Pen of Thoth Ebook

Pen of Thoth
Official Newsletter of the Ancient Egyptian Society

Johannesburg, South Africa
Collection of articles written

by
Magda van Ryneveld
Johannesburg
2015
Magda van Ryneveld
Johannesburg 2015
Table of Contents
PEN OF THOTH
2015 BY THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SOCIETY.
FOREWARD
II
BUTTERFLIES IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART
HEDGEHOGS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART
FROGS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART
11
POTTERY FOR DOMESTIC USE IN ANCIENT EGYPT
15
SANDAL-MAKING IN ANCIENT EGYPT
20
FURNITURE IN ANCIENT EGYPT
25
THE USE OF LEOPARD SKIN IN ANCIENT EGYPT
29
THE USE OF IVORY IN ANCIENT EGYPT
36
TUTANKHAMUN VUVUZELAS
43
TOMB OF TUTANKHAMUNS JACKAL
47
THE BLACK MUMMY. NETCHERIKHE (HE OF THE DIVINE BODY)
53
AKH SUT NEBHEPETRE (SPLENDID ARE THE PLACES OF NEBHEPETRE)
58
DISKS OF HERMAKA
62
PTAHSHEPSES
66
SESHAT THE SECRETARY
70
ROCK ART
72
Pen of Thoth
2015 by The Ancient Egyptian Society.
Published by The Ancient Egyptian Society; Johannesburg Republic of

South Africa, 2015.
Witten by
Magda van Ryneveld
Edited by
Vanya Vucinic
Proofread by
Sue Fox
Illustration Credits
Magda van Ryneveld with exception of Chapter Ptahshepses: illustration 1
retrieved www.scarffi.com and illustration 2 retrieved from
www.britishmuseum.org.
Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld
Page i
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Foreward
Eric Swanepoel
Chairman, Ancient Egyptian Society
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Butterflies in Ancient Egyptian Art
Butterflies were included in art throughout the centuries and all over the world. During
the Baroque Period, e.g. some Dutch painters concentrated on Flower Pieces in which
they painted vases filled with a variety of flowers, sometimes including a few small
creatures such as beetles, snails and butterflies. An example is the painting by
Ambrosius Bosschaert: A Vase with Flowers (c. 1620). Here a tiny white butterfly can
be seen in the upper right side of the format. The large and colorful flowers are so
overwhelming that the viewer hardly notices the tiny butterfly. In the art of the East we
find artists who specialized in flowers and insects, e.g. Madame Shin Saim-dang from
Seoul, whom art historians refer to as the greatest female painter of the Yi Dynasty. She
often included more than one species of butterflies in a single painting, e.g. a white and
orange one in Brinjals and Insects (one of ten panel screens in the National Museum,
Seoul).
Ancient Egyptian artist were also fond of including insects in their art and designs.
Butterflies specifically were included in jewelry as well as paintings and painted relief.
As with the inclusion of other insects and smaller creatures, the artists show keen
observation and a love for fine detail.
One of the oldest examples in Egyptian art can be seen in the jewelry of Queen
Hetepheres from the 4th Dynasty, c. 2350 BCE.
(Illustration 1) She was the wife of Snefru and the
mother of Cheops (Khufu). Her set of bracelets
were found in her tomb (or deposit of her
funerary equipment), near the pyramid of Cheops
at Giza. The set was found in a wooden box
covered with gold. The set originally contained 20 bracelets. The bracelets are made of
sheet silver, curved and open on the inside and inlaid with turquoise, lapis lazuli and
carnelian. These semi-precious stones were set into depressions in the silver a
technique known as champleve. The bracelets are decorated with quadruple designs of
butterflies, seen from above outspread wings. Their bodies are inlaid with lapis lazuli,
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turquoise and carnelian and the wings with turquoise and lapis lazuli. Between the
butterflies are suns inlaid with carnelian. Queen Hetepheres most probably used these
bracelets during her lifetime because they show wear and tear. At present they are
exhibited in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Another example including butterflies is a limestone bas relief from the cult temple of
pharaoh Usrekaf (5th Dynasty: 2454-2435 BCE) at Saqqara. (Illustration 2)
Unfortunately only a fragment, 102 cm in
height, survived. It is titled Swamp Scene but
may have been part of a Fishing and Fowling
scene. The quality of this work is of a very high
standard. The fragment only shows a section of
the reeds. Above the reeds a selection of birds
including hoopoes, egrets and others can be
seen with, above them, a butterfly. It is a simple line carving showing the insect from
above with the wings outstretched. The single line decoration of the wings may indicate
the black edge, typical of Terias desjardindii. Perhaps, if the colouring was still intact, it
would have been that of bright yellow wings with black around the edges. This bas relief
can be seen in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
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The most delicate and detailed example of butterflies in
an ancient Egyptian art is to be found in a painting from
the tomb of Nebamun, a nobleman during the reign of
Pharaoh Amenophis III c. 1390 BCE. Only a section of
this painting survived and most probably it was also part
of a Fishing and Fowling scene. These scenes became a
popular tradition in the tombs of noblemen a tradition
that started more than a thousand years before the time
of Nebamun.
The painting is done on plaster and
measures 18cm height. This masterpiece, painted by a

skilled artists or team of artists, includes four butterflies,
painted from different angles which indicate that they fly
in different directions. They add to the tumult and chaos caused by Nebamun with his
throw stick and his cat. The cat accompanied the fowler for the sole purpose to scare the
birds out of the reeds. The variety of birds scared from their nests and out of reeds, is
typical of Africa and the same selection of species can be found at ponds and rivers in
the Kruger National Park, Rep of South Africa. The
butterflies amongst the birds are painted with thin
brushstrokes and delicate dots adding to their
vulnerability amongst the fluttering, larger birds. Their
bodies are painted black with tiny white dots and the
wings in a rusty brown with white markings and black
dots. Very thin brushstrokes were used to paint the legs
and feelers. The colouring of the butterflies is very
similar to that of the Hypolimnas mariposa and the
Danaus chrysippus, both popular in Southern Africa.
This example can be seen in the British Museum,
London. (Illustration 4; the red dots indicate the position
of butterflies)
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Another example of a Fishing and Fowling
scene including butterflies are from the tomb
of Nakht from the 18th Dynasty, c. 1425 BCE.
(Illustration 5)
This scene includes five
butterflies, painted in yellow/orange with

white dots and a white rim around the wings
with darker dots which may have been a representation of the Belenois thysa. Just as in
the tomb of Nebamun, they are flying with the birds in a chaotic disorder of
bewilderment. (Illustration 6. The yellow dots
indicate the position of butterflies)
There are numerous examples of butterflies in
ancient Egyptian art. Some of the finest
examples of butterflies, included in art world
wide, occur in ancient Egyptian art. It is sad to
realize that we so often overlook them.
Whenever visiting Egypt or paging through
books on Egyptian art, look out for them, enjoy,
appreciate
and
treasure
these
beautiful
butterflies.
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List of References:
1) Aldred, Cyril. 1978. JEWELRY OF THE PHARAOHS. EGYPTIAN JEWELRY OF
THE DYNASTIC PERIOD. London: Thames & Hudson.
2) Carruthers, Vincent (Ed.). 2008. DIE NATUURLEWE VAN SUIDER AFRIKA.
DIE GROTER GEILLUSTREERDE GIDS TOT DIE DIERE EN PLANTE VAN DIE
STREEK. Kapstaad: Struik Uitgewers.
3) Hawass, Zahi. 2006. THE GREAT BOOK OF ANCIENT EGYPT. IN THE REALM
OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
4) Houlihan, Patric F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo:
American University n Cairo Press.
5) Malek, Jaromir. 1986. IN THE SHADE OF THE PYRAMIDS. EGYPT DURING
THE OLD KINGDOM. London: Orbis Book Publishing.
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Hedgehogs in Ancient Egyptian Art
The hedgehog is a small spiky mammal which can be found in Europe, Western parts of
Asia, and Africa. In ancient Egypt they were common (as still today) in the Nile Valley.
They are insectivores therefore living chiefly on insects, but also small reptiles and
snails.
It is interesting to see how different civilizations reacted to the hedgehog. In South
Africa the indigenous people used them as muti in witchcraft. In Western Europe they
were included in fairytales e.g. The Hare and the Hedgehog. The 7th Century Greeks
favoured them for their oil, which was stored in hedgehog-shaped vases. These vases
were made in Corinth, Rodes and Naukratis, the Greek trading colony at the Nile delta.
The Egyptians were also fond of the hedgehog. During the Old Kingdom they were often
found on the prows of ships. They used their oil and used hedgehogshaped stamp
seals. There are tomb illustrations indicting that the rich people were fond of including
them in their collections of wild animals. They were also included in hunting scenes.
Small hedgehog statuettes were placed in some tombs. The hedgehog was not a sacred
animal in Egypt, but it may have had protective qualities. Representations of hedgehogs
appear in Egyptian art from the Old kingdom to the Late Period.
In the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, there is a small pottery vessel fashioned in a
spherical shape. This is the typical shape of a living hedgehog when threatened with
danger. When in danger the hedgehog will curl up forming a spiky ball to protect its
vulnerable underside. This vessel stands on short legs and the spout is placed on top,
but to the one side. Directly below the spout is the face of the hedgehog. It has a
protruding snout and typical small eyes. The ears are enlarged and the only sign of the
animals spikes is a single row of short lines around the face. The face is placed in an
open space encircled by the curving lines of a plant, reaching from the underside of the
vessel to the spout. Hedgehog-shaped vases may have served as an advertisement
(trademark) for their particular contents. Vessels like this example were used to store
the fat or oil of the hedgehog, which had medicinal value and was reputed to cure
baldness. This example is from Abydos, New Kingdom 18th Dynasty.
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Egyptians often used stamp seal. As they had
no locks, these small seals, pressed into lumps
of wet clay, secured owners possessions. They
also
served
documents.
as
persons
signature
on
Seals were used from the
beginning of the Dynastic period onwards.

