A

LIBRARY REFERNCE

MANUFACTURING OF GLASS
BY
KULDEEPAK PANDEY

Chapter-1
Introduction

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material that exhibits a glass transition, which
is the reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semi
crystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle state into a molten or rubber-like state.
Glasses are typically brittle and can be optically transparent. The most familiar type of glass,
used for centuries in windows and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass, composed of about
75% Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus sodium oxide (Na2O) from soda ash, lime (CaO), and several
minor additives. Often, the term glass is used in a restricted sense to refer to this specific use.
In science, however, the term glass is usually defined in a much wider sense, including every
solid that possesses a non-crystalline (i.e. amorphous) structure and that exhibits a glass
transition when heated towards the liquid state. In this wider sense, glasses can be made of
quite different classes of materials: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular
liquids, and polymers. For many applications (bottles, eyewear) polymer glasses (acrylic
glass, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to traditional silica
glasses.
The glass is a hard material normally fragile and transparent common in our daily life. It is
economical, 100% recyclable, provides goods product presentation, it is easy to use, do not
deteriorate corrode, stain or fade and can be produced on large scale. It has a composition of
properties due to which it plays major role in the packaging field.

Figure1.0 -Glass

The Uses of Glass

Four main types of glass:
Glass packaging
Bottles, jars, and other containers
Fiberglass
Insulation for buildings and OEM applications
Textile fibers used as reinforcements for plastics
Flat glass
Windows, automobile windshields, mirrors, tabletops
Specialty glass
Table- and ovenware
Flat panel display glass
Light bulbs
Television tubes
Fiber optics
Scientific and medical equipment.

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material. Glasses are typically brittle and
optically transparent. The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries
in windows and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silica(SiO2)
plus sodium oxide Na2O from soda ash, lime CaO, and several minor additives. It has its own
wide range of application like architecture application, instruments for scientific research,
electrical transmission, optical instruments and domestic tools like bottle jars everyday
drinking glasses, window glass, teapot, crockery etc Due to its ability to transmit light or in
other situation to absorb reflect or refract it makes possible eyeglasses, microscope,
telescopes cameras, & spectrophotometers without glass science would be blind.
The first bulb made from Edisons incandescent lamp 1879 was made from glass because no
other material could possibly be considered in its place. Here the combination of properties
includes not only ability to transmit light and withstand high temperatures, but also high
electrical resistant, sufficient strength to withstand handling and evacuation and availability
in a variety of inexpensive shapes & sizes, clear colored, frosted or enameled.

The glass and glazing industry for architectural application in India for the year 200 was
estimated at a minimum of Rs 100 crores. Of this, the glass component would be about 1.2
million square meters. Indian and imported ACP would come to about 1 million square
meters and another 700,000 square meters would constitute residential windows. In
geographical terms, the South Indian region dominated by Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad
and parts of Kerala, contributes to 30 percent of the glass consumption. West India follows
with 29 percent. Here Mumbai, Pune and parts of Gujarat are big consumers. The North
Indian market, comprising mainly of Delhi and the National Capital Region accounts for 20
percent of the total architectural glass and glazing market.

Figure 1.1 - Glass

Chapter-2
Chemistry Of Glass

2.0 CHEMISTRY OF GLASS

The main constituent of Flat Glass is SiO2 (silica sand). This has a high melting temperature
in the region of 1700 degrees C and its state at this temperature is like syrup on a very cold
day. The basic building block of silica has a tetrahedral pyramid shape with silicon at its
centre linked symmetrically to four oxygen atoms at its corners: it has the chemical formula
SiO4 and is negatively charged.
On cooling molten silica quickly, a random organized network of these tetrahedral is formed,
linked at their corners, to give an amorphous material known as vitreous silica.

For practical and economic reasons, the high melting point and viscosity of silica is reduced
by adding sodium oxide (a flux) in the form of a carbonate and the sodium-oxygen atoms
enter the silicon-oxygen network, in accordance with their valence states. These atoms are
known as Network Formers. Other major constituents of Flat Glass: Calcium and Magnesium
enter the network structure as Network Modifiers and the action of these modifiers is to make
the structures more complex so that when the components are melted together, in the cooling
process, it is more difficult for the atoms to arrange themselves in suitable configurations for
crystallization to occur.
In the glass making process, the cooling rate is arranged such that viscosity increases and the
mobility of the atoms are hindered thus preventing arrangements and crystallization from
occurring. Thus glass is often referred to as a super cooled liquid in that it has no
crystallization or melting point and does not exhibit the phenomenon of the latent heat of
crystallization or fusion.

