Camel in Ethiopia

Melaku Tefera and Getachew Abebe
Camel in Ethiopia - 2012
The Camel in Ethiopia 2012

Edited by: Melaku Tefera and Getachew Abebe
Cover design: Melaku Tefera
Layout: Melaku Tefera
Production manager: Fisseha Abnet
Ethiopian Veterinary Association ISBN______

9789994498192
All rights reserved
PREFACE
Going lower to get higher
The pastoral regions of Ethiopia are traditionally lowland, namely those areas less
than 1500 meters above sea level (masl). The most extreme of these is the Afar
Triangle which at its lowest point is to 116m below sea level in temperatures range
from 25C in the rainy season to 45C in the dry season. . It can be said that it is the
opposite of the polar regions of our planet where only thermophilic species and
life style can survive.
The lowlanders are linked to the highlanders socially and economically via what is
called the string of nature: water is discharged in the form of rain on the mountain
roofs of Ethiopia and agriculturalists plow and cultivate cereals. Streams run to the
lowland plains forming several perennial rivers which are the last refuge of
pastoral people during the driest periods.
The pastoral area of Ethiopia is the main camel belt in the horn of Africa. It is
known by a camel culture, a monoculture which is expressed as adaptation to arid
ecology through dependence on the camel which is based on uniform husbandry
methods and mobility.
The camel is the only large mammal capable of inhabiting the arid lowlands.
Although official surveys estimate a total camel population of some two million
head in Ethiopia this is most likely an under-estimate. The unique geographical,
economic, social and cultural fabric of this biosphere is less known to the outside
world even to many Ethiopians, as pastoralists were marginalized in the past.
Furthermore, Ethiopia was considered as terra incognita vis a vis camel pastoralism
and camel research.
In this book we tried to distill the scattered and scanty literature on Ethiopian
camel, the pastoralist, the environment, the market and camel health and
welfare.We relied heavily on our experience of the past 25 years of on and off
teaching and research on camels, blended with results and experience from other
countries.
The economic importance and adaptive value to climate change of the camel are
on the rise which means that camels are considered as a priority for policy makers
and researchers. Thus it is timely to compile such information in the form of book.
Although camel production and health has, for the past last three decades,
featured in the curricula of Ethiopian Veterinary and Agriculture colleges there has
been no textbook on Ethiopian camels. This book is intended for undergraduate
veterinary and animal science students, policy makers and researchers.
We are grateful to the following organizations organizations and all people who
helped us in the preparation of this book, including FAO, for finacing the book
project. The Ethiopian Veterinary Association (EVA) for coordinating and
supervision of the project, Dr. Abrha Tesfay, Mr. Sirak Alemayehu for generously
providing some of the photographs and those people who shared their
photographs in public domain with no copyright restrictions, and Dr Peter
Morehouse for taking his valuable time to go through all the cahapters of the book
If Mona Lisa is mysterious art then the camel is a mysterious creature
Melaku Tefera
Associate Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University
P.O.Box 144 Haramaya Campus. Ethiopia.
251-0914722459,
< melaku22@yahoo.com >
Getachew Abebe
Professor,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
FOREWORD
The camel which is an economically, socially and environmentaly important animal
is the least studied domestic species. The writing of such book is timely and will
rekindle camel research in Ethiopia. Haramaya University being located at the
pastoral and agropastoral interface has served as a brige between the highland
and the lowlands research over the last 50 years. The camel research center at
Babile and the Institute of Pastoral and Agropastoral at Haramaya University
contributed to the meager research on the camel. This book is a culmination and
milestone in camel research in endeavour Ethiopia.
The camel as the bonanza of the drylands has an incomparable advantge
compared with other livestock as it is the only livestock species capable of
producing meat and milk when all other animals are limited by dehydration.
Furthermore most of its products are nutritious, healthy and have medicinal value.
This book attempts to create awareness of these aspects.
Indigenous knowledge provides the basis for problem-solving strategies for local
communities. The most important element to survive in the drlands is knowledge.
A key factor is balancing livestock with the available plant biomass and moisture.
The pastoralist experience of severlal millena is incorporated in this book.
Intensification of camel production and advances are blended to encourage
alternative techniques to extensionists, development professionals and
researchers.
The book, emphasizes on the importance of the camel husbandry in a holistic
approach as a result it is of value to government bodies and policy makers in
addressing climate change and sustainable livelihood.
This book being the first on Ethiopian camels, is educative, informative and will
inspire and guide young Ethiopians to pursue carrierrs on camel.
one man camels safeguards for he owns them legally
another man does so for the benefits he from them derives
while a third man does so, too for the love he for the camel has
(Somali oral tradition; Abokor, 1987)
Professor Belay Kassa

President, Haramaya University
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The dry land ecosystem
Pastorlalism and pastoralists
Camel pastoral tribes
CHAPTER TWO: CAMEL FEED, FEEDING AND NUTRITION
Feed and Feeding of Camels
Brows species of Camels
Salt Lick and Water Resources and Management
Watering
CHAPTER THREE: CAMEL BREEDS AND BREEDING
Breeds
Breed classification based on location
Breed classification based on production performance
Reproductive performance of male camel
Reproductive performance of female camel
CHAPTER FOUR: CAMEL PRODUCTS AND PRODUCTIVITY
Meat
Milk
Camel Hides
Work Performance (pack and transport)
CHAPTER FIVE: CAMEL MARKETING AND ITS VALUE CHAIN
Milk marketing
Milk market value chain
Structure of the livestock Supply markets
Primary market
Secondary market
Terminal markets
Live animal and meat export value chains
CHAPTER SIX : CAMEL WELFARE
CHAPTER 7: DISEASES OF CAMEL
Bacterial diseases
Viral diseases
Parastic diseases
Saddle soures and wounds
CAHPTER 8 :CAMEL RESEARCH AND THEWAY FORWARD
ANNEX
REFERENCES
32
49
68
85
110
118
151
159
169
I
I
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Melaku Tefera,
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University, P. O. Box 144, Haramaya
Campus, Ethiopia, melaku22@yahoo.com
The camel is a versatile animal; it can be milked, ridden, loaded, eaten, harnessed
to plow or wagon, traded for goods or wives, exhibited in zoos or turned into
sandals and camel hair coat (Faye, 1997). Despite the vital role of the camel in the
arid zones its status vis a vis disease is not different from other domestic animals
(Tefera, 1985).The camel in Ethiopia is not well studied. Camels are raised under
traditional management systems details of which are not well documented.
Pastoral camel production is under pressure because of multiple changes in the
production environment (Scoones, 1994). Increasing human population pressure
on pastoral grazing areas and the economic implications resulting from diseases
and lack of veterinary services are some of the factors that adversely affect
traditional camel production (Tefera, 2004). As camel owners become sedentary,
the camel disappears. In many places of the world the development of
infrastructure, especially roads, has caused the camel to lose its value as a riding
animal or beast of burden. Despite the ecological, economical, environmental and
social benefits of the camel it has remained the least studied domesticated animal
(Payne, 1990). One reason is the main camel belt area is located in three poor
countries, namely Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan accounting for 60% of the world
camel population (Mukassa Mugerewa, 1981). The objective of this chapter is to
document the origin distribution of the camel and to describe the habitat of the
camel and the pastoralists in Ethiopia who look after them.
1.1. Origin and distribution of the camel
All camels in Ethiopia are dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius). The history and
origin of the domestic camel remain elusive when compared with those of cattle
and small ruminants. A molar tooth and metatarsal bone was found by a team of
Paleontological researchers in Ethiopia in the lower Omo valley, and these the
fossils date from 2.6 million year ago (Pleistocene) and seem to be those of
Bactrian camels. These are the first camel remains to be recognized in eastern
Africa (Howell, et al. 1969). However during the Holocene period Bactrian camels
became extinct in Africa (Kohler, 1993 cited by Getahun, 1998). The one-humped
camel or dromedary is generally thought to have evolved from the two-humped
Bactrian species. This theory is partly based on embryological evidence showing
that during prenatal development the dromedary fetus actually has two humps De
la Tour, 1971 (Cited by Mukasa Mugerwa, 1981) while a vestigial anterior hump is
present in the adult. Williamson and Payne (1990) speculate that the one-humped
species probably evolved in one of the hotter and more arid areas of western Asia.
Dromedaries were probably domesticated in coastal settlements along the
southern Arabian Peninsula somewhere between 3000 and 2500 BC (Wilson,
1984). Once in Africa, Mikesell (1955) suggests that the camel spread west and
southwards from Egypt, although Bulliet (1975) is of the view that the camels of
the Horn of Africa are more likely to have come across the sea from the Arabian
Peninsula than spread southwards from Egypt and Sudan. Curasson (1947) and
Epstein (1971) indicate that the dromedary was introduced into North Africa
(Egypt) from southwest Asia (Arabia and Persia).
The camel was introduced into Ethiopia around 1000 BC. There are historical
accounts describing the Queen of Sheba of the ancient Abyssinia kingdom at the
head of a caravan of riches when she visited Israel's King Solomon and established
trade in the Middle East. However, other reports suggest that camels were
introduced into Eastern Ethiopia around 500 AD together with the introduction
and spread of Islam. (Tefera, 2004). Archeological evidence shows that a camel
tooth was discovered in Axum probable date 500 AD (Philipson, 1993). Cave
Paintings of LegaOda near Diredawa presented as Figure 1.2, dated to the 1st
centuary AD depict a camel. Thus the camels in North and Eastern Ethiopia appear
to be distinct breeds and two routes of introduction were suggested as shown on
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.1: Painting of Queen of Sheba and King Solomon
The domestication of the dromedary, like many other domesticated mammals, has
promoted unprecedented progress in cultural and economic development of
human societies, representing a
great leap forward for human
civilization.
Figure 1.2: Cave painting of

