla was w fmed f secug
a fthld  a as a steppg-ste  the way t Ida. Wth ths
ed  vew Ppe Calxtus III (1455-58) addessed a lette t the
Facscas ugg that they shuld secue futhe stes, cludg e
 Mut a (ccedmus ut va lca etam  Mte a capee
pssts).[273] The dect steps that wee take ae t kw, but 
the cuse f the ffteeth cetuy we hea f Facscas, ppulaly
kw as Casss, mvg t ad f betwee Gaza whee they had a huse,
ad the cvet, whee at fst a m ad late a chapel was eseved
f the celebat f a Rma Cathlc sevce.
The dese t peetate t Ida ad beyd was vey geeal. Thus,
Pe Tafu, a Castla blema, aved at the cvet  the yea
1435  hs way t Tu, whee he hped t embak f Ida. But at Tu
he met Nccl da Ct, f may yeas a esdet  Ida, wh was
 hs way t Ca, whee he teded t ldge a cmplat wth the
ulta (Busba), because f the dgtes t whch he was expsed.
Hs accut made Pe Tafu gve up the thught f hs juey.

Tafu fud ly abut ffty t sxty mks at the cvet, whch had
falle  evl days. The Tuk was advacg. I the yea 1453 he tk
pssess f Cstatple. As he advaced  a, he lad a heavy
had  the cvet, fm whch he clamed a aual tbute f thee
huded ducats. Jacb, the patach f Jeusalem ( 1482), heeup
despatched a mk f a t the pces f Eupe, wth a lette
askg f help. Ths mk, besdes the lette, caed wth hm sme
valuable elcs, cludg a tth f t. Kathee.[274] Hs appeal
met wth a eady espse. Kg Lus XI f Face (1463-83) made a
aual gat t the cvet f tw thusad ducats,[275] whch was
stll pad by Kg Chales III  1497 (Haff, p. 122). Quee Isabella
f pa (1481-1504) gave fve huded ducats a yea, a sum whch was
stll pad by Kg Phllp  1558.[276] The empe Maxmla I
(1493-1517) ad the kg f Hugay gave mey (Fab, . 623).
Uest, hweve, w spead t the Bedawy. A Gema plgm amed
Lema  the yea 1472 saled fm Beut t Alexada  the lagest
galley f the tme, whch caed tw huded ad sxty Chstas
ad e huded Mslm. He was bet  gg t the cvet, but was
peveted fm eteg a wg t the hstle atttude f the
Bedawy.[277] Hweve, mattes aga mpved, ad the plgms ad
the accuts f vyages multpled. The mst table accuts whch
descbe a vst t the cvet ae eumeated belw.[278]
Amg these plgms the Flemsh kght Aselm Ades ad hs paty
wee advsed by the mk f a wh acted as the gude fm Egypt,
t adpt the appeaace f mks  de t tavel wth safety. They
eached the cvet whee thee wee abut fty mks  esdece,
wh tld them that the Aabs feuetly vaded the cvet (p. 162).
O e f the ads they eteed the sactuay ad bke pe the
mable chest whch ctaed the elcs f t. Kathee but, stead
f the expected teasues, they fud a few bes (Geg, p. 504).
Twads the clse f the cetuy the accuts f plgms shw that
these w came  lage pates. I 1479 the Nbeg patcas Has
Tuche ad ebald Rete, wet t Gaza whee they eteed t a
ageemet wth a dagma that was set dw  wtg t cvey them
t the cvet  Ca. Ths ageemet s wded exactly  the same
way as these ageemets ae wded at the peset day. They tavelled
wth seve Facsca fas, ad  the aval at the cvet
Lat mass was celebated (Tuche, p. 365). Aga,  1483 tw pates
f Gemas, umbeg twety pess  all, vsted Paleste ad
ya. They cluded Behad v Beydebach ( 1493), f the Chapte
f Mayece, wh came east wth the atst Rewch f Utecht, whse
dawgs seved t llustate hs pats accut f hs juey.
The the paty cluded Felx Fab, wh acted as chapla t the
yug Cut lms. Fab became a fa  1452 ut f lve f t.
Kathee, hs spuse. O the aval at the cvet f the paty
mass was als celebated  the chapel set apat f Lat use (Fab,
. 547).
Athe plgm was Ja va Aets f Males, wh saled fm ece
f the East  1484, wth a paty f twety Facsca fas
tavellg wth a Ptuguese whm Ja efeed t as the _gad
facteu_. It was custmay at the tme f each vst t depst tw
ducats  the chest f t. Kathee. I addt t ths, the gad
facteu gave a thusad ducats t the mks. Fm the cvet he ad
hs paty pceeded t Tu, whee they tk bat f Ida. But at the
pt f Meda they wee fced t tu back wg t the emty f the
Aabs. The dese t peetate t the fa East was ceasg. Myhe

Js va Ghstelles vsted the cvet  1485, ad wet  t Tu,
whee he met the eeta Bajut del Pa (Alba) ad the Mlaese
Beedett da Navaa, wh wee  the way t Omuz  the Pesa
Gulf,  de t vst the cal ad peal fshees (Js, p. 227).
I 1487 the tw Ptuguese, Ped da Cavlla ad Alfs da Pava,
came fm Ca t Tu, fm whee they saled f Ade, Alfs  hs
way t Ethpa, the lesse Ida,  seach f Peste Jh; Ped
 hs way t the cast f Malaba,  de t see the spce-gwg
dstcts ad t cllect fmat  Madagasca ad Calcut, whch
he lad befe hs kg.[279] I 1489 Jaes de Hese passed thugh
the cvet ad Tu  hs way t Ida. The Rtte v Haff wet fm
the cvet wth a lette f tduct t the mks at the cvet
f t. Jh  Tu, whee he left f Mecca ad Madagasca, etug
t Egypt by way f the Mutas f the M ad the cuse f the
Nle.  Haff llustated the accut f hs jueys wth may cuts,
f whch the e hee epduced shws the kght befe t. Kathee
(Fg. 21). These vaus wtgs supply fmat  the cst ad
utes f tavel at the tme. Accdg t the Eglsh _Ifmat f
Plgms_ f abut 1450, the cst f gg fm ece t the Hly
Lad ad back was 50 ducats.[280] Oe paty f plgms f 1483 pad 42
ducats each  the udestadg that they wee allwed full tme t
see the Hly Places, ad eceved tw meals a day; the the paty pad
45 ducats each, the meals cludg we. The paty f twety pess
 1484 pad a thusad ducats, _.e._ 50 ducats f each pes. Half
the mey was pad at ece befe statg, the the half  aval
at Jaffa. A ceta Zlhat fell ll at ece afte payg hs 25
ducats, ad as he was uable t sal, hs mey was ffeted.[281]
[Illustat: Fg. 21.Rtte v Haff befe t. Kathee.]
Fm Jaffa the plgms vsted Jeusalem, whee he had the pt
f etug hme _va_ Jaffa  gg  t a ad Ca. If he
decded  ths cuse he was allwed te ducats  hs etu fae,
ad was pvded by the Facscas wth a esct t Gaza. The chage
f the ud was twety-thee ducats, half f whch was pad at
Jeusalem, the the at Gaza. A ageemet was daw up  wtg by
the dagma, the wdg f whch s much the same as the e that s
daw up at the peset day. I the cuse f the ffteeth cetuy Ne
Bach, a Facsca, wte a gude bk called _The Way fm ece
t the Hly epulche ad Mut a_, whch ctaed pactcal
advce f plgms. It estmated the cst f gg the ud fm
ece t Jeusalem, Gaza, the cvet, Ca ad back t ece at tw
huded ducats, _.e._ e huded f geeal expeses, ffty t seve
 case f sckess, ffty f the sea-vyage. The plgm was advsed
t cay a mattess (_stapt_), a bael f wate, a bael
f we, ad he was waed agast dscussg mattes f fath wth
fdels.
The chef dage whch theateed the plgms was sckess. May ded
 the way. The Italas  1384, betwee Ca ad the cvet, met
e Fechme; eleve ut f the paty f twety had ded  the
way. I 1483 thee was s much sckess  Gaza that may plgms gave
up the thught f gg t the cvet; ad the yug Cut lms ded
 the way back (Fab, . 446). Thee wee the dages. Ald
v Haff  1497 saw the effect f a sadstm whch had cut ff a
caava; the cpses f sx huded camels ad f ffty me, mauled
ad ttg, stewed the adsde (p. 120). The plgms wee fte 
dead f the Bedawy, wh swped dw  them clamug f fd,
ad callg f the paymet f dues f cssg the tety. The
shtage f fd at the tme was aggavated,  dubt, by the cutaled

lagess at the cvet. The plgms f 1483 caed thee tmes as

much bead as they eeded f themselves  de t meet all pssble
demads.
The utes fllwed by the plgms wee the day caava utes,
subject t sme vaat. Thus the plgms f 1479, mdful f the
adg f a caava by sme Catalas betwee Gaza ad Tu, left Gaza
by a ute that had t bee fllwed f twety yeas; they wet
by Rappa (Rafa), Makat Ncka (lw-lyg gud), whee thee
wee may gazelles ad eteed the Wad el Ash (Rete, p. 91).
The plgms f 1483, afte leavg Gaza, stpped at Lebhem, whee
thee was a msue, cssed a sady pla t Chawatha, called Cades
by the Lats, whee t aed, ad whee thee wee lage cstes
 us (Fab, . 494), A Kades f the peset day. Hee they
eteed the Wad Gaya (Gy f Js, p. 147), the peset Wad
el Ja, ad stpped  the Wad Wadala, the scee f the Catala
utage (Fab, . 502; Beydebach, p. 187), wth the Wad Magdabee
 Mahgaby ad the Gebel Hallel, the peset Gebel Hellal. They
the camped ea Magaa, a ame sgfyg hles, whee Fab,
settg ut fm the camp, asceded a hll  whch he fud ples
f stes ad flutteg ags whch he thught wee teded t wk
magc, s he te them dw ad set up a css, but he well-gh
mssed hs way gg back t the tets. The ext stppg place was
Hachsee, a mptat wateg stat, whee the paty f the
yea met may Aabs, ad whee the plgms sted wate f thee
days. Ths was dubtless the peset B Hassaa, f they wee mvg
ve whte gud (ted as whte chalk muds  the mde map)
t Mshee (Fab, . 515), mde Mshea, whee they eteed
the Wad el Ash, campg at El Hack  Baak (Fab, .
510), the Wad Tck  Bck f the tavelles f 1479 (p.
697). Hee they must have bee ea Nakhl. Afte passg the whte
muta Chalep  Calp (pehaps the Clebmale f Jacp), they
eached the whte Wad Meshma (Mesma f Js), whee slve ad
gld had bee wked  the mes as was shw by the smeltg. The
ame cespds t mde Gebel Megma. Fllwg the Hallcub,
whee the wate was bad, they cssed the wldeess Elphgaya,
ad the eteed the ed sadste dstct f Racka ( Rch
 Rachye), whee they ecamped  a expsed stuat. O the
fllwg day they desceded alg the steepest gge Fab had
eve see, the mde Naghb el Rack. At ts ft they camped 
_Ramathaym_, _.e._ bushes, ad saw a sta at ght whch, they wee
tld, std abve the cvet f t. Kathee. Late stppg places
wee chle  chyle, Abelhack, ad Magaa ( Mackea
 Mackasea), whee the ad bached ff t Tu.
The plgms f 1479 ad 1483 ted the place whee Mses pastued hs
flcks ea Wackya, pbably the peset El Watyeh, whch s stll
asscated bth wth Neb aleh ad wth Mses.[282] O the twelfth day
afte leavg Gaza, the plgms aved at the cvet.
Hee they wee take the usual ud f the chuches ad chapels, ad
asceded the Muta f the Law, access t whch was w fbdde t
the Jews. They epaed t the cvet f the Aba fm whch they
made the ascet f Gebel Kat. They saw the ste  the shape f a
Glde Calf, abut whch Fab had hs dubts (. 594); the ste 
whch the Tables wee bke; the cvet f t. Jh Clmacus; the
cvet f . Csmas ad Damaus, wth ts well-kept gade; the
spt whee Datha ad Abam dsappeaed (. 590); the bulde wth
twelve chaels f wate, e f each f the twelve tbes. Fally,
they wee shw the elcs f t. Kathee, lyg  the chest,

t whch they dpped tw ducats each, ad wee allwed t tuch
the elcs wth tkets they had bught f ths pupse (. 600).
The flw f saced l had ceased. Thee was e avalable  1483;
 1489 t was cllected at the ate f thee dps a week (Jaes
de Hese, p. 181). Ths s the last we hea f t. Plgms eceved,
stead, a pece f ctt wl  f slk whch was take ut f
the chest f t. Kathee, ad steeped  the l f the lamps. The
cessat f l was attbuted t the desecat f the she by the
Aabs.
Fm the cvet sme f the plgms wet  t Ca by way f El
Phat, ad the whte hlls f Lacaa, whee they jed the caava
ad cmg fm Tu. Futhe stats alg the ad wee Easp
(Wad Nasb), Hede  Dede (Wad Ghaadel), Wedach
(Weda), ad Maath  Meach, pehaps the ld Maa, ad the
peset Ayu Musa. These stppg-places ae the same as thse chse
by plgms ad tavelles at the peset day.