They were found in large numbers. The most
popular shapes were those of the scarab, but
other shapes were also found e.g. lion, frogs, etc. Amongst them the shape of the
hedgehog was also used. (Illustration 1)A fine example is in the British Museum. The
underside of the seal is of oval shape. The top shows a small hedgehog standing on four
sturdy legs on the base-plate of the seal. The spikes are portrayed in six rows of short
straight lines. A very interesting feature of this seal is the human face. (British Museum
Listed No. 46987).
Wealthy Egyptians were fond of hunting and keeping wild animals. At certain times of
the year wild fawns and other animals were obtained to increase the herds which formed
part of a wealthy Egyptian stock. This gathering of stock is also at times portrayed on
tomb walls. In a Middle Kingdom tomb at Beni Hasan there is an illustration of two
gamekeepers, one leading a gazelle by the horns and another carrying two cages on a
wooden yoke over his shoulders. One cage contains a hare and the other two hedgehogs.
Hedgehogs included in hunting scenes are
very interesting. In the tomb of Senbi at Meir,
Middle Egypt (12th Dynasty), the owner of the
tomb can be seen hunting with his helper or
weapon bearer. (Illustration 2) They are
placed on the left hand side of the scene
behind a fence. On the right hand side of the
fence a variety of animals can be seen inside the enclosure. The fleeing game includes
Oryx, Nubian ibex, Dorcas gazelle, hare, hartebeest, and wildebeest and Barbery sheep.
Hunting dogs are adding to the havoc in the enclosure. Not only are the humans
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hunting, but a lion is also hunting, grabbing a wildebeest by the nose. In contrast with
the hunting lion, the lioness is strolling over the dune as if she is not in the least aware
of the action around her. In the lower left hand corner, just behind the fence is a little
hedgehog. He is placed just above the baseline on a separate line indicating a dune. Just
as the lioness, he appears to be very calm in total contrast with the action in the
enclosure. He is moving from left to right, behind a jumping hare. The tiny legs,
underside and face with snout and eye, are clearly visible. The spikes are portrayed as
one flat area. This is a good example of a delicate painted relief from the Middle
Kingdom - a period known for its high quality of art.
From the tomb of Ptah-hotep, 5th Dynasty,
Old Kingdom, there is a very delicate
example of a pair of hedgehogs in their
natural habitat. (Illustration 3)The scene is
portrayed in limestone relief and painted.
The pair of hedgehogs is placed on a
baseline. The one is coming out of their
burrow catching a grasshopper and the second one is placed beside the burrow. The
artist indicated the burrow by using a curved line. The positive curve indicated the
outside and the negative curve, the inside of the burrow. The two hedgehogs are
portrayed only with outlines. Apart from the ears and eyes, no other detail is included.
The strong, yet delicate use of line resulted in a very successful portrayal of these small
animals.
Statuettes in the form of hedgehogs are also common in Egyptian art. A blue faience
example is in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. In dates from the Middle Kingdom, 11 th
Dynasty and was found at Thebes. The hedgehog is placed on an oval base, four short
kegs lift the animal from the base but the feet are modeled on the base. The pointed
snout is naturalistically portrayed. A different attitude is followed in the handling of the
spikes. Here a system of incised grid lines can be seen. Black spots are used to highlight
the effect of spikes. This hedgehog was found in a tomb where it probably bore a
protective significance.
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Although the hedgehog was not a sacred animal in ancient Egypt, the Egyptians show a
fondness in using it. Its natural shape was well accommodated in their designs. The tiny
animal was also popular in larger scenes, e.g. when hunting much larger animal. In
these scenes it forms an interesting contrast with its minute size in comparison with the
larger animals as well as with its attitude of keeping to itself while the hunt is in
progress. In the inclusion of a small animal like the hedgehog in their art, the Egyptians
show that they also noticed the tiny and less important (according to the human) in
nature and they had the artistic ability to portray them with all the tenderness required.
List of References:
1) Houlihan, Patric. F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo.
American University in Cairo Press.
2) Jansen, Rosalind and Jack. 1989. EGYPTIAN HOUSEHOLD ANIMALS.
Aylesbury: Shire Publications.
3) Kozloff, Arielle. P, David Gorgon Mitten and Michel Sguaitamatti. 1981. MORE
ANIMALS IN ANCIENT ART. FROM THE LEO MILDENBERG COLLECTION.
Mainz: Verlag Phillip von Zabern.
4) Rosenthal, Eric. 1961. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. London:
Frederick Warne.
5) Saleh, Mohamed and Hourig Sourouzian. 1987. OFFCIAL CATALOGUE. THE
EGYPTIAN MUSEUM CAIRO. Cairo: Organization of Egyptian Antiquities.
6) Schafer, Heinrich. 1974. PRINICPLES OF EGYPTIAN ART. Oxford: Clarenden
Press.
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7) Van Ryneveled, M.M. 1994. DIE UITBEELDING VAN DIE DIER IN EGIPTIESE
KUNS. (The portrayal of Animals in Egyptian Art). Thesis for the Laureatus:
School of Art and Design. Vaal Triangle University of Technology. Republic of
South Africa.
8) Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner. 1988. A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE ANCIENT
EGYPTIANS. VOL 1, London: Bracken Books.
9) Wilson, Eva. 1086. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN DESIGNS. London: British Museum.
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Frogs in Ancient Egyptian Art
The frog is a common sight and sound in Africa; therefore in a river valley such as the
Nile, they will occur in large numbers. Especially after the mating season their numbers
may increase drastically. A variety of species were found in Egypt during ancient times
and the same species still occur today. It is understandable that nature loving people as
the Egyptians would have incorporated the frog in their religion and art. The species
most often included in Egyptian art was the Bullfrog (Pyxicephalos aspersus). The
Bullfrog is a large frog with a soft body. Colouring varies from olive green to orange with
yellow underside or belly. Typical of this frog is the
large head and the broad, round snout. Smaller
species were also included in the art, e.g. the
Common river frog (Amieta angolensis). This
species is much smaller than the bullfrog, green or
brown with darker spots and lighter green over the
back. The underside is very light to white. This
species has a slender, pointed snout. It is often near
perennial streams. Apart from the full grown frog,
tadpoles also featured in art - but more in
hieroglyphics as the number 100.000. (Illustration 2)
Figures made from different materials such as terra cotta
and ivory as well as stone vessels in the shape of the frog
can be seen in art as early as the Gerzean Period (Naqada
II). In shrines dating at 3100 BCE small figurines of frogs
were often placed as votive objects. These early grave
goods emphasized their importance as fertility objects
that ensured rebirth.
An Old Kingdom alabaster frog, dating from the 1st
Dynasty, is an example of a Bullfrog. Today this example
can be seen in the Cleveland Museum of Art. The artist
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used soft lines and delicate curves in carving this frog. It illustrates his keen observation.
This frog probably served as a cult image to the frog deity Heket. The ancient Egyptian
believed that the frog reproduced spontaneously. She was therefore worshiped as the
goddess of childbirth especially the last stages of labour (Illustration 1)
As from the Middle Kingdom frogs were often displayed on staffs during childbirth
rituals. To ensure fertility women often wore amulets in the shape of frogs. This practice
was even conducted during the religious reform of Akhenaten during the 18th Dynasty.
The frog hieroglyph was, during the New Kingdom, often written after the name of a
dead person to express the wish that he may revive again. A relief in the temple of Seti I
at Abydos illustrates the king bringing offerings to Heket. The cult of Heket was
particularly popular in Abydos as from the Pre-Dynastic time onwards. Frog amulets
were often found amongst the mummy wrappings during the New Kingdom.
During the Ptolemaic Period, a temple was built in honour of Heket in the Coptos area
(Qus). A procession in her honour is also mentioned in the tomb of Petosiris at Tune elGebel.
Although the frog appears in the cosmogony of Hermopolis, it is also associated with
Heket (Hekat). She was a frog deity associated with fertility and childbirth. A midwife
was called Servant of Heket. As goddess Heket was mentioned in the Pyramid Texts.
She was frequently depicted on walls in tombs especially during the Middle Kingdom.
Magical objects decorated with her frog-image were found, such as amulets, rods, magic
knives, clappers and figurines. These objects protected mothers in the nursery. In her
creator aspect, Heket was often associated with the god Khnum. Heket herself was
illustrated as a frog or a woman with a fog head. She was a primitive goddess and it is
believed that Heket and the goddess Shu were the ancestors of the gods. She came with
Shu from the mouth of Ra. As midwife she assisted with the birth of the sun each
morning as she also assisted with the birth of a child. She actually made delivery and
held the Ankh (symbol of life) out to te baby and from that moment, it was believed to
become alive! Heket appeared at childbirth with other goddesses such as Nekhebet,
Taueret, Meshkent and Hathor.
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But he Egyptians also included frogs in their art to illustrate the abundance of life on the
banks of the Nile. These kind of spontaneous illustrations were very popular during the
Old Kingdom and can be seen in tombs such as that of Mereruka and Kagemni at
Saqqara (6th Dynasty). Here frogs are illustrated on reeds and other river plants,
together with other insects such as grasshoppers, butterflies and dragonflies, forming
part of a background for a larger fishing or hunting scenes. The example from the tomb
of Kagemni (Illustration
3) portrays a frog on a
flowering
stem
of
Pondweed,
overhanging
the water. It is in the act of

hunting a dragonfly. The
small body of the frogs is
well portrayed in profile.
It may well be an Amieta
angolensis or else one of
the smaller reed frog species. In this case it is difficult to identify it because of the faded
colour on the relief. On the Pondweed stem just above the frog, a grasshopper
(Schistocerca gregaria) can be seen. This relief from the tomb of Kagemni is a beautiful
example of the artist illustrating the teaming wildlife in the Nile valley.
Although frogs also appear in the art of other ancient cultures, the Egyptian frogs
included in their natural habitat, are from the most sensitive illustrations of frogs in
ancient art.
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List of References:
1) Carruthers, V. 2008. DIE NATUURLEWE VAN SIUDER AFRIKA. DIE GROTER
GEILLUSTREERDE GIDS TOT DIE DIERE EN PLANTE VAN DIE STREEK.
Kaapstad: Struik.
2) Fouad, T and A. Aboudi. -. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND THE ROYAL NAMES.
Luxor: Aboudy.
3) Houlihan, P. F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo:
4) Kozloff, A. P. 1986. MORE ANIMALS IN ANCIENT ART. FROM THE LEO
MILDENBERG COLLECTION. Mainz: Phillip von Zabern.
5) Lauer, J-P. 1076. SAQQARA. THE ROYAL CEMETERY OF MEMPHIS. London:
Thames & Hudson.
6) Malek, J. 2003. EGYPT. 4000 YEARS OF ART. London: Phaidon Press.
7) Wilkinson, T. 2005. THE THAMES & HADSON DICTIONARY OF ANCIENT
EGYPT. London: Thames & Hudson
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Pottery for Domestic Use in Ancient Egypt
The profession of the potter was ranked very low on the social scale (Hope, 1987: 7).
Potters were among the poorer of the poorest in Egyptian society, but their artworks
were used from humble homes to large temples.
The word Potter in Egyptian was ikd (w). It meant Builder or Fashioner. The
fashioner of vessels was ikdw n dsw.
In ancient Egypt vessels, bowls, mugs, etc. were made of a variety of materials from
gold to glass. Ceramic wares (or pottery) were extensively used in temples and tombs for
rituals and in Egyptian homes.
In manufacturing pots, the potter used several different techniques from hand made
to thrown on a kick-wheel. During the Pre-Dynastic Period they mainly used a hand
forming technique. These products were usually fairly small. Pots were made by
manipulating clay-lumps with the fingers or by placing coils of clay on top of each other
and smoothed down. Slabs of clay were also shaped into a pot. Another method was
using a mould. The shape was then refined by hand. This was a very slow technique.
Potters also used a stand which could be turned around while working on a pot.
Gradually they started to use the wheel. The wheel was invented in Mesopotamia in c.
3000-4000BCE and was soon adopted by the Egyptian. It came into Egypt during the
Old Kingdom. Illustrations exist of Khnum working on a kick-wheel. The wheel could
rotate during the manufacturing of a pot. This was not such a time consuming
technique.
Decorating of the pot took place before firing. Decorations included painting, incision of
border patterns and illustrations, as well as the adding of figurative elements, e.g.
sculpted crocodiles on the outside of the pot or ibex shaped handles. Firing took place in
kilns of which we can see the illustrations on walls of tombs. A few examples of kilns
also survived. The designs of the kilns developed over the years, but they stayed simple.
The up-draught kilns reached temperatures of 1100C. Different temperatures were used
for different materials, such as Nile-silt and Marl-clay.
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Clay was the most popular material used for pots
made for domestic use. They were used for the
preparation of food and drink as well as for their
storing. For serving meals Nile-silt mugs, cups, bowls,
dishes and jars were used. Smaller vases, bottles and
pots were used for the storing of expensive oils and
perfumes. Large jars were used for the storing of
grain, wine and water. Jars made for storing of water
and wine were made of Nile-silt because the porous
walls kept the contents cool. (Illustration 1, Large
Nile-silt jar incised with name of King Narmer,
Tarkhan; Archaic period Dynasty I) Marl-clay was
used for pots and jars used for transporting fluids.
(Illustration 2, Marl-clay vessels; Archaic Period;
3050-2686 BCE; Dynasty I and II)
Large estates had large store rooms with numerous
jars for the storage of food, wine and water supplies.
Often these pots and jars were not flat at the basis.
Pottery stands were used to keep these jars standing
when necessary.
Locally made domestic pots didnt have much value as
they were easily obtained or often made by the woman
of the house. Decorated pots, made by trained potters
and imported pots were expensive. Highly decorated
pots, e.g. those from the New Kingdom may have been
used
only
at
special
occasions
and
festivals.
(Illustration 3, Nile-silt jar with gazelle motif; red and

black, painted; New Kingdom, Dynasty XVIII)Just as today the Egyptian housewife had
her ceramic wares for every-day use and those for special occasions. Some highly
decorated and imported wares were only used for decorations.
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The earliest pots were made during the PreDynastic Period, between c. 5000 and 4000 BCE
(Badarian Culture). The Badarian wares were very
fine and carefully prepared in red clay. Later
potters used cream clay found in the desert valleys
of Upper and Middle Egypt. After firing they
became a buff or grey colour. Decorations painted
on these pots include boats, humans and birds.
During Naqada Period black topped ceramic wares
were very popular. (Illustration 4, Black-topped
red-ware;
Predynstic
Period, Naqada I, 40003500
BCE;
Height
70mm)They were first sun