camel at legaoda, diredawa
1st century ad (Cervicek,
1971)
In Ethiopia camels were involved in the salt trade when salt blocks locally known as
Amole were used as money in trading goods.
All camel raising areas In Ethiopia have many similarities and one can conclude
that it is a mono culture.
Figure 1.3: Origin and distribution of camels in

Ethiopia (Tefera, unpublished)
1.2 Abundance and distribution

According to FAO (1979) statistics, there were about 17 million camels in the
world, of which 12 million are found in Africa and 5 million in Asia. Of this
estimated world population, 15.1 million are believed to be one-humped camels.
There are 2 million camels in Ethiopia (CSA, 2009). Ownership varied from several
hundreds, 50-100 and less 5-10 camels. Mostly in the large herds females were
dominant 75%. Males were sold for as pack animals and meat. While in small herds
mainly males were dominant in number and they were used for transport of
goods. The distribution of the camel coincided with that of the drylands, and of T.
evansi, and overlaps with the area occupied by Muslim societies as shown on
Figure 1.4 A-D. In these areas there were no horses and mules. But in the south
western lowlands there are no camels due to cyclically (tsetse) transmitted
Trypanosomosis. There were four breeds: milk, meat, dual purpose and baggage
camels. These were identified by their coat color conformation and production.
Population growth was estimated (Tefera, 1985),using predictive formula:
[Population growth estimate
.
Where A= % adult females above 4 years of age,
B= % of infertile she camel,
C= calving interval.
D= survival rate of neonates and
E=10% being the allowance for population mortality and slaughter.
In 1985, the camel herd was growing annually by 2.5 %. Taking the following
parameters as determined in our study: e A= 60 %, B= 10% C= 2 years. D= 0.5 and
E=10%.
1.3 The dryland ecosystem
Ethiopia is topographically classified into two areas: highland and lowland. The
periphery encircling the country generally consist of lowland plains, with an
elevation below 1500 masl and mean annual rainfall below 500mm. The lowlands
cover some 65 million hectares (61%) of the total area of Ethiopia and consist
mainly of rangeland which is home to 12% of the human population and 26% of
the livestock (Coppock, 1994). The climate in the lowlands is arid and, owing to the
unreliable rainfall, the ecosystem in these environments never achieves
equilibrium between grazing and fixed number of settled livestock. With increasing
drought and erratic rainfall, cultivation of land is difficult and crop failure is
common resulting in reduced per capita food production. Thus, traditional
pastoralism constitutes the only efficient means of exploitation of the dryland
resources (Payne 1990; Wilson 1984) otherwise heavy investment or irrigation and
moisture harvesting technologies would be required.
In the drylads where
biomass is meager,
resource utilization should
be optimized through
appropriate livestock
production system
(Njeuru, 1996). Multiple
herd species have
ecological and
socioeconomic adaptive
value, risk spreading and
conservation of resources,
identified as energy
extraction pathways: a)
the reliable pathway,
shrub-camel-milk-human,
b) the opportunistic
pathway grass-cattle-milkhuman and c) contingency,
Figure 1.4: Map of Ethiopia showing the peripheral

lawlands ( a), distribution of camels ( b), muslim society
(c) ,non existence of horses and trypanosoma evansi
(d),(Tefera and Gebreab, 2001).
sale for cash pathway grass-small stock-meat-human as shown in Table 1.1. Camels
cause less environmental harm compared to other livestock species (Schwartz and
Dioli 1992). As climate change is drastically altering the global landscape, camels
raising could become an alternative livelihood which is second to none. In
comparison to other livestock, camel production would appear insignificant, if

viewed in isolation from the environment. Howevere camels can produce milk
under very harsh conditions when and where other livestock species cease
producing (Yagil, 1985). Most of the drylands in Ethiopia are range land and
primarily arid and semi arid where other land uses such as agriculture is not
economically feasible but it may also include areas that have in the past or could in
the future be used for forestry. The environment is basic determinant of the
nature and productivity of the range ecosystem. Physical environmental factors,
which includes, climate, topography and soil determine the potential of the range
land to support certain types and levels of land use hence in the following sections
we will describe the dryland ecosystem in Ethiopia.
1.3.1 Temperature
Except at high altitude temperature is seldom a limiting factor to plant growth. In
the arid zones of Afar one of the hottest areas in the world mean annual maximum
and mean annual minimum temperatures are 35 - 27C respectively. The
temperature on the hottest day reaches a maximum of 45C. There is little
variation in the temperature regime either seasonally or annually.
1.3.2 Evaporation
Evaporative demand is another important environmental factor which determines
range productivity. Water vapor is formed by evaporation (from solid surface such
as water, soil, rocks and wet vegetation) and transpiration (mostly by plants).
Evapotranspiration is the combined effects of these two processes. However, as
actual evapotranspiration is often limited by the availability of water thepotential
evapotranspiration, which reflects conditions where water is not limiting, is a
better measure of evaporative demand on vegetation. In East Africa it is in the high
range of over 150 - 250mm/year. This high evaporative demand is an important
environmental factor for the regions vegetation because the balance between it
and rainfall is strong determinant of the amount of water that eventually becomes
available for plant use. As with temperature, potential evapotranspiration varies
little on an annual basis although the regional differences are marked.
1.3.3 Potential Evapotranspiration

The ratio of annual rainfall to evapotranspiration p(R/Etp) is frequently used as
indicator of relative aridity. Potential evapotranspiration is the amount of water
vapor that would be transported into the atmosphere by evaporation and
transpiration when water is freely available, as at the surface of the ocean. The
greatest deficit between rainfall and evaporative demand occurs in eastern
Ethiopia, Northern Somalia and Eastern Eritrea where rainfall is lowest and
potential evapotranspiration is highest. The deficit is least in the highlands.
Table 1.1: Data on rainfall, evapotranspiration and aridity index for 250 stations in Ethiopia
(Hawando, 1995)
Figure 1.5: Dryland areas in