CHAPTER XII
THE LATER HITORY OF THE CONENT
THE sze f the caavas that pled betwee a ad Egypt wee a
suce f wde t the medval plgm. Ths develpmet f tade
eceved a check  the sxteeth cetuy, thugh the dscvey f
the sea-ute t Ida by the Ptuguese. Pce Hey f Ptugal (
1460) bught the west cast f Afca wth each f hs cuty.
I the yea 1487 Bathlmew Daz saled fm Ptugal t the Cape f
Gd Hpe, whch asc da Gama dubled te yeas late, salg  t
Calcut. Evey yea a fleet w left Lsb f Ida, whee spcey
was shpped dect f Ptugal.
Ths tade detacted fm the esuces f the ulta, ad spelt u
t the seapts f Italy. I 1503 the ulta addessed a lette t the
Ppe  whch he theateed destuct t the Hly Places, cludg
the Hly epulche ad the cvet f a, f the Ptuguese wee
t tefeed wth. But Kg Mauel f Ptugal duced the Ppe t
ge the lette, ad,  hs sde, ffeed spcey fee f duty t
the eetas, f they fetched t at Lsb, stead f Alexada.
But the eetas, avese t the chage, pesuaded the ulta t
set up a dect cmmucat by bat betwee uez ad Ida, ad a
twe was accdgly bult t ftfy uez. Tu was passed ve; ts
days as a pt  the way t Ida wee dawg t a clse, f the
Ptuguese wee detemed t mplse the tade wth Ida. They
sezed a bat cmg fm Egypt wth the 24,000 ducats t ctaed.
They ftted ut a wa fleet (1504) whch efced the supe clams
 Ida, ad attacked all the shppg. I 1509 they eteed the
Red ea wth the wa fleet, ad tefeed wth the plgms t
Mecca. It was  va that the eetas, whse aual tu-ve at
Alexada fell fm 600,000 t 100,000 ducats  1511, pleaded wth
the ulta t dmsh the tax  Easte gds, s as t eable them
t cmpete wth the Ptuguese. The ultaate was at the mecy f
sht-sghted ad tgug ems, ad was weakeg. The cueg
Ottma Tuk was steadly gag gud. Thee had bee ejcg at
Ca whe Cstatple,  1453, fell t the pwe f Islam, but
the stuggle f supemacy s aftewads bega betwee the Egypta

ad the Ottma ultaate. I 1516 the Ottma ulta elm ( 1520)
ccuped Damascus, ad  the fllwg yea he advaced alg the ad
f El Ash wth wheeled taspt. Afte defeatg the Mameluks at
Radueh  1517, he led hs dscpled jassaes t Ca, whee
he apppated the saced bae f Islam ad the elcs, whch he
emved t Cstatple.
I the meatme the shppg lagushed eve at uez. Odad Babsa,
wh was set t Egypt t ept  mattes f avgat t the
mechats f Italy  1516, meted uez as the stat f spcey,
but added that the taffc had almst ceased.[283] Cetaly the
Ottma ulta, used t the eeds f the hu, made the attempt
t facltate the tast f Easte gds by cuttg thugh the
sthmus f uez. He als bult a castle at uez  de t defed
hmself agast the Ptuguese. But the cete f the Ottma ule was
 lge Ca, but Cstatple, t whch the wealthy me ad
me mgated. Egypt was placed ude a pasha, wh was appted at
Cstatple, ad wh was feuetly chaged s as t atcpate ay
scheme  hs pat f makg hmself t a depedet ule. Ca
etaed ts uvesty ad emaed a cete f leag; ts halcy
days as a cete f at ad luxuy wee at a ed.
The uez caal was stll  cuse f cstuct  1529, but
was eve fshed,[284] ad  tem was set  the advace f the
Ptuguese. I 1541 Dm Jh (J) de Cast, wh be the pud ttle
f vcey f Ida, saled up the Red ea wth a fleet, tedg t
attack uez, but whe he esped the ft ad the shps at ach thee,
he tued back. I salg up the Gulf f uez, ad aga  salg
dw, Dm Jh stpped at Tu, whee he cmmued wth a mk f a,
wh tld hm that the cvet was ccuped by mks f the de f
Mtseat (_sc_), ad that the bdy f t. Kathee had bee emved
t Ca. Athe fmat deed all kwledge f ths fact. Dm Jh
was a ma f sme petess, wh detfed uez as Hepls, ad
Tu as Aelaa f classc tmes. Hs bsevats wee lad dw  a
_Descpt f the Lads bdeg  the Red ea_, whch  Walte
Ralegh csdeed f such mptace, that he had t taslated t
Eglsh.[285]
Thughut ths ped we hea lttle f plgms ad f the cvet.
The spt f the Refmat was abad, ad the thught f t.
Kathee was lsg ts hld  the magat f Eupe. Geg,
p f the Cathusa huse at Gamg, wh came t the cvet 
1507 tgethe wth Mat Baumgate, stated that the mks wee
mseable wg t the clamus Aabs, wh ccuped the msue ad
kept the festval  the Mut f the Law as aleady elated. I
the estmat f Geg, the mks f a pfessed the de f
t. Basl, but, he declaed, they wuld be glad t be take ude the
ptect f Rme (p. 498). Abut the yea 1546 the leaed Bel
f Mas, wh tavelled  the teest f scece ad achlgy,
vsted a, whch he meted  hs _Obsevats de cetaes
sgulats_, etc., a wk that eflects the spt f the ew age.
Bel emaked  the Facsca settlemet at Gaza, the aseal at
uez, ad the caal f thty mles legth. I the cvet he fud
abut sxty mks.[286]
Of the bshps at ths ped we kw vey lttle. Thee was a
teegum f abut thty yeas befe 1540, whch may be cected
wth the ule f ulta elm. Accdg t fmat peseved at
the cvet, he abstacted the gal _fm_ whch was suppsed
t have bee gve t the cvet by Mhammad. ulta elm was

espsble f the ftfed stats alg the ute f plgms
fm Egypt t Mecca, f whch e was bult at Ajud ea uez, the
secd at Nakhl,  the hgh deset, ad the thd at Akaba, whch was
stuated east f the acet Ala. These stats wee ecked abut
thee days juey fm e athe, ad the ad ctued  use
tll ecet tmes. But whateve the eas, the bshp f a at ths
tme cued the dspleasue f the suudg pelates. Macus, the
Cypa, wh was appted  1540, pehaps wg t sme fault f hs
w (Nectaus called hm ),[287] was depsed by a syd held 
Egypt ude the auspces f the patachs f Alexada, f Ca, ad
f Jeusalem, ad the bshpc f a was declaed abgated.[288]
But a ew ptect t the mks w ase  the Tsa f Muscvy,
wh, whe Cstatple fell t the Tuks, tk t up hmself t
ptect the thdx. I the yea 1547 Gegus, a mk f a,
vsted Mscw, whee he cmplaed f the tax whch the Tuk leved
 the cvet. The Tsa at the tme was Iva the Teble (1533-84),
wh fthwth aaged that Geadus, achdeac f t. pha, at
Nvgd, tgethe wth the mechat Psakw ad athe shuld vst
the patach f Alexada ad the achbshp (_sc_) f a, ad
peset them wth 1000 ducats each. At the cvet, afte payg at
the she f t. Kathee, they spead ve t a cveg f gld
bcade, a gft f the Tsa. Psakw, t whm we we a accut f
the embassy, lked up the mks as cected wth t. Basl, ad
descbed the msue sde the cvet as gally a chuch f t.
Basl.[289]
The Muscvte futhe aaged that a caava beag fd shuld be
aually despatched fm Ca t the cvet, at hs expese, as we
lea fm the accut f the Gema plgm Wmbse, wh wet fm
Egypt t the cvet  the yea 1561 (_Ressbuch_, 1609, p. 396 ff.).
Hs cmpa, Cut Leweste,  hs etu t Alexada, thee
asked f a ffcal attestat f havg bee the Lg Plgmage,
whch he cluded  the accut f hs juey (_Ibd._, p. 393).
These tavelles  1561 fud betwee thty ad fty mks at the
cvet, but wee tld that these smetmes left the place altgethe
because f the clamus Aabs (Leweste, p. 369). It had ecetly
std empty fu  fve yeas (_Ibd._, p. 369). Athe paty f
Gemas, wh eached the cvet  1565, actually fud t empty ad
ts gates walled up. They wee met utsde by a mk wh, appzed f
the cmg, hued ve fm Tu t act as the gude. Fm the
heght f the Mut f the Law they lked dw  the empty cvet
wth ts deseted gade (_Ibd._, Helffech, p. 726).
Owg t Muscvte fluece a chage was effected. A lette s
extat dafted by Jeemah II, patach f Cstatple (1572-78),
whch beas the sgatue f the patach f Atch, the patach
f Jeusalem, ad thes by whch the bshpc f a was
ested.[290] The decs was based  the decee f Justa whch
s dated t the yea 551 ad s peseved at the cvet, but whch
s lked up as a fgey. Ayhw, a pelate was estated  the
pes f Eugeus (1565-83), wh,  the capacty f bshp f a
ad Rathu, wte t Empe Maxmla II (1564-76), declag that
the mks wee called up t pay 5000 ducats t the Tuksh ulta,
whch wee they uable t ase. The utcme f the appeal s t
ecded. They pbably made a appeal als t Kg He III f Face
(1574-89).[291] I the yea 1579 Eugeus f a was  Jeusalem,
whee the patach Gemaus abdcated because f ld age.[292]
Dect tecuse wth Russa ctued. We hea f e Kbekff

wh was  a  1583, ad aga  1593. It was, pehaps, wth the
help f the Muscvte that Bshp Aastasus I (1583-92) lad dw the
msac pavemet  the cvet chuch, whch had bee destyed by Aab
teasue-seekes. Aastasus was succeeded by Lauetus (1592-1617),
but Melts, patach f Alexada, bjected t hs apptmet,
wheeup he appealed t phs I, patach f Jeusalem
(1579-1606), wh atfed hs apptmet.[293] Pehaps the gates f
the cvet wee walled up  cect wth these dffcultes,
ad aye wshg t ete was w hauled up by meas f a pe ad
a pulley. He Castale wh vsted a  1600, was the fst t
descbe the aagemet, whch ctued tll the Btsh ccupat
f Egypt. Castale,  the accut f hs juey, elaged  the
stavg me ad wme  the deset. He fud e stavg mk  the
cvet.[294]
But thgs w mpved ude Bshp Jasaph, wh uled fm 1617 t
1658, ad tavelles gave a bette accut f the cvet.
The thught f the scpts f the chlde f Isael bught
Netzschtz t the deset abut the yea 1639. He was a Luthea
t whm may f the stes wee fables. He was eceved by the
achbshp Jasaph ad fud twety-thee mks at the cvet, wh
dstbuted fd daly t betwee ffty ad a huded Aabs.[295] The
thught f the scpt was pmet als  the md f Balthaza
de Mcys, wh,  1647, vsted the cvet. Hee he emaked 
the tuc f gld bcade embdeed wth peals ad  the spledd
taas, pesets f the Muscvte, that wee w by Jasaph.[296]
Aga, Thvet came t the cvet  1658, ad saw a slve chest,
a gft fm the empess Aa f Russa,  whch the elcs f t.
Kathee wee w eshed. Thvet elated that  sme days as
may as 150 Aabs,  thes as may as 400, clamug f fd,
assembled utsde the cvet. He als elated that the Tuks had
destyed the chuch whch the mks wed at Tu (pehaps that f t.
Jh the Baptst),  de t make m f a ft whee a _aga_ was
stated, wh had the cmmad f ca.[297]
A papal bull, appaetly the last, was gated t the cvet by
Ppe Uba III (1623-37). It cfmed the mks  the vaus
pssesss, ad has the addtal teest that t eumeated the
ppes wh pevusly gated bulls t the mks. They wee Hus
III (1216-27), Gegy IX (1227-41), Paul II (1458-64), Icet
III (1484-92), Julus II (1503-13), Le IX (1513-19), ad Paul III
(1534-50).
Dug the ule f Jasaph, Nectaus, a Ceta by bth ad a ma f
csdeable ablty, came t the cvet, the teests f whch he
futheed  vaus ways. The avde Basl (1634-61), f Mldava,
was ecuagg the establshmet f Geek schls  hs dm.
Nectaus vsted Athes, Bukaest, ad Jassy, whee the mks f
a w bult pes ad secued a lastg fthld. It was
pbably Nectaus wh deftely secued the ttle ad stadg f a
achbshp t the ule f a. The ttle had bee appled t me
as ealy as 1211 by the dge f ece  cect wth the ppety
whch the cvet held  Cete, but the ules ctued t style
themselves bshp. Hweve, the ttle ce clamed was etspectvely
appled. Nectaus, afte hs etu t the cvet, cmpled a
_Eptme f hsty fm the ealest tmes_, wth specal chaptes
 the cvet ad a lst f ts ules. They ae all desgated as
achbshps. It was pbably due t Nectaus, als, that may M.
wee bught fm Cete ad elsewhee ad added t the cvet lbay.

At the cvet tself lteay actvty was esumed, ad we hea f a

gft f pape t the mks that was cveyed thee  camel-back.[298]
At the death f Jasaph, Nectaus was chse as hs success. He
was  Gaza  hs way t Jeusalem t seek cfmat f hs
apptmet at the hads f the patach Pass, whe he was met
by delegates fm Jeusalem, beag the ews that Pass was dead,
ad that Nectaus was chse patach. As Jasaph ded  1658, ad
the meetg happeed  Apl 1660, the tecuse betwee the sees
seems t have bee atteded wth dffculty. The ule at the cvet
theefe devlved  Aaas (1658-68), wh was fllwed by Jacus
(1668-1703).
Accdg t Lacx, the Muscvte fell ut wth the patach f
Cstatple  1671, ad summed t Mscw seveal pelates, amg
them Atus, bshp f a. He daed t efuse, ad was kept 
Mscw f ve a yea.[299] But  pelate f ths ame appeas  the
lst f the bshps.
Abut ths tme the Papacy made eewed effts at ppagada, wth
the help f the Facscas. Ppe Icet XI (1675-89) eteed t
cespdece wth the patach f Ca wth a vew t wg ve
the Cpts f Egypt t the Rma Cathlc fath, ad Facesc Maa f
ale spet seveal yeas  Ca whee he establshed a schl. He
als vsted a, but the Cpts fud t mpssble t accept the
declaat f fath that was submtted t them, ad thg came f
t.[300]
Jacus,  1672, was  Bethlehem whee he subscbed t a
declaat agast Calv,  whch the Mates, the Cpts ad the
Amea Chstas jed. I 1675 he wet  a embassy t Tukey.
He als egaged  cespdece wth Igatus, achbshp f Ochda
 eba,  the _fm_ whch had bee gated t the mks f
a by the empe Justa. A vst t Mldava esulted  the
gft f the ppety called Rmeke t the mks f a by avde
Bacva ( 1719). The tavelle Pcet, wh vsted the cvet abut
the yea 1699, cmg fm hem, was eceved by Jacus, wh was
 hs ety-thd yea ad paalytc. Lke the tavelles Pcet
was hauled t the cvet by meas f the seat attached t a pe. He
was teated t sme f the lueu called _aac_, whch was made by the
mks ut f the femeted juce f the date.[301]
The pelate  success t Jacus was Csmas I f Chalced, wh
became patach f Cstatple wth a yea f hs elect, but
he s abdcated ad etued t the cvet whee he spet the est
f hs days ude Athaasus II f Ba (1706-18). The ext pelate
was Jacus II f Mytlee (1718-22), dug the tem f whse ule
Jeemah, patach f Cstatple, was depsed by the vze ad
exled t a. He was stayg thee at the tme f Bshp Pcckes
vst (. 150).
It was pbably Athaasus f Ba wh eceved the Facsca pefect
Claude cad f the mss _De Ppagada Fde_, weag a exuste
cw. The Facsca pefect wte a sht accut f hs vst whch
attacted the attet f Bshp Pccke ad was taslated t
Eglsh by Bshp Clayt  1753. Ths taslat was addessed t
the cety f Atuaes  Ld, ad Bshp Clayt ffeed the
sum f 500, spead ve fve yeas, t assst  a explat f
Mut a. But  defte step was take  the matte, ts chef
esult beg t add t the Bblcal exples f the pesula.