dried, then smoothed with a stone and lastly coated with an
ochre slip, which turned red after firing. The black top and
inside was obtained by carbonization when the red-hot pot was
placed upside-down in smouldering chaff. This method resulted
into a metallic sheen.
During the Old Kingdom the wheel came into use. Pots became even finer. Ewers with
spouts and jugs with lips were hitting the market. The pots from Meydum were
especially fine. (Illustration 5, Nile-silt Meydum bowl;
red-coated and polished; Old Kingdom; Dynasty
V)Egyptian faience wares came from Badari in Upper
Egypt. Faience beads also became very popular.
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During the Middle Kingdom foreign influence can be seen.
(Illustration 6, Nile-silt bowl on stand; Beni Hasan; Middle
Kingdom, Dynasty XII)This came as result of Egypts extensive
trade with other countries, e.g. Mycenae, Cyprus and Crete.
During this period smaller pots with delicate necks and handles
became very popular. (Illustration 7, Grey-fired Nile-silt juglet;
Second Intermediate Period; 1782-1570 BCE; Dynasty XIIIXVII)Small pots were also often placed on their individual small
pedestals.
The New Kingdom was a time of large quantities of painted
pottery, especially from Amarna. Pots were large (over 3 feet) and complex in design
and decoration. Decorations were well related to the design of the pot. Potters were fond
of using naturalistic colours.
In 30 BCE Egypt became a Roman province and the Romans
introduced new techniques.
Numerous examples of Egyptian pottery survived. Especially
those of blue faience, e.g. the shallow dishes became very
popular and can often be seen exhibited in museums. Their
decorations are beautiful and often related to the use of the
bowl. A well preserved example is Blue faience Bowl with
Lute-player from the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden.
Examples of pottery in figurative shape were also very popular,
especially during the new Kingdom. Today examples can also
be found in museums, e.g. Bottle in the Form of a Female
Flute Player and Flask in the Form of a Fat Scribe from the
British Museum, London.
Egyptian pottery were extensively used for domestic purposes. They are well known for
their elegant shape and decorations.
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List of References:
1) Cooper, Emmanuel. 1988. A HISTORY OF WORLD POTTERY. London:
Batsford.
2) Hope, Colin. 1987. EGYPTIAN POTTERY. Aylesbury: Shire Publications.
3) Malek, Jaromir. 2003. EGYPT. 4000 YEARS OF ART. London: Phaidon Press.
4) Russmann, Edna R. 2004. ETERNAL EGYPT. MASTERWORKS OF ANCIENT
ART FROM THE BRITISH MUSEUM. California: University of California Press.
5) Van Ryneveld, M.M. 1994. DIE UITBEELDING VAN DIE DIER IN EGIPTIESE
KUNS. Verhandeling voorgele vir die voltooiing van die vereistes vir die
Laureatus. Vaalddriehoekse Technikon.
6) Wilkinson, Sir. J. Garedner. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE
AND CUSTOMS. London: Bracken Books.
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Sandal-Making in Ancient Egypt
Sandal-making as a trade was highly regarded in ancient Egypt. Yet, of all the
illustrations of everyday activities on the tomb walls, that of sandal-making appears
seldom. Luckily pairs of sandals were found in several tombs.
On the walls of the tomb of Rekhmire (Vizier during the time of Thutmosis III and
Amenhotep II. 19th Dynasty), an illustration of sandal-makers can be found depicting
the making, storing and stock taking of sandals. Two sandal-makers can be seen in their
workshop. The seated one on the left is punching holes in the sole of sandals. On his
working table other tools can be seen as well as complete sandals and two pieces of
leather for the soles for another pair of sandals. In the storing scene the sandal are
neatly packed in rows on the register lines. The register lines in the illustrations, apart
from being used to show the viewer everything, may also represent shelves in the
workshop. The other sandal-maker is involved in stock taking. In the tomb of Khaemhet
(a Noble buried at Luxor) fieldworkers wearing sandals can be seen. They probably did
this for practical reasons to protect their feet from stones or stubble in the fields, as it
was not customary for farm or field workers to wear sandals while working.
One of the tombs in which pairs of
sandals were found was that of
Sennezem (a Servant in the Place
of Truth buried at Luxor). Two
pairs of papyrus sandals were
found in his tomb. (Illustration 1,
Egyptian fiber sandals; Boston
Museum)
Carter found 39 items of footwear in the tomb of Tutankhamun. They were stored in
boxes and found scattered around. They included sandals made of a variety of materials.
Materials used in the making of sandals was leather, palm leaves, papyrus stalks as well
as sheet gold (mainly for funeral purposes). Leather sandals were desirable and
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expensive. They were often lined with cloth. On these linings were painted decorations
such as captives or the eight representing the enemies of ancient Egypt. These figures
were painted on the cloth to humiliate Egypts enemies and illustrate the expression that
You have trodden the impure Gentiles under your powerful feet (Gardener, Wilkinson,
1988: 333). An example of these illustrations on the inner linings or soles is the pair of
sandals of Tutankhamun.
Tools used in the making of sandals were awls, wooden hammers, hooks, stones for
scraping hides, and jars for the soaking of leather, trestles for stretching the leather and
a sloping board or working table to work on. (Illustration 3, Tools for sandal making)
The clients of sandal-makers were mainly the
Upper and Middle class people. Sandals were
worn by men and women. Owning fine sandals
was regarded as a status symbol. Egyptians
were therefore very proud of the sandals they
wore. But, if we look at two and three
dimensional art, we find them more often
bare-foot than wearing sandal. They very
seldom worked with sandals. In formal descriptions as Royalty we find that individuals
were portrayed with or without sandals, for example, the diorite mortuary statue of
Khafre (4th Dynasty), shows the Pharaoh as bare-foot but the mortuary statue of
Ramesses II (19th Dynasty) shows him wearing sandals. During Amarna Period (18th
Dynasty) it seemed as if Royalty preferred to be illustrated wearing sandals. Priests were
also fond of sandals, but during their religious ceremonies in the temples, they
performed their duties without sandals.
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Sandal fashion didnt change much over the years.
One of the earliest illustrations can be found on the
Narmer palette (1st Dynasty) were the sandalbearer
walks
behind
the
barefoot
Pharaoh,
carrying his pair of sandals. This pair can clearly be

seen as having decorations on the inner soles.
Mainly the same style was used throughout the
Dynastic Period. Sandals worn by women and the
upper classes usually had pointed soles, turned up
at the front. Others had sharp, flat points but the majority were round at the front of the
sole. A thong stretched from between the big toe and the second toe to the ankle where it
was attached either to an ankle strap or a broader strap crossing the foot over the
highest part, just in front of the ankle. However there were always exceptions to the
general or popular style, e.g. the pair found in the tomb of Pharaoh Scheschonk II (25th
Dynasty). What is exceptional here is that the tip of the sole that is usually just turned
up is elongated to form a second thong over the length of the foot, which together with
the normal thong, is attached to the ankle strap. (Illustration 4, Sandal Designs)
Several well preserved examples of sandals were found in Egypt. The mummy of
Tutankhamun had thin gold toe sheaths on as well as gold sheath sandals. They were
embossed to imitate papyrus leaf or rush-work. Details such as nails were engraved
upon them. The soles ended in sharp points at the front and these were turned up. These
sandals were obviously not for
everyday use but only for funerary
wear. They were very similar to
those worn by the two guardians
statues found in his tomb.
Amongst the many pairs of sandals
found in Tutankhamuns tomb was
the pair with enemy figures on the
inner soles. The soles were made of
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wood. The decorations were done in dark, green leather and gold foil applied as
marquetry. Nubian and Asian prisoners and the eight bows, representing the enemies of
Egypt, appear on the inner soles. The straps are made of bark, decorated with gold leaf.
This pair was used during Tutankhamuns lifetime and the left sandal shows more wear
and tear than the right one which may indicate that the Pharaoh limped or had
problems with his left foot. (Illustration 2, Sandals from Tutankhamuns Tomb Egyptian
Museum Cairo; Showing enemies to be trodden underfoot)
Tutankhamuns sandals were found in boxes, but many were also scattered about the
annex and the anti-chamber. Those sandals vary from ordinary to sophisticated. The
ordinary ones mainly made of papyrus leaves and rushes and the other of leather. The
finest examples included decorations such as beadwork.
Apart from the examples of sandals found in Egyptian tombs, leather shoes or boots
were also found in Thebes. They are from the Late Period and believed to be of Greek
origin and worn by Greeks as they were never found portrayed in ancient Egyptian art.
Sandals were the typical footwear of ancient Egyptians.
List of References:
1) Carter, Howard. 1954. THE TOMB OF TUTANKHAMN. London: Jenkins.
2) Hawass, Zahi. 2006. THE GREAT BOOOK OF ANCIENT EGYPT. IN THE
REALM OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
3) James, T.G.H. 2007. TUTANKHAMUN. THE ENETERNAL SPLENDOR OF THE
BOY PHARAOH. Vercelli: White Star Publishers.
4) Mancini, Lisa. 1987. THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES AT LUXOR.
Cairo:
American University of Cairo Press.

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5) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. London: Thames &
Hudson.
6) Stierlin, Henri. 1995. THE PHARAOHS. MASTER-BUILDERS. Italy: Terrail.
7) Wilkinson, Charles K. 1983. EGYPTIAN WALL PAINTINGS. New York:
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
8) Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardener. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE
AND CUSTOMS. London: Bracken Book.
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Furniture in Ancient Egypt
Because of the dry climate in Egypt, many pieces of furniture have been well preserved.
Other examples of furniture that did not survive can be seen in numerous wallillustrations throughout Egypt. We must however remember that these examples
illustrate the living conditions of the royalty and the rich.
Examples of furniture have survived from the 1st Dynasty, e.g. beds with rectangular
frames and short legs. The most important examples from the Old Kingdom is the
furniture of Hetepheres (Mother of Khufu) of the 4th Dynasty. (Illustration 1, Armchair;
wood and gold leaf; Tomb of Hetepheres; Dynasty IV)From the Middle Kingdom some
interesting toilet boxes survived. By far the greatest variety and most beautiful examples
are from the New Kingdom. They include boxes, chests, beds, headrests, chairs etc. as
can be seen in the examples from the tomb of Tutankhamun, 18th Dynasty.
In this article the concentration will be on
stools and chairs. Egyptians often sat on
mats, crossed legs or on their heels. Yet
stools and chairs were in common use.
They showed a variety and elegance in
form. In ancient Egypt the chair was also a
symbol of authority.
Light stools, made from papyrus and bent
wood were probably known before the 1st
Dynasty. During the early Dynastic Period,
they developed into wooden stools and
chairs. Stools were usually without a back-rest but examples with the low back (or
batten) and higher backs were also known. Those with higher backs are what we call
today chairs. These usually had legs in the shape of bull hooves or lion paws. As from 4 th
Dynasty they became very popular. Forms of chairs varied very much.
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The later armchair, as from the 4th Dynasty, also had animal legs. The backs were high
and straight and the arm rests high (Chair of Hetepheres). The design of armchairs
developed gradually for better proportioning and comfort.
From these stools and chairs, double benches (for two persons) developed. By the end of
the Old Kingdom the folding stool had crossed
legs which usually ended in a decorative
element,
e.g.
duck
heads
or
lion
legs
(Ecclesiastical Throne of Tutankhamun). Their

seats were mostly of leather stretched over
curved battens. The backs were light and strong
and
usually
consisted
of
upright
bars.
(Illustration 2, Folding stool; Ebony inlayed with

ivory and gold mountings; the seat is solid;
Tomb of Tutankhamun; Dynasty VXIII)
For greater comfort the Egyptians had a number of answers, e.g. seats were made
slightly concave or linen and leather cushions were used. These cushions were stuffed
with goose feathers. They were also beautifully embroidered with silk and gold. Seats
were also made of interlaced work made of string or thongs. Some seats were also made
of skin, e.g. leopard skin, which was removed when the stool was folded up.
Footstools in the shape of ottomans of wood with
cushioned tops were also known (Ottoman of
Ramesses III). (Illustration 3, Ottoman; Tomb of
Rameses III; Dynasty XX)These were nearly as
high as the seat of a chair. Other footstools were
made of wood and highly decorated with inlay
work, carvings and/or paint. These were very
low and lifted the feet just above the floor
(Footstool of Tutankhamun).
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The Egyptians used a variety of materials in making furniture. Different materials were
also combined in one piece. Principle materials were a variety of timber, e.g. acacia,
sycamore and tamarisk. They were all indigenous to Egypt. Timber such as cedar,
cypress and juniper were imported. A popular and highly prized wood was ebony,
imported from Central Africa. Materials added to or combined with wood, were ivory,
glass faience, coloured stone, papyrus and leather. Sheet gold, foil and leaf as well as
silver were used in luxury furniture.
Tools used by the Egyptians were simple and included adze, blades (of copper and
bronze). Tools had wooden handles. Smoothing of surfaces was done by adzes and stone
rubbers.
Their techniques were also simple. Pieces of wood were united by dowels and flat
tongues, cramps and pegs. Occasionally they made use of the tongue and groove
method. Dove-tailing joints can often be seen. Papyrus was also used to keep joints
together. Corners were formed by special types of mitre, pegged or lashed. Metal pins
and nails were not employed in carpentry before 18th Dynasty. Bronze pins, capped with
gold can be seen in some of the examples from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Flaws in the
wood were patched and as in the case of poor wood, were often covered with gesso,
smoothed and painted. The painting was often done to imitate more valuable materials.
Veneer and inlay work were also used to cover inferior timber. Ivory and ebony were
very popular to use as inlay work. Other decorations were done in materials mentioned
above.
Stools and chairs were of high quality and interesting design. Apart from the fact that
they were light and easy to handle, they were also very comfortable. They are the
forerunners of the different seats we use today. Although we often include materials
such as chrome, stainless steel, glass and plastic in modern furniture, wood is still one of
the highest acclaimed valuable and popular materials used.
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List of References:
1) Hayward, Helena Ed. 1985. WORLD FURNITURE. New York: Crescent Books.
2) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING. THE
TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames & Hudson.
3) Wilkinson, Sir J. 1988. A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
London: Bracken Books.
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The Use of Leopard Skin in Ancient Egypt
Although the Lion was crowned as King of the Jungle, it was the leopard whose pelt
adorned royalty and people of high rank.
Throughout Africa the leopard skin was sought after. African tribes, e.g. the Ba Lobedu
people of the Duiwelskloof area in South Africa, crowned their Rain Queen, Modjadji VI
(in the early 2000s), with the Royal Leopard Skin draped around her shoulders. The
Zulu of Kwa Zulu Natal (South Africa) also use the skin as a token of royalty. The
leopard claws are used as collar decoration. The Zulu not only value the pelt but also
adore the animal for its strength. In one of their legends the bravery of two soldiers are
measured against several aspects, one of which is the strength of the King Leopard.
The leopard can display more strength than a lion (kilogram per kilogram).
The Leopard (Panthera Pardus) rears its head as the most prominent, colourful and
most treacherous (Sinclair, 1965: 24) as well as the cruelest killer of all cats. A leopard
can weigh up to 60 kg, and can pull prey of more than his own weight up a tree. They are
loners and can be seen in pairs during the mating season. The leopard is nocturnal and
area bound. He marks his area by urinating.
The skin colour of the leopard varies from yellow ochre on the back to white at the belly.
The black spots are arranged in rosettes. Only down the legs and in the face singular
black spots can be found. The tip of the tail is marked by black rings. It is the beauty of
its pelt that makes it sought after.
In ancient Egypt it was sought after for the same reason. Leopards appeared in Egypt
during Pre-Dynastic times as can be seen on a palette from the late Pre-Dynastic
(Naqada III) Period. Because of human settlement and activities along the banks of the
Nile, some species were completely eradicated north of the First cataract by the Archaic
Period (I-II Dynasty). The Leopard, known as a shy animal, may have been one of the
first to move south to survive. Later, as from the Old Kingdom onwards, leopards and
leopard skin came into Egypt from Nubia as tribute to Pharaohs or as items of trade.
Several tombs such as the 6th Dynasty tomb of Harkuf as well as the 18th Dynasty tomb
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of Rekhmire record scenes where exotic objects and animals, including the leopard skin
or the animal, are brought into the country.
The Egyptians used the leopard skin mainly as an adornment for priests when
performing certain ceremonies. Several two- and three-dimensional artworks illustrate
this, e.g. Kneeling Priest (NK 18th Dynasty). This is a very high quality limestone
sculpture with traces of paint. The priest is portrayed as a child with a short wig and the
side lock. The leopard skin or pelt covers the back of the figure with the hind legs resting
on the priests thighs. A strap around the middle keeps the skin in position. The tail can
be seen pressed against the figures thigh with the tip of the tail ending at the knee. The
front legs of the skin are draped over the shoulder of the figure and fastened under the
arms. The head of the leopard is not indicated. This may be the figure of the first born
son of Amenhotep III, who served as High Priest of Ptah at Memphis.
The Egyptian priesthood consisted of priests of different levels or ranks, according to
their peculiar office. One of the priests who held a very high rank was the Salem or
Sam Priest. His responsibility was the handling of sacrifices; ordering of all religious
processions (in which he will carry the holy vase); presenting offerings at the altar and
funerals as well as anointing the Pharaoh. The Sem Priest was fully versed in all the
matters concerning the Ancient Egyptian religion.
The Sem Priest was marked by specific dress consisting of
a basic linen robe with leopard skin fitting over. The
leopard skin was treated in different ways either a full
skin draped over the shoulders (with or without the head)
or worked off as a robe. The priests head also shaven but at
times he wore a short wig with or without a side lock.
Occasionally a Pharaoh or other individuals of high rank
were also dressed in this manner.
In the tomb of Sen-nefer (NK, 18th Dynasty) from the NE
corner of the hall of pillars, two Sem Priests are depicted:
one with a libation vase anointing Sen-nefer and the other
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with ceremonial vase and incense. (Illustration 1, Sem Priest: Tomb of Sen-nefer)Both
are wearing short wigs without the side lock. The leopard skins are painted in rich
yellow ochre with orange and black spots. The claws are painted white as well as the
edges of the pelts with short black lines. The tails hang down at the sides of the figures.
No leopard heads are visible.
(Illustration 2, The opening of Mouth Ceremony; Tomb of
Tutankhamun)
In the tomb of Tutankhamun (NK 18th
Dynasty) (N wall burial chamber), Ay, dressed in a white