Chapter-3
Glass Found In?

3.0

GLASS FOUND IN?

GLASS FOUND IN NATURAL STATE

3.1 NATURAL/VOLCANIC GLASS:

The glass that is formed by volcanic action is called obsidian and can be found in many parts
of the world. Obsidian is formed when the intense heat of volcano fuses masses of silica
together, forming the hard glass.

Figure3.1.1 Natural Glass

3.2 LIBYAN DESERT GLASS:
It is found in the Sahara desert in large sand dunes. These are in slightly yellowish in color
found in lumps.

Figure 3.2.1- LIBYAN DESERT GLASS

3.3 FULGURITES:
Lightening can create glassy formations when it strikes a sandy area with the right
combination of minerals. Thus the resulting crude, brittle, slender tubes are called fulgurites.

3.4 HISTORY OF GLASS:

The oldest records of glass are from 1700 BC in Mesopotamia, but Egyptian glassmakers
began making pieces of jewelry as early 3000 BC as proven by the relics of a glass furnace
dating back to about 1350 BC. The first objects were beads covered with green glaze. Core
molding was the earliest method of glass production. The core was molded in clay, fixed to a
metal rod, given the shape of the desired vessel and then dipped into molten glass. When
cool, the clay core was picked out leaving a small hollow glass object. Simple casting and
pressing methods such as pouring molten glass into molds were also used. These techniques
were good for the production of flat and deep bowls only and mass production was not
possible.

Figure 3.4.1- HISTORY OF GLASS

10

Chapter-4
Composition Of Glass

11

4.0

COMPOSITION OF GLASS

Figure 4.0.1 -Composition

1. Sand (SiO2)2.5 Silica:

It is the basic raw material for making glass. It requires a high melting Temperature
(1700o C)
The ideal grain size of sand measures between 0.1 and 0.4mm.
Content: 72%.

2. Soda Ash (Sodium carbonate Na2Co3)5:

It is introduced to the glass batch as anhydrous, white powder.

Since Sio2 softens unto 2000o C where it starts to degrade by adding soda it will lower the
melting point to 1000o C making it more manageable.
Content : 14%

3. Lime (Calcium carbonate CaCo3)5:

It is added to the batch to improve the hardness and chemical resistance of the glass.
At a temperature of about 1000o C carbon oxide escapes from the lime, leaving only
calcium oxide with the glass batch.
Content : 11 to 12 %

12

4. Alumina (Aluminum oxide Al2O3)5:

Aluminum oxide is added to the glass batch to improve chemical resistance

And increase viscosity in lower temperature ranges.
Content : 2%

5. Cullet:

Glass cullet is not technically a raw material but it must be added to the Melt. Cullet act
as flushing agent and accelerates the melting of Sand, conserving both energy and raw
materials.
For this reason all glass plants save their cullet, in the form of pieces cut from flat glass or
rejects or breakage from hollow glass.
Content: 12% to 25%.

Other materials are also used depending upon the type need and function of the glass. They
are added as per the requirement. The materials used are (lead oxide Pbo, Pb 3O4) Barium
oxide (Bao) Boron trioxide (B2O3), opacifiers like fluorspar (potash K2Co3), and coloring
agents like iron, cobalt, nickel chromium manganese and vanadium etc.

Figure4.0.2

13

Chapter-5
Types of Glass

14

5.0 TYPES OF GLASS

Glasses can be classified according to their nature, colour or their application in the
marketing field. Based upon the United States pharmacopoeia they are classified as follows

Type I Highly resistant borosilicate glass

Type II Treated soda lime glass.
Type III Soda lime glass.