Chef amg these was Bshp Pccke, whse _Descpt f the East_,
fst publshed  1743, attaed csdeable celebty. eveal
chaptes wee devted t a accut f a ad the pgess f the
Isaeltes. It ctas a caeful descpt f the mastc buldgs
wth seveal plas. Bshp Pccke, lke the tavelles befe ad
sce, accepted the stes pted ut by the mks as the actual spts
meted  the Bblcal aatve, egadless f the mpssbltes
mpled. He ly uested the spt whee Datha ad Abam wee
swallwed, emakg that whe ths happeed they had left the deset
f a (. 145).
Owg t the dffcultes f dealg wth the clams f the Bedawy,
the pelates f a w fud t pefeable t take up the
esdece  e f the depedeces f the cvet.
Ncephus Mtales, suamed Glauks (1729-49), was fm Cete, t
whch he etued ad whee he ded. Hs bdy was cveyed t the
cvet f temet. The ext pelate was Cstatus (1749-59), wh
esded f the mst pat  Mldava ude avde Mchael, payg a
ccasal vst t a. O e ccas he was accmpaed by Khall
abag, wh wte a accut f hs vst. The ext pelate Cyllus II
(1759-90) dwelt  mya, Jeusalem ad Mldava. He was  ctact
wth Caste Nebuh, wh vsted a  1762, whee he was the fst
Eupea t vst ad descbe the geat aves at eabt. Cyllus
was  elat als wth the tavelle ley, wh vsted the cvet
 1783, whee he fud ffty mks.
It was wg t the effts f Cyllus II that the stadg f the
cvet f a as a depedet cete was deftely establshed.
A syd met  Cstatple  1782, whch declaed  favu f ts
autmy. The achbshp s elected by a cucl f the mks, wh
maage the affas f the cvet  a ad ts bach establshmet
 Ca. The achbshp s always selected fm the pests f the
mastey. He s csecated as bshp by the patach f Jeusalem
 cseuece f the acet cect, ad he becmes e f the
fu depedet achbshps f the Geek Chuch, the thes beg at
Cypus, Mscw ad Ochda.[302]
Cyllus II was the last pelate wh pad a vst t the cvet f
ve a huded yeas. The eas was that lage sums ad gfts had t
be peseted t the Aabs by the ew pelate  hs stallat. These
wee s csdeable that the mks,  the mpveshed state, wee
uable t ase them. Pehaps wg t ths dffculty, thee was a
teegum f fu yeas, betwee the death f Cyllus  1790 ad
the establshmet as pelate f Dtheus f Byzatum (1794-96), afte
whse death thee was aga a teegum f eght yeas.

CHAPTER XIII

INAI IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

THE clse f the eghteeth cetuy wtessed evets  Egypt whch
dectly affected the cdts f lfe  a; they futhe educed
the ma f the deset  hs esuces.

ce the cuest f Egypt by the Tuks  1517 the cuty

was admsteed by a pasha wh was appted by the ulta at
Cstatple. But the de f the ulta t Al Bey t j  a
wa agast Russa  1769 met wth a dect efusal; the Egypta saw
hs chace f pclamg hs depedece. The evlt f the pasha f
Egypt gave Bapate a stesble eas f ccupyg Alexada 
1796. Bapates magat was fed by the thught f cpatg
Egypt, the lad f atuty,  hs wld dm. As pat f ths
wde scheme he addessed a lette as _gal e chef_ t the mks
f a  1798,  whch he tk them ude hs ptect, t
the ed, as he sad, that they shuld had  t futue aces the
tadt f hs cuest, as he was flled wth espect f Mses
ad the Jews, ad because the mks wee leaed me lvg  the
babaty f the deset. He futhe deceed that hecefth the Aab
Bedawy had  clam whateve  the mks, that they shuld be left t
devte themselves umlested t the clams f the elg, that they
shuld be exempt fm payg tbute  tax  mpts  expts 
the pduce f the ppety  ch (_.e._ Chs) ad Cypus, that
they shuld feely ejy the ghts  ya ad  Ca, ad that
the ule shuld be depedet f the patach.[303]
At the de f Bapate the getleme Cutelle ad Rses wee
set  a tu f spect t cllect mateal f the wk whch he
plaed. O ths tu they came t the cvet f a  1800, whee
they fud sx mks ad twety-tw lay bthes  esdece. The
east wall f the cvet, bult by Justa, had cllapsed. By de
f Geeal Klbe at Ca, the mk Halll, wth fty-tw mass
ad a huded ad ffty camels, wee dspatched fm Ca t d the
ecessay epa. The camels wee fushed by the Twaah.[304]
I the meatme Nels, scug the seas  seach f the Fech
fleet, came up t ea the cast f Egypt, ad attacked ad
scatteed t at the Battle f the Nle (Oct., 1798). The Tuks, awae
that Bapates descet  Egypt was pmpted by hs dese f
self-aggadsemet, felt called up t declae wa  the Fech 
Egypt (1799). Heeup Bapate, wth ealy the whle f hs amy,
mached alg the deset ad t Gaza ad tk Jaffa by assault, but a
few mths late he was  full eteat. A Tuksh amy s aftewads
eached Abuk ad jed fces wth the Btsh fleet, but Bapate
flcted a cushg defeat  them. He the left Egypt leavg hs
amy  chage f Geeal Klbe. But a futhe expedt was lauched
by the Tuk, e detachmet f tps was laded at Dametta, athe
ude Yussuf Pasha appached by the El Ash ad. They wee defeated
by the Fech, but Geeal Klbe s aftewads was assassated
(Jue, 1808). The Eglsh w effected a ladg at Abuk (Mach,
1801), ad the Fech, afte sme stuggles, evacuated the cuty.
I Egypt tself cfus eged. The Mameluks wee egag the
fluece, whe Mehemed Al ( 1849), the leade f a Albaa cps,
secued the adheece f the sheykhs ad clamed the Pashalk wth the
suppt f the Fech. A expedt made by the Btsh t ppse hm
 1807 mscaed. I 1811 he caused a massace f the Mameluks ad
exteded hs fluece by cayg wa t Aaba ad vadg ya.
The tefeece f the Eglsh educed, but dd t beak, hs pwe.
I 1841 he secued the heedtay sveegty f Egypt.
The ped f upheaval atually eacted  the deset ad edeed
tavellg usafe. eetze vsted the cvet ude Russa des
ad fud the ad dageus. Thee wee twety-fve mks  the
cvet, wh lged f the ed f the Tuksh gvemet ad the

establshmet f Eupea fluece  Ca.[305] eetze was mudeed

 ya  a late juey. Aga the tavelle But was  eabt
 1811, whee he scawled hs ame  a ste  the temple whee
Rppell fud t. But als was mudeed  ya. Buckhadt
tavelled  the dsguse f a Bedawy ad epeatedly vsted a,
ad the cvet (1816, 1822). Bth Rppell ad Buckhadt tavelled 
the teest f gegaphy.
Wth the etu f me settled cdts tavelles became me
umeus. Ld Pudhe ad Maj Felx (1827) wee amg thse wh
vsted the us f eabt. The accut f the juey was lst,
but Ld Pudhe, afte spectg the temple us, was the fst
ad, as fa as I am awae, the ly tavelle t whm t ccued
that ths mght be the sactuay that was vsted by the Isaeltes.
The fact was ecded by Edwad Rbs wh came t a  the
teest f Bblcal eseach  1838 ad 1852 (. 79) ad wh was
hmself mmesely mpessed by the us at eabt. Othe tavelles
wh made a plged stay wee Labde ad Lat (1828), t whm we
we the fst detaled ad llustated accut f the cvet chuch,
ts achtectue, ts geat msacs ad ts umeus sde chapels;
Tschedf, wh secued the famus M. f Petgad, as meted
abve; Batlett, whse apd vst  1839 establshed teestg
gelgcal facts, me especally wth egad t the le f the lad
betwee a ad ya; ad Lepsus, wh came t a  1845 f
the expess pupse f cpyg the heglyph scpts at Maghaa
ad eabt, whch he cpated  hs _Dekmle_ (1860).
Ude the ule f Mehemed Al safety was ested t the _hadj_ ute
acss a by the ebuldg f the fts at Adjud (ea uez),
Nakhl ad Akaba. The settlemet f a gas bught egulaty f
taspt whch eacted favuably  the Bedawy wh udetk t.
Mehemed Al, als, was favuably dspsed twads the cvet. Hs
ephew, Abbas Pasha, wh succeeded hm  1849, vsted a 
1853, ad fmed the pla f buldg hmself a summe esdece 
Mut Heb. A ad was theefe plaed leadg up fm Tu  the
cast, whch cssed the deset ad the led thugh the elatvely
luxuus valley f Heb, wth ts may steams ad the tamask
gve f laf. It was patly cmpleted  1854, whe the Pasha was
assassated. Hs success ad Pasha (1854-63), was  fedly
elats wth Fedad Lesseps, whm he zealusly suppted  the
scheme f cstuctg a caal thugh the Isthmus f uez. The
etepse was faced by Fech ad Tuksh subscpts, ad was
at the utset wked by meas f fced labu, late wth the help f
mde egeeg applaces. The caal was cmpleted ude Ishmael
Pasha (1863-79)  1869, ad the Btsh Gvemet became a lage
shaehlde. Ishmael Pasha was a Oetal despt wh depleted the
teasuy ad bbed the peple, but wh mdesed Egypt by buldg
schls, layg dw always, ad settg up telegaph cmmucats.
I etu f a lage aual tbute he was ased t the ak f
Khedve,  vcey, f Egypt by the ulta  1867. But the facal
dffcultes,  whch he became vlved, wee such that Face ad
Eglad bught pessue t bea  hm ad fally depsed hm. He was
succeeded by hs s Tewfk Pasha (1879-92).
Amg the vsts t the pesula  1845 was Maj Macdald, wh
came t spect the tuuse that was left, ad wh settled ea the
mes at Maghaa  1855, whee he emaed te yeas. Hs mg was
de wth the help f Bedawy labu. He tk csdeable teest
 the geat scpts, ad t was t he, but a Fech egee,
wh tk up the wk afte he left, wh destyed by blastg a lage

umbe f valuable ck scpts, cludg thse f Kg Khufu

ad f the Phaahs f the xth Dyasty. The geeal teest take
 the pesula led t the sedg ut a expedt ude Geeal
Wls  1868, wh egaged  a suvey f a, _.e._ the mutas
f the suth, ude the auspces f the Paleste Explat Fud.
The wk was publshed  1871 ad ctas text, maps ad a umbe
f phtgaphc vews. Amg thse wkg  the uvey was the Rev.
F. W. Hllad, wh had pevusly stayed  a  1861 ad 1867;
ad the dstgushed Aabc schla, Pf. E. H. Palme, wh made
the acuatace f  Rchad But  ths ccas, ad wh was
bught t plged ctact wth the Bedawy. Pf. Palme publshed
 1871 a specal accut that deals wth the sty f the Isaeltes
 a ude the ttle _The Deset f Exdus_. Athe vst t the
pesula was the Egyptlgst, Pf. Ebes, wh publshed hs wk
_Duch Gse zum a_  1872. The teest  gegaphy w caused
tavelles t juey alg dffeet utes ad t exple dffeet
pats f the pesula, but,  spte f the wk accmplshed the
 udetake sce, the cetal pat f the pesula s stll
suffcetly kw.
[Illustat: Fg. 22.ulyma abu lm, a Bedawy.]
Fm these wtes we ga a futhe sght t the state f thgs
at the cvet, ad the atttude f the Bedawy.
The umbe f mks at the cvet emaed much the same. eetze
fud twety-fve mks thee ad a guada wh acted f the
absetee bshp (. 73); Edwad Rbs fud twety mks 
esdece (. 131); Lepsus  1845 fud twety-fve; Ebes  1871
fud twety-eght. I 1890 thee wee betwee twety ad thty.
Of the ppety that s at peset wed by the mks I fal t fd
a cmplete lst. At dffeet peds met s made f pes 
Alexada, Jeusalem, Tpl, Gaza, Cstatple, Cete ad Cypus,
besdes the huse wed at Ca.[306] Wlff,  1839, meted
ppety held by the mks at Cstatple, Cypus, Belgad,
Bukaest, Jassy, Athes, Ida ad Calcutta;[307] Rbs meted
huses at Begal, Glcda, Cete ad Cypus (p. 549). Accdg t
Buckhadt the mks eceved the supples fm Gaza ad Ca.
Afte a teegum f eght yeas Cstatus II uled as achbshp
fm 1804 t 1859, ad was succeeded by Cyllus III (1859-67). The
ext achbshp, Callstatus (1867-85), was the fst pelate wh
etued t the cvet  1872, but hs stallat was atteded by
dffcultes. Hs success, Pphyus, fell ut wth the patach
f Alexada, wh caused hm t be expelled fm Ca. He was 
esdece at the cvet  the wte f 1905-6.
Mde accuts gve a futhe sght t the tempe f the me f
the deset.
The plgms f the Mddle Ages geeally deaded the Bedawy wh wee
apt t swp dw  them, clamug f dues, as they passed fm
the tety f e tbe t that f athe, but we hea f few
excesses cmmtted by them. Buckhadt, Pf. Palme ad  Rchad
But gave a accut f the dffeet tbes.
The Bedawy f suthe a ae cllectvely kw as Twaah fm
Twa, Aabc f muta, as dstct fm the Tyaha,  Bedawy f
the Pla ad the tbes wh hld the the dstcts.