robe and a blue warrior crown, of a pharaoh, has a leopard
skin draped over his shoulders. He is performing the
Opening of the Mouth ceremony to the mummy of the
deceased Pharaoh. The leopard skin clearly shows the
distinct rosettes of dots, black lines of the tail and tiny single
dots of the paws. Every single claw is included. The head of
the animal is fairly small and hangs over the front of Ays
torso. In two dimensional arts, the head of the leopard is
usually draped over the shoulder furthest from the viewer so
that the head hanging down in front of the person can clearly be seen. Markings on the
skin will be rendered accurately or in fine detail.
An example from the tomb of Ipuy, (MK Deir el
Medina), illustrates offerings made to Ipuy by the Sem
Priest. Here the priest is dressed in a long kilt, with
leopard skin draped over his shoulder in typical
fashion. The leopard skin is tied to his back with a
white ribbon. The skin is painted yellow ochre and the
black spots placed in even rows with tiny dots between
the rows. Paws are white with two black zig-zag lines at
the wrists and the tail is decorated with similar black
lines. The center line along the back of the animal is
marked by three rows of elongated spots. The skin is
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worked off at the edges decorated with a black line decorated with a yellow zig-zag line
in the middle. Detail on the head is done in black. This is an example where the spots
are rendered in a decorative manner in fine detail. The head is as usual fairly small in
comparison with the entire skin. The priest is wearing white sandals. He also wears a
short wig with headband and perfume cone. (Illustration 3, Sem Priest: Tomb of Ipuy)
On the stela of princess Nefertiabet (Nefertiabt) from the time of Khufu, (OK 4th
Dynasty), the princess is seated in front of an offering
table loaded with food. A list of the offerings and their
quantities are included to the right. She is seated on a
stool and dressed in a robe of leopard skin: one off
shoulder and one long sleeve. The robe reaches to her
ankles. The entire robe is covered with black rosettes. She
wears a simple long wig without any decorations. She also
has a choker around her neck and one bracelet.
(Illustration 4, Princess Nefertiabet Stela of Nefertiabet)
A very interesting example can also be found in the tomb
of Nefertary, (NK 19th Dynasty). Here the two figures
illustrate the two forms of Horus. Firstly Horus Iunmutef
Pillar of his Mother and secondly Horus Nedjiotef
Avenger of his Father. Both are depicted as Sem Priests
clad in typical dress. They both wear short wigs with side
locks and the royal uraeus on their foreheads. Interesting
is the inclusion of the very short beards. Horus Iunmutef is
dressed in a short kilt with a leopard skin draped over his
shoulders with the head hanging on his chest. It seems as if
the front legs and paws are worked into short sleeves, but
the rest of the skin is hanging loose down his back. Horus
Nedjiotef on the other hand wears a short robe of leopard skin over his short kilt. The
robe has short sleeves and the tail of the animal hangs in front of Horus. This is an
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example where two forms of a god are wearing the leopard skin. (Illustration 5, Horus
Nedjiotef: Tomb of Nefertari)
The Sem Priest costume can also be worn by a son, performing a libation ceremony, e.g.
as in the tomb of Sennedjem and his wife receiving libation from their son Bunakhatef
(NK, 18th Dynasty). Bunakhatef wears a short wig and is dressed in short kilt with
leopard skin draped over his shoulder typical of Sem Priest
attire. He is holding the libation vase, therefore performing
the duties of the Sem Priest. (Illustration 6, Bunakhatef:
Tomb of Sennedjem)
From the above examples, it is clear that the leopard skin or
pelt was widely used in Ancient Egypt as formal dress for the
performing of certain religious rituals and ceremonies. It was
mainly worn by the Sem Priest as in the tomb of Ipuy, but
also by Pharaohs (Ay), family members (Bunakhatef),
princesses (Nefetiabet) and gods (Horus). It was used draped
over the shoulders but also worked into robes. The leopard
skin was held in high esteem and therefore never used for
informal wear.
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List of References:
1) Aldred, Cyril. 1968. EGYPTIAN ART IN THE DAYS OF THE PHARAOHS 3100
320 BC. London: Thames and Hudson.
2) El Mahdy, Christine. 1991. MUMMIES MYTH AND MAGIC. London: Thames
and Hudson.
3) Fletcher, Joanne. 1999. ANCIENT EGYPT. LIFE, MYTH AND ART. London:
Duncan Baird Publishers.
5) James, T. G. H. 2002. RAMESSES II. Vercelli: White Star Publishers.
6) Labouschagne, R. J. and N. J. van der Merwe.
1971. MAMMALS OF THE
KRUGER AND OTHER NATIONAL PARKS. South Africa: National Parks Board
of Trustees.
7) Larsen, Tobin B. THE NATURE OF THE NILE. Aramco World. Nov.-Dec. 1987.
Vol 38 No 6 pp 20-27.
8) Malek, Jaromir. 1993. THE CAT IN ANCIENT EGYPT. London: British Museum
Press.
9) Mutwa, Vusamazulu C. 1965. INDABA MY CHILDREN. Pietermaritzburg: The
Natal Witness.
10) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING. THE
TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames and Hudson.
11) Russman, Edna R. 20014. ETERNAL EGYPT. MASTERWORKS OF ANCIENT
ART FROM THE BRITISH MUSEUM. California: University of California Press.
12) Schafer, H. 1974. PRINCIPLES OF EGYPTIAN ART. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
13) Sinclair, John. 1965. THE HUNTED ONES. Johannesburg: Hugh Keartland.
14) Wilkinson,
Charkes
K.
1983.
EGYPTIAN
WALL
PAINTINGS.
THE
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ARTS COLLECTION OF FACSIMILES. New

York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
15) Wilkinson, Sir J. gardener. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE
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16) Zabern,
Phillip
von.
1986.
SEN-NEFER.
DIE
GRABKAMMER
DES
BURGERMEISTERS VON THEBEN. Mainz: Verlag Phillip von Zabern.
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The use of Ivory in Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptians were fond of including luxury materials in their art. These materials
included ebony, lapis lazuli, ivory and others. During the Dynastic Period most of these
materials were imported, which made them very expensive.
The term ivory includes hippo, walrus as well as elephant tusks. Those of elephants
were (and still is today) more sought after and therefore more expensive. Ivory is a
creamy-white, fine grained dentine. It is opaque and fairly hard an excellent material
for carving.
Elephants are the largest land mammals and are found in India and Africa. The African
elephant is the larger of the two and is still found in various countries on the continent
such as Zimbabwe, Botswana and Kenia. In the Republic of South Africa they can be
found in several nature reserves e.g. Addo National Park, Kruger National Park,
Pilanesburg and others.
African elephants have very large ears and also large tusks. They can reach a height of
300-340cm and can weigh up to 7000kg. Only one calf is born every 5 years, after a
gestation period of 22 months. Puberty stars at 13 years, the time when small tusks can
already be observed. The life-span of African elephants is 65-70 years.
During the Pre-Dynastic Period elephants still grazed in the Nile Valley. Rock
engravings found in caves indicate that several groups of people, e.g. hunters and
mountain dwellers inhabited the area. Their representations in rock shelters included a
variety of animals from their region with amongst them elephants. It is interesting to
notice that during these early times in history, people already used ivory for carving.
From Egypt a beautiful Ivory Knife from Jebel el Arak survived. It is dated as ProtoDynastic and is at present in the Louvre. It is a flint knife with an ivory handle which is
decorated with finely carved figures, boats and a variety of animals.
As human activities increased such as political activities, agriculture and trade, animals
such as the elephant, gradually moved further south. Humans developed different crafts
e.g. basketry, weaving and pottery. Objects of luxury and personal adornment became
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popular. Different materials were used in making these objects such as ivory and ebony
and they were often decorated with carvings of birds, figures, boats and animals. As
animals gradually became extinct in the valley these materials were imported. Ebony
was imported from Syria, Lapis Lazuli from the east and ivory from African countries
such as Nubia. It was during these early times before the 1st Dynasty that small ivory
statuettes appeared. They were mostly women. The earliest examples are from Badari.
Typical of these figurines are the dimple above each buttock only a very shallow drill
hole. During Pre-Dynastic times small plaques also appeared. They were about the size
of a large postage stamp an inscribed with an early form of hieroglyphic. Some examples
were found at Abydos in the tomb of Pharaoh Scorpion.
During the Dynastic Period ivory became more expensive. Ivory was imported from
Nubia till late in the Dynastic period. Trade with Nubia actually became very important.
The main Egyptian market for trade with Nubia was most probably at Elephantine
(from there the name Abu meaning Elephant Town). From the time of Ramesses
II we find a scene in the temple of Beit-el Wali illustrating the Pharaoh being presented
with several objects including ebony logs, gold collars, ostrich eggs and feathers as well
as elephant tusks.
The technique of ivory sculpture was influenced by the shape of the tusk a cylindrical
shape. Ivory figurines differ from figures carved in stone. Arms were often made
separately, but both arms were held straight to the side of the body. Joints were often
hidden under the clothing of the figure. Clothing were either carved or applied in gesso.
As ivory is easy to carve (e.g. when compared with stone), carving to decorate an object
could be done in minute detail. It was also easier to drill small holes for example in a
hand of a figure to hold a scepter or in a bead to put a string through. The texture of
ivory also made it an ideal material to use for inlay-work as small pieces can more easily
be cut to the exact size and shape needed.
Ivory was used to create certain objects as well as to decorate objects basically made of
other materials. The objects made of ivory include small statuettes, cosmetic objects,
seals, labels and plates, musical instruments and writing utensils. Those made of other
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materials and decorated with ivory are furniture, board games, jewelry, weaponry and
others.
At Abydos a small Statuette of a King was found. It is
8.8.cm in height and dates back to c. 3000 BCE (found by Sir
F. Petrie). (Illustration 1, Ivory statuette of a king in his Sed
costume; Abydos; Predynastic Period; British Museum.)The
statuette was found near the early temple at Abydos. It is a
small statuette and shows some weathering. The figure is
that of a Pharaoh in ceremonial cloak and high white crown
of Upper Egypt. He is wrapped in the cloak and holds it
together with his hands. The figure has stopping shoulders
the neck thrust forward and the chin lowered. This pose may
indicate an elderly person. The ceremonial cloak is typical of
those worn during the Sed- Festival. The material of the cloak
shows a diamond pattern as well as a definite border design
which was carved very delicately. Despite the delicate
carving, the cloak indicates a heavy fabric. Flaps are hanging
over the shoulders and the one over the left shoulder shows a
definite scalloped edge. This statuette portrays an exceptional carving technique. Earlier
examples were usually more stylized. This example is more naturalistic than most
examples of this early period.
Ivory was also very popular for the making of cosmetic objects, e.g. fashionable hairpins
and combs. This also indicated d in the amount of attention given to elaborate hairdos
and the beautifully decorated combs with birds, flowers and animals. An exceptional
ivory comb was found at Abydos. The centerpiece of this comb is a serekh with the
hawk of the god Horus and the name of the Pharaoh Djet. It also includes two was
scepters (indicating sovereignty) and the ankh symbol (indicating life). Above the
wings of the bird is a barque with a hawk. The shape of the comb is a simple square and
the teeth are less than a quarter of the total height of the comb (Illustration 2).
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Several examples of labels, plates and plaques made
of ivory were found of which a large number near
Abydos in the tomb of Pharaoh Scorpion. Small
square labels usually had a hole in one corner to be
attached to a box or a jar. At Saqqara labels were
found inscribed with the names of Pharaoh Djet of
the 1st Dynasty and his official Sekhemkased. These
labels indicated contents, quantity and place of
origin of the contents or product contained in the
box or jar. From the tomb of the Pharaoh Den of the
1st Dynasty (also at Abydos) came a label portraying
the Pharaoh smiting his enemy an Easterner. The
reverse side only shows and incised pair of sandals.
On the obverse side the Pharaoh is identified by his name in the serek. Above the
serekh is the figure of Horus. Pharaoh Den wears the royal headdress with a rearing
cobra. This is one of the earliest examples of a Pharaoh portrayed as wearing the royal
cobra.
Musical
instruments
such
as
clappers were also made of ivory.