Ethiopia delinated on bases
of RR/PET ratio (Hawando,
1995)
Figure 1.6: Distribution of

rainfall seasons (Hurni,
1998)
Figure 1.7: Precipitation map

of Ethiopia (CSA, 2009)
Figure 1.8: Length of

growing period in (CSA,
2009)
Figure 1.9: Vegetation map

of Ethiopia (Compiled from
Mesfin Weldemariam, 1970
and Groombridge, 1992)
1.3.4 Rainfall
Unlike temperature and potential evapotranspiration, rainfall shows considerable
variability within the region in both space and time. Therefore it is closely
associated with rangeland vegetation pattern. Rainfall is highest in the highland
areas where up to 2000 mm/year of rain falls and lowest along the eastern border
with 250 mm/year. Rainfall is highly seasonal and either unimodal or bimodal. The
timing of the rainy season also varies. Mean annual rainfall is not considered in
itself to be the best climatological indicator of the influence of rainfall on plant
growth. Rainfall in eastern Africa is highly erratic and unreliable in terms of amount
in- time and space. For instance Ellis, et al 1993 found annual rainfall to have
varied from 85% to 12% of the long term mean over 63 years. Dry years were more
common than wet periods. Arid regions differ from wet regions only in having
more evapotranspiration per year.
High intensity rainfall causes significant increase in surface runoff, which results in
large amount of water becoming inaccessible to plants. The greater the loss by run
off the less effective rainfall is in supporting plant growth. Tropical regions tend to
have higher intensity rainfall than temperate regions. Rainfall events as high as
279-381 mm/day have been recorded in eastern Africa (Pratt and Gwynne, 1977).
Minimal requirements regarding the amount of rainfall, the period of time over
which it occurs and the ratio of rainfall to potential evapotranspiration must be
met to initiate and maintain growth of range land plants. In order to initiate
effective growth (of annual grasses) in arid areas a minimum of 15 mm of rainfall
must fall within a week, the first rain must wet the seed for at least 3 days, and
enough rain must fall to compensate for evaporation. However, under the high
potential evapotraspiration typical of arid eastern Ethiopia, growth is still
insignificant with rainfall of 25 mm over a 10 day period which exceeds a quarter
of the potential evapotranspiration that is usually enough to initiate growth in
semi arid range lands. King (1993) reported that, about 25 mm of precipitation is
needed for growth of perennial grasses and shrubs and 40-60 mm for seed
germination of annual grassland.
1.3.5 Soil
Soils reflect the influence of climate, parent material, topography, time and living
organisms (principally vegetation). The stronger influence of climate, in this case
rainfall, is seen in the broad regional soil units of Eastern Africa. The specific nature
of local soil types as reflected in their depth, horizonation, texture, color, fertility,
etc which results from the degree to which the parent material, topography and
time (in particular) combine to interact with and modify the effects of climate on
soil development. Thus rangeland areas which share the same climate but which
differ in terms of topography, underlying parent material or geological age are apt
to have different soils.
Usually land units demonstrated by a particular kind of topography and or/parent

material are smaller in area than those primarily due to regional climate.
Therefore, soil units tend to be relatively small and thus have more a localized
effect on the nature and distribution of vegetation. This is especially true in drier
areas where rainfall and leaching, the major operational climatic factor in East
Africa, are less influential. Even in those areas of eastern Africa where rainfall
exceeds 1500 mm/year and climate is the overriding factor determining soil
characteristics, the abundant latosols/red soils tend to differentiate locally into
topographically related Catenas (associations of topographically differentiated
soils). Soil fertility and available soil moisture are the major determinants of plant
growth and production in tropical regions. Soil fertility is more likely to be the
principal limiting factors in sub humid and humid regions because of the leaching
effect of rainfall. In semiarid and arid regions available soil moisture is limiting
factor.
At lower rainfall soil parent material becomes an increasingly important influence
on soil texture, structure and soil depth which are primary determinants of soil
moisture availability to plant roots and there is strong correlation between soil
texture and total soil nutrients. Sandy soils tend to be infertile and have very low
water holding capacities, although at the same time virtually all water is available
to plants. Thus sandy soils provide a better soil-moisture regime than clays. The
deeper sandy soils tend to support more deep-rooted woody vegetation than
herbs and grasses. Grass roots usually do not extend much beyond one meter in
depth. Heavy textured clay soils hold more water than sandy soils but do not give it
up to plant use as easily. They also tend to be more fertile and, when adequate
moisture is available, produce more palatable and nutritious fodder. However,
unpalatable and highly drought resistant grasses may also dominate clay soils.
1.3.6 Vegetation
Rangeland vegetation not only changes over time but also strongly varies from one
region to another. These differences, which reflect the influence of climate and
soil, have important implications for potential rangeland production and therefore,
for the management of rangeland resources.
With increasing aridity (generally expressed by increasing temperatures, decreased
rainfall and increasing number of dry months per year), grass height decreases,
botanical composition changes, annual grasses replace perennial grasses in
dominance and livestock and human carrying capacities decreases. Short annual
grasses and mid-height perennial grasses dominate the arid and hyper-arid zones.
Annuals dominate in areas where the original perennial grasses have been lost to
drought. The nature of the vegetation is sometimes influenced by the
predominance of certain types of soils. For instance, an abundance of sands, which
improve the availability of soil moisture, allows the growth of perennial grasses in
arid and hyper arid climates. Woody plants also abundant and important
contributors to rangeland value. As rainfall decreases the probable physiognomic
climax vegetation type becomes lower in height and more open. Across the same
rainfall gradient the major woody growth changes from tree to shrub to dwarf
shrub. Forage produced by trees, shrubs and dwarf shrubs is especially important
in arid and hyper-arid environments where herbaceous productivity is low and
highly erratic
1.4 Geology of the Afar Depression

The Afar Depression is an area of lowland plains dotted with shield volcanoes. It is
cut by faults which separate areas of higher ground (or fault blocks) from the rest
of the plain. It is bound to the west by the Ethiopian Plateau and escarpment, to
the northeast by the Danakil block, to the southeast by the Ali-Sabieh block and to
the south by the Somalian Plateau and escarpment.
To the north, the southern Red Sea rift is extending down through the Gulf of Zula
into the northern Afar Depression. To the east, the Gulf of Aden rift, is spreading
through the Gulf of Tajura into the eastern Afar Depression, and to the southwest,
extension continues through the Main Ethiopian Rift to the East African Rift System
(Figure 1.10).
Along the edges of the Afar Depression are large faults up to 60km long. These
developed during the Oligo-Miocene (29-26 million years ago) as the Earths crust
in the region began to be pulled apart by the movement of the plates. The faults
led to the centre of the Depression dropping down relative to the Ethiopian and
Somalian Plateaux and the formation of the rift valley. The area is now close to or,
in parts, below sea level.
Between about 6 and 7 million years ago, as the plates continued to separate and
extension increased across the region, magma from deep in the Earth rose through
the crust warming and weakening it. Movement on the border faults ceased,
although they still command the landscape, and smaller faults developed along
narrow bands in the centre of the rift valley. These narrow bands have continued
to develop with thin vertical sheets of magma (dykes) being injected along them
and erupting at the surface as volcanoes.
In simple terms, a rift can be thought of as a fracture in the earth's surface that
widens over time, or more technically, as an elongate basin bounded by opposed
steeply dipping normal faults. Geologists are still debating exactly how rifting
comes about, but the process is so well displayed in East Africa (Ethiopia-KenyaUganda-Tanzania) that geologists have attached a name to the new plate-to-be;
the Nubian Plate makes up most of Africa, while the smaller plate that is pulling
away has been named the Somalian Plate (Figure 1). These two plates are moving
away from each other and also away from the Arabian plate to the north. The
point where these three plates meet in the Afar region of Ethiopia forms what is
called a triple-junction. However, all the rifting in East Africa is not confined to the
10
Horn of Africa; there is a lot of rifting activity further south as well, extending into
Kenya and Tanzania and Great Lakes region of Africa.
Figure 1.10 Rift segment names for the East African Rift System. Smaller segments are
sometimes given their own names, and the names given to the main rift segments change
depending on the source. (Makris & Ginzburg, 1987, Simon, 2010)
11
Summary
Many arid and semi-arid grazing ecosystems are not at equilibrium and external
factors (e.g. rainfall) determine livestock numbers and vegetation status. The
productivity of rangelands is heterogeneous in space and variable overtime;
therefore it is critical that the livestock movement must respond to spatial
changes in feed availability. In uncertain environments fodder availability
fluctuates widely over time and space. Grass production may range from zero to
several tons per hectare, depending on rainfall. Such variation is spatially
differentiated with same areas showing more stable patterns of primary
production while others are highly unstable. Making use of such variable fodder
resource requires tracking. Tracking involves the matching of available feed
supply with animal numbers at a particular site. This is opportunistic
management. Opportunistic management involves seizing opportunities when
and where they exist and thus highly flexible and responsive. Effective tracking
may be achieved in four ways: Increasing locally available fodder by importing
feed from elsewhere or by enhancing fodder production, especially drought feed
through investment in key resource site. Moving animals to areas where fodder is
available, reducing animal feed intake during drought, reducing parasite burdens
or breeding for animals with low basal metabolic (Larege animals) rates.
Destocking animals through sales during drought and then restocking when
fodder is available after drought.
Ethiopia has sufficient water in the western part and rivers in the vast lands of
the east, thus an alternative is the use of irrigated agriculture to boost crop or
fodder production. However, most of the range land soil is salt affected, 11
million hectares of land in Ethiopia are salt affected (saline, saline sodic and
sodic). The salt affected soils are a challenge to agricultural production. In the
Middle Awash Valley eight years after an irrigation project was commenced
salinity became very severe. Many productive agricultural lands were abandoned
and became barren land due to lack of appropriate irrigation water management
facilitated secondary salinization.
The drylands are rich in energy sources such as uranium, oil, gas and geothermal
power which are an as yet untapped potential treasure of wealth. Will these
bonanzas sustain the camel to be the king of the desert?
12
1.5 Pastoralism and pastoralists / Biocultural diversity