5.1 TYPE-I GLASS (BOROSILICATE GLASS/NETURAL GLASS)

Borosilicate glass is very unique and specialized variety of glass. It gives stronger finishing to
the work piece. It often amazes people how many accidents this glass can survive without
breaking or cracking.
It was first developed by German glassmaker Otto Schott in the late 19th century and sold
under the brand name Duran in 1893. After which in 1915 Corning Glass works
introduced the first of a whole group of borosilicate glasses under the trademark of Pyrex.
After that later on in 1924 it become a synonym for borosilicate glass in the English speaking
world.
Borosilicate glass is famous due to its low thermal expansion and heat resistant. Due to which
it is widely used in the pharmaceutical, laboratory ware, cook wares, soft glass jewellery,
glass ceramics, high power lamps, flow restrictors, fiber optic components and electrical
applications. It has wide range of application in pharmaceuticals like for ampoules and vials,
blood bottles, for transfusion and infusion preparation, albumin bottles, insulin bottles, pill
tubes, coated pill bottles and general purpose medicine bottles.
Since this glass is used in packaging the pharmaceutical solution its should have neutral
action to the solution i.e. it should not disturb the ph of the solution. Due to which the term
natural glass is derived.
It is used in the laboratory equipments for flasks, dissectors, bottles, pipettes, beakers etc.
Due to which the laboratory apparatus are termed as the borosil apparatus. It has a good
chemical durability and thermal resistance. These types of glass require a higher working
temperature, have narrow working range and hence are more difficult to process(1700-1750o
C).Borosilicate glasses with high boric oxide contents(over 12%) show reduced chemical
resistance, and are more prone to atmosphere weathering. Type-I surface treated glass is also
available with certain smaller tubular containers5.
5.2 TYPE-II (TREATED SODA LIME GLASS)
This is a soda glass which has the surface treated, usually by a process of sulphating or
sulphuring. In the former a pellet of ammonium sulphate is dropped into each bottle before it
passes through a heated tunnel known as the Lehr. This then sublimes and coats the inside of
glass. Sulphuring usually involves sulphur dioxide being injected into the container while it is
within the Lehr. Evidences suggested that the ammonium sulphate process confers better
assistance than sulphuring8.

15

5.3 TYPE-III (SODA LIME GLASS)

This is the most common commercial glass (90% of total production), and also least
expensive. The chemical and physical properties of soda lime glass are the basis for its
widespread use. It is suitable for products which are usually subjected to short-term chemical
exposure and to limited thermal stress.
Soda lime glass is primarily for bottles, jars, everyday drinking glasses, and a window glass.
It usually contains 60-75% silica, 12-18% soda & 5-12% lime. Soda lime glass is resistant
either to neither high temperature nor sudden thermal changes, or to corrosive chemicals. For
example everybody has experienced a glass breaking down when pouring liquid at high
temperature for example to make tea.

Figure 5.0.1- Types Of Glass

16

Chapter-6
Glass Making Process

17

6.0

GLASS MAKING PROCESS

6.1

Gathering raw materials

A range of raw materials is needed for the glass making process and one of the main
ingredients is silica sand. Consol Glass' Industrial Minerals division, owns a deposit of pure
silica sand on the Cape Flats.
Take high quality sand, soda ash, limestone, salt cake and dolomite and melt at white heat to
a highly viscous consistency. Let the mixture digest for a time - and you are well on the way
to making one of the world's most important materials. This is the basic composition of float
glass, one of the greatest of all industrial process inventions, comparable with Bessemer's
innovations in steel manufacturing. In fact, this is the formula for many types of massproduced glass; except that float demands highly exacting standards of quality, care and
control unheard of in other everyday uses of glass.

Material

Glass Composition

Sand
Soda Ash
Limestone
Dolomite
Alumina
Others

72.6
13.0
8.4
4.0
1.0
1.0

Reason for Adding

Easier melting
Durability
Working & weathering properties
-

Figure 6.1.1- Composition

18

6.2

Batching

Commercial container glass is made by melting silica sand, soda ash and limestone. Various
secondary ingredients are added to control colour, provide ultra-violet protection and enhance
the working properties of the molten glass.
Raw materials need to meet stringent specifications. Recycled glass (or cullet) is an important
raw material in the production of glass containers, in some cases, as much as 50 per cent of
ecology cullet is included in the batch. Consol's batch houses are amongst the most modern in
the world, featuring the latest computerized control technology.
Raw materials are stored in silos from which they are automatically weighed out from
computerized control rooms and transported to batch mixers according to pre-programmed
recipes. The mixed material (or batch) is then transported to the holding bin at the furnace.
Consol is leading a major glass recycling initiative, including government. (At all levels and
the various stakeholders.)