(Illustration 3, Ivory clapper in the
shape of an arm. Philadelphia
Museum)
From
Tutankhamun
the
tomb
beautiful
of
pair
exists. Their length is 15.7cm and they are slightly curved a shape that may have been
influenced by the natural shape of the tusk. They were found on the floor of the annex of
the tomb. They are arm-shaped and topped with elegant hands. On the opposite ends
there are holes in the clappers which according to Nicholas Reeves, may have been
intended for the insertion of a string or cord to link the two together so they can also be
used in a similar way as castanets. Each arm (or clapper) is decorated with a bracelet
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and an elongated cartouche. The inscriptions refer to Queen Tiye and her granddaughter
Meritaten.
Also from the tomb of Tutankhamun is the young kings writing equipment. This
included a small ivory water dish, two ivory scribal palettes and an ivory and gold
papyrus burnisher. This was just a fraction of the writing equipment found in his tomb.
Materials used for the others include and limestone, wood, gold, sandstone, together
with various pigments.
Apart from objects made entirely of ivory as
mentioned above, there are several examples of
objects basically made of other materials and
decorated with ivory. Several beautiful examples of
furniture from the tomb of Tutankhamun can be
seen in Cairo museum. Boxes and chests were often
decorated with ivory, e.g. the small paneled box of
ebony with the ivory veneer and fastening knobs.
Then there is also the box with the very fine herring
bone parquetry which involved more than 45,000
individual pieces. But one of the most exquisite
examples of furniture is the folding chair of which
the legs end in duck-heads inlaid with ivory. The
workmanship is of outstanding quality. (Illustration
4) Objects that are often included under furniture
are the board games of the ancient Egyptians. At times these boards took shape of small
tables or boxes on legs. In the Cairo Museum there is an example of a board game on a
stand from the tomb of Tutankhamun, found in the annex of his tomb. It is made of a
poor quality of wood and veneered, but identified as ebony. It stands on lion-paw
shaped legs on a sledge. The upper as well as the lower surfaces of the box are made of
ivory with wooden strips glued on to form the blocks. On the one side there are 30
squares for the game Senet (passing) and on the other side 20 squares. This game of
20 squares was introduced from the Levant and the rules are still unknown to us. The
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box includes a drawer, but when found it was empty. These drawers were to store the
playing pieces and the casting sticks.
Other uses for ivory include weaponry and jewelry. Ivory boomerangs were found in the
tomb of Tutankhamun. They were probably used for hunting birds in the reeds. Jewelry
including ivory are mainly strings of beads. But an ivory bracelet found in the annex of
the tomb of Tutankhamun includes delicately carved running animals such as gazelle
horse and hare.
Ivory was extensively used during ancient times by the Egyptians as well as other
civilizations. Work of outstanding quality survived for us to admire. Some examples
from other areas are the Lion devouring a curly-haired Boy from Nimrud and the
Aurignacian Lady of Brassepouy. From the continent of Africa a small hip mask from
Benin still survives. The small mask is only 25cm in height. An exquisite display of ivory
objects can also be seen in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. At present ivory is
still a very popular material to work with. It is a pity though that the use of ivory today
have led to the illegal hunting of elephants. Early in 2013 to start the new year an
entire herd (or family group) of eleven animals were killed in a reserve in East Africa for
their tusk.
1) List of References:
2) Malek, Aromir. 1986. IN THE SHADOW OF THE PYRAMIDS. EGYPT DURING
THE OLD KINGDOM. London: Orbis Book Publishing.
3) Oakes, Lorna. 2010. PYRAMIDS, TEMPLES & TOMBS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. AN
ILLUSTRATED ATLAS OF THE LAND OF PHARAOHS. London: Heremes
House.
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4) Houlihan, Patric F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF TE PHARAOHS. Cairo:
5) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTNAKHAMUN. THE KING. THE
TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames & Hudson.
6) Hayward, Helena (Ed.). 1981. WORLD FURNITURE. AN ILLUSTRATED
HISTORY FROM EARLIEST TIMES. England: Hamlyn.
7) Lamy, Lucie. 1981. NEW LIGHT ON ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE. EGYPTIAN
MYSTERIES. London: Thames & Hudson.
8) Zabern, Philipp von. 1987. OFFICIAL CATALOGUE. THE EGYPTIAN MUSEUM
CAIRO. The Arab republic of Egypt: Organization of Egyptian Antiquities.
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Tutankhamun Vuvuzelas
Two vuvuzelas, or shenebs (called trumpets or horns) were found in the tomb of
Tutankhamun. They were made of metal and not of the popular plastic as those made
for the FIFA World Cup of 2010.
Although they were used from very early in Egyptian history, the first representations of
the sheneb found so far, date from early New Kingdom. The only actual two to have
survived, were found in the tomb of Tutankhamun one sliver and the other bronze.
The sheneb was used for military purposes or
during parades accompanied by drums. They
were used to marshal the troops, summon them
to
the
change
and
direct
them
in
their
evolutions(Wilkinson, 1988:104). (Illustration 1,

Military band: Thebes (Detail).)The shenebs of
Tutankhamun are also described as military
horns and were most probably used to signal a
rhythmic code on a single pitch (Reeves,
1990:165).
Shenebs were simple in from and most probably
mainly made of brass. They were straight, like our common trumpet or horn, and
decorated with engraving. In Busiris and Lycopolis however, they were never used,
because the sound resembled the braying of an ass a sound that evoked unpleasant
sensations and reminded the people of evil.
The two shenebs found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, were found in the antechamber
and in the burial chamber. Objects in the antechamber were found in chaos. It had been
disturbed at least twice after the tombs original sealing. Between the objects a path had
been cleared, perhaps by Lord Carnavon and Howard Carter during their preliminary
investigation. The chamber was cleared on the 26th February 1923 after seven weeks of
hard work. The sheneb found in the burial chamber was wrapped in reeds and it was
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lying on the floor in the south eastern corner of the chamber. The placing can clearly be
seen on the original sketch by Carter. The official opening of the Burial Chamber took
place on the 17th February 1932. (Illustration 2, Bronze Tutankhamuns trumpet with the
wooden protector; The tomb of Tutankhamun)
Both shenebs had a wooden core gessoed and painted. This was most probably
intended to protect it from damage, e.g. dents, when not in use as the metal was very
thin.
The first one was of silver with a mouthpiece of gold
(no. 175). The flare (or bell) and tube were hammered
from sheet metal. It was fashioned in two pieces and
the edges were cut in square taps, folded over and
joined by silver solder to give and overall length of
58.2 cm. The lotus-shaped flares diameter is 8.2 cm.
(Reeves 1990: 164) The flare contains vertical
cartouches containing the prenomen and the nomen of
Tutankhamun.
rectangular
band
was
added
(perhaps after kings death) containing a scene

including Amun-Ra and Ra-Horakhty before the
creator god Ptah of Memphis.
The second trumpet was the copper alloy on with
sheet gold (no. 50gg). The copper alloy sheets is 0, 20.25cm thick. It has a four-rivet join between the tube
and the flare covered by a gold sleeve. The electrum mouthpiece has the shape of a
simple ring, passed over the end of the tube. This one also has a simple lotus-shaped
covered by a gold sleeve. The flare is plain but the panel illustrated with the following:
Amun-Ra, Ra-Horakhty, Tutankhamun (with blue crown) and Ptah of Memphis.
Although the both shenebs belonged to king Tutankhaun, they were not a pair. Both
instruments were tested and played during modern times. They were firstly played in
1933 by prof. Kirby of the University of Johannesburg. He tried to play them without the
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use of a mouthpiece but found that it was very difficult because it required very strong
air pressure. During a 1939 BBC broadcast they were played by Bandsman James
Teppern of the Birtish Army. He played them with a modern mouthpiece and obtained
three notes, C, G, and C an octave higher. And lastly they were played in 1941 without a
modern mouthpiece. The two instruments were found to be tuned differently. The
sound they made was described (by musicologist Hans Hickman) as raucous and
powerful, recalling rather the timbre of a mediaeval trombone or primitive horn than
that of a trumpet or cornet (Reeves, 1990: 165). Musicologist Jeremy Montagu
concluded that the middle range achieved during experiments was that which the
sheneb had been designed for. (Illustration 3 Detail
of decoration in the bell of the bronze trumpet)
Shenebs and vuvuzelas have the same design but
were made of different materials. It seems as if the
ancient shenebs of Tutankhamun were also capable
of the same sound volume as the modern vuvuzelas.
As they were designed to carry messages over a long
distance during warfare. It is quite understandable.
Whereas the vuvuzelas, used in a large but confined
space, can be overwhelming as well as damaging to
the human ear.
List of References:
1) Bongioanni, Alesandro (Ed.). 2001. THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO THE
EGYOTIAN MUSEUM IN CAIRO. Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press.
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2) Carter, Howard. 1972. THE ROMB OF TUTANKHAMUN. London: Barrie &
Jenkins.
3) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING, THE
TOMB. THE TREASURE. London: Thames & Hudson.
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Tomb of Tutankhamuns Jackal
Certainly the most widely known and deftly executed image of Anubis that has come
down to us from ancient Egypt is the powerful recumbent statue of him on top of a
gilded shrine of the Eighteenth Dynasty tomb of Tutankhamun (no 62) in the Valley the
Kings (Houlihan, 1996: 78). The recumbent figure of a jackal from Tutankhamuns
tomb is absolutely fascinating. It is superbly executed. The animal is described as a
jackal or dog who also had a specific religious significance.
The cult of the jackal or a dog-headed deity, Anubis, probably migrated into Egypt from
a civilization that was settled in the mountain area in central Sahara, the Tibetsi
Mountains. Pre-historic rock art portraying a human figure with jackal like mask was
found in this area. Because of climate changes, these people moved towards the Nile
river valley, settled there and later became part of the Egyptian civilization. The cult of
Anubis became universal in Egypt. It was the totem of several nomes such as the XIIIth,
XVIIth, and XVIIIth. It was however in the XIIIth nome of Upper Egypt, that the cult
played the most important role. This was the most sacred place of Anubis and the capital
of Lykopolis. Lykopolis was situated on the West bank of Nile, just downstream of
Asyut. Later, but still in Ancient times, the nome capital changed to Asyut.
According to the Pyramid Texts, Anubis was the fourth son of Ra but later he was
included in the family group of Osiris. Yet, he was brought up by Isis, the official wife
of Osiris. He helped Isis and Nephthys to mummify Osiris as well as to bury him and
was henceforth associated with embalming and funeral rites. He was called Lord of the
Mummy Wrappings (Egyptian Mythology, 1965: 80). Anubis was portrayed as a black
jackal or dog or as a jackal or dog-headed human.
The Egyptians did not differentiate between dogs and jackals. They also used the same
word to describe both canines iuiu meaning Barker or Howler (Janssen, 1989:
9). Dogs were domesticated from early Pre-history. Several breeds developed during
Ancient Egyptian times. Some selective breeding also took place, e.g. the Greyhound
(since the Old Kingdom). The Greyhound had erected pointed ears and a curly tail. This
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specimen is often represented in Egyptian art. Dogs were feared in ancient Egypt as well
as despised because of their nature. They were used as hunting dogs and pets. They are
often portrayed in hunting scenes, e.g. the Desret Hunting Scene from the tomb of
Senbi at Meir, 12th Dynasty. As pets they will sit next to the owners chair or accompany
him while working. Strange enough, they never illustrated dogs being fondled or played
with. They gave their dogs individual names describing their colour or character. Dogs
were illustrated wearing collars.
In Egypt the common or Golden Jackal (canis aureus lupaster) was found from ancient
times onwards. Jackals appeared in Egyptian art since the Old Kingdom. They are
presented as short-haired animals with very long, bushy tails, e.g. in the tomb of
Nefermaat at Meidum, 5th Dynasty. Jackals also appear in hieroglyphic inscriptions,
either as entire animal or only the head placed on a vertical line (wsr meaning
strong),e.g. in the cartouche of Senusret I, 12th Dynasty. The Red Fox (vulpes vulpes
aegyptica) also appear in Egyptian art, e.g. The dying Fox in the tomb of Userhat at
Thebes, 18th Dyansty. Here the white tip of the tail can clearly be seen.
The canine portrayed as Anubis is very interesting. It presents typical characteristic of
the canine family in general. It is presented in black, having a smooth, short-haired coat.
The muzzle is long and it has erect pointed ears. It has a slender torso and extremely
long thick bushy tail. Numerous representations of Anubis in Egyptian art resemble a
jackal with a collar, which indicates that the animal is under human control (Carter
1972: 164). Apart from the long bushy tail all characteristics can be found in Egyptian
dogs and of course the collar! Carter explains that it may be a form of domesticated
jackal-dog of the Egyptians (1972: 164). In the British Museum there is an example of a
gold jackal (Meriotic Jewelry) which has the same features of the jackal of
Tutankhamun: slender body, long snout, long erect ears and long tail hanging down to
the base of the ornament. It is described as a canine, possibly a jackaland is closely
paralleled by other examples found in the pyramid of Queen Amanishaketo (Taylor,
1991: 56) (1st century B.C.)
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Tutankhamuns Jackal was found in
the Innermost Treasury of his tomb.
Although the tomb was discovered in
1922, work on the Treasury only
started on the 24th October 1926. The
Treasury is a small room not more
than 15feet 8 inches by 12 feet 6inches
square, and 7feet 8 inches in height
(Carter, 1972: 158). Carter wrote:
placed in the doorway practically
preventing ingress to the room, was
the black figure of the jackal-like god
Anubis,
covered
with
linen
and
couchant upon a gilt pylon resting on