Amg the Twaah Pf. Palme cluded (1) the awalheh, wh ae
dvded t thee clas  famles, f whch each has ts sheykh, s
that thee ae thee sheykhs t each tbe. I 1870 the sheykhs f the
awalheh wee Fat, Kad Ib mha ad Abu Fah, f whm Fat was
_agyd_  cmmade--chef f all the mltay peats udetake
by the Twaah geeally. But spke f the alh (_.e._ awalheh
 Beu aleh) as the pcpal tbe f the atc Bedawy.
The ext tbe, cluded amg the Twaah, wee (2) the Auled ad,
wh clude seveal famles. The sheykhs  1870 wee Hasa Ib Am
ad Embaek ed Dhe.[308]
The ext tbe meted wee (3) the Gaasheh, wh ae pcpally
fud  the eghbuhd f Wad Fea. The chef sheykh, Ib
Nas, was made espsble t the Egypta gvemet f the gd
cduct f the Twaah. He had ded whe the expedt etued t
Eglad. Huse Abu Rdhwa was the ly emag sheykh  1870,
Masu Ib Gmah als havg ecetly ded.
Athe tbe wee (4) the Aleyat ( Alk), whse dstct was the
eghbuhd f the (weste) Wad Nasb. The sheykhs wee ulema
Ib Emdakkhal, Juma Abu hawsh, ad Amda Abu Uk. Ths tbe was
descbed as t umeus by Pf. Palme.
Thee wee futhe, (5) the Emzeeh, (Muzaeh) the descedats f
a llustus tbe wh ae egaded by the Twaah as cmpaatve
stages, thugh t excluded fm the ght f temaage. They
am ve the easte cast f the pesula ad ae sad t have cme
t a fm the Hedjaz  cmpaatvely ecet tmes. Accdg t
 Rchad But fve pess, acests f the Muzaeh, wee fced
by a bld feud t fly fm the atve cuty ad laded at hem,
whee they wee eceved by the Aleyat. Wth these they jtly w the
palm tees at Dahab, ad the ghts f tasptg the peple ladg
at Dahab ad hem. Aye wh kws the Bedawy, wte  Rchad,
ca see that the Muzaeh ae pue bld. The bws ae bad, the
faces aw, the featues egula, ad the eyes f mdeate sze,
wheeas the the Twaah clas ae as palpably Egypta. They ae f
a mpue ace, Egypt-Aabs, wheeas the eghbu, the Hedjaz, s
the pue ya  Mesptama.
Besdes these tbes Pf. Palme amed (6) the Auled hah as the
bach f the Twaah, wh ccupy the cuty mmedately aud Tu
ad the muta whch bdes  the pla f El Kaa; they ae,
ppely speakg, a bach f the Aleyat.
Thee ae als, (7) the Gebelyeh, the s-called sefs f the
cvet, wh ae held t be the leal descedats f the fu
huded Wallacha ad Egypta slaves whm the empe settled 
the pesula. The dstct cmpses the Wad esh hekh ad the
mmedate eghbuhd f the cvet. The chef sheykhs  1870
wee Awwad Ib Atyeh, Ed Ib uad ad ulema Ib Ghaam.
Of these tbes the ad ad
 ptects f the cvet.
ah, thee tbes, the ss
the Hal (Aleyat). These met
Neb aleh.

the Aleyat ae the ecgsed _ghufaa_,

The M. accut f 1710 calls them Waled
f aleh, _.e._ the elm, the ad ad
at the aual festval at the tmb f

The fluctuats f the tbes ae suffcetly kw. I

Buckhadts days Hau Ib Ame, sheykh f the ad, was accuted
e f the mst pweful sheykhs f the Twaah (p. 594).
Of the Twaah geeally,  R. But wte that  the eg f
Mehemed Al  gve f uez daed t flg  lay hads  a Tu,
whateve ffece he mght have cmmtted  the tw f uez. Late
the wld mas swd was take fm hm befe he was allwed t ete
the gates. I hs estmat the mst gd-humued ad scable f
me, they delght  a jest ad may eadly be maaged by kdess
ad cutesy. Yet they ae passate, ce  the pt f hu,
evegeful ad easly ffeded whe the pecula pejudces ae
msudestd. I have always fud them pleasat cmpas, ad
desevg f espect, f the heats ae gd ad the cuage s
beyd a dubt (p. 102).
I dstct t the Twaah  me f the muta, the Bedawy
futhe th ae kw as Tyaha,  me f the pla, wh g suth as
fa as Nakhl. They have f the eghbus the Teeb, a pweful
tbe, whse tety exteds fm abut fty mles suth-east f
uez  the a ad as fa as Gaza  the th. Thee ae als
the Hewatt ccupyg the lad betwee Akaba ad Nakhl, wh have a
bad eputat f adg, ad the eghbus the Aazeh, whse
pastue guds exted fm abut Meda  Aaba t Palmya  ya,
cludg the Aabah. Athe wealthy tbe ae the Hwetat wh ca
ase as may as twelve huded camels.
The dffculty f dealg wth the Bedawy, was shw by the evets
that atteded the sg f Aab  Egypt,  1880. Whe Tewfk
became Khedve  1879 dssatsfact eged. A mltay evlut
bke ut  Ca, ad Aab Bey, a fellah ffce, ase detemed
t dmsh Eupea fluece. Whe tg bega at Alexada the
Khedve sught the ptect f the Btsh Fleet, ad  Gaet
Wlseley ccuped the uez Caal, wheeup Ca suedeed. But the
dead f Aabs fluece amg the me f the deset led the Btsh
Gvemet t euest Pf. Palme t bg hs fluece t bea 
the Bedawy f Et Th. Hs wk  the Odace uvey had bught hm
t fedly elats wth may f the sheykhs, ad he was stucted
t pevet them fm jg the Egypta ebels. Wth a _fm_
sged by Tewfk, Pf. Palme left Jaffa as Abdallah Effed, ad
cssed the pesula t uez, beg cducted by Hamda, the head ma
f the Tyaha, ad  hs way met the geat sheykh f the Hewatt. Hs
pla was t ase 10,000 f the Tyaha ad Teab t fght Aab. Fm
uez he theefe depated cayg the sum f 3000  gld  de
t buy camels, ad aaged f a geat meetg f the sheykhs. It was
 va that heykh Ode Ismaleh f the Aleyat, ad Umdakhl, a m
sheykh, advsed hm t t g. He ad hs thee cmpas wee lued
t a ambush  the Wad ud, ad wee mudeed, August, 1882.[309]
Fllwg up the mss f Pf. Palme t a was the expedt
t the uda f whch Geeal Gd vluteeed. He was klled 
1885, wheeup Geeal Ktchee set ut t ecue the uda
ad ccuped Khatum. I 1892 Tewfk  Egypt was succeeded by
Husse Kamel. A msudestadg wth Tukey  cect wth the
atc fte caused a passg dffculty  the yea 1906-7. The
Tuc-Egypta fte was daw fm Rafa, w  Egypt, t the Gulf
f Akaba, Akaba tself beg cluded  the dma ve whch Tukey
clamed supemacy. At ths t std at the utbeak f the Geat Wa.
The ppulat f the whle f the pesula at the tme was estmated
as belw 40,000 pess, cludg the settled habtats f El Ash,

the Gebelyeh (400-500), ad the est f the Bedawy. Fm a mltay
pt f vew these wee lked up as f small mptace, except
as pssble secet agets ad scuts, ad  efft was appaetly
made t gase them. Althugh a was pltcally a Egypta
depedecy, wth the fte le betwee Rafa ad Akaba, the uez
Caal was chse as the meas f defedg Egypt, ad bdgeheads
wee cstucted alg t, chef f whch was the e at Kataa. The
pesula was theefe pe t the Tuks, wh advaced acss t alg
thee utes, _.e._ alg the cast, alg the plgm ad fm Akaba
by way f Nakhl, ad by a ute half-way betwee the plgm ute ad
the Medteaea. Nakhl became a Tuksh mltay cete. The attacks
made at dffeet pts alg the caal wee defeated. The Tuk, fm
the fst, egaged the help f the Bedawy f the easte deset, but
he faled t ase much ethusasm amg them. Oly the Teab, the
Ayayme, ad sme f the sub-tbes f the Hwetat suppled egula
les, the Ruala ad the Aazeh pmsed t defed ya, the tbes
faled altgethe. Whe a adg paty f Tuks advaced fm Nakhl 
Tu, they wee jed by sme Bedawy fm Mda ad a, wh wee
tempted by the pmse f lt. O the way, they eusted fd at
the cvet, but they fud Egypta tps  ccupat f Tu ad
wee epulsed.
The advace alg the she f the Medteaea, ad expedts
fm the bdgeheads ad secued psts, egaged the Alled fces 
1916. Ayu Musa was ftfed ad cected wth uez by meas f a
lght alway, ad a alway was cstucted alg the Medteaea.
I the cuse f ths pgess the walls ad wate cstes  whch
the eemy depeded wee atually destyed, ad e des t wde
t fd the Bedawy actg  ccet wth the Tuk  the defece.
It was t tll Jauay, 1917, that Rafa was captued, ad the Tuk
swept ut f the a. Alg the easte fte the Aabs wee
pepaed t sde wth the Alles. As ealy as 1916 Pce Husse f
Mecca gased hs fces t esst the Tuk, but hs pgess was
dffeet, whe he was sught ut by Capt. Lawece, wh uged hm t
advace ad pesuaded Auda Ib Tayy, the geat sheykh f the Hwetat,
t act  ccet wth hm. The esult was a camel chage  the ft
f Akaba, whch wped ut the Tuksh battal stated thee, ad
feed the Aab ad the Alles fm a cete f eemy plttg. By the
act the Aabs made a futhe step  ealsg themselves as a
at.[310]
[Illustat: Fg. 23.Map f the Pesula.]
I the lght f these ecet evets, e s set wdeg hw they wll
affect the chaces f well-beg f the me f the a deset, ad
what futue may be  ste f the cvet.

INDEX
Aahmes, 42, 54
Aa, 67
Abbas Pasha, 186
Abd-el-Melek, 135

Abaham f Ostace, 109, 149

Abaham f a, 154
Abu aleh, wte, 146
Actsaes, 91
Ad Daam, 80, 94
Ademaus, wte, 144
Adtes, 48, 49
Ades, wte, 167
Adze, settlemet, 108
Aekathea. _ee_ Kathee.
Aets, wte, 167
Agathacdes, wte, 83
Ala, cty, 48, 80, 81, 94, 99, 110, 134
A e Nubeh, 5
A Hudhea, 78
A Kades, 79, 170, _als_ Kadesh.
Akaba, 5, 51, 175, 185
Akhe-ate. _ee_ Ame-htep I.
Albet f Ax, wte, 147
Al Bu, wte, 10, 76
Aleyat, tbe, 124, 189
Alfs da Pava, 168
Al Lat, dvty, 24
Alphus f Rhcua, 109
Alvaez, Facesc, 168
Amalektes, 2, 44 ff., 72, 99
Ame-em-hat I, 34, 35, 43
Ame-em-hat II, 36, 38
Ame-em-hat III, 16, 25, 37 ff., 57, 59
Ame-em-hat I, 18, 40

Ame-htep I, 54
Ame-htep II, 42, 57
Ame-htep III, 58 ff.
Ame-htep I, 42, 60, 65
Ammaus, phylach, 44, 105
Ammus, wte, 100 ff., 119, 125
Amu-ash, sheykh, 43, 44
Aaas f a, 179
Aastasus f a, 130, 177
Aastasus, wte, 110, 112
Aazeh, tbe, 190, 192
Adew, mk, 111
Aglue, wte, 156, 157
Akhab, 35
Atus Maty, wte, 98, 99, 125, 127
Atus f Cema, wte, 155, 157
Atus f a, 179
Au, peple, 15, 33, 39, 41
Aadaa, 115, 120
Aba, settlemet, 99, 172
Aetas I ad III, 86
Ast, 83, 84
Aus, 99, 100
Asela, settlemet, 113
Asus f a, 153
As, cty, 83, 87, 92, 94
Atapaus, wte, 10, 65 ff.
Athaasus I f a, 154
Athaasus II f a, 180
Athaasus, patach, 100

Aths, 10
Atka, 63
Aud, dvty, 47-8
Aul, 78
Avas, 48
Ayayme, tbe, 192
Ayu Musa, 70, 71, 84, 115, 172
Ba-alat, dvty, 24, 52
Baal-zeph, 70, 118
Babs, 11
Badet Th, 2, 46, 78, 191
Baedeke, gudebk, 95, 171
Balaam, 45, 79
Baldesel, wte, 155, 157, 163
Baldw, kg, 147
Babsa, wte, 147
Bahebus, wte, 65, 67
Batlett, wte, 4, 185
Bat, wte, 10
Basl, avde, 178
Basleus, Melgy, 97, 138
Basleus f eleuca, wte, 114
Baumgate, wte, 127, 187
Bedawy, 165, 188 ff.
Bel, wte, 175
Beedct III, Ppe, 136
Bejam f Tudela, wte, 146
Besat, wte, 191
Beyllus f Ala, 110

Bethambe. _ee_ Thambe.

Bach, wte, 170
Bbas, ulta, 153
Bch, ., wte, 8, etc.
B Hassaa, 171
B hawes, 78
B Themed, 51, 78
Bshps ad Achbshps f a, v
Bshps f Phaa, v
Blemmyes, peple, 102
Blss ad Macalste, wtes, 28
Bajut del Pa, 168
Bapate, 183
Bus, 144
But, tavelle, 185
Bacva, avde, 180
Beasted, _Hsty_, 30, 31
Beasted, _Recds_, x, 25, 32, etc.
Beydebach, wte, 167 ff.
Bggs, wte, 156
Bugsch, _Dct. Geg._, 93
Bugsch, _Relg_, 26
Bulls, Papal, 149, 178
Buckhadt, _Ntes_, 189
Buckhadt, _Tavels_, 44, 99, 111, etc.
Bug Bush, 67, 69
Busba, ulta, 165
But, wte, 82, 186, 189
Bush, settlemet, 98, 100, 106, 119, 123, 128, 136
Calxtus III, Ppe, 166

Callstatus f a, 188

Capgave, wte, 161
Casum, cty, 92, 93, 109
Castale, wte, 177
Cast, D Jh de, 174
Causs de Peceval, 48, 50
Chabt, wte, 149
Chales III f Face, 166
Chekh, wte, v, 124, 150
Cheb, settlemet. _ee_ Heb.
Clayt, Bshp, 180
Cldat, wte, 86, 92
Clesma  Clysma, 94, 115, 122, 143, _als_ Klzum.
Cda  Keda, settlemet, 101
Cstate f a, 137
Cstatus I f a, 181
Cstatus II f a, 181
Cvet, buldg f, 121 ff.
Cvet, ppety f, 148-50
Cppe, 3, 63
Csmas ad Damaus, 98, 172
Csmas Idcpleustes, 88, 115, 120
Csmas f a, 180
Cusades, 143 ff.
Cyllus I f a, 154
Cyllus II f a, 181
Cyllus III f a, 188
Dadkaa, 33, 34
Dahab, 5, 189

Datg f Egypta Dyastes, v

Datg f the Exdus, 64
Deltzuch, wte, 51
Demetus, wte, 65
De-etu, 31, 41
Deshe, 46
Ddus culus, wte, 51, 83, etc.
Dysus f Alexada, 95
Dzahab, 78
Djudu, kg, 50
Dbschtz, wte, 177
Dtheus f Peta, 147
Dtheus f a, 153
Dtheus II f a, 182
Dughty, wte, 24, 50, 70
Dulas, mk, 101, 104
Dulas, upe, 124
Dulcetus, mk, 132
Ea, dvty, 10, 15
Ebes, wte, 46, 187
Ebewe, wte, 139
Edm, 5, 43, 47, 79
Edz, wte, 146
Egyptas  a, 30 ff., 52 ff.
El Ash, cty, 91, 145, 146
El Kaa, deset, 4, 189
El Makha, pla, 3, 17, 18
El Paa, 41, 45, 72, _als_ Phaa.
El Ramlah, 50
Elas, mk, 108

Elas, upe, 137

Eljah, pphet, 94, 117, 137
Elm, 70, 120
Elm, settlemet, 102, 108, _als_ Rathu.
Elusa, cty, 79, 108, 125
Epphaus, mk, 111
Epphaus, wte, 25, 65, 100
Epsteme, 98
Esau, 47
Etham, 70, 118
Ethea, wte, 88, 90, 114 ff.
Eucheus, wte, 95
Eugeus f a, 177
Eusebus, mk, 108, 111
Eusebus, wte, 10, 66, 79
Euthymus f a, 150
Eutg, wte, 89
Eutychus, wte, 82, 122, 124, 129
Evagus, wte, 133
Ezgebe, 80
Fab, wte, 166, 167
Faa, 81, _als_ Phaa.
Fama, cty, 145, 147
Ft, wte, 114
Facscas  a, 156, 165
Faymaspeg, wte, 155, 158
Fescbald, wte, 156, 162
Fetellus, wte, 142, 146
Fmt, 136 ff.

Gabel I f a, 145

Gabel II f a, 154
Galact, mk, 97
Gamu, wte, 114
Gade, Ala, 24
Gadthause, wte, 132, 153
Gadeas, peple, 84
Gaasheh, tbe, 189
Gebbet e Ramleh, 2
Gebel el Ejeh, 2
Gebel Emekah, 2
Gebel e Raha, 46
Gebel Hammam Faa, 46
Gebel Hau, 147, _als_ H.
Gebel Hellal, 171
Gebel Kat, 4, 158, 171
Gebel Mukattab, 89
Gebel Musa, 4, 124, 127, 141
Gebel Thebt, 4
Gebel Umm Iswed, 4
Gebel Umm Rgl, 3
Gebel Umm hme, 4
Gebelyeh, tbe, 189, 191
Gege, mk, 113
Gege f a, 145
Gemaus I ad II f a, 150
Gemaus III f a, 154
Gea, cty, 92, 93, 97
Gethabb. _ee_ Thambe.
Gusta, wte, 139

Gzet el Faau, 46, 149

Glabe, wte, 137
Gshe, 10, 26, 28, 73, 83, 118
Guda, settlemet, 113
Geg v Gamg, wte, 127-8, 167
Gegades f Rhcua, 145
Gegades, wte, 148-50, 166
Gegus, upe, 133
Gegy I, Ppe, 130
Gegy IX, Ppe, 149, 178
Gubeats, wte, 180
Halll, 184
Ha-ela. _ee_ Peta.
Hadwck, wte, 141
Haff, Rtte v, 120, 162, 169
Haakt, 36
Hath, dvty, 22 ff., 35 ff., 56 ff., 83
Hatshepsut, uee, 26, 53, 56-7
Havlah, 2, 45, 47
Hazeth, 78
Hedjaz, pvce, 45, 135
Hewatt, tbe, 190, 192
Helea, empess, 99
Helffech, wte, 177
He III f Face, 177
Hey II f Buswck, 153
Hemts, 94 ff.
Hemgees f Rhcua, 109
Heyd, wte, 156
Hgh Places, 20, 27, 58, 67

_Hma_, 6, 18
Hbab, 78
Hllad, Rev., 5, 186
Hus III, Ppe, 149, 178
H, Mut,  Gebel Hau, 68, 79
Heb, 67
Heb,  Cheb, settlemet, 101, 117, 125, 136
H-em-heb, 91
Htes, 41
Hmah, 80
Hua, 38
Hughes, wte, 29, 75
Hug f Flavgy, wte, 140
Hull, Ed., wte, 1
Hume, W. F., wte, 4
Hykss, 42, 48
Hypatus, mk, 108
Ib Ishak, wte, 134
Ib Zbe, wte, 146
Icet I, Ppe, 154
Icet III, Ppe, 178
Icet IX, Ppe, 179
Iby ad Magles, wtes, 92
Isabella f pa, 166
Isaah, mk, 101
Isauus, mk, 130
Ishmael, 46, 47
Ishmaeltes, 47, 95, _als_ aaces.
Isdus, wte, 109

Isaeltes  a, 64 ff.

Jacp, wte, 155, 158
Jacues f ty, wte, 147
Jastw, wte, 10
Jeemah f Cstatple, 180
Jeth, 67, 74, 78, 81, 116
Jaes de Hese, wte, 167, 168
Jacus I f a, 179, 180
Jacus II f a, 180
Jasaph f a, 178 ff.
Jh Clx, wte, 111
Jh Clmacus, 110, 112, 130, 172
Jh, mk, 107
Jh Mschus, 110 ff.
Jh I f a, 144
Jh II f a, 145
Jh III f a, 153
Jh the abate, 112, 113
Js va Ghstelle, wte, 167, 171
Jus f a, 137
Jseph, mk, 102
Jsephus, wte, 41, 65, etc.
Jshua, 22, 80
Jula abbas, mk, 98, 116
Julus II, Ppe, 178
Justa, empe, 121 ff., 177
Kadesh, 68, 151, _als_ A Kades.
Kataa, 86, 92
Kathee, t., 134 ff., 151, 154 ff.

Kata, 86, 92
Keda, settlemet, 101
Keduma  Aduma, 43
Ketes, 68
Khalesa. _ee_ Elusa.
Khall abag, wte, 181
Khalu  Khau, 42
Khet, uee, 35
Khet-htep, 36
Khufu, 14, 15, 33, 41, 186
Kbth-Hata-avah, 78, 119
Kust, wte, 142
Klzum, 81, 143, 144, _als_ Clesma.
Ka, 18, 24, 49, 50, 81, 92
Kbekff, wte, 177
Labb, wte, 109, etc.
Labde ad Lat, wtes, 129, 185
Lachmeses, peple, 135
Lammes, wte, 166
Lampetus f Casum, 109
Lauetus f a, 177
Lema, 167
Le Na de Tllemt, 97
Lepsus, wte, 4, 46, 185, 187
Leue, wte, 99, etc.
Leukkme, 85 ff.
Leweste, wte, 176
Lgus, upe, 130
Lus IX f Face, 142, 153
Lus XI f Face, 166

Lua  Lev, 36
Ludlf f udhem, 155, 157
Macaus f Phaa, 110
Macaus I ad II f a, 150
Macdald, Maj, 186
Madeus, wte, 154
Mada. _ee_ Mda.
Mafkat. _ee_ Tuuse.
Maga  Magaa, 8
Maghaa. _ee_ Wad Maghaa.
Makz, wte, 45, 80, 85, 124
Malchs I, 86
Malcha, settlemet, 111, 112
Maeth, 65
Ma, wte, 149
Maa, 6, 72, 78
Maah, 70, 115
Maaeas, 84
Maca, empe, 110
Macus I f a, 137
Macus II f a, 154
Mate, wte, 156, 161
Matys, mk, 113
Massah, 72
Masud, wte, 44, 82
Maudevlle, wte, 155, 158
Mava  Maa, uee, 104, 105
Maxmla I, empe, 166
Maxmla II, empe, 177

_Mazzebth_, 22, 34, 49, 75

Mehemed Al, 184, 185, 190
Meste K., wte, 114
Melas f Rhcua, 100
Melk el Nas, ulta, 155
Mea, mk, 70
Me-kau-h, 42
Metu, peple, 26, 33, 34, 39, 42
Metu-htep, 34
Mee-ptah, 62
Mebah, 72, 78
Meytame, 54
Meyt-ate, 66
Mchael f a, 154
Mda  Mada, 81, 82
Mlukhkha, 3, 8, 45
Mam, 78
Mab, 80, 81
Mhammad, pphet, 134 ff.
Mcys, wte, 178
Meale, 147, 151, _als_ Peta.
Ms Latus, settlemet, 138
M-cult, 8 ff.
Mses f Phaa, 102, 104, 105
Mses, pphet, 41, 60, 64 ff., 98, 99, 116, 117
Msue  Gebel Musa, 127, 160
Mukadds, wte, 134, 144
Mualt, wte, 148
Muay, gudebk, 27
Nabat ad Nabateas, 83 ff.

Naghb el Rack, 171

Nakhb, 5
Nakhl, Kala at e, 2, 51, 171, 175,
185, 190
Naty f Phaa, 105
Nawams, 90
Nectaeb, 93
Nectaus, wte, 95, 99, 129, 178
Netzschtz, wte, 178
Nestus, 109
Ncephus f a, 181
Nebuh, wte, 17, 89, 181
Nelsse, wte, 77
Nlus, wte, 106 ff.
Ntcs, uee, 82
Nmady, dukes f, 137, 141
Obedaus, sheykh, 100, 104
Ol, hly, 140, 152, 153, 157, 172
Ophus, hemt, 95, 164
Odace uvey, x, 1, 6, 125, 126, 184, 189
Ots, mk, 131
Osus, wte, 115
Ostace, 92, 100, 109
Pa-kesem, 10, 26
Palladus, mk, 130
Pa-ahet. _ee_ Phahth.
Palme, E. H., 1, 89, 125, 126, 191
Palme, H. ., wte, 6
Paphutus, mk, 95, 96

Passve, 70, 71, 77

Paul f Peta, 102
Paul II ad III, Ppes, 178
Paulus a Lat, 138
Paulus II f Ala, 121
Paulus, mk, 107
Ped da Cavlla, 168
Pepy I ad II, 33
Pegaphe, 109, 112, 124
Pe-pd, 26, 83,  Pa-kesem.
Pete f Ala, 99
Pete f Alexada, 101, 104
Pete f Jeusalem, 132
Peta, cty, 44, 49, 79, 86, 90, 92, 108, _als_ Meale.
Pete, Pf.: _Abyds_, 12;
_Egypta Tales_, 26, 32, 43;
_Hsty_, 42, 43;
_Reseaches_, x, 18, etc.
Petus Dacus, 115, 116
Peutge Table, 93, 94
Phacusa, 119, _als_ Pe-pd  Pa-kesem.
Phaa, cty, 44, 94, 104, 116, etc.
Phllp f Face, 166
Phl, wte, 65, 67
Phtus f Phaa, 132
Pet della alle, 89
Pet Za, Dge, 148
Phahth, 70, 118
Plgms, 155 ff.
Plt, wte, 162, 165
Pthm, 118

Ply, 46, 92
Pccke, Bshp, 98, 126, 135, 181
Plybus f Rhcua, 100
Pmpey the Geat, 93
Pcet, wte, 180
Psakw, 176
Pstumaus, 96
Pclus, mk, 108
Pcpus, wte, 122, 127
Ppety f cvet, 149, 150, 180
Pudhe, Ld, 185
Psamtek I, 83
Pses, mk, 102, 104
Ptahwe, 39, 42
Pteles, 111
Ptlemus f Rhcua, 109, 145
Ptlemy, gegaphe, 44, 46, 49, 51
Puteus lda, 2, 157
Qas Ghat, 86
Raamses, cty, 65
Ra-e-use, 33, 42
Rafa, _als_ Rapha, 1, 44, 93, 170, 191
Raguel. _ee_ Reuel.
Raha  Raha, 46, 116
Rathu, 48, 102, 111, etc.
Ralegh,  W., 175
Rameses, cty, 65, 70, 118
Ramessu I, 60
Ramessu II, 62, 64

Ramessu III, 43, 62

Ramessu I ad , 63
Ramessu I, 63, 83
Rapha. _ee_ Rafa.
Ras Fatak, 5
Ras Mhammad, 4, 5, 46
Ras afsaf, 4, 111
Ra-smekh-ka, 66
Ressbuch, 155, 167, 176
Reaud, Dm, wte, 183
Reaudt, wte, 136
Repham, 41, 44
Reteu, peple, 36, 42
Reuel  Raguel, 67, 78
Rewch, 168
Rhcua, 11, 100, 109, etc.
Rete, wte, 167
Rbs, wte, 78, 130, 185,187, 188
Rehcht, wte, 167
Ruala, tbe, 192
Rppell, wte, 56, 185
Rustcaa, 131

abbas, mk, 101, 102

abbas f a, 154
afed, 27, 28
ahua, 33
ad Pasha, 186
ad, tbe, 124, 189
aladd, 147
alael settlemet, 108

aleh, pphet, 49, 50

aleh, Beu,  awalheh, 49, 124, 135, 188
aekht, 32
aaces, 95, 125, 163
abut el Khadem. _ee_ eabt.
awalheh. _ee_ aleh, Beu.
ayce, Pf., 8, 17
ebat, pcess, 35
ebek-he-heb, 38
eetze, wte, 17, 184, 185, 187
elm, ulta, 135, 174, 175
emekhet, 14, 31
e-uset I, 26, 34, 35, 43
e-uset II, 26, 36
e-uset III, 36
eabt, 3, 12, 17 ff., 83, etc.
eap f Ostace, 83
ebal, 4, 7
eba Bg, 92
egus, Abbas, 111
egus, mk, 103
et-ekht, 62
ety I, 43, 60
ety II, 62
eveus, wte, 96
haddad, kg, 48
hah, Auled, tbe, 189
hem, 5, 189
heb, 81, 82
hphet, 28

hu, 2, 45, 70, 93, 115

cad, Pefect, 180
dde, settlemet, 112
gl, wte, 156
lvaus, mk, 96
lvaus f Phaa, 154
lva f Autae, 114
me Metaphastes, 97, 138, 162
me, mk, 127, 139
me f a, 148, 153
, m-gd, 8
, wldeess, 2, 8, 70
ses, mk, 114
mth-Lews, Ms., 100, 132
mth, Rbets, 20, 24, 41, 42, 48
efeu, 13, 32, 34, 57
cates, wte, 105
lms, Cut, 168, 170
lm f a, 154
l, mk, 100
g f Debah, 8, 68
pd  pdu, 25, 39, 56, 59, 67
zmeus, wte, 95, 97, 100
pege, wte, 49, 95
tephas, bulde, 129
tephe Maty, 66
tephe, mk, 112
tephe f Cappadca, 113, 132
tab, 84, 87, 92
uccth, 70, 118

yllus, geeal, 87
Tabeah, 78, 119
Tafu, wte, 148, 166
Tahheh b Rbah, 134
Tahutmes I, 43, 54
Tahutmes II, 54
Tahutmes III, 42, 43, 56, 57, 62
Tahutmes I, 58
Tafat el Gdaa, 7
Tat ed Dham, 3
Ta-uset, 62
Tell e Rtab, 70, 118
Tell es af, 27
Teeb, tbe, 190, 192
Tewfk Pasha, 186
Thamudtes, 48-51
Thectstes f Ostace, 100
Thed f Phaa, 133
Theda, empess, 121, 129
Thedet, wte, 98
Thedsus, mk, 110
Thedsus f a, 150
Theduls, mk, 107, 108
Theas, mk, 121
Thvet, wte, 178
Thetma, wte, 129, 142, 150-2
Thlas, settlemet, 98, 108, 110, 113
Thmas f wybue, 161
Thth, dvty, 10, 14, 15

Thambe  Bethambe  Gethabb, settlemet, 101, 108

Thuku, 70, _.e._ uccth.
Thy, uee, 60, 61
Tschedf, wte, 89, 126, 185
Tyaha, tbe, 188 ff.
Tble, wte, 128
T. _ee_ Tu.
Twaah, tbe, 184, 188 ff.
Taja, empe, 90
Tumpet, 75
Tuche, wte, 167
Tu, cty, 5, 95, 120, etc., 186
Tuuse, 3, 23, 32, 34, 38, 56, 63
Tut-akh-ame, 66
Uba III, Ppe, 178
Uz, lad f, 47

aleus, wte, 114

ley, wte, 181
Wad Aleyat, 90
Wad Baba, 3, 6, 17
Wad Bateh, 17
Wad Beda, 3
Wad Dhaba, 17, 52, 54, 74
Wad el Aabah, 5, 190
Wad el Ash, 2, 5, 49, 91, 170, 171
Wad el Ja, 171
Wad el Watyeh, 171
Wad eth Themed, 101 .
Wad Fea, 5, 6, 46, 133, 189

Wad Ghaadel, 5, 70, 84, 116, 172

Wad Hafea, 78
Wad Heba, 101
Wad Jaf, 2
Wad Khalg, 3, 40
Wad Laya, 99
Wad Maghaa, 14, 30 ff., 185
Wad Malga, 111
Wad Nasb, 3, 6, 17, 30, etc.
Wad eeb, 3, 112
Wad ebal, 4, 6
Wad heykh, 50
Wad deh, 3
Wad gllyeh, 108
Wad uweg, 17
Wad Tlaah, 98
Wad Umm Agaf, 3, 5, 18, 67, 112, 113
Wad Weda, 172
Wad Wutah, 90
Wel, wte, 66
Well, Capt., wte, 1, 17, 33, 101, 160
Wlks, wte, 26
Wllam f Tye, wte, 147
Wls ad Palme, x, 1, etc.
Wmbse, wte, 176
Yahveh, 68, 77
Zachaas, mk, 97
Zachaas f a, 145
Zehe, Phaah, 93

Ze f Rhcua, 109

Zese, Phaah, 32
Zget el Faau, 148, 149
Z, 8, 72
Zsmus, mk, 132
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWE AND ON, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLE.