Figure 6.0.1- Process

19

6.3

Forming

The molten glass enters the feeder to the bottle-making machine where the streams of glass
are cut into pieces of a pre-determined weight required to make a single bottle. The gobs of
molten glass are then individually fed into the moulds of the bottle-making machine.
The bottle is formed in two stages. Firstly, the gob of glass falls into a blank mould to
produce a parison. Here the finish (neck) of the bottle is formed and a long narrow cavity is
blown within the center of the parison. All blowing is done by means of compressed air.
The parison is transferred to the main mould where the bottle is given its final shape. Air is
forced under pressure into the hollow cavity to expand the glass to its final shape inside the
mould.
The newly formed bottle is coated with a thin layer of tin oxide to strengthen it before
entering the annealing leahr. In the leahr, the bottle is cooled from 600C to 100C in a
controlled manner to remove the stresses caused by uneven cooling and to ensure the bottle is
stable and safe to handle.

Figure 6.3.1 - Forming

20

6.4

Decoration

Consol has sophisticated equipment and printing technology of an international standard. To

label bottles according to customers' requirements.
The process of applying an ACL (applied ceramic label) begins by painting the bottles Struts
machine and then firing and slowly cooling them in a Lahr. Consol's spacious decorating
facility has been designed for optimum work flow and productivity.

6.5

Design process

Glass containers can be custom-designed to meet the needs and requirements of the customer.
In approaching design, the product and usage are taken into account as well as the proposed
marketing strategy of the customer.
Consol's in-house design facilities include the latest CAD hardware and software. Skilled and
experienced design personnel work closely with customers to select the most appropriate
container for their specific needs. Lead time for the design process is significantly reduced by
computer modeling, which enables customers to interact directly with designers to obtain
immediate, three-dimensional impressions of bottle designs

6.6

Standard design

In addition to custom-designed specifications, designs may be selected from a wide range of

standard glass containers. Some of the most prestigious products on retail shelves are packed
in off-the-shelf glass containers and brand identity is created through labels, graphics and
special closures.

6.7

Melting

From the holding bin, the batch is continuously fed to the furnace where it is converted to
molten glass and maintained at temperatures in excess of 1500C. Molten glass is
continuously withdrawn through a submerged throat where it proceeds to the refiner area of
the furnace and cooled to approximately 1200C, before being delivered to the individual
bottle-making machines via the fore hearths. The furnaces are fully computerized and critical
parameters are controlled to very close tolerances.
Consol's furnaces are designed to be the most modern in the world with a productive life span
of more than 10 years whilst, at the same time, allowing finer temperature control resulting in
improved productivity and quality.

21

6.8

Inspection

All bottles undergo various tests and inspections:

A 'stress simulator' applies outside pressure to break any structurally weak bottles.
The FP-machine, a multi-station inspection system, checks each individual bottle to ensure:
minimum glass thickness of the side wall; integrity of the sealing surface; detection of cracks
in the finish, neck and bottom areas and gauging of the neck opening to ensure a minimum
dimension for filter tube insertion.
Further visual inspection of the sealing surface, sidewall and bottom of the containers is
performed by sophisticated high-resolution camera equipment and manual visual inspection.
Computers collect data from the inspection machines for feedback to the production
management systems to adjust repetitive defects. Defective containers are conveyed to the
recycling operation

6.9

Palletizing

After individual coding with production data, containers are conveyed to the load building
area for bulk palletizing and shrink wrapping before dispatch and delivery to the customer.
Automatic pallet shuttle cars move the wrapped containers to their dispatch destinations.