a sledge with long carrying poles (Carter, 1972: 159-160). He was placed in the open
doorway, watching towards the West. From this position he guarded the Treasury and
watched over the Burial Chamber. As Lord of the west, Anubis guarded the kings
canopic equipment which was stored in the Treasury. (Illustration 1)
The sled based pylon-shaped shrine on which the jackal was found, is made of gessoed
and gilded wood. The sides are decorated with two rows of double Djed and Tet
symbols and horizontal and vertical inscriptions. The inner compartments of this shrine
consisted of one large and four small sections. They were filled with objects and
materials belonging to the mummification ritual. On top of the shrine, between the paws
of the jackal lay a small ivory palette inscribed with the name of Meritaten,
Tutankhamuns half-sister. A little clay brick with a tiny reed torch was also placed in
front of Anubis (Carter, 1972: 163).
On top of this shrine lay Anubis. He was 95 by 31 cm and 54,3cm high. A delicate linen
shawl was wrapped around his shoulders. Around his neck was a long leash-like linen
scarf which was adorned with blue lotus and cornflowers. It was twisted into a bow at
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the back of the neck. Over this a linen shirt was wrapped. The inscription on the shirt
dated to Akhenatens 7th regal year.
The figure of Anubis was that of a black jackal without gender, because Anubis is also
portrayed as a jackal-headed human male. Further references to him will be as male. He
was carved from wood. The smooth skin was coloured black with black resin. The eyes
are inlaid with calcite and obsidian. Gilded detail can be seen around the eyes, on the
ears as well as the collar around his neck. The toe - nails, five on the front toes and four
on the hind toes, are done in silver. The Jackal is in a reclining pose, head erect, looking
straight ahead. The frontal pose of figures animal and human in Egyptian art, is very
typical. The ears are very long and erect, head lifted high, as if he is hearing something
in the Burial chamber. The slender body shows clear signs that the sculptor knew about
the anatomy of the animal that he portrayed it very well. Detail such as the ribs and the
slender hind quarters of the jackal are sensitively executed. The extremely long, thick
tail hangs down as if totally relaxed. The broad rib case slender hind quarters indicate
an animal of speed.
The long strong tail will help with balance when the animal is running at high speed.
This tail however, is so long that it will trail behind the jackal when walking.
The contrast in the execution of the figure is quite striking. There is a tenseness in the
neck, head and ears which stresses the alertness of the animal. Yet, the long thick tail,
hanging heavily down, indicates a relaxed pose. When approaching the jackal from
behind, one feels tempted to put the hand on his back. When standing in front of the
jackal, the alertness and accentuated eyes which causes a hard expression will rather let
one retreat.
This example of Anubis is definitely a jackal. Black is not the natural colour of the jackal,
but it is painted black to represent Anubis, god of mummification and funeral rites. The
collar around the neck is a very apt decoration. In examples where Anubis is executed as
a human with jackal head or mask, he is usually adorned with a broad collar, e.g. in the
Book of the Dead of Hunefer. This collar is a ribbon, tied twice around the neck and
tied in front with the ends of the ribbon hanging down over his chest. This is not the
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kind of collar that will be used on a dog. Dogs usually have leather collars with a leach
tied to it with a metal ring. This collar is used purely for decoration.
The jackal of Tutankhamun, reclining on the shrine and decorated with a ribbon around
his neck is a striking example of elegance in the animal world of sculpture. The
sculptural features of this figure of Anubis, lifts the work out as the best example of
animal sculpture left to us by the Ancient Egyptians.
List of References:
1) Baines, John and Jaromir Malek, 1992. ATLAS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. New York:
Facts on File.
2) Carter, Howard. 1972. THE TOMB OF TUTANKHAMUN. London: Barrie
Jenkins.
3) EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 1965. New York: Tudor Publishing Company.
Egyptian mythology based on the text translated by Delano Ames from
Mythologie Generale Larousse.
4) Hart, George. 1990. THE LEGENDARY PAST. EGYPTIAN MYTHS. London:
British Museum Press.
5) Houlihan, Patrick F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo:
American University of Cairo Press.
6) Janssen, Rosalind and Jack. 1989. EGYPTIAN HOUSEHOLD ANIMALS.
Aylesbury: Shire Publications.
7) Reevs, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING. THE
TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames and Hudson.
8) Taylor, John H. 1991. EGYPT OF NUBIA. London: British Museum.
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9) Van Rynveld, M.M. 1994. DIE UITBEELDING VAN DIE DIER IN EGIPTIESE
KUNS. Verhandeling voorgele vir die voltooiing van die vereistes vir die
Laureatus.
AND CUSTOMS. London: Bracken books.
11) Zauzich, karl T.H. 1980. HIEROGLYPHEN OHNE GEHEIMNIS. Mainz: Verlag
Philipp von Zabern.
12) THE BALCK MUMMY. May, 2006. TV Program broadcasted by Discovery
Channel.
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The Black Mummy. Netcherikhe (He of the Divine Body)
Netcherikhe was the most prominent Pharaoh of the Third Dynasty
(c. 2686-2613 BCE). The Third Dynasty is seen as a new beginning
the Old Kingdom. This period is generally characterized by its line of
pyramids. Pyramid building started with Netcherike, the second
Pharaoh of the Third dynasty. His importance as founder of this new
epoch is described in the Turin Canon, highlighted in red ink, in
contrast to the use of black ink. His greatest achievement was the
building of the famous Step Pyramid Complex in Saqqara.
The Third Dynasty included five Pharaohs. The Abydos and Saqqara Kings Lists
mention only four. There are however great differences in the names given. Netcherikhe
was the son of Khasekhemwy (The Appearance of the Two Powers), last Pharaoh of
the Second Dynasty the last Dynasty of the Early Dynastic Period. His mother was
Nimaathap (The King-bearing Mother). She was seen as the ancestral figure of the
Third Dynasty.
The first Pharaoh of the third Dynasty was Sanakhte. He was also known by the name
Nebka. He was also known by the name Nebka. Sanakhte ruled for 18 years. He was a
brother of Netcherikhe.
Netcherikhe was married to Hetephernebty. Her titles were: She who sees Horus;
Kings Daughter; Great of Sceptre;
Her second title indicates that she may have been his sister, or his brother, Sanakhtes
daughter. The couple had two daughters, but there is no evidence of any sons. The
daughters were Intkaes and Hetephernebty II.
Netcherikhe is also known as Djoser ( Zozer). There is a long rock inscription, dating
from the Ptolomeic Period on the island of Sehel in the First Cataract. This inscription
describes King Netcherikhe Djoser in deep sorrow about the 7 year old draught that
afflicted the land and that he sought council from Imhotep. Imhotep informed him that
the Nile inundation was under control of the god Khnum of Elephantine. Djoser then
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offered a large piece of land, known as Dodekaschoenos (in Nubia) to the god. The name
Djoser does not occur in Saqqara. It is believed that Djoser was his birth name and
Netcherikhe his throne name.
The statue of Netcherikhe (Djoser), found in
the Serdab of his pyramid complex a Saqqara
is a sculptural masterpiece. He is depicted as
a slender man, wearing the white Heb-sed
cloak. He is seated and his right hand is
placed over his chest, while the left is resting
on his knee. The facial features show a fierce
face, prominent cheek-bones, thick lips and
heavy jaw. His false beard is exceptionally
long the broken tip originally touched his
right arm. A moustache is painted on the
upper lip. He is wearing a Nemes (with
sharp tips in front) over a heavy wig. The
sculptor depicted a regal person in a formal
pose. On the base of the statue the kings
royal titles can be found. Kings after Netcherikhe, of the Old Kingdom, are portrayed
not as men, but as unapproachable demigods and it is hard to find the men behind
the formal masks (El Mahdy, 3003: 36). (Illustration 1)
To be a Pharaoh during the Third Dynasty was not an easy task. The Pharaohs clothing
and regalia became a token of his divinity he was the protector of his people. This
included the following: Shemset apron at his waist; Bulls Tail hanging from his
belt to guard his back; Crook and Flail tokens of royalty (also the objects held by
shepherds); Goat-hair beard on his chin and Double crown to show combined
country.
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There were elaborate public ceremonies, inscriptions on temples, art and architectureall to show that the king became ruler, warrior, builder and most important god. He
was a token of goodness in humankind and was blessed by the creator-gods.
Netcherikhe came on the throne in c. 2630 BCE. Immediately he had to deal with
political unrest on Egypts borders, in Sinai and Memphis. Netcherikhe ruled from
Memphis as it was the capital of Egypt. From Memphis the administration reached out
to smaller towns and villages through mayors, governors and headsmen. Netcherikhes
influence extended southwards beyond Aswan into Nubia. He also sent a royal
expedition to Sinai to search (and mine) for turquoise, malachite and copper. This
added to a range of quality materials for use in several fields, e.g. construction and
jewelry. Near Eastern trade also brought wealth into the country. A powerful centralized
administration was established. Strong leadership was important as it brought respect
and Netcherikhe had to be strong to have been served so well by his administrators
and Imhotep (Imouthes)!
Netcherikhe surrounded himself with excellently qualified people, which showed his
ability to organize and administer the country. Manpower increased during his reign.
One of the outstanding men in his services was Imhotep. He became second in power
after the king himself and the king gave him the status of a member of the royal family
(Johnson 2005: 36). El Mmahdy (2003: 315) wrote: The status of the monarchy was
established by Imhotep for the king, Netcherikhe, builder of the Step Pyramid. In
building the Step Pyramid, Imhotep created and illusion of separateness and
supremacy, that continued until the end of the Fourth Dynasty. The building of this first
pyramid is more than a problem solving exercise in technology and organization; it
marked the start of the cult of the monarch himself (Mahdy El, 2003; 315). Imhotep
Vizier: hereditary lord; Administrator of the Great Palace; High Priest of Re at
Heliopolis; Builder; Sculptor; Maker of stone vases (Fagan, 2001: 72) thus created a
single power.
The Pharaoh lived in a spacious palace with wooden doors, copper hinges, metal bolts,
mat hangings (Johnson, 2005: 37), all imitated to the last detail in stone. This can be
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seen in his mortuary complex at Saqqara. This working royal palace was now included in
the tomb complex for the Pharaoh to use and live in during his afterlife. Exquisite stone
vases, straw baskets (reproduced in stone) and metal pots also included. This
masterpiece of a funeral complex was dominated by the Step Pyramid the first
example of stone architecture of this kind in history. It has been suggested that the
entire area of the Step Pyramid was designed to be a stone copy of the kind and
surrounding buildings as it was built in Memphis for use during his lifetime. The name
of Memphis during the Third Dynasty was Ineb-hedj or White Walls. That may be
the reason why the dominant walls surrounding the complex is also white (limestone).
Within these walls, with its numerous dummy entrances, many buildings are also
dummies, e.g. the Heb-Sed court. Netcherikhe never performed the Heb-Sed as he only
ruled for 19 years. This court therefore was included for his use in the afterlife.
After his reign, Netcheikhe was succeeded by Sekhemkhet (Powerful in Body) in 2649
BCE. He was also buried at Saqqara in his own step pyramid complex (never
completed). It is not known whether he was a son or relative of Netcherikhe. How he
came to the throne is a mystery. J-P. Lauer (1976: 139) refers to him as this royal child
of the IIIrd Dynasty
List of References:
1) Clayton, Peter. 2001. CHRONICLE OF THE PHARAOHS. London: Thames &
Hudson.
2) Fagan, Brian. 2001. EGYPT OF THE PHARAOHS. Washington: National
geographic.
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3) Gardiner, Sir Alan. 1964. EGYPT OF THE PHARAOHS. London: Oxford
University Press.
4) Hobson, Christine. 1987. EXPLORING THE WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS.
London: Thames & Hudson.
5) Johnson, Paul. 2005. THE CIVILIZATION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. London: Seven
Dials.
6) Lauer, Jean-Philippe. 1976. SAQQARA. THE ROYAL CEMETERY OF MEMPHIS.
7) Mahdy, Christine El. 2003. THE PYRAMID BUILDER. CHEOPS, THE MAN
GEHIND THE GREAT PYRAMID. London: Headline Book Publishers.
8) Tyldesley, Joyce. 2008. THE PRIVATE LIVES OF THE PHARAOHS. London:
Pan Macmillan.
9) Tyldesley, Joyce. 2006. CHRONICLE OF THE QUEENS OF EGYPT. London:
Thames & Hudson.
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Akh Sut Nebhepetre (Splendid are the places of Nebhepetre)
Mentuhotep Nebhepetre (c. 2060-2010BCE) ruled during the 11th Dynasty. According to
H. Stock three separate titularies, previously attributed to three distinct Pharaohs all
bearing the name Mentuhotep, really belonged to the same sovereign, each titulary
reflecting a different stage of his career (Gardiner, 1964: 120). Kurt Lange also
explained that this three names marked different phases of his reign.
Zahi Hawas, in his Pyramids, Treasures.
Mysteries and new Discoveries in Egypt
(2005: 12), lists him as the only pharaoh
of the 11th dynasty.
His greatest architectural achievement
was his temple, today known as the
Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir elBahari.
It
sets
transition
between
the
temple/pyramid complexes built during