FOOTNOTE:
[1] Wls ad Palme: _Odace uvey_, 1870-71; Hull, Ed.: _Mut
e, a ad Weste Paleste, 1885, wth gelgcal map_; Well,
R.: _La pesule de a_, 1908.
[2] Lepsus: _Rese ach a_, 1846, p. 19 ff.
[3] Batlett, W. H.: _Fty Days  the Deset_, 1849, p. 88.
[4] Hume, W. F.: _Tpgaphy ad Gelgy f the uth-easte Pt
f a_, 1906.
[5] _Odace uvey_, . 226.
[6] I ths ad the passages f the Bble, the wd that stads as
cal shuld be udestd as chacal.
[7] Palme, H. .: _a fm the Futh Dyasty_, evsed by Pf.
ayce, 1892, p. 47.
[8] Bch, .: _Recds f the Past_. New ees. Edt. ayce, I. 41.
[9] _Ibd._, II, 75, 83.
[10] Bch, .: _Recds f the Past_, XI. 148.
[11] Jastw, M.: _The Relg f Babyla ad Assya_, 1898, p. 76.
[12] Al Bu (Muhammad Ib Ahmad): _Chlgy f Acet Nats_,
tasl. achau, 1879, p. 187.
[13] Cted Eusebus, _Evag. Pp._, bk. x. c. 18, c. 23.
[14] Bat, G. A.: _A ketch f emtc Ogs_, 1902, p. 198.
[15] Bch, _Rec. Past_, N.., I. 145.
[16] uch tablets ae  vew  the Btsh Museum.
[17] Pete, W. M. Fl.: _Heakpls_, I. 1900, p. 129.
[18] Pete, W. M. Fl.: _Abyds_, I. 1902, p. 25.

[19] O the datg f the dyastes f the Egypta kgs, see p. v.

[20] Cf. Well, R.: _La pesule de a_, 1908, p. 302.
[21] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 72 ff.
[22] mth, W. Rbets: _The Relg f the emtes_, Ed. 1901, p.
197.
[23] _Ibd._, p. 490.
[24] Hastgs: _Dctay f the Bble_, at. Hgh Places.
[25] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 99.
[26] Hastgs: _Dctay f the Bble_, at. Glgal.
[27] Gade, Ala: _Jual f Egypta Achl._, 1916, vl. 3, p. 1.
[28] mth, W. Rbets: _Lectues ad Essays_, 1912, p. 554.
[29] Wellhause: _Reste Aabsche Hedethums_, 1897, pp. 30, 39.
[30] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 133.
[31] _Ibd._, p. 134.
[32] _H._ 79  Mge: _Pat. Gc._, xl, 742.
[33] Beasted, J. H.: _Acet Recds f Egypt_, . 722.
[34] Pete: _Res. a_, fg. 98.
[35] Pete: _Egypta Tales_, I. 1895, p. 116.
[36] Bugsch, H.: _Relg u. Mythlge de alte Egypte_, 1888, p.
568.
[37] Wlks: _Acet Egypt_, ed. 1878, vl. 3, 234-6.
[38] Muay: _Paleste ad ya_, 1903, p. 259.
[39] Bch: _Rec. Past_, , p. 111.
[40] Blss, F. G., ad Macalste, R.: _Excavats  Paleste_, 1902.
[41] Hughes, Th.: _Dctay f Islam_, 1845, at. Masjd.
[42] Pete, W. M. Fldes: _Reseaches  a_, 1906.
[43] Beasted, J. H.: _A Hsty f Egypt_, 1909, p. 597.
[44] Beasted: _A Hsty_, fg. 26, p. 42.
[45] Pete: _Res. a_, fg. 49.
[46] Beasted: _Rec._, . 731.
[47] Pete: _Egypta Tales_, I. p. 18.

[48] Well, R.: _Recuel des Iscpts_, 1904, 120 ff.

[49] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 52.
[50] _Ibd._, p. 123.
[51] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 124.
[52] Beasted: _Rec._, . 713, 717-8.
[53] Beasted: _Rec._, . 735-6.
[54] _Ibd._, pp. 725-7.
[55] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 66.
[56] Beasted: _Rec._, . 728; Pete: _Res. a_, p. 156.
[57] Beasted: _Rec._, . 716.
[58] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 27.
[59] mth, W. Rbets: _Lectues_, p. 471.
[60] Pete: _Hst._, . 105.
[61] _Ibd._, . 22.
[62] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 118.
[63] Pete: _Egypta Tales_, . 97-127.
[64] Pete: _Hst._, . 101; . 3.
[65] Beasted: _Rec._, v. 28.
[66] Buckhadt: _Tavels  ya_, ed. 1822, p. 544.
[67] Bch: _Rec. Past_, v. 26.
[68] Masud: _Paes dO_, c. 4, tad. _ct Asatue_, vl. .
p. 98.
[69] Makz: _Descpt de lEgypte_, 1900, . 27, p. 543.
[70] Ebes: _Duch Gse zum a_, 1872, p. 288.
[71] Lepsus: _Dekmle_, . 150, a. 12.
[72] Keth Jhs: _Geeal Atlas_.
[73] Hastgs: _Dct. Bble_, at. Esau.
[74] Masud: _Paes_, c. 3, vl. . p. 77.
[75] mth, W. Rbets: _Kshp ad Maage  Ealy Aaba_, 1885,
p. 260.
[76] Masud: _Paes_, c. 37, vl. 3, p. 78.

[77] Causs de Peceval, A. P.: _Essa su lhste des Aabes avat
lIslam_, 1847, . 13.
[78] Makz: _Descp._, . 21, p. 523.
[79] pege: _Alte Gegaphe Aabes_, 1875, . 207, p. 144.
[80] Makz: _Descp._, . 27; _De la vlle dElah_, p. 530.
[81] Dughty: _Tavels_, ed. 1888, . p. 81, etc.
[82] Causs: _Essa_, . 26.
[83] Masud: _Paes_, c. 38, vl. 3, p. 90.
[84] Deltzsch: _W lag das Paades_, 1881, p. 304.
[85] pege: . 314, p. 192.
[86] Dd. culus: _Bbltheca_, . 3, tas. 1814, p. 185.
[87] Causs: _Essa_, . 27.
[88] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 127.
[89] _Ibd._
[90] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 151.
[91] Beasted: _Rec._, v. 404-9.
[92] Hastgs: _Dct. Bb._, at. Hexateuch.
[93] _Ch. Lbe_ III. Mge: _Pat. Gc._, xx. 374.
[94] _H._, 78  Mge: _Pat. Gc._, xl. 745.
[95] Bahebus: _Chc_, 1789, p. 14.
[96] Cted Eusebus: _Evag. Pp_., bk. x. 27.
[97] _Chc Paschale_  Mge: _Pat. Gc._, xc. 200.
[98] Wel, G.: _Bblcal Legeds f the Mslm_, 1846, p. 100.
[99] Eusebus: _Evag. Pp._, bk. x. c. 27.
[100] Bahebus: _Ch._, p. 79.
[101] Dughty: _Tavels_, p. 8.
[102] Pete: _Res. a_, p. 211.
[103] _Ecyclpda Bt._, at. a.
[104] Hughes: _Dct. f Islam_, at. Aza.
[105] Ramada, the tme whe the heat cmmeced ad the sl was
bug ht. _Al Bu_ (c. a.d. 1000), c. 19, 1879, p. 321.

[106] Nelsse, D.: _Altaabsche Mdelg_, 1904, p. 276.

[107] Rbs, E.: _Bblcal Reseaches  Paleste_, ed. 1867, vl.
. p. 157.
[108] Cmp. Hastgs: _Dct._, at. Dzahab.
[109] _ta_, c. 25  Mge: _Pat. Lat._, xx. p. 39.
[110] Rbs: . 175.
[111] Eusebus: _Omastk_, ed. Lagade, 1887, p. 291.
[112] Makz: _Desc._, . 24, p. 530, De la vlle dElah.
[113] Makz: _Desc._, . 25, p. 540.
[114] But,  R.: _The Glde Mes f Mda_, 1878.
[115] Eutychus: _Aales_  Mge: _Pat. Gc._, cx. 930.
[116] Masud: _Paes_, c. 47, vl. . p. 305.
[117] Beasted: _Rec._, v. 956.
[118] Ddus c.: . 3, tasl. 1814, I. p. 183.
[119] tab, xv. 4, 18; 776.
[120] Jsephus: _At._, . 12, 4.
[121] Bch: _Rec. Past._, N. ., v. 120; v. 85.
[122] Bch: _Rec. Past._, N. ., v. 120; v. 85.
[123] Bch: _Rec. Past._, . 26, 93, etc.
[124] Makz: _Hsty f the Cpts_, tasl. Wstefeld, 1845, p. 1.
[125] Dd. c.: xx. 6, tasl. 1814, I. p. 398.
[126] Cldat, J.: _Fulles_  _Memes_, x. 1913, p. 145-168,
Isttut faas dAchlge etale.
[127] tab: xv. 4, 22; 780.
[128] Bch: _Rec. Past_, . 98.
[129] Csmas Id.: _Chsta Tpgaphy_, tasl. McCdle, 1897, p.
159.
[130] Cf. Well: _La Pesule_, p. 288.
[131] Tschedf: _yage e tee sate_, 1868, p. 33.
[132] Eutg, J.: _Nabataesche Ischfte aus Aabe_, 1885.
[133] Eutg, J.: _atsche Ischfte_, 1891.

[134] Dd. c.: I. 5, tasl. 1814, I. 64.

[135] tab: xv. 4, 23; 780
[136] Iby ad Magles: _Tavels  Egypt_, etc., ed. 1844, p. 54.
[137] Bugsch: _Dct. Geg._, 1879, p. 52, 1105.
[138] pege: _Alte. Geg._, . 326, p. 199.
[139] Eucheus: _Epst._, ed. Geye, _Ite. He._, 1908, p. 122.
[140] zmeus: _Hst._, v. 38.
[141] Dysus: _Ep. ad Fabum_. Mge: _Pat. Gc._, x. 1306.
[142] Nectaus: _Eptme f Hly Hsty_, 1805, p. 75.
[143] Baedeke: _Lwe Egypt_, 1895, p. 270.
[144] Paphutus: _ta t. Oph_, Mge: _Pat. Gc._, lxx.
211-22.
[145] _De ta Patum_, v. 11, Mge: _Pat. Lat._, lxx. 1009.
[146] eveus: _Dalgue_, . 17, Mge: _Pat. Lat._, xx. 199.
[147] zmeus: _Hst._, v. 32.
[148] Le Na de Tllemt: _Memes pu sev lhste
eccles._, x. p. 448-451.
[149] Nv. 5. Mge: _Pat. Gc._, cxv. 143.
[150] _ta . Galacts_, Mge: _Pat. Gc._, cxv. 94.
[151] Pccke, Bshp: _A Descpt f the East_, 1743, . 147.
[152] Thedet: _Relgsa Hsta_, Mge: _Pat. Gc._, lxxx.
1315.
[153] Atus Maty: _Iteaum_, c. 40, ed. Geye, p. 186.
[154] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 95.
[155] Buckhadt: p. 544.
[156] Leue: _Oes Chstaus_, 1740, . 759.
[157] Epphaus: _H._, 73, 26. Mge: _Pat. Gc._, xl. 454.
[158] Leue: _O. Ch._, . 545.
[159] zmeus: _Hst._, v. 31.
[160] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 73-93; mth-Lews, Ages: _The Fty
Matys f a_  _H emt._, . 9, 1912.
[161] Well lcated ths  the Wad Eth Themed, the uppe pat f the
Wad Heba. 1908, p. 198.

[162] cates: _Hst._, v. 36.

[163] _Iteay_, tasl. Pal. Plg. c., vl. 3, p. 52, 1891.
[164] _Acta . Bll._, Feb. 7, . p. 45.
[165] Nlus: _Naates_, Mge: _Pat. Gc._, lxxx. pp. 590-693.
[166] Well lcated alael  the peset Wad gllyeh, p. 195.
[167] _Pegaphe f Hly Mut a_ (fst ssued by the
achmadte Jeemah  1768), ed. 1817, p. 173.
[168] Labb: _Ccla_, ed. Mas, v. 615-17.
[169] Isdus: _Epstl. lbe_, v. 358, 448, etc.,  Mge: _Pat.
Gc._, lxxv.
[170] Leue: _O. Chst._, . 543.
[171] Labb: _Cc._, v. 1477.
[172] Labb: _Cc._, v. 567.
[173] _Ibd._, v. 483.
[174] Leue: _O. Chst._, . 751.
[175] Jaes Mschus: _Patum ptuale_, . 117,  Mge: _Pat.
Gc._, lxxxv. pas. 3.
[176] Buckhadt: p. 546.
[177] Aastasus: _Rcts dts_, F. Nau, 1902.
[178] Jh. Clmacus: _cal Paadsa_, . 7  Mge: _Pat. Gc._,
lxxxv. 814.
[179] _Pegaphe_, p. 164.
[180] Ft: _La vetable auteu de la Peegat lv_, 1903.
[181] aleus: _De B. Ethea_  Mge: _Pat. Lat._, lxxxv. 422.
[182] Basleus: _De ta et M. . Tecl_. Mge: _Pat. Gc._,
lxxxv. 618.
[183] Petus Dacus: _Lbe de lcs sacts_, p. 115  Geye:
_Itea Hes._, 1898.
[184] Osus: _Hst._, . 10, Mge: _Pat. Lat._, xxx. p. 717.
[185] Csmas Id.: v. p. 193.
[186] Mses  Phacuss. Leue: _O. Hst._, . 546.
[187] Leue: _O. Chst._, . 759.
[188] Labb: _Cc._, v. pp. 884, 889.

[189] Pcpus: _De dfc._, v. 8, tasl. Pal. Plg. c., . 1897,
147.
[190] Eutychus: _Aales_, 1071.
[191] Makz: _Hsty f the Cpts_, p. 116.
[192] Chekh: _Les achvues du a_,  _Mlages de la facult
etale de t. Jseph_, . 1907, p. 408, ff.
[193] Atus Maty, c. 38. Accdg t athe text pted by
Geye: Quad etam vet tempus festvtats psum ecuete lua,
ateuam egedatu lua, ad dem festum psum cpt clem mutae
mam la (ed. 1898, p. 184, 213).
[194] _Od. uvey_, . 67.
[195] Chekh: p. 411.
[196] Tschedf: _yage_, 1868, p. 55.
[197] _Od. uvey_, . 209.
[198] Geg v Gamg: _Ephemes peegats_,  Pez:
_Thesauus Aecdt._, . pat 3, p. 498.
[199] Tble: _Glgtha_, ed. 1849, p. 139.
[200] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 159. Athe eadg s tephas, s f
Matys, bulde ad achtect, fm Ala.
[201] Labde et Lat: _yage de lAabe Pte_, 1830.
[202] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 159.
[203] Rbs, E.: _Reseaches_, vl. . 99.
[204] Gegus: _Epst. Lbe_  Mge: _Pat. Lat._, lxxv. x. 1,
p. 1118; x. 2, p. 1119; . 23, p. 562.
[205] Gegus: _Epst._, v. 49, p. 719.
[206] Gadthause, ct: _Catalg. Cd. Gc. ._, 1886.
[207] mth-Lews, Ages: _atc tudes_, . 1, . 3.
[208] Mschus: _Patum_, . 123-4, 127.
[209] Evagus: _Hst. Eccles._ Mge: _Pat. Gc._, lxxxv. 2, p.
2803.
[210] Eutychus: _Aales_, p. 1082.
[211] Labb: _Cc._, x. 1071.
[212] Makz: _Desc._, . 25, tad. 1900, _De la vlle dElah_, p.
532.
[213] _Descpt f ya_, tasl. Pal. Plg. c., 1892, vl. 3, p.

64.
[214] Buckhadt: p. 546.
[215] Pccke: . p. 258.
[216] Makz: _Descp._, 1895, . 25, p. 209.
[217] Eutychus: _Aales_, p. 1072.
[218] Reaudt, E. .: _Hst. Patach. Alex._, 1713, p. 841.
[219] De Ftmud,  Mabll: _Acta Od. t. Beedct._, vl. ,
219.
[220] Pccke: . 146.
[221] _Cmmematum_, a M. f the 9th  10th _cetuy_, edt.
Tble: _Descptes Te act_, 1874, p. 139.
[222] _Pegaphe_, p. 152.
[223] Labb: _Cc._, vl. xv. p. 194.
[224] Leue: _O. Chs._, . 754.
[225] Glabe: _Hst. Lb. Quue_,  _Cllect pu sev
lhste_, 1886.
[226] ta Paul Ju.,  _Aalecta Bll._, x. 1892, p. 1-74, 136-182.
[227] Rbs: . p. 132; _Od. uv._, . 60.
[228] Nv. 25. Mge: _Pat. Gc._, cxv. 179.
[229] _Matyum t. Cathe_  Mge: _Pat. Gc._, cxv. 275-302.
[230] _Hst. Eccles._, v. 34.
[231] Gusta, Be.: _Hst. cl. de d mlta_, ed.
1672, , p. 188.
[232] _ta t. yme_ s  _Acta ._ Bll. Jue 1, pp. 89-95.
[233] _Taslat et Macula t. Kath._  _Aalecta Bllad._, 1902,
vl. 22, pp. 423-39.
[234] _Chc_, . 26  Mge: _Pat. Lat._, clv. 25.
[235] Casus, H.: _Thesauus M. Eccles._, v. 1725, p. 345.
[236] _Taslat_, p. 423, ftte.
[237] Hadwck: _Hstcal Euy_, etc., 1849.
[238] Kust: _Geschchte de Legede de hel. Kathaa v Alex._,
1890.
[239] Mukadds: 3, 65.

[240] Ademaus: _Chcle_, 3, 47, ed. 1897, p. 170.

[241] Makz: _Descp._, . 24.
[242] _ta_  _Acta ._ Bll., Aug. 30, p. 627.
[243] Nectaus: _Eptme_, p. 211; _Pegaphe_, p. 153.
[244] Abu aleh: _Chuches, etc._, tas. Butle, 1895, p. 167.
[245] Bejam f Tudela: _Iteay_, tas. Adle, 1907, p. 77.
[246] Fetellus: _Jeusalem_, etc., Pal. Plg. c., 1892, vl. 5, p.
16.
[247] Albet f Ax: _Hst._, x. 21  Mge: _Pat. Lat._, clxv. p.
707.
[248] Wllam f Tye, _Hst._, xx. 3  Mge: _Pat. Lat._, cc. p.
781.
[249] Leue: . 727, meted that Dthes, bshp f Peta,
was peset at the Cucl f Bethlehem  1672.
[250] Jacues f ty: _Hste des Csades_, tasl. Guzt, .
197.
[251] Tafu, P.: (1435-39): _Adaces et ajes_, ed. 1874, p. 94.
[252] Mualt: _Essa de Ch. Byz._, p. 312.
[253] Gegades: _Hly Mut a_, p. 98.
[254] Ma, H. K.: _Lves f the Ppes_, vl. 2, p. 293.
[255] Assema: _Bbl. Oetals_, , p. 511.
[256] Hus, Ppe: _Regesta_, 1888, . 123; , 178, 391, 394, 396.
[257] Chabt: _A pps du cvet_  _Revue de lOet. Chte._,
vl. v., 1900, p. 495.
[258] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 211; Chekh: p. 418.
[259] Thetma, Magste: _Peegat_, ed. Lauet, 1857.
[260] Gadthause: s. 94, 657, 662, 670.
[261] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 212.
[262] Madeus: _Atutates Buvceses_, 1661, p. 267.
[263] Bulls  _Achves de lOet Lat_, 1881, . 274, 283.
[264] Atus f Cema (_c._ 1331): _Iteaum_  _Zetschft
des deutsch. Palest. ees_, vl. x. yea 1890; Jacp f
ea (_c._ 1335): _Lbe Peegats_, ed. 1895,  _Revue de
lOet Lat_, . p. 163-302; Wlhelm de Baldesel (_c._ 1336):
_Hdepc_, ed. 1725,  Casus: _Thesauus_, vl. v.; Ludlf
f udhem  Rudlf de uche (_c._ 1336-41): _Rese_, ed. 1609, 

Feyeabed: _Ressbuch_, 1610, p. 803, ff.;  Jh Maudevlle (_c._

1340): _Tavels_, ed. Hallwell, 1866; Rudlf v Faymaspeg (_c._
1346), ed. 1725  Casus: _Thesauus_, vl. v. pp. 358-60.
[265] gl, me (1384): _agg al Mte a_, ed. Pt,
1831; Fescbald, Lad (1384): _agg_, ed. 1818; (Gucc:
_agg_  Gagll: _agg  tea sata_, 1862;) Mate, Nc.
(1393): _Lbe Peeg. ad lca sacta_  _Revue de lOet Lat_,
. 1895; Bggs (1392)  _Achves de lOet Lat_, 1884;
Aglue, Oge d (_c._ 1395): _Le sat vyage_, ed. Badt et
Leg: _c. des aces textes faas_, 1878.
[266] Heyd, W. v: _Gesch. des Levathadels_, 1879, vl. 2, 466.
[267] Well: _Pesule_, p. 93.
[268] Ed. 1893, p. 247.
[269] Plt: _Tactatus_,  _Mumets pu sev lhste_;
Bussels, vl. v. p. 357.
[270] Haff, A. v: _Plgefaht_, ed. 1860, p. 133.
[271] The meag f ths wd may be Lete pads.
[272] I Puchas: _Hs Plgms_, ept, v. 566.
[273] Lammes: _Mlages_  _Revue de lOet Chte_, v., 1902,
p. 503, ff.
[274] Leue: _O. Ch._, . 515.
[275] Gegades: p. 95.
[276] _Ibd._, pp. 101-107.
[277] Rhcht: _Deutsche Plgeese_, 1880, p. 104.
[278] Ades, Aselme (1470): _yage au Mt. a_, 1893, 
_Aales de la ct dEmulat_, e. v. tm. 4; Tuche, Has
(1479): _Beschebug de Rese_  Feyeabed: _Ressbuch_, 1609, p.
652-99; Rete: _Ressbuch_, 1884; Behad v. Beydebach (1483):
_Plgefaht_  Feyeabed: _Ressbuch_, pp. 91-229. ed. wth Rewchs
wdcuts, 1486; Felx Fab (1483): _Wadegs_, ., ., tasl.
Pal. Plg. c., vls. 7-10; Ja va Aets (1484), cf. Neefs: _Revue
Cathlue_, vl. x. 1873, p. 566; Js va Ghstelle: _Tvyage_, ed.
1572; Jaes de Hese (1489): _Rese_  appedx t Oppet: _Pesbyte
Jhaes_, 1864; Rtte v Haff (1496-99): _Plgefaht_, ed. 1860;
Mat Baumgate (1507): _Peegat_, 1594; Geg v Gamg
(1507): _Ephemes Peegats_,  Pez: _Thesauus_, 1721, .
[279] Facesc Alvaez: _yage_  Ramus: _Pm vlume delle
Navgaz_, 1588, p. 236.
[280] Ed. 1824, Rxbugh Club.
[281] Rhcht: p. 311
[282] Baedeke: 1895, p. 276.

[283] Babsa: Lette  Ramus: _Delle Nav._, 1888, p. 291.

[284] Heyd: _Levathadel_, . 540.
[285] Ed. Puchas: _Hs Plgms_, ept 1905, v. 236-310.
[286] Bel: _Obsevats de cetaes sgulats_, 1554, p. 126.
[287] Nectaus: _Ept._, p. 212.
[288] _Pegaphe_, p. 153.
[289] _yage_, ed. 1889  Khtw: _Itaes usses e Oet_, p.
288.
[290] _Pegaphe_, pp. 156-160.
[291] Lammes: _Mlages_, p. 503.
[292] Leue: _O. Ch._, . 517.
[293] Cf. Dbschtz: _ammelhadschft_  _Byz. Zetschft_, vl.
15, 1906, pp. 247-51.
[294] _Le sat vyage_, 1619, p. 564.
[295] Netzschtz: _ebejah Wadeug_, ed. 1674, p. 544.
[296] Mcys: _Jual de yage_, ed. 1665, p. 164.
[297] Thvet, Jea de: _yages_, 1689, vl. v. p. 532.
[298] Mcys: _Jual_, p. 203.
[299] Lacx: _Le Tuche Chtee_, 1695.
[300] Gubeats (Dm. de) Obs eaphcus: _Hsta de Tbus
Od._, 1888, . 293, 310.
[301] Pcet, C. J.: _Juey_  Pket: _yages_, vl. 15, 1814,
p. 105.
[302] Rbs: . p. 130.
[303] Reaud, Dm: _Le maste de te. Cathee_  _Revue de
lOet Chte_, 1900, p. 319-21.
[304] _Od. uvey_, . 200.
[305] eetze: _Rese_, 1807, vl. 3,  a.
[306] Gegades: pp. 88-117.
[307] Cted Well: _Pesule_, pp. 250, ftte.
[308] Palme, Pf.  _Od. uvey_, I, p. 456, ff.; But:
_Plgmage_ (1855), ed. 1879, p. 100, ff.; Buckhadt: _Ntes  the
Bedu_, 1830.
[309] Besat, W.: _Edwad Hey Palme_, 1883.

[310] _Tmes Hsty f the Wa_, pats 48, 128.

TRANCRIBER NOTE:
Obvus pt ad puctuat es wee cected.

Ed f the Pject Gutebeg EBk f A Hsty f a, by La Eckeste

*** END OF THI PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HITORY OF INAI ***
***** Ths fle shuld be amed 50390-0.txt  50390-0.zp *****
Ths ad all asscated fles f vaus fmats wll be fud :
http://www.gutebeg.g/5/0/3/9/50390/
Pduced by Gva F, hau Pde ad the Ole
Dstbuted Pfeadg Team at http://www.pgdp.et (Ths
fle was pduced fm mages geeusly made avalable
by The Iteet Achve)
Updated edts wll eplace the pevus e--the ld edts wll
be eamed.
Ceatg the wks fm pt edts t ptected by U.. cpyght
law meas that  e ws a Uted tates cpyght  these wks,
s the Fudat (ad yu!) ca cpy ad dstbute t  the Uted
tates wthut pemss ad wthut payg cpyght
yaltes. pecal ules, set fth  the Geeal Tems f Use pat
f ths lcese, apply t cpyg ad dstbutg Pject
Gutebeg-tm electc wks t ptect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
ccept ad tademak. Pject Gutebeg s a egsteed tademak,
ad may t be used f yu chage f the eBks, uless yu eceve
specfc pemss. If yu d t chage aythg f cpes f ths
eBk, cmplyg wth the ules s vey easy. Yu may use ths eBk
f ealy ay pupse such as ceat f devatve wks, epts,
pefmaces ad eseach. They may be mdfed ad pted ad gve
away--yu may d pactcally ANYTHING  the Uted tates wth eBks
t ptected by U.. cpyght law. Redstbut s subject t the
tademak lcese, especally cmmecal edstbut.