Pastoralism is defined as socioeconomic entity, which is based on subsistence
production by making use of available rangeland resource through appropriate
livestock production system identified as energy extraction pathways a) the
reliable pathway represented by shrubs-camel-milk-human b) the opportunistic
pathway grass-cattle-milk human and c) the contingency pathway grass-small
stock-market-human.
Today there are three main livestock production systems in Ethiopia: a draught
oriented system in the highlands, a milk oriented system in the lowlands
(subsistence) and a minor commercial dairy system in periurban areas. However,
farming systems are not static and change overtime and between locations owing
to changes in resource availability and demand patterns.
Traditionally the highlands and lowlands are linked economically in the form of
trade. The highlands supply the cereal requirement of the pastoralists. In return
the pastoralist supply livestock to the sedentary farmers, which they use them as
plough oxen, see Figure 1
Figure 1.13 Livestock and cereal rotation in sedentary and pastoral interface
In all pastoral systems the consumption of milk or blood seems to be most

important diet although nowadays it is steadily dropping, and there are few, if any,
which rely almost totally on milk or milk products. In some communities the
reliance is still fairly high. The Borana of the southern rangelands of Ethiopia for
13
example, with some seasonal variations, still consume up to 59% of their diet as
milk or milk products with the balance of the diet being increasingly made up of
grain. For the Afar, milk probably constitutes less than 60% of total energy
requirements, and grain again is increasingly the main food substitute. This
increase of grain and decrease of milk consumption is in fact more and more the
pattern in pastoral Africa. Nevertheless the African pastoralist is still firmly
oriented towards a milk production mode as far as circumstances will allow and
has not yet dramatically changed this in favor of selling meat or growing crops.
Pastoralism relies on livestock diversity to exploit and make use of the diverse
rangeland resources, and typical pastoral herds and flocks include grazing cattle,
donkeys and sheep and browsing camels and goats. Pastoralism also relies on
diverse livestock products including milk, hides, meat, blood and draft power.
Camel pastoralism is most sustainable livestock production system in the drylands,
as the dromedary is a livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and arid
environments. It is also highly versatile; it produces milk, meat, and work, in an
environment where no other livestock can survive.
Camel pastoralists are those populations whose livelihood is based largely on
camel production. Camel keeping is their major occupation although at times they
diversify into keeping other livestock mainly sheep goat, cattle and sometimes
engage in agricultural operations. Their vocation is suited to exploitation of natural
resources. The main Ethnic groups and their herd composition are shown in Table
1.2
Table 1.2 Location and size of livestock in pastoral areas of Ethiopia (,000)*
Pastoral region (Location in Sheep Goat Cattle donkeys Camel
Ethiopia)
Horses
and
mules
1 Afar (North Eastern )
2000
3000 3600
200
900
2 Somali (Eastern)
6600
3300 5200
360
1100
3 Oromo/Borena (South
Eastern)
Oromo/Kereyou(South
Eastern)
1000
500
1400
60
530
200
300
300
20
10
4 Benshangul and Gambella 100

( western)
5 Southern nations and 340
nationalities(Southern
6 Kunama (Northwestern)
100
100
100
20
500
450
40
150
200
10
* Central Statistical Agency, 2009 (population in thousands)
14
Figure 1.14: Camel Belt area of Ethiopia (Tefera and Gebreab 2001)
15
Figure 1.15 Major river basins in Ethiopia (UNOCHA-Ethiopia. 2005)
16
1.6 Camel complex

The camel is considered as a form of productive capital and also investment capital
of herders. It is well known fact that livestock reproduce themselves even without
market forces. The survival strategies of pure pastoralists are very much tied to
the desire to reproduce and preserve the camel from which they also derive social
capital. In the latter case, wealth and prestige are conceptualized with reference to
camel.
The camel herders are extremely affectionate to their camels expressed through a
culture of complex customs which has developed as a form of ecological
adaptation from an emotional attachment to the camel and expressed through
affection and naming, collectively known as the camel complex. The Afar names
each individual camel, and camels were involved in rituals such as birth. The Afar
had a tradition called Budubta under which when a child is born it was given one
female animal from each species. With good fortune the female animal will
reproduce and become plenty. Apiece of the childs umbilicus was put in small
pocket and is tied to the neck of the animal as a talisman. The camel is also the
store of value and the conventional medium for exchange of pastoralists bride
wealth and payment. Camels are appreciated as dowry in marriage, and for social
and religious ceremonies particularly during Eid al-Adha when camels are
sacrificed. Camels are also used as compensation for crimes or inflicted wounds: if
a young man is killed the cost is 20 camels, if an eye is wounded about two camels,
each body part had a price and each crime had to be paid in terms of camels.
Camels are never ridden, except by sick or tired women and children during
migration. There are a number of sayings about the camel A father without a
camel is not a father. Large number of camel stock signified high social status.
Each pastoral group has its own territories. The Kunama reside in Tekeze valley,
Irobe/Saho in Alitena valley, Raya Kobo in Raya valley, the Afar in the Awash
Valley, Somali in the Wabishebele valley and the Borena in Genalle valley. The
Afars and Somalis are predominantly herders and are true pastoralists in the sense
that they do not practice agriculture besides animals.
1.7 Risk spreading
In the arid and semi arid lands crop farming through rain fed agriculture is
unpredictable and least productive. In an effort to reduce risk pastoralist have
developed various coping strategies. Herd diversification, involving multi species of
livestock with different products, growth rate and functions allows exploitation of
different niches. Mobility is a key strategy to the survival of pastoralists. With
highly variable rainfall, the pastoral economy is typically of the bust and boom
type. It booms when rainfall is plentiful and herds and flocks grow and are
productive. It is bust when extended dry periods and drought occur. During this
period livestock production and productivity rapidly decline to the extent of
causing mortality. Local climatic, topographic, soil and vegetation variations
necessitate the movement of people and livestock.
17
1.7.1 Conservation of resource

In uncertain environments, livestock populations are limited by mortality
associated with frequent droughts, disease and the like and cause degradation
when purposely allowed to concentrate in one area. In order to minimize the risk
of resource degradation pastoralists employ resource conservation strategies as
listed below
Traditional rotational uses of resource, allows regeneration of vegetation and
avoids over utilization of the range lands. During feed scarcity in particular area,
pastoralists keep livestock densities low by spreading out into other areas in order
to avoid pressure on the grazing and water resources and pastoral traditional
decision making processes reinforce regulation in determining the degree of
concentration and dispersion of animals with respect to sustainable range
resource utilization
1.7.2 Mobility
Tracking rainfall, by moving herds oportunistically to follow the rains is a coping
strategy of pastoralists to drought. Sometimes tracking rain-fed forage did not
follow a regular pattern. For example the Afar pastoralists had a flexible migration
pattern which could take the form of oscillatory type of movement up and down
the Awash valley and into new territories in periods of severe drought. In the
recent past many pastoralists became sedentarized either practicing farming,
trade or taking employment thus breaking former traditional values as well as the
value of the camel. Movement to key resources is also an option. During the dry
season livestock concentrate around water points and during wet season they
graze far from flooding rivers near to the permanent village sites.
Figure 1.16: Altitudinal zonation of Livestock in East Africa (Gulliver, 1955)
18
Given altitude/rainfall correlation, pastoralists adjust their annual cycle to put