the Old Kingdom and the mortuary
temples
of
the
New
Kingdom.
(Illustration 1)
Mentuhoteps funerary temple, including
his tombs, is often described as an
exceptionally large saff tomb. It was
much larger than the saff- tombs of the
Intefs (10th Dynasty).
Originally there was a small Valley Temple (now totally destroyed). A processional
causeway led from this valley temple to the great court of the main temple. A ramp led
from this court to the upper level. The sides of the ramp were colonnaded with square
pillars. The upper level had a colonnade on 3 sides N, E and S. An ambulatory wall
with a colonnade surrounded a large square structure. For many years this structure was
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believed to be a small pyramid, but it could also have been a mastaba or a corniced
structure representing the primeval hill. Today it is totally ruined therefore we can only
speculate about its shape. The colonnade of octagonal columns surrounding it had 4
rows on the N, E and S sides and 3 rows on the W Side (back of the temple.) This added
to a total of 152 pillars.
A doorway from the ambulatory, on the central axis of the temple, led to the courtyard
behind the upper level. This courtyard was colonnaded on three sides. In the centre of
the courtyard, on the central axis of the structure, is the entrance to the tomb chamber.
A 150m slanting passageway, leads to the tomb which still contained the empty
sarcophagus when found. The sarcophagus took up three quarters of the floor space.
The tomb chamber is a granite vault with a pent roof. The space between the walls of the
chamber and the sarcophagus was filled with black granite slabs when found.
Behind the courtyard was the hypostyle hall containing 8 rows of 11 fluted pillars. This is
often described as the first hypostyle hall in ancient Egyptian architecture. The back
section of this wall was hewn out of the natural rock. At the back of the temple, cut into
the rock was the sanctuary (often described as a niche) which housed the statue of
Mentuhotep (now in Egyptian Museum, Cairo). This statue was the focal point of the
entire complex. In front of the entrance to the sanctuary, on the central axis of the
structure, stood an offering table. The socket for the offering table is still in place.
An interesting aspect of this temple complex is the tombs inside the temple. They
include the Osiride tomb of Mentuhotep of which entrance is in the great front court,
known as the Barb el-Hosan. The Pharaohs well known mortuary sculpture was found
here. When found the statue was still wrapped in linen. Mentuhoteps second tomb,
described as a dummy tomb to distract the tomb robbers, was placed underneath the
solid square structure in the centre. This tomb was referred to as Mer the word for
pyramid. But in the later Ramesside Period the word mer referred to tomb.
Mentuhoteps actual tomb (the third) was cut deep into the live rock on the central axis
of the temple with the entrance in the centre of the courtyard. Apart from the 3 tombs of
the king, the complex also included 6 shaft tombs of the 5 royal ladies and one little girl.
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These tombs were embodied in and concealed by the back wall of the ambulatory and
the paved floor of the colonnade.
During its time, the temple was highly decorated with colourful painted reliefs and
inscriptions. They included the standard illustrations: hunting in the marshes;
agricultural scenes; battle scenes etc. The illustrations were strongly influenced by the
Osiride religion, which became very important during this time. It is difficult though to
understand the flow of illustrations as less than 5% still survives. Several wooden
sculptures also decorated the temple. Niches contained human figures including
different scenes e.g. bakeries, hunting, weaving, etc. Numerous seated and standing
sculptures of Mentuhotep, wearing the Heb-Sed- robe, were also found. A series of 12
standing figures of the Pharaoh stood facing the processional way. They were all found
decapitated and buried in pits. Several stelas were found, e.g. the Stela of Tjetji.
The temple was also known for its garden including 53 sacred tamarisk and sycamore
trees. They bordered the inner end of the great court. Pits for the trees can still be seen.
There were also 2 rectangular flower beds.
The entire complex was a combination of a mortuary temple as well as a royal tomb to
the deified Pharaoh Mentuhotep (Montu is satisfied), Montu-Re an Amun-Re, the new
state gods. The architect is unknown to us, but his masterpiece influenced the architect,
Sennenmut, in his design of the great Temple of Hateshepsut at Deir el-Bahri of the 18th
Dynasty.
Unfortunately this exquisite temple deteriorated when it fell in disuse. It was also looted
during the time of Ramesses IV for the building material used for his own mortuary
temple. Further damage was also caused by rock falls. Today only a total ruin can be
seen.
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List of References:
1) Gardiner, Sir Alan. 1964. EGYPT OF THE PHARAOHS. London: Oxford
University Press.
2) James, T.G.H. 1983. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. London: British Museum.
3) Hawass,
Z.
2005.
PYRAMIDS.
TREASURE.
MYSTERIES
AND
NEW
DICOVERIES IN EGYPT. Cairo:-.

4) Lange, K. and M. Hirmer. 1968. EGYPT. ARCHITECTURE. SCULPTURE.
PAINITING IN 3000 YEARS. London: Phaidon.
5) Lehner, M. 2008. THE COMPLETE PYRAMIDS. London: Thames & Hudson.
6) Stierlin, H. 1995. THE PHARAOHS. MASTER BUILDERS. Italy: Terrail.
7) Wilkinson, R. 2000. THE COMPLETE TEMPLES OF ANCIENT EGYPT. London:
Thames & Hudson.
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Disks of Hermaka
Hermaka was one of the earliest people in ancient Egypt to bear the title Treasurer and
Administrator of the Sovereign. He held this high position during the rule of Pharaoh
Den the 5th Pharaoh of the 1st Dynasty. The 1st Dynasty included the following rulers:
Menes (Narmer), Aha, Djer, Djet (Uadji - also known as the Serpent King), Den
(Dewen or Udimu), Anedjib (Adjib), Semerkhet and Kaa. The 1st and 2nd Dynasties are
known as the Thinite Period.
Den became Pharaoh in c. 2875 BCE. Apparently he was crowned Pharaoh at a very
early age as his mother Queen Merneith acted as regent during the early years of his
reign. It seems as if he lived to celebrate his 2nd Sed Festival. Part of his long reign
(about 50 year) is recorded on the Palermo stone. He was the first Pharaoh to bear the
tile Nesut-bity (He of the Sedge and the Bee). This title seems to have emphasized the
many different kinds of duality in the role of the Pharaoh. This title was later translated
as King of Upper and Lower Egypt. Den was also the first Pharaoh depicted wearing
the Double Crown. He was buried in Saqqara.
The tomb (or mastaba) of Hermaka was also found at Saqqara tomb no. 3035 (which
at times was thought to be the tomb of Den). The tomb was excavated by W.B. Emery
during 1936. Hermaka was not a member of the royal family but, as mentioned, held a
high position at court. He lived between c. 2920-2770 BCE.
His tomb contained some very interesting objects such as the earliest small role of
papyrus, stone vessels showing remarkable craftsmanship, models of animals with
moving parts, funerary objects and most interesting of all gaming discs also described
as spinning tops. Similar discs were also found in other tombs, e.g. that of Pharaoh Djer
(tomb no. 3471).
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Games of luck and skill were popular modes of entertainment during ancient Egyptian
times. From the 1st Dynasty the Egyptians entertained
themselves with games such as Mehen (mehen means
coil) or the serpent Game. Gaming discs were also
popular. A total of 45 such discs were found in the tomb of
Hermaka. They were also beautifully decorated with relief
and /or inlay work. These discs were pierced in the centre,
presumably so that they could be spun around wooden pins
on a flat surface such as a table top or inside a box to keep
them in place. Emery discovered them in an open wooden
box in the tomb. These small discs all round about 10cm in
diameter, were decorated in different ways. An example of a disc decorated with a
geometric design is made of schist and limestone (Illustration 1). It is 10cm in diameter.
The circles on the surface of the disc are inlaid with very small squares and triangles of
white and brown. The basis of the disc is of dark green/black coloured schist. When
spinning the disc, the inlay work will appear as solid lines of white, brown and black.
A second example is made of black steatite
and inlaid with calcite depicting a clap-net
and two cranes (Illustration 2). It illustrates
the capture of the two cranes. Netting of
cranes usually took places in the swamplands.
The inlay work is delicately done but not clear
enough to identify the cranes as being the
common crane (Grus Grus) or the Demoiselle
crane (Anthorpaides Virgo). It is clear though
that the cranes are already captured inside
the net.
The most popular example and also the
most beautiful, is the one illustrating the hunting scene (Illustration 3). This disc is
8.7cm in diameter and 0.7cm thick. It has one flat side and one slightly convex side. The
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decoration appears on the convex side. It is made of black steatite and partially carved in
relief. Inlay work is one in pink alabaster. The organization of the scene is very formal in
symmetry and balance. It includes two greyhound-type hunting dogs attacking and
killing two Dorcas gazelles. One of the dogs as well as the horns of the gazelles are
carved from the disc itself (black in colour), while the other dog and both the gazelles
are
inlaid
in
pink
alabaster.
The
illustration displays a fluent movement

of a dog chasing a gazelle and then
grabbing
it
by
the
throat.
The
composition enhances the feeling of