Figure 6.0.2- Process

22

Chapter-7
Flow Chart

23

7.0

FLOW CHART

24

Chapter-8
Equipment & Technology

25

8.0

Equipment & Technology

General Types of Equipment

Furnace
Molten glass formed

Figure 8.0.1
Forming
Individual Section (IS) Machine

Figure 8.0.2

26

 Annealing Oven
Lehr
Coating
Usually two coatings
Cutting
After glass is processed, it is
then cut to desired size

Figure 8.0.3

27

Chapter-9
Conclusion

28

9.0

Conclusion

9.1Advantages of Glass
100% recycling capability
Environmentally friendly manufacturing processes and products
Exceptional chemical durability
Multi-faceted optical properties
Many diverse, unique applications
Least expensive form of packaging in food industry
Does not diffuse into contents of packaging, like polymers

9.2Disadvantages of Glass
Long distance distribution is hard due to the weight of glass
Some specialty glass such as TV tubes does not justify recycling due to insufficient volume
Causes environmental problems primarily in 3rd world countries
Manufacturing facilities are specialized
Facilities for one type of glass cannot be easily adapted to produce other types
Brittle
Glass production is energy intensive and often expensive
Unlike polymers, it is hard to enhance or incorporate new properties in glass

9.3The Future of Glass

Where is The Money?
1. 7% batch preparation
2. 54% refining
3. 25% forming
4. 14% finishing
What New Technology is Here?
1. Rain bed preparation
2. Oxy-fuel melting
3. Material Based Ion Exchange

29

References

30

References
Books
1. Karen Coyle, Management of RFID in Libraries , Preprint version of article
published in the Journal of Academic Librarianship, v. 31, n. 5, pp. 486-489
2. B.E. Moody, Packaging in Glass London 1963. Pg No. 63.
3. Weyl & Marooe, The Constitution of Glasses-A Dynamic Interpretation Vol II, Part
I, U.S.A 1967. Pg No 1473.
4. Keith Cummings, The Technique of Glass Forming London 1980. Pg No 11, 20.
5. D.R. Uhlmann & N.J. Kreidl, Glass Science & Technology Vol II, New Mexico,
1984.
6. D.A. Dean, E.R. Evans, I.H. Hall, Pharmaceuticals Packaging Technology, London
& New York, 2000. Pg No. 210, 213, 219, 261.

Useful link
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass - Library [last accessed on 10/11/2013]

31

Glossary

32

GLOSSARY
1. Annealing- A controlled heating and cooling process is designed to relive
internal stresses introduced in a glass container during and immediately after
glass container formation.
2. Annealing Point- The temperature at which internal stresses in glass are
significantly reduced. In the annealing operation, glass is gradually cooled from
above the annealing point temperature to below the strain point temperature.
This slow cooling relives residual thermal stresses that would developed if the
glass were allowed to cool in an uncontrolled manner.
3. Core Molding - Earliest method of glass production.
4. Cullet- Waste or belongs glass. Clean cullet is always used in the batch.
5. Lehr- A long belt fed, tunnel shaped oven used to heat glass to the annealing
point and then slowly cool it to room temperature to remove any residual
thermal stresses in the glass.
6. Libyan Desert Glass, Fulgurites- These are the examples of Obsidian glass.
7. Obsidian Glass- Glass occurring in natural state formed by Volcano fusion
with Silica.
8. Softening Point- Temperature at which a thread or Rod of glass is rapidly
deforms under it own weight.
9. Strain Point- the temperature at which thermal residual stresses become
permanent upon cooling. Temperature above the strain point will introduce
permanent stresses that can cause or contribute to fracture. At temperatures
below the strain point, the glass can be temporarily heated and cooled without
introducing permanent stress. The strain point can be considered the maximum
service temperature.
10. Weathering- the attack on glass surface by atmosphere elements.

33

Appendix

34

LIST OF TABLE & FIGURE

TABLE & FIGURE NAME

TABLE NO.

PAGE NO.

Glass

1.0

Glass

1.1

Natural Glass

3.1.1

Desert Glass

3.2.1

History of Glass

3.4.1

Composition

4.0.1

11

Composition of Glass

4.0.2

12

Types of Glass

5.0.1

15

Composition

6.1.1

17

Process

6.0.1

18

Forming

6.3.1

19

Process

6.0.2

22

Equipment1

8.0.1

25

Equipment2

8.0.2

26

Equipment3

8.0.3

27

35