herds in lowest (driest) part of range in the rainy season, gradually moving to
higher elevations so as to end up at highest elevation at end of the dry season.
Movement decisions are very complex, as they must plan for whole year but have
many contingency plans, taking many variables into account; hence pastoralists
have great need for up-to-date information. The information flow is channeled via
kinship ties and sodalities (age-sets). Each household has large variety of stock,
with minimal number of each (in traditional subsistence regime) being 25-30
cattle, 10 camels, 100 small stock (goats & sheep), and 10-12 donkeys (Note:
household = women + children associated with a single adult male; homestead =
group of related men + families). Each species has to be handled in certain way:
e.g., cattle can be watered every other day, small stock need water every day, and
camels every 3 days. Hence, in the dry season several herds and herding parties
are required, which is a very labor intensive system.
Table 1.3 Livestock movement pattern of Afar community
Name of
Majour areas of mobility
Zone/Sub zone
Wet season
Dry season
Drought time
Zone 1:
Dubti,
Asayta and
Afambo
Subzones
Zone 2
Doka: Chifra and Aura

subzones between Hida
and Uwa rivers
Awassa: close
Awash river
Herders move eastwards

in to Erebti and Afdera
Woredas
Zone 3 and 5
East and west of
the Awash river
south
of
the
Kombolcha Mile
road
Zone 4 and chifra
Herders move east to

Gewane and Alledege
plains and west to the
foothills below the Manin
escarpment
Retreat areas are in

the eastern parts of
Dalol,
Koneba,
Berehale,
Aba-Ala
and
Megale
subzones
Most retreat areas
are next to, or near
to, the Awash river
Herders move eastwards

into Teru and Aura
subzones and the eastern
parts of Yallo, Gulina, Ewa,
Chifra and Mille Woredas
(Source: PFE, IIRR and DF. 2010)
to
Western parts of
Yallo, Gulina, Ewa
and Mille subzones
Close to Awash
river
Amhara region
(Cheffa valley)
and Argoba
Oromia Zone of
Amhara region
close to Awash
river and Teru
19
Table 1.4: Wet and dry season grazing pattern in Somali Region
Zone
Wet Season
Dry Season
Gode
Foot hills and uplands
Along the Wabishebele river
Afder
Cheerti, Dolloban, Baren, Hargelle, Along
Genale,
Web,
Gorobagagsa
Wabishebelle rivers, El Har,
Yabow, Dhan Adir, Shakissa,
Budhi, Bali Baako, Qorsadula,
Gerar Elgojo, Qundi, Goroba,
Gagsa
Fiq
Qubi, Dooya, Dargamo, Qaruaqod and Gebre Abood, Digiweyne, Jajale,
Maymuliqa
Afmeer, Birqod, Malayko, Sulul,
Ela Sibi, Qarri
Deghabur Jig, Boholole, Dayr, Dig, Sibi
Fafan, Jerer, Galaisha, Dakhata,
Sibi
Jijiga
Babile, Gursum, Karamara
Jerer, Fafan Dakhata Valley
Qorehey
Jool Jeeh, Nusdaaring, Handheer, Bank, Gabagabo, Mariaado, Subaarco,
Dhobweyn , Kalajeen, Hannan, Har-Ano, El Har, Giid, Guoglo, Subauke,
Jiracle, El-Ogaden, Melka Afweyn, Shey Hoosn, Alla Gadwene,
Qorjeeh, Mario Ado, Elhaar, Banka Higloley,
Quruh,
Jeehdin,
Qoraheey, Banka Shaykosh
Herweyn
Liben
Ayinile, Gunway, Walenso, Moyale, Seru, Sora, Dinbi, and along
Wayamo,Chianqo,
Biyoley,Biyaoley, Dawa and Genale rivers
Boqolmayo,
Triyangolo,
Jarso
Dhafabulaale extensive grazing areas far
away from rivers birkas and ellas
Shinile
Hils and uplands
Araq, Bisiq, Muli, Qandaras, Erer
river and Somaliland
Warder
Laheelow, Dhurwa, Hararaf, Aado,Qorile, Wasdhug, Garlogubay, Yuub,
Darafole, Markha, Lifo, Agaarweywe, Uband Taale, Warder, Galadi,
Danod, Burawo and Las Anod in Somali Walwal
land
(Source: PFE, IIRR and DF. 2010)
1.8 The dynamism of pastoralism

Nintheenth century social evolutionists Morgan and Engles believed nomadic
pastoralism was an evolutionary stage between foraging and settled agriculture.
The current consensus is that pastoralists probably arose from marginalized
surplus population of agriculturalists who for one reason or another lost their land
base or abandoned farming and turned to full time herding
Pastoralism is a dynamic system; pastoral societies pursue multiple resource
economies in which the balance between pastoral and non pastoral activities is
constantly changing in response to changing circumstances. The pastoralists do not
by any chance discriminate against other forms of production. Based on their many
years of experience they value livestock raising as the most valuable mode of
20
production. Otherwise the pastoralists do practice mixed socioeconomic (pastoral

and off-pastoral, like trade etc.) changes that determine the growth or decline
of the system. The impact of change on viability of camel raising within pastoral
system is increasing its fragile or is destroyed it all together as the system itself is
subject to pressure.
Pastoralism is a subsistence system based primarily on domesticated animal
production and excludes groups specializing in wild animals. The term subsisting is
intended to exclude those who raise animals strictly for exchange value rather
than direct consumption (e.g., commercial ranchers and dairy farmers, though as
we will see most subsistence pastoralists rely on trade.
Pastoralists can be categorized in terms of frequency of movement into three
groups:
a) Settled pastoralism: Animals are kept in one place most of all year
b) Transhumance requires round trips from the home base to pastures on
seasonal or emergency movements , without any major dwellings or barns
in any location
c) Nomadic: Moving herds to any available pasture, often on opportunistic
basis over long distances with no fixed pattern
1.9 Pastoralists and climate change
Droughts are inevitable in the drylands, they may occur frequently or less
frequently depending on climatic conditions. Drought is one of the most limiting
factors and a predicament for pastoralist communities. In order to understand how
droughts affect pastoralism it is important to ask how pastoralists livelihoods are
affected by drought? The most direct impact of a shortage in rainfall on
pastoralists livelihood is the drying up of water sources and declining forage
resources for livestock. Water and forage are the most important resources for
pastoralism and changes in their availability greately influence livestock conditions,
milk production and ultimately pastoralists livelihood. The experiences of major
droughts during the last four decade in the horn of Africa show that pastoralists
have been affected more than other groups. Climate variability is very high in the
pastoral areas of this sub-region and often people have to cope with long periods
without rainfall. Sommer 1998 argues that metrological drought cannot be avoided
but its impact such as famine, disease outbreak and destitution can be greately
influenced by timely and effective intervention. Droughts are not the only disaster
that hit people in the drylands as conflict, disase and floods also create havoc.
Disasters can be managed as the drought model shown in Figure 1:17 illustrates:
A drought cycle consists of four stages:
1) Normal stage: Rainfall is adequate and there are no major problems. The
danger of drought is always present and one should prepare for the worst.
21
During this normal stage pastoralists try to build up their herds, vary the
composition of their herds, and build up social networks. Strong ties mean
they can rely on others to help them during time of trouble. Crops can be
grown to supplement their diet.
2) Alert or Alarm stage: The rains fail and the early signs of drought appear.
During this time efforts concentrate on mitigating the effects of drought by
migrating to distant grazing reserves, concentrating around water sources,
selling extra animals, and giving gifts to relatives.
3) Emergency stage: Food and water run short causing severe malnutrition and
high death toll of livestock and the peoples efforts shift to relief measures. At
this stage people skip meals to reduce amount of food consumed, they
harvest wild plants, hunt wild animals, sell fuel wood and appeal to
government and donors for help.
4) Recovery stage: The rains return and people and animals can begin recovery.
Reconstruction activities are set in motion. During this period they rebuild
their herds.
There is overlap between these stages. Some particularly vulunerable people feel
the effects of drought sooner than others. Not all droughts go through all four
stages. Adequate preparations during normal and alert stages may prevent the
worst effect. Clearly, these droughts also affect natural resources. The amount of
available food decreases and water points dry up. But in most of the drylands the
vegetation shows a remarkable capacity for regeneration once rains return. Herds
can build up rapidly by grazing on fresh vegetation.
Pastoralist and crop farmers do different things at aach stage in the cycle and in
different places. What they do depends on the availability of other sources of food
and income, local traditions and the skills of individuals and households.
In general pastoralism can respond more easily and quickly to drought than can
crop farmers. They can buy or sell animals or move to new areas in search of water
and grazing. Crop farmers are tied to their land and must wait for several months
before crop is ready for harvesting.
22
Drought
Cereal price increase
Livestock price fall
Forced to sell off livestock
Smaller herd size unable to restock during recovery
Abandon Pastoralism
Figure 1.17: Extream consequence of climate change on pastoral livelihood
1.10 The camel people: clans and tribes

A clan is a group of people related by blood and marriage and consists of a group
of families of a patrilinear or matrilinear culture united by actual kinship and
descent. Clan members may be organized around a founding member or apical
ancestor. The kinship-based bonds may be symbolical, whereby the clan shares a
"stipulated" common ancestor that is a symbol of the clan's unity. A tribe is a
sociopolitical organization consisting of a number of families, clans, or other
groups who share a common ancestry or perceived kinship descending from the
same progenitor kept distinct culture, and also linked by social, economic, religious
ideological belief.
1.10.1 Kunama
The Kunama clan lives in north western Ethiopia around the town of Barentu and
close to the border of Eritrea. The Kunama, thought to be among the aboriginal
inhabitants of the region some are Christian, some Muslim, but many follow their
own faith, centered on worship of the creator, and veneration of ancestral heroes.
Their society is strongly egalitarian with distinctive matrilineal elements. The
Kunama speak a Nilo-Saharan language unrelated to the dominant languages in
Ethiopia and Eritrea. Formerly nomadic, today they are Agro-pastoralists whose
cattle are also important sources of wealth and prestige. The Kunamas keep
23
camels which they ride and use as work animals in mills and for ploughing. Such
traditional use is absent in the eastern part of Ethiopia.
Figure 1.18:
Kunama women
Figure 1.19
Kunama men
24
Figure 1.20 Kunama women leading a camel
25
1.10.2 Irob
The Irob people also spelled Erob are an ethnic group who occupy a predominantly
highland, mountainous area in northeastern Tigray Region, Ethiopia. In general,
the Irob are a bi-cultural community, they are Christians and Muslim. Their
language is Saho and Tigrigna. The Irob economy is primarily based on agriculture,
including animal husbandry. The region is also renowned for its excellent honey.
Irobs raise camels; mainly male camel acquired from the Afar which they use in
trade such as wood and charcoal.
Figure 1.21 Irob town women
26
1.10. 3 Raya Kobo

The Raya Valley lies in Alamata, Raya Azebo and Hintalo Wajirat woredas in Tigray.
It shares a border with Kobo of north Wollo to the south, Afar region to the east.
The area is multicultural Christan and Muslim mix and the main languages are
Tigrigna, Amharic and Afan oromo. The Raya -Kobo is known for cultivation of
sorghum and teff. Other important economic activities in the zone are salt trading,
cows milk and hiring of donkeys and camel for transport purposes. Camels
generate income from transporting salt in Afar region.
Figure 1.22 The people of Raya kobo

1.10.4 Afar
The Afars are located in the East Ethiopia and in Djibouti, and Eritrea. Most of the
Afars are nomads who herd composed of sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. A man's
wealth is measured by the size of his herds. Meat and milk are the major
components of the Afar diet. Milk is also an important social "offering", for
instance, when aguest is given fresh warm milk to drink, the host is implying that
he will provide immediate protection for the guest. Afar pastoral communities
have indigenous institutions that govern the behaviour of each individual member.
The traditional mutual support system is locally known as Hatota, which is
practiced through clan ties. Afar society has its own information communication
system, locally called Dagu system. The Dagu involves exchange of information
27
about daily life and general situations they observe, listen, or see on their ways or
from their areas of residence or from markets.
Figure 1.23 Afar man andFossil of Lucy
Figure 1.24 Afar Girls and Boys
28
1.10.5 Somali
Somali: are ethnic groups located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali
Peninsula. The Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic
branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17
million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 9 million) and in
Ethiopia (4.6 million) The name "Somali" is, derived from the words soo and maal,
which together mean "go and milk" a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of
the Somali people.
Figure 1.25 Somali men and women
1.10.6 Borana
The Borana or Borena are part of a very much larger group of the Oromo culture
group. The Borana predominantly live in Ethiopia and Kenya. The economy and
life style are organized around cattle, though the formerly taboo camels are
becoming more important, and they now herd sheep and goats. Young men do
the daily herding while the women do all family nurturing. The homestead groups
may be required to move three or four times each year, often as far as 100 km,
because of the low rainfall and poor land.
Figure 1.26 Borana women
29
Figure 1.27 Borana man
1.10.7 Kereyou
The Kereyou are pastoralist nomads. Their tribe plies the arid lands around the
Awash River down in the rift valley for pasture for their cattle, goats and camels.
Their range area is located in the rift valley and Eastern Showa areas. They are
camel breeders, in addition they keep other livestock and recently they are shifting
to cultivate cereals and vegetables.
Figure 1.28 Kereyou man
30
Figure 1.30 Kerayou camel caravan
31
CHAPTER TWO: FEED, FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF CAMELS IN ETHIOPIA

Gijs vant Klooster1, Solomon Nega1 and Melaku Tefera2
1
FAO Ethiopia, Addis Ababa
2
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University. P.O. Box 144 Haramaya
Campus. Ethiopia. 251-0914722459, <melaku22@yahoo.com>
Over large tracts of the Ethiopian rangelands, trees and shrubs are at least as
important as grass forage, and over large areas provide the only feed for livestock.
They are the dominant vegetation over vast areas of rangeland and support large
livestock populations, especially of camel and goat, both of which are primarily
browsers. Most likely due to the fact that camels are raised under traditional
management systems, there is not much literature available about the feed,
feeding and nutrition of camels in Ethiopia.
Changing socio-economic and environmental conditions will lead to a change in
pastoral production systems from mainly subsistence towards a more market
orientated livestock production system and this will require an improved
understanding of supplementary feeding
This chapter provides an overview of the current knowledge on the quality of feeds
selected by camels and feed preferences in order to understand the relationship
between the forage availability and camel production. Understanding the
browsing/grazing behavior of the camel, dietary preferences and their nutritive
value together with a thorough knowledge of the environment is important to
develop sound husbandry practices. Improved understanding may ultimately
facilitate sustainable utilization of arid and semi-arid ecosystems.
According to the pastoral area development study of 2004, browsing resources are
under-exploited, leaving ample space for the further expansion of camel rearing.
The study also mentioned that browsing animals have a much more environmentfriendly impact than grazing animals like cattle, sheep and donkeys.
2.1 Feed and Feeding of Camels
Camels are very versatile and opportunistic feeders, they accept a wide range of
browse species that are often avoided by other species, but also some grasses.
Foraging camels normally spread over a large area thus minimizing pressure on a
particular area. Their long legs and neck enables them to browse up to 3-3.5m
above the ground, a height that is not reached by other livestock. Due to their
specific forage preferences and feeding at higher levels, camels are rarely in direct
competition with other animals (notably cattle and sheep) for grazing and
32
therefore a combination of these species results in increased productivity per unit

of land.
Some other adaptive features include the ability to select a high-quality diet that
provides all the nutrients required by the body and the ability to survive on low
quality fibrous roughages. They adapt well to different diets and dietary
conditions. During the dry season, when other forages are scarce, camels can
browse on the green tips of trees (e.g. Acacia sp.) that other livestock species do
not, enabling them to survive droughts
To avoid damaging the rangelands the Afar uses an elaborate herd splitting
strategy (IIRR, 2004). Camel herds are split into five groups. Very young camels
(dayna) are often kept in night camps and are handfed with browse, while the
slightly older camels (neriga) browse nearby on their own. Older boys and girls
herd the weaned camels (ekale) separately around the settlements. Lactating
camels (homa): those normally herded by men (gudgudo) and those that are not
herded but return to their settlement areas every night (areyu). Dry and pregnant
female and male camels (adi galla) are herded by strong men the furthest away
from settlements. After calving the lactating females are herded as homa. The
location of the base camp and satellite herd depend on the availability of feed,
water and labor. If drought is imminent, some of the base camp herd may be move
to the satellite herd.
A study conducted in Moyale, Kenya (Adan, 1995) shows that some of the specific
Somali (Garri) camel herding and range management practices include rotational
browsing, herd splitting, salt supplementation and watering. The Somali camel
herders divide their grazing habitat into four micro-categories based on plant cover
and soil type: i) thick bush, clay soil (Harqaan/gabiib), ii) thick bush, black soil
(agricultural Adable/dhoobey), iii) open bush, red soil with good water
conservation (dooy) and iv) open bush, mixed grey and red soil (Bay)
The intimate knowledge of the environment common to many of the pastoralists
allows a great flexibility in decision-making and enhanced ability to utilize all
resources available (Farah et al., 1996). The present study reveals that the Somali
camel herders of Moyale (Kenya) District adopt herd splitting as a risk spreading
strategy. They split their herds into home-based herds (usually lactating) and
nomadic herds (mostly dry). Home-based herds were kept close to settlements
with possible deficiency in forage supply, whereas nomadic herds utilized better
distant pastures. Herd splitting aims at reducing competition for forage and water
resources between herds, thereby optimizing pasture utilization. The strategy
appears to be a desirable and realistic attempt to utilize range resources more
33
evenly while maintaining the productivity of the animals. The strategy also
guarantees continued provision of milk for settled families. When surplus milk is
available, it is sold in settlements to provide cash income for other family needs.
Thus, the strategy responds to both the needs of the camel and those of the
family. In this way the management of the herd ensures a sustainable flow of
benefits from the camels to the households while coping with production
constraints.
A study on the behavioral preference and quality selected forage by camels
(Dereje, 2005.) was conducted in the Erer valley of Somali region, with an altitude
of between 1300 and 1600m above sea level, to determine the behavior, dietary
preference and forage quality of free ranging dromedary. The vegetation cover
includes dwarf shrubs such as Indigofera species, large shrubs and trees such as
Acacia and Boscia species and is also highly populated by cacti. The annual
precipitation is between 400-500mm. The study was conducted both in the dry
and wet season and for different age and sex groups, i.e. young female, young
male, adult males and adult females.
Browsing and grazing was the dominant activity during the day (about 65% of the
10.5 to 12.5 hours per day they are outside the corral) in both seasons. During the
dry season the time devoted to browsing was significantly longer and in general
young animals spent more time browsing than adults. The study also looked at the
browsing preference of camels both in the dry and wet season. The camels
selected a total of 21 species of plants in the dry season and 30 in the wet season.
On average 79 and 83 percent of the camels diet was comprised of perennial
woody plants in the dry and wet season respectively. The difference in behavioral
activities within seasons seemed to be attributed to age differences. Young camels,
especially in the dry season, were observed facing difficulties eating thorny plants
such as Opunta and dry twigs, which leads them to spend more time on selecting
smaller and more delicate parts of plants to meet their nutritional requirements.
Camels were also seen to favor flowers and fruits when available. It was also
observed that camels did not eat from a single plant for a long time; instead they
moved around and took small portions from each plant, causing a low browsing
pressure on each plant.
The researchers recorded the ten most preferred plant species that occupied 87
percent and 80 percent of the total feeding time in the dry and wet season
respectively (Table 2.1.). Opuntia (18 percent) was the highest ranked plant in the
dry season, while Acacia brevispica (22 percent) was the highest ranked plant in
the wet season. The high water content of Opuntia may be the reason for its
34
popularity in the dry season. The A. brevispica had the highest CP content, both in
the wet and dry season.
Table 2.1 Forage plant species preferred by dromedary camels during the dry and wet
seasons.
Vernacular name
(Somali)
Dry season
Tin
Iswadh
Qudaahtol
Gidirmaan
Timirlog
Adaad
Keddi
Qalqalcha
Dhigrii
Dhigriaas
Merodimakaraan
Kalijog
Anannoo
Eriaad
Others, unidentified.
Karfaaweyn
Jeee
Kediqus
Eriqurn
Warsaames
Awus
Wet Season
Iswadh
Qudaahtol
Galol
Midhayoo
Adaad
Gob
Scientific name
Proportion of time
spent feeding
Category
Opuntia sp.
Acacia brevispica
Plepharis Sponisa
Indigofera
oblongifolia
Canthium
bogosensis
Acacia Senegal
Balanitus
Aegyptiaca
Boscia angustifolia
Becium
filamentosum
Becium sp.
Acacia sp.
0.18
0.15
0.11
0.09
Shrub
Tree
Herb
Vine
0.07
Shrub
0.06
0.06
Shrub
Tree
0.06
0.05
Tree
Shrub
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Shrub
Shrub
Tree
Shrub
Shrub
Mixed
Shrub
Shrub
Tree
Shrub
Shrub
0.01
Grass
0.22
0.12
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.05
Tree
Herb
Tree
Tree
Shrub
Tree
Euphorbia tirucalli
Lantana camara
Boscia cariaca
Balanitus glabra
Vepris glomerata
Dichrostochys
cinerea
Mixed grass sp
Acacia brevispica
Plepharis Sponisa
Acacia bussei
Acacia melifera
Acacia Senegal
Ziziphus
35
Dhabi
Tin
Maran
Gidirmaan
Others, unidentified.
Keddi
Jeee
Eriqurn
Qalqalcha
Dhigrii
Merodimakaraan
Anannoo
Awus
Cekaa
Kabbaw
Futawadher
Timirlog
Hiil
Warsaames
Kalojog
Qarfaawein
Kediqus
Dhigriaas
Eriaad
mauritanea
Grewia tembensis
Opuntia sp.
Caucanthus edulis
Indigofera
oblongifolia
Balanitus
Aegyptiaca
Boscia cariaca
Vepris glomerata
Boscia angustifolia
Becium
filamentosum
Acacia sp.
Euphorbia tirucalli
Mixed grass sp
Calpurnia aurea
Commiphora
africana
Canthium
bogosensis
Vernonia
cinerances
Dichrostochys
cinaerea
Lantana camara
Balanitus glabra
Becium sp.
0.05
0.04
0.04
Tree
Shrub
Tree
0.04
Vine
0.02
0.02
Mixed
Tree
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
Tree
Shrub
Tree
Shrub
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Shrub
Shrub
Grass
Shrub
Tree
0.01
0.01
Shrub
Shrub
0.01
Shrub
0.01
Shrub
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.003
Tree
Shrub
Tree
Shrub
Shrub
(Adopted from Dereje, 2005)
Another publication (IIRR. 2004) mentioned common native trees in pastoral