movement in the scene. The dogs may
symbolize victory and the gazelles,
defeat. The decoration is framed around
the edge by a narrow incised border.
Although these discs are generally seen
as gaming or spinning discs, their
function
is
still
debatable.
Some
Egyptologists believe that they were funeral equipment, but cannot determine their
function. Today we can however appreciate and enjoy their beautiful decorations. These
decorations show the remarkable skill if the artists especially if we bear in mind the
age and size of these interesting discs.
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List of References:
1) Haulihan, P.F.--.THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo: American
University of Cairo Press.
2) Lauer, J-P. 1976. SAQQARA. THE ROYAL CEMETERY OF MEMPHIS. London:
Thames & Hudson.
3) Saleh, M. 1987. THE EGYPTIAN MUSEUM, CAIRO. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.
4) Tiradritti, F. (Ed.).--.THE TREASURES OF THE EGYPTIAN MUSEUM. Cairo:
The American University of Cairo Press.
5) Wilkinson, Sir J.G. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LAND AND
CUSTOMS. London: Thames & Hudson.
6) Wilkinson T. 2005. THAMES AND HUDSON DICTIONARY OF ANCIENT
EGYPT. London: Thames & Hudson.
7) Quirke, S. 1990. WHO WERE THE PHARAOHS? A HISTORY OF THEIR
NAMES WITH THE LIST OF CARTOUCHES. London: British Museum Press.
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Ptahshepses
Ptahshepses was of noble descent, born near the end of the reign of Menkaure
(Mycerinus) the second last pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty (the last being Shepseskaf who
rules for only 4 years). Inscriptions indicate that he served five consecutive Pharaohs of
the 5th Dynasty Sahure, Neferirkare, Neferefre and Niusere (Neuserre). The first four
of the above mentioned Pharaohs all ruled for less than 10 years. (Illustration 1)1
He was educated at palace schools. His
education most probably started during the
reign of Userkaf (1498 2491 BCE) the first
Pharaoh of the 5th Dynasty and may have
continued into the reign of Sahure (2491-2477
BCE). After his education he started his long
career as official hairdresser and manicurist
at court. Ptahshepses was held at high esteem
and later became vizier. It is not clear when
the career shift took place. As royal vizier he
had many responsibilities, one of which was
that of overseer of all royal building projects.
Little is known of his private life. What we do know is that he married Khamaat, the
daughter of Pharaoh Shepseskaf. He is also described as the son-in-law of Niuserre.
Niuserre (Possessed of Re Power) ruled between 2453-2422 BCE, thus for 31 years.
Inscriptions tell us about the preparations for his Heb-Sed festival.
Ptahshepses lived during interesting times in ancient Egypt. During the 5th Dynasty
trade became very important. Great ships are illustrated with Egyptian and Asians on
board indicating trade with Asia. Trade also took place between Egypt and Lebanon as
well as to the South Nubia etc.
www.scarffi.com/muesums/caito/em0004.jepg; retrieved on 19 May 2015
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It was also during this period that the use of the cartouche was introduced by Pharaoh
Neferirkare. The cartouche was an elongation of the Shen (eternity) sign and was used
to enclose the names of Pharaohs in inscriptions. Thereafter it was in constant use up to
the end of the Dynastic Period.
The 5th Dynasty was also the time of the rise of the Sun-cult in ancient Egypt. Its effect
in architecture is most significant from an artistic point of view. Worship took place
under the open sky in a cloistered court. The sun temple of Niuserre at Abu Gurab near
Abusir includes a cloistered court with a ben-ben stone raised upon a podium to form
an obelisk. The architect made genius use of the natural slope of the region and built the
temple at a high level on the desert escarpment. The temple is known for its large
alabaster shrine as well as its Room of the Seasons. This room is decorated with
activities illustrating Egypts agricultural year. This was seen as a tribute to the Sun-god
for all its bounty. The seasons were represented by appropriate plants and animals (e.g.
for the seasonal migration of fish). Ptahshepses as vizier was definitely involved in the
building of this temple either as architect and/or as overseer of the project.
Ptahshepses was and elderly
man, most probably in his late
seventies,
when
he
died
during the reign of Niuserre

He built himself an impressive
tomb
at
Saqqara.
It
was
surrounded by a mud-brick
wall. The tomb is the largest
and most complex non-royal
tomb of the Old Kingdom. The
interior chapel reminds of a
small temple. Three statue
niches contained statues of the
deceased (slightly larger than
life size). The first portrayed
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Ptahshepses as a priest, the second as an official and the third as a private individual.
One of the chambers is shaped like a boat and is large enough to house a full sized
vessel. The burial chamber is gabled - similar to royal chambers. The decorations
include scenes of his daily life including his family. Fragments of statues and various
objects were found in the tomb.
The large limestone false door from his tomb is in the British Museum, London. The
inscriptions around the door contain biographical information (Illustration 2).2It is here
where he recorded that he served under the five consecutive Pharaohs of the 5th
Dynasty. From birth to death he lived during the reign of seven Pharaohs.
Ptahshepses seems to have been a talented man who rose from being a hairdresser and
manicurist to the highest official positions in ancient Egypt that of vizier.
www.britihmuseum.org/explore retreived on 15 May2015
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List of References:
1) Hawass, Zahi. 2007. PYRAMIDS. TREASURE, MYSTERIES AND NEW
DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT. Vericelli: Winterstar Publishers.
2) Malek, JAromir. 1968. IN THE SHADOW OF THE PYRAMIDS. EGYPT DURING
THE OLD KINGDOM. UK: Little, Brown and Company.
3) Wilkinson, Richard H. 2000. THE COMPLETE TEMPLES OF ANCIENT EGYPT.
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Seshat the Secretary
Seshat, also called Sesheta was the spouse of the god Thoth. She had no particular cult
center of her own and operated totally in the shadow of Ttoth. Her responsibilities
included writing, history and architecture.
She was represented as a woman, dressed in a
long
panther-skin
dress.
Her
Headdress
included a seven-pointed star and two long

straight plumes the hieroglyph of her name
which meant the Secretary.
As a mere double of Thoth she had to measure
time and invent letters. Because of these
responsibilities she was called Mistress of the
House of Books.
Alone, or in the company of her spouse Thoth,
she appeared as history and record keeper for
the gods. Their responsibilities were to write the
names of the kings and queens of Egypt on the
leaves of the sacred tree (the Ished tree.) at
Heliopolis. During the New Kingdom she
became closely associated with the Heb-Sed
festival and then also drafted the minutes of the Pharaohs jubilee celebrations on the
tree.
As Mistress of the House of Architects she was represented as the founderess of
temples. Here her responsibilities included: determining the axis of the new sanctuary
by the aid of stars; marking the four corners of the structure and from an early period
she was associated with temple foundation ceremonies.
During the old Kingdom (as Mistress of the scribes) she was also responsible for
keeping record of the booty captured from enemy. This was done on a tablet. When
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Queen Hatshepsut had her expedition to the land of Punt, it was again the responsibility
of Seshat to draw up an inventory of the treasures brought back. Thoth made a note of
the quantity, we are told, and Seshat verified the figures (Egyptian Mythology1965:
85)
From her activities it can be seen that she had a lot of responsibilities. She worked
closely with her spouse Thoth and did a lot of her work with him. Yet, some tasks came
down on her shoulders. That was typical of the work of a capable secretary. Was Seshat
the first woman to become a secretary in world history?
List of References:
1) EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 1965. New York: Tudor Publishing Company.
The American University of Cairo Press.
3) THE THAMES AND HUDSON DICTIONARY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 2005.
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Rock Art
Long before the Dynastic Period in ancient Egypt (c. 3100-3000 BCE), people settled in
the Nile Valley. They migrated mainly from the western and eastern deserts towards the
Nile.
Those that came from the western desert came mainly because of climate changes and
over grazing by their domestic animals. Very early rock art in Egypt shows that the art
was similar to that found at the rock art series in the Sahara desert. (Haggar, Tassili,
Tibetsi to Fezzan). These people were hunters and left engravings of animals but others
were oasis dwellers who included humans in their art. The people, who migrated from
the west, settled mainly in the delta region of Egypt (Lower Egypt).
Other immigrants came from the east. They were mainly mountain dwellers and their
art included hunting scenes.
These people lived in small family groups or clans who gradually became larger because
of battles and inter-marrying. Eventually two large groups existed: the people of the
south in Upper Egypt and those of the delta in Lower Egypt.
These settlers became farmers who used the rich silt from the Nile; hunters, who hunted
the animals of the Nile valley and fishermen who lived off the Nile. Important was that
these people like their ancestors, were artist. They brought with them a well-developed
technique and style through which they expressed themselves. Their art included wild
animals of the Nile valley, such as elephant; domestic animals, such as cattle; human
beings, as hunters with large bows and other objects such as boats. Typical Egyptian
boats appear in their art curved boats with elongated ends that were made of bundles
of reeds. Sadly some of these illustrations disappeared over the years. But those that
survived give us a vague idea of the people who lived in Egypt during those early years
and the Egyptian civilization that was already taking shape during their time.
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Sir Flinders Petrie, who is well known for the valuable work he has done in Egypt,
proposed a system of sequence dating of these examples of Prehistoric art. Those of
Tasa and Badari are placed before date 30; that of Naqada from 30 to the beginning of
history (including the Amratian and Gerzean sub-periods first Naqada civilization).
Many sites in the north (Fayum, Merimde, el-Omari near Helwan, Maadi) are typical.
(Larousse, 1981: 61-62) Professor G. Childe has asked whether we ought not to seek the
source of ancient Egyptian civilization, combined with African elements, in the Nigerian
zone of the Sahara (Larousse, 1981: 62). In North Africa and the Sahara numerous
examples of rock art can be found. These rock art sites include wild animals such as
giraffe, buffalo and elephants. Domestic animals such as sheep and cattle also appear
sometimes with a circle between the horns. They also included humans although at
times disguised with feathers, horns and/or tails. These paintings date from 5000-3500
BCE. At first they were markedly naturalistic but later developed to a more stylistic
representation.
Egyptian and North African rock
art can be compared with rock art
in Southern Africa region that
boasts
the
museum
largest
in
Africa.
rock
art
In
the
Republic of South Africa there are

more than 15000 sites. Art in this
region developed from very early
Paleolithic
times,
continued
through the Neolithic Period till

shortly after the arrival of Europeans in the region (second half of the 17th Century). This
art is known as Bushmen or San art. There is a relation between the Southern African
rock art and that of the cattle breeders of North Africa. The art in Southern Africa
include the same themes: animals from the region where painted or engraved such as
eland, antelope and elephant; humans active in hunting, raiding, warfare, dancing, etc.
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abstract shapes and objects, e.g. boats with masts, ox-wagons and people with hats on
horseback (the arrival of European).
Rock art in Egypt, just as in the rest of Africa
consists of painting and engravings. They were
executed on the natural rock surface often
inside caves. They depicted animals and
humans mainly from the side (in profile) the
most recognizable angle.
Animals included
those from the Nile valley, e.g. horned

antelope, elephants and ostrich. Animals were
also grouped together as seen in (Illustration
1, Hunting Scene (Detail); Egyptian desert)
where the ostrich appears together, with
antelope and elephants. This example is also a
hunting scene and the hunter with his large
bow appears in the act of hunting with one bow placed between hunter and the hunted
and another aimed at the ostrich. The ostrich is beautifully drawn with wings high and
legs placed far apart indicating the speed with
which the animal is trying to run away.
In (Illustration 2, Boat; Nile Valley; Upper Egypt)
two boats are depicted, one above the other. Both
of them have numerous oars and in the bottom
one there is a standing figure in the centre of the
boat. The lines surrounding the figure may
indicate a special place for the figure to stand like
the canopy as found in illustrations of boats in
the art of the Dynastic Period in Egyptian art. It
seems
as
if
the
figure
has
headdress
representing a scorpion. May this be a very early

representation of Selket? Similar multi-oared
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boats also made their appearance on early painted vases such as the terra cotta vase in
the Cairo Museum, dating from the Predyanstic period, Naqada II (3500-3100 BCE) in
(Illustration 3, Terra Cotta vase; Predynastic Period;Naqada II, 3500-3100 BCE;
Egyptian Museum, Cairo.) Artist may have changed their canvas from rock to
ceramics.
Rock art in Egypt as illustrated, may have functioned as a means of communication, or
to fulfil the desire to commemorate a certain event or may have had a religious meaning.
It is interesting though to see certain aspects of Egyptian rock art in these examples, and
how they developed into aspects in the art of the Dynastic Period which we are so
accustomed to.
List of References:
1) Garlake, Peter. 1987. THE PAINTED CAVES. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
PREHISTORIC ART OF ZIMBABWE. Harare: Modus Publishers.
2) Huyghe, Rene.
(Ed) 1981. LAROUSSE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PREHISTORIC
AND ANCIENT ART. London: Hamlyn.

3) Lewis-Williams, J.D. 1990. DISCOVERING SOUTHERN AFRICAN ROCK ART.
Cape Town: David Phillip.
4) Woodhouse, Bert. 1979. THE BUSHMEN ART OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. Cape
Town: Purnell.
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Pen of Thoth

Official Newsletter of the Ancient Egyptian Society

Collection of articles written

Magda van Ryneveld

2015 BY THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SOCIETY.

BUTTERFLIES IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART

HEDGEHOGS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART

FROGS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART

POTTERY FOR DOMESTIC USE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

SANDAL-MAKING IN ANCIENT EGYPT

FURNITURE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

THE USE OF LEOPARD SKIN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

THE USE OF IVORY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

TOMB OF TUTANKHAMUNS JACKAL

THE BLACK MUMMY. NETCHERIKHE (HE OF THE DIVINE BODY)

AKH SUT NEBHEPETRE (SPLENDID ARE THE PLACES OF NEBHEPETRE)

SESHAT THE SECRETARY

2015 by The Ancient Egyptian Society.

Published by The Ancient Egyptian Society; Johannesburg Republic of

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

The painting is done on plaster and

measures 18cm height. This masterpiece, painted by a

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

This scene includes five

butterflies, painted in yellow/orange with

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Seals were used from the

beginning of the Dynastic period onwards.

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

the water. It is in the act of

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

(Illustration 3, Nile-silt jar with gazelle motif; red and

Period, Naqada I, 40003500

70mm)They were first sun

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

carrying his pair of sandals. This pair can clearly be

American University of Cairo Press.

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

(Ecclesiastical Throne of Tutankhamun). Their

(Illustration 2, Folding stool; Ebony inlayed with

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

In the tomb of Tutankhamun (NK 18th

Dynasty) (N wall burial chamber), Ay, dressed in a white

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

1971. MAMMALS OF THE

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ARTS COLLECTION OF FACSIMILES. New

BURGERMEISTERS VON THEBEN. Mainz: Verlag Phillip von Zabern.

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

clappers were also made of ivory.

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld