Process Control & Instrumentation

AssignmentA (Individual Assignment)

Name

: Vinish a/l Govindarajoo

Id

: EE091198

College
Unit Code
Course
(Hons)

: COE
: EEIB 413
: Bachelor of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Unit Title

: Process Control and Instrumentation

Year/ Semester

: Year 4 / Semester 1

Lecturer

: Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Chong Kok Hen

Session

: Sem2 2015/2016

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Introduction
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) have been an integral part of factory
automation and industrial process control for decades. PLCs control a wide array of
applications from simple lighting functions to environmental systems to chemical processing
plants. These systems perform many functions, providing a variety of analog and digital input
and output interfaces; signal processing; data conversion; and various communication
protocols. All of the PLC's components and functions are centered around the controller,
which is programmed for a specific task.
The basic PLC module must be sufficiently flexible and configurable to meet the
diverse needs of different factories and applications. Input stimuli (either analog or digital)
are received from machines, sensors, or process events in the form of voltage or current. The
PLC must accurately interpret and convert the stimulus for the CPU which, in turn, defines a
set of instructions to the output systems that control actuators on the factory floor or in
another industrial environment
Modern PLCs were introduced in the 1960s, and for decades the general function and
signal-path flow changed little. However, twenty-first-century process control is placing new
and tougher demands on a PLC: higher performance, smaller form factor, and greater
functional flexibility. There must be built-in protection against the potentially damaging
electrostatic discharge (ESD), electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference
(RFI/EMI), and high-amplitude transient pulses found in the harsh industrial setting.

NO and NC Electromagnetic relay

A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric current
that can turn on or off a much larger electric current. The heart of a relay is an electromagnet
(a coil of wire that becomes a temporary magnet when electricity flows through it). Relays
bridge the gap, making it possible for small currents to activate larger ones. That means
relays can work either as switches (turning things on and off) or as amplifiers (converting
small currents into larger ones).
Figure 1 shows the example of a "normally open" (NO) relay: the contacts in the
second circuit are not connected by default, and switch on only when a current flows through
the magnet. Other relays are "normally closed" (NC; the contacts are connected so a current
flows through them by default) and switch off only when the magnet is activated, pulling or
pushing the contacts apart. Normally open relays are the most common.

Figure 1

PLC definitions
PLC is a programmable microprocessor-based device that is used in discrete
manufacturing to control assembly lines and machinery on the shop floor as well as many
other types of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment in a plant. A PLC is typically
designed for real-time use in rugged, industrial environments. Connected to sensors and
actuators, PLCs are categorized by the number and type of I/O ports they provide and by their
I/O scan rate.

Block diagram

Figure 2

A simplified block diagram of a PLC shown in above Fig. It has three major
units/sections.

I/O (Input/Output) Modules.

CPU (Central Processing Units).
Programmer/Monitor.

The input section converts the field signals supplied by input devices/sensors to
logic-level signals that the PLC's CPU can read.The Processor Section reads these inputs,
Processes the signal, and prepares the output signals.
The output section converts the logic level output signals coming from processor
section to high level signals and used to actuate various output field devices. The
programmer/monitor is used to enter the user's program into memory and to monitor the
execution of the program.

Processor and power supply

The processor, the heart of CPU is the computerized part of the CPU in the form of
Microprocessor / Micro controller chip. It supervises all operation in the system and performs
all tasks necessary to fulfill the PLC function.

reads the information i.e status of externally connected input devices with

input module.
stores this information in memory for later use.
carries out mathematical and logic operations as specified in application

program.
After solving the user's program, it writes the result values in the memory.
sends data out to external devices like output module, so as to actuate field

hardware.
performs peripheral and external device communication.
Performs self diagnostics.

The power supply provides power to memory system, processor and I/O Modules.

It converts the higher level AC line Voltage to various operational DC values.

for electronic circuitry.
It filters and regulates the DC voltages to ensure proper computer operations.

Programming device

The Programmer/Monitor (PM) is a device used to communicate with the circuits of

the PLC.The programming unit allows the engineer/technicians to enter the edit the program
to be executed.
In its simplest form it can be hand-held device with membrane keypad for program
entry, and a display device (LED or LCD) for viewing program steps of functions.
More advanced systems employ a separate industrial terminal or personal computers with
type-writer type keyboard and CRT monitors. With the help of proprietary software, it allows
programmer to write, view and edit the program and download it into the PLC. It also allows
user to monitor the PLC as it is running the program. With this monitoring systems, such
things as internal coils, registers, timers and other items not visible externally can be
monitored to determine proper operation. Also,internal register data can be altered, if
required. to fine tune program operation while debugging.communication between PM and
PLC is done via a cable connected to a special programming port on PLC. connection to the
personal computer can be through a serial port or from a dedicated card installed in the
computer.

Input and output interface

The I/O section establish the interfacing between physical devices in the real world
outside the PLC and the digital arena inside the PLC.

The input module has bank of terminals for physically connecting input
devices, like push buttons, limit switches etc. to a PLC. the role of an input module is to
translate signals from input devices into a form that the PLC's CPU can understand.
The Output module also has bank of terminals that physically connect output
devices like solenoids, motor starters, indicating lamps etc. to a PLC. The role of an output
module is to translate signals from the PLC's CPU into a form that the output device can use.