TART: FULL LICENE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENE
PLEAE READ THI BEFORE YOU DITRIBUTE OR UE THI WORK
T ptect the Pject Gutebeg-tm mss f pmtg the fee
dstbut f electc wks, by usg  dstbutg ths wk
( ay the wk asscated  ay way wth the phase "Pject
Gutebeg"), yu agee t cmply wth all the tems f the Full
Pject Gutebeg-tm Lcese avalable wth ths fle  le at
www.gutebeg.g/lcese.

ect 1. Geeal Tems f Use ad Redstbutg Pject

Gutebeg-tm electc wks
1.A. By eadg  usg ay pat f ths Pject Gutebeg-tm
electc wk, yu dcate that yu have ead, udestad, agee t
ad accept all the tems f ths lcese ad tellectual ppety
(tademak/cpyght) ageemet. If yu d t agee t abde by all
the tems f ths ageemet, yu must cease usg ad etu 
desty all cpes f Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wks  yu
pssess. If yu pad a fee f btag a cpy f  access t a
Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wk ad yu d t agee t be bud
by the tems f ths ageemet, yu may bta a efud fm the
pes  etty t whm yu pad the fee as set fth  paagaph
1.E.8.
1.B. "Pject Gutebeg" s a egsteed tademak. It may ly be
used   asscated  ay way wth a electc wk by peple wh
agee t be bud by the tems f ths ageemet. Thee ae a few
thgs that yu ca d wth mst Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wks
eve wthut cmplyg wth the full tems f ths ageemet. ee
paagaph 1.C belw. Thee ae a lt f thgs yu ca d wth Pject
Gutebeg-tm electc wks f yu fllw the tems f ths
ageemet ad help peseve fee futue access t Pject Gutebeg-tm
electc wks. ee paagaph 1.E belw.
1.C. The Pject Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat ("the
Fudat"  PGLAF), ws a cmplat cpyght  the cllect
f Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wks. Nealy all the dvdual
wks  the cllect ae  the publc dma  the Uted
tates. If a dvdual wk s uptected by cpyght law  the
Uted tates ad yu ae lcated  the Uted tates, we d t
clam a ght t pevet yu fm cpyg, dstbutg, pefmg,
dsplayg  ceatg devatve wks based  the wk as lg as
all efeeces t Pject Gutebeg ae emved. Of cuse, we hpe
that yu wll suppt the Pject Gutebeg-tm mss f pmtg
fee access t electc wks by feely shag Pject Gutebeg-tm
wks  cmplace wth the tems f ths ageemet f keepg the
Pject Gutebeg-tm ame asscated wth the wk. Yu ca easly
cmply wth the tems f ths ageemet by keepg ths wk  the
same fmat wth ts attached full Pject Gutebeg-tm Lcese whe
yu shae t wthut chage wth thes.
1.D. The cpyght laws f the place whee yu ae lcated als gve
what yu ca d wth ths wk. Cpyght laws  mst cutes ae
 a cstat state f chage. If yu ae utsde the Uted tates,
check the laws f yu cuty  addt t the tems f ths
ageemet befe dwladg, cpyg, dsplayg, pefmg,
dstbutg  ceatg devatve wks based  ths wk  ay
the Pject Gutebeg-tm wk. The Fudat makes 
epesetats cceg the cpyght status f ay wk  ay
cuty utsde the Uted tates.
1.E. Uless yu have emved all efeeces t Pject Gutebeg:
1.E.1. The fllwg setece, wth actve lks t,  the
mmedate access t, the full Pject Gutebeg-tm Lcese must appea
pmetly wheeve ay cpy f a Pject Gutebeg-tm wk (ay wk
 whch the phase "Pject Gutebeg" appeas,  wth whch the
phase "Pject Gutebeg" s asscated) s accessed, dsplayed,
pefmed, vewed, cped  dstbuted:

Ths eBk s f the use f aye aywhee  the Uted tates ad
mst the pats f the wld at  cst ad wth almst 
estcts whatseve. Yu may cpy t, gve t away  e-use t
ude the tems f the Pject Gutebeg Lcese cluded wth ths
eBk  le at www.gutebeg.g. If yu ae t lcated  the
Uted tates, yull have t check the laws f the cuty whee yu
ae lcated befe usg ths ebk.
1.E.2. If a dvdual Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wk s
deved fm texts t ptected by U.. cpyght law (des t
cta a tce dcatg that t s psted wth pemss f the
cpyght hlde), the wk ca be cped ad dstbuted t aye 
the Uted tates wthut payg ay fees  chages. If yu ae
edstbutg  pvdg access t a wk wth the phase "Pject
Gutebeg" asscated wth  appeag  the wk, yu must cmply
ethe wth the euemets f paagaphs 1.E.1 thugh 1.E.7 
bta pemss f the use f the wk ad the Pject Gutebeg-tm
tademak as set fth  paagaphs 1.E.8  1.E.9.
1.E.3. If a dvdual Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wk s psted
wth the pemss f the cpyght hlde, yu use ad dstbut
must cmply wth bth paagaphs 1.E.1 thugh 1.E.7 ad ay
addtal tems mpsed by the cpyght hlde. Addtal tems
wll be lked t the Pject Gutebeg-tm Lcese f all wks
psted wth the pemss f the cpyght hlde fud at the
begg f ths wk.
1.E.4. D t ulk  detach  emve the full Pject Gutebeg-tm
Lcese tems fm ths wk,  ay fles ctag a pat f ths
wk  ay the wk asscated wth Pject Gutebeg-tm.
1.E.5. D t cpy, dsplay, pefm, dstbute  edstbute ths
electc wk,  ay pat f ths electc wk, wthut
pmetly dsplayg the setece set fth  paagaph 1.E.1 wth
actve lks  mmedate access t the full tems f the Pject
Gutebeg-tm Lcese.
1.E.6. Yu may cvet t ad dstbute ths wk  ay bay,
cmpessed, maked up, ppetay  ppetay fm, cludg
ay wd pcessg  hypetext fm. Hweve, f yu pvde access
t  dstbute cpes f a Pject Gutebeg-tm wk  a fmat
the tha "Pla alla ACII"  the fmat used  the ffcal
ves psted  the ffcal Pject Gutebeg-tm web ste
(www.gutebeg.g), yu must, at  addtal cst, fee  expese
t the use, pvde a cpy, a meas f exptg a cpy,  a meas
f btag a cpy up euest, f the wk  ts gal "Pla
alla ACII"  the fm. Ay alteate fmat must clude the
full Pject Gutebeg-tm Lcese as specfed  paagaph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. D t chage a fee f access t, vewg, dsplayg,
pefmg, cpyg  dstbutg ay Pject Gutebeg-tm wks
uless yu cmply wth paagaph 1.E.8  1.E.9.
1.E.8. Yu may chage a easable fee f cpes f  pvdg
access t  dstbutg Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wks
pvded that
* Yu pay a yalty fee f 20% f the gss pfts yu deve fm
the use f Pject Gutebeg-tm wks calculated usg the methd

yu aleady use t calculate yu applcable taxes. The fee s wed
t the we f the Pject Gutebeg-tm tademak, but he has
ageed t date yaltes ude ths paagaph t the Pject
Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat. Ryalty paymets must be pad
wth 60 days fllwg each date  whch yu pepae ( ae
legally eued t pepae) yu pedc tax etus. Ryalty
paymets shuld be clealy maked as such ad set t the Pject
Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat at the addess specfed 
ect 4, "Ifmat abut dats t the Pject Gutebeg
Lteay Achve Fudat."
* Yu pvde a full efud f ay mey pad by a use wh tfes
yu  wtg ( by e-mal) wth 30 days f ecept that s/he
des t agee t the tems f the full Pject Gutebeg-tm
Lcese. Yu must eue such a use t etu  desty all
cpes f the wks pssessed  a physcal medum ad dsctue
all use f ad all access t the cpes f Pject Gutebeg-tm
wks.
* Yu pvde,  accdace wth paagaph 1.F.3, a full efud f
ay mey pad f a wk  a eplacemet cpy, f a defect  the
electc wk s dscveed ad epted t yu wth 90 days f
ecept f the wk.
* Yu cmply wth all the tems f ths ageemet f fee
dstbut f Pject Gutebeg-tm wks.
1.E.9. If yu wsh t chage a fee  dstbute a Pject
Gutebeg-tm electc wk  gup f wks  dffeet tems tha
ae set fth  ths ageemet, yu must bta pemss  wtg
fm bth the Pject Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat ad The
Pject Gutebeg Tademak LLC, the we f the Pject Gutebeg-tm
tademak. Ctact the Fudat as set fth  ect 3 belw.
1.F.
1.F.1. Pject Gutebeg vlutees ad emplyees exped csdeable
efft t detfy, d cpyght eseach , tascbe ad pfead
wks t ptected by U.. cpyght law  ceatg the Pject
Gutebeg-tm cllect. Despte these effts, Pject Gutebeg-tm
electc wks, ad the medum  whch they may be sted, may
cta "Defects," such as, but t lmted t, cmplete, accuate
 cupt data, tascpt es, a cpyght  the
tellectual ppety fgemet, a defectve  damaged dsk 
the medum, a cmpute vus,  cmpute cdes that damage 
cat be ead by yu eupmet.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DICLAIMER OF DAMAGE - Except f the "Rght
f Replacemet  Refud" descbed  paagaph 1.F.3, the Pject
Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat, the we f the Pject
Gutebeg-tm tademak, ad ay the paty dstbutg a Pject
Gutebeg-tm electc wk ude ths ageemet, dsclam all
lablty t yu f damages, csts ad expeses, cludg legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAE NO REMEDIE FOR NEGLIGENCE, TRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOE
PROIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DITRIBUTOR UNDER THI AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONEQUENTIAL, PUNITIE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGE EEN IF YOU GIE NOTICE OF THE POIBILITY OF UCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If yu dscve a

defect  ths electc wk wth 90 days f ecevg t, yu ca
eceve a efud f the mey (f ay) yu pad f t by sedg a
wtte explaat t the pes yu eceved the wk fm. If yu
eceved the wk  a physcal medum, yu must etu the medum
wth yu wtte explaat. The pes  etty that pvded yu
wth the defectve wk may elect t pvde a eplacemet cpy 
leu f a efud. If yu eceved the wk electcally, the pes
 etty pvdg t t yu may chse t gve yu a secd
pptuty t eceve the wk electcally  leu f a efud. If
the secd cpy s als defectve, yu may demad a efud  wtg
wthut futhe pptutes t fx the pblem.
1.F.4. Except f the lmted ght f eplacemet  efud set fth
 paagaph 1.F.3, ths wk s pvded t yu A-I, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIE OF ANY KIND, EXPRE OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIE OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNE FOR ANY PURPOE.
1.F.5. me states d t allw dsclames f ceta mpled
waates  the exclus  lmtat f ceta types f
damages. If ay dsclame  lmtat set fth  ths ageemet
vlates the law f the state applcable t ths ageemet, the
ageemet shall be tepeted t make the maxmum dsclame 
lmtat pemtted by the applcable state law. The valdty 
uefceablty f ay pvs f ths ageemet shall t vd the
emag pvss.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - Yu agee t demfy ad hld the Fudat, the
tademak we, ay aget  emplyee f the Fudat, aye
pvdg cpes f Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wks 
accdace wth ths ageemet, ad ay vlutees asscated wth the
pduct, pmt ad dstbut f Pject Gutebeg-tm
electc wks, hamless fm all lablty, csts ad expeses,
cludg legal fees, that ase dectly  dectly fm ay f
the fllwg whch yu d  cause t ccu: (a) dstbut f ths
 ay Pject Gutebeg-tm wk, (b) alteat, mdfcat, 
addts  delets t ay Pject Gutebeg-tm wk, ad (c) ay
Defect yu cause.

ect 2. Ifmat abut the Mss f Pject Gutebeg-tm

Pject Gutebeg-tm s syymus wth the fee dstbut f
electc wks  fmats eadable by the wdest vaety f
cmputes cludg bslete, ld, mddle-aged ad ew cmputes. It
exsts because f the effts f hudeds f vlutees ad dats
fm peple  all walks f lfe.

lutees ad facal suppt t pvde vlutees wth the

assstace they eed ae ctcal t eachg Pject Gutebeg-tms
gals ad esug that the Pject Gutebeg-tm cllect wll
ema feely avalable f geeats t cme. I 2001, the Pject
Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat was ceated t pvde a secue
ad pemaet futue f Pject Gutebeg-tm ad futue
geeats. T lea me abut the Pject Gutebeg Lteay
Achve Fudat ad hw yu effts ad dats ca help, see
ects 3 ad 4 ad the Fudat fmat page at
www.gutebeg.g ect 3. Ifmat abut the Pject Gutebeg
Lteay Achve Fudat

The Pject Gutebeg Lteay Achve Fudat s a  pft

501(c)(3) educatal cpat gazed ude the laws f the
state f Msssspp ad gated tax exempt status by the Iteal
Reveue evce. The Fudats EIN  fedeal tax detfcat
umbe s 64-6221541. Ctbuts t the Pject Gutebeg Lteay
Achve Fudat ae tax deductble t the full extet pemtted by
U.. fedeal laws ad yu states laws.
The Fudats pcpal ffce s  Fabaks, Alaska, wth the
malg addess: PO Bx 750175, Fabaks, AK 99775, but ts
vlutees ad emplyees ae scatteed thughut umeus
lcats. Its busess ffce s lcated at 809 Nth 1500 West, alt
Lake Cty, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Emal ctact lks ad up t
date ctact fmat ca be fud at the Fudats web ste ad
ffcal page at www.gutebeg.g/ctact
F addtal ctact fmat:
D. Gegy B. Newby
Chef Executve ad Dect
gbewby@pglaf.g

ect 4. Ifmat abut Dats t the Pject Gutebeg

Lteay Achve Fudat
Pject Gutebeg-tm depeds up ad cat suvve wthut wde
spead publc suppt ad dats t cay ut ts mss f
ceasg the umbe f publc dma ad lcesed wks that ca be
feely dstbuted  mache eadable fm accessble by the wdest
aay f eupmet cludg utdated eupmet. May small dats
($1 t $5,000) ae patculaly mptat t matag tax exempt
status wth the IR.
The Fudat s cmmtted t cmplyg wth the laws egulatg
chates ad chatable dats  all 50 states f the Uted
tates. Cmplace euemets ae t ufm ad t takes a
csdeable efft, much papewk ad may fees t meet ad keep up
wth these euemets. We d t slct dats  lcats
whee we have t eceved wtte cfmat f cmplace. T END
DONATION  deteme the status f cmplace f ay patcula
state vst www.gutebeg.g/date
Whle we cat ad d t slct ctbuts fm states whee we
have t met the slctat euemets, we kw f  phbt
agast acceptg uslcted dats fm ds  such states wh
appach us wth ffes t date.
Iteatal dats ae gatefully accepted, but we cat make
ay statemets cceg tax teatmet f dats eceved fm
utsde the Uted tates. U.. laws ale swamp u small staff.
Please check the Pject Gutebeg Web pages f cuet dat
methds ad addesses. Dats ae accepted  a umbe f the
ways cludg checks, le paymets ad cedt cad dats. T
date, please vst: www.gutebeg.g/date

ect 5. Geeal Ifmat Abut Pject Gutebeg-tm electc wks.

Pfess Mchael . Hat was the gat f the Pject
Gutebeg-tm ccept f a lbay f electc wks that culd be

feely shaed wth aye. F fty yeas, he pduced ad

dstbuted Pject Gutebeg-tm eBks wth ly a lse etwk f
vlutee suppt.
Pject Gutebeg-tm eBks ae fte ceated fm seveal pted
edts, all f whch ae cfmed as t ptected by cpyght 
the U.. uless a cpyght tce s cluded. Thus, we d t
ecessaly keep eBks  cmplace wth ay patcula pape
edt.
Mst peple stat at u Web ste whch has the ma PG seach
faclty: www.gutebeg.g
Ths Web ste cludes fmat abut Pject Gutebeg-tm,
cludg hw t make dats t the Pject Gutebeg Lteay
Achve Fudat, hw t help pduce u ew eBks, ad hw t
subscbe t u emal ewslette t hea abut ew eBks.