The tasks of the I/O section can be classified as:

Conditioning
Isolation
Termination
Indication
An electronic system for connecting I/O modules to remotely located I/O

devices can be added if needed. The actual operating process under PLC Control can be
thousands of feet from the CPU and its I/O modules.

Input and output devices wiring

The networks communicate between peripherals through a variety of cables which all
have individual advantages and are important factors when considering their application.Most
PLC networks operate in industrial environments and therefore many considerations have to
be taken into account such as protection, speed of communication and interference properties.

This is to ensure the cable will perform to its highest capabilities and meet the requirements
of the network processing. Types of wiring used are:

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable looks similar to the cable used to carry TV signal. A solid-core copper
wire runs down the middle of the cable. Around that solid-core copper wire is a layer of
insulation covered by braided wire and metal foil, which shields against electromagnetic
interferences. A final layer of insulation covers the braided wire

Twisted-pair cable

Twisted-pair cable is the most common type of cabling you can see in today's Local
Area Networks (LAN) . A pair of wires form a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are
twisted to provide protection against crosstalk which is generated by adjacent pairs. When
a wire is carrying a current, the current creates a magnetic field around the wire. This
field can interfere with signals on nearby wires. To eliminate this, pairs of wires carry
signals in opposite directions, so that the two magnetic fields also occur in opposite
directions and cancel each other out. This process is known as cancellation.
Two Types of Twisted Pairs are Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) and Unshielded Twisted
Pair (UTP).Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is the most common networking
media.Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) consists of four pairs of thin, copper wires covered
in color-coded plastic insulation that are twisted together.

Fibre optic Cable

Optical Fibre cables use optical fibres that carry digital data signals in the form of
modulated pulses of light. An optical fibre consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass,
called the core, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. There
are two fibres per cable-one to transmit and one to receive. The core also can be an
optical-quality clear plastic, and the cladding can be made up of gel that reflects signals
back into the fibre to reduce signal loss.
There are two types of fibre optic cable which id Single Mode Fibre (SMF) and
Multi-Mode Fibre (MMF).

PLC ladder diagram programming

Introduction

Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a process
or manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical
control systems or for reworking old hardwired relay circuits. As programmable logic
controllers became more sophisticated it has also been used in very complex automation
systems.
The motivation for representing sequential control logic in a ladder diagram was to
allow factory engineers and technicians to develop software without additional training to
learn a language or other general purpose computer language. Development, and
maintenance, was simplified because of the resemblance to familiar relay hardware
systems. Implementations of ladder logic have characteristics, such as sequential
execution and support for control flow features, that make the analogy to hardware
somewhat inaccurate. Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also
provide associated ladder logic programming systems. Ladder logic is better thought of as
a set of closely related programming languages rather than one language.
Ladder logic can be thought of as a rule-based language rather than a procedural
language When implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices, the various
rules execute simultaneously and immediately. When implemented in a programmable
logic controller, the rules are typically executed sequentially by software, in a continuous
loop (scan). By executing the loop fast enough, typically many times per second, the
effect of simultaneous and immediate execution is achieved.

The different between PLC physical ladder diagram and PLC programmed ladder
diagram

Electrical sequence of operation in hardwired relay circuits can be represented by

electrical ladder diagram. Ladder diagram shows the interconnection of field devices. In the
ladder diagram, each rung shows how a field device is turned on and also shows how it
interacts with next field devices. The difference between a PLC ladder program and relay
ladder rungs is the continuity. In an electrical rung diagram, there is an electrical continuity
only when the current flows from left power rail to right power rail.
Even though PLC ladder logic was modeled after the conventional relay ladder, there is
no electrical continuity in PLC ladder logic. PLC ladder rungs should have logical continuity
in order for the output to energize. PLC ladder program uses familiar terms like "rungs" and
"normally open" and "normally closed" contacts, but the relay ladder logic has no electrical
continuity between an input and the controlled output.

Types of relay use in ladder diagram

A switch whose operation is activated by an electromagnet is called a "relay" . Figure
3 shows an example of simple relay.

contact

coil

input

Figure 3

Types of relay used in ladder diagram are:

Contact relays

Time Delay Relays

Delay-On Timer (TON) Relay

Delay-Off Timer (TOF) Relay

NO and NC relay in ladder diagram

Switches, whether they be hand-actuated or actuated by a physical process, come in

two varieties: normally-open (NO) and normally-closed (NC). Both types of switch
represented in pushbutton form on figure 4.

Figure 4

Normally-open pushbutton switches close (pass current) when actuated (pressed).

When un-actuated, they return to their normal (open) state.

Normally-closed pushbutton switches are just the opposite: they open (stop current)
when actuated (pressed) and return to their normal (closed, passing current) state when unactuated.
This is simple enough to comprehend: the normal status of a momentary-contact
pushbutton switch is the state it is in when no one is touching it. When pressed, the
pushbutton switch goes to the other (opposite) state.
Input relay, output relay, internal relay, timer relay and counter relay.

Input Relays

These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive signals
from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are transistors.

Output Relays

These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send on/off signals
to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model
chosen.

Internal Utility Relays

These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically exist. They
are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external relays. There are also
some special relays that are dedicated to performing only one task. Some are always on while
some are always off. Some are on only once during power-on and are typically used for
initializing data that was stored.

Timer Relays

These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and increments. The
most common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and nonretentive types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.

Counter Relays

These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be
programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both up and
down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed. Some manufacturers
also include high-speed counters that are hardware based. We can think of these as physically
existing. Most times these counters can count up, down or up and down.