rangelands that are useful to the pastoralists, these include: Acacia bussei, Acacia
millifera, Acacia seyal, Acacia tortilis, Balanites spp., Commiphora spp., Euclea
shimperi, Gewia tembensii and Grevia bicolor.
The livestock master plan study mentions the species mentioned below as major
browse species (Kuchar et al. 1995a). Camel feed is almost all browse: browse
36
provides 95-99% in dry season, 90-97 in wet season. The rest is grazing, except in
dry season, fallow and residues each contribute 0.5%.
Acacia senegal, depending on soils and rainfall varies from a bush to a 10m high
tree, especially if heavily browsed by camels becomes a dwarf tree. Cactus
(Opuntia), O. ficusindica is especially in the dry season regarded outstanding dryseason camel fodder by the Somali. Cordia sinensis was rated by camel owners the
no.2 camel browse in Turkana District of Kenya.
Probably all Acacia spp. are browsed at one time or other by stock; Studies have
found, however, that in some regions even the camel, an animal with a reputation
for eating almost any plant, will shun some acacias. In Ethiopia, the species most
valuable for livestock are A. nilotica, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. sieberiana, A. tortilis
and perhaps A. mellifera and Faidherbia albida. All have palatable browse and
moreover nutritious pods that can be very important for camels. Singled out as
preferred or important camel food in the literature are A. drepanolobium, A.
oerfota and perhaps A. reficiens. In NE Ethiopia, Kahurananga (n.d.) found that
acacias formed the largest part of the camel diet; all species were browsed but the
most important were A. asak, A. mellifera, A. oerfota and A. Senegal, and A. tortilis
pods were considered excellent in camel milk production. The importance of A.
tortilis as a forage resource has been recognized by the Southern Ranehland
Development Unit (SORDU) project, and it encourages multiplication, and fencing
of seedlings.
Studies in the Borana rangelands indicated that there are about 15 woody plant
spp considered to be encroachers (OWWDSE, 2010). The major spp include
Commiphora afiricana, Acacia brevispica, Acacia nilotica, Acacia drepanolobium,
Acacia bussei and Acacia horida. A recent estimate indicated that about 52% of the
Borana rangeland is encroached by bushes and shrubs (Gemedo, 2004).
Livestock diet and palatability studies have recognized the importance of
commiphoras in camel and goat diets. The majority of the rangeland Burseraceae
is palatable to especially camel and shoats, even some of the sap-spraying species
appear to be good browse. Another obviously hedged species in this section is C.
truncata. It is an outstanding browse, the no.1 camel food plant according to
some Somali pastoralists. C. sphaerophylla (sec. Hemprichia) with its distinctly
sweet-smelling sap is almost its equal. Many members of sec. Opobalsameae are
highly rated but exhibit little or no browse impact. Among the boswellias, B.
microphylla and B. neglecta, both relatively large trees, are palatable and
outstanding feed sources for camel.
37
According to the pastoral area development study of 2004, browsing resources are
under-exploited, leaving ample space for the further expansion of camel rearing.
The study also mentioned that browsing animals have a much more environmentfriendly impact than grazing animals like cattle, sheep and donkeys.
Acacia brevispica: a Weed or a Browse?

Browse: Although called a common
encroacher in a southern Ethiopia
rangeland study (GRM 1989), Acacia
brevispica is regarded as an outstanding
browse of livestock in another study
conducted in southern Ethiopia (Woodward
& Coppock 1995), particularly in the wet
season when it constitutes 76% of the
camels diet, 56% of the goats and 23% of
the sheeps; also a major dry-season
browse of camel (22%) and goat (30%)
though apparently not browsed by sheep in
the dry season. This is in line with the study done by Dereje, M., 2005, that found Acacia
brevispica was the number one browse in the wet and the number two browse in the dry
season.
Weed: Impenetrable Acacia brevispica thickets of this prickly shrub have replaced
normal evergreen bush land toward its lower altitudinal limits in Samburu District,
Kenya (FAO 1970). It forms fast-growing thickets difficult to eradicate (Pratt & Gwynne
1977), and considered one of the most undesirable components of thickets that have
invaded woodland (Thomas & Pratt 1967). When cut or burnt it regenerates more
rapidly than any other acacia and can easily produce 2 m of growth in one season. "It is
perhaps the most difficult of our acacias to eradicate." (Bogdan & Pratt 1974) In his
book on East African weeds, Ivens (1968) singles out this plant as the worst of the
acacias as a bush-encroachment species. Pratt & Gwynne (1977) rank it among the 4
most troublesome woody species in East African rangelands.
The study on the behavioral preference and quality of selected forage by camels
(Moges, 2005) also collected feed samples of the ten most preferred species (Table
2.2.) in the dry season as well as the wet season were collected, dried and
analyzed using standard methods. All chemically analyzed samples had relatively
high crude protein levels. In both seasons, based on analysis of the ten most
38
consumed plants, the average diet consisted of 170g CP/kg dry matter, which is
similar to the amount required by high producing dairy cows. The range and
composition of the ten most preferred species (g/kg dry matter (DM)) were for
crude protein (CP) 88-228, P 1.3-3.3, Ca 12-48, soluble tannins 29-216 and
condensed tannins 9.4-129 absorbance unit/g. In vitro dry matter digestibility
(IVDMD) varied between 0.41 and 0.65.
The Ca: P ratios in the plant species are all very high, ranging from 6 to 16 in the
dry season and from 4 to 29g/kg DM in the wet season. Based on the chemical
analysis A. brevispica has the highest CP level in both seasons, while Opuntia has
the highest IVDMD level in both seasons. The results also indicate the high level of
tolerance of camels to the ingestion of tanniniferous plants
2.2 Feeding of Camels
Lactating dromedary camels on range in the Erer valley of eastern Ethiopia
substantially increased milk yield when supplemented with protein or energy feeds
(Dereje, 2005). Their experiment revealed that camels showed a good response to
supplementation with both CP (groundnut cake) and energy (maize), but with a
higher response to protein.
Feeding 4kg of groundnut cake daily per head improved not only the milk yield, but
also the net income by 88% in the dry season and 71% in the wet season. A higher
milk yield could reduce the competition between the calves and the family for milk
and thus increase calf survival. In turn this will have a positive effect on overall
herd productivity. Oil seed by-products in the region may thus have an important
role to play in improving the economic base of sedentary camel herders.
It is well known that anti-nutritional factors such as tannins from range plants have
a negative effect on nutrient availability, particular proteins (Kumar and
Vaithiyanathan, 1990) and therefore in this experiment it is possible that there was
a substantial increase in amino-acid uptake by the camels from protein
supplementation (groundnut cake).
39
Camel in Ethiopia 2012
Table 2.2: Composition (g/kg dry matter) and in vitro dry matter digestibility of the ten
most preferred plant species by camels
Vernacular
name
(Somali)
Dry season
Tin
Iswadh
Qudaahtol
Gidirmaan
Timirlog
Adaad
Keddi
Qalqalcha
Dhigrii
Dhigriaas
Dry season
Iswadh
Scientific
name
DM
Ash
OM
CP
Ca
IVDMD
TS
TC
Opuntia sp.
Acacia
brevispica
Plepharis
Sponisa
Indigofera
oblongifolia
Canthium
bogosensis
Acacia
Senegal
Balanitus
Aegyptiaca
Boscia
angustifolia
Becium
filamentosum
Becium sp.
213
725
173
80
827
920
133
214
2.6
2.3
38
21
0.654
0.486
144
110
9.4
28.9
777
127
873
126
2.4
39
0.453
55
13.8
207
157
843
150
2.1
28
0.498
51
12.7
666
72
928
165
2.2
18
0.469
146
83.1
517
111
889
191
2.2
25
0.491
80
22.2
263
81
919
200
2.4
15
0.497
78
17.7
405
115
885
206
2.4
22
0.507
110
22.7
646
86
914
160
2.6
25
0.457
113
30.8
713
80
920
165
2.4
25
0.450
110
26.7
923
228
2.3
23
0.512
128
29.9
847
131
1.6
46
0.484
46
14.8
935
930
199
116
2.4
1.7
12
21
0.481
0.467
216
76
56.9
29.2
942
180
2.1
14
0.538
147
27.4
936
189
3.3
14
0.599
44
39.2
909
171
2.1
26
0.491
178
129.0
845
921
88
201
2.4
1.3
32
27
0.619
0.408
119
138
22.8
38.4
802
218
2.4
48
0.610
29
11.4
Acacia
420 77
brevispica
Qudaahtol
Plepharis
256 153
Sponisa
Galol
Acacia bussei
344 65
Midhayoo
Acacia
261 70
melifera
Adaad
Acacia
374 58
Senegal
Gob
Ziziphus
172 64
mauritanea
Dhabi
Grewia
386 91
tembensis
Tin
Opuntia sp.
72
155
Maran
Caucanthus
401 79
edulis
Gidirmaan
Indigofera
138 198
oblongifolia
Tc= tannins condensed ts = tanisis soluble
40
DM: dry matter, OM: organic matter, CP crude protein, IVDMD: In vitro dry matter
digestibility, Tannins condensed: absorbance units/g dry matter.
Table adopted from M. Dereje, P.Uden / animal feed science and technology 121
(2005) 297-308.
Table 2.3 Effects of supplement treatment and season on milk yield and milk composition
and economic evaluation of diet supplementation.
Dry Season
Wet Season
Contro
l
Energy
supplemen
t
Production
Milk
6.9
8.6
(kg/Day)
Fat (g/l)
36
37
Protein (g/l)
26
27
Economic evaluation Costs
Supplement n/a
6.2
s
Other/dc
6
6
Income
Milk
17.25
21.5
Net
11.25
9.3
Protein
supplemen
t
Contro
l
Energy
supplemen
t
Protein
supplemen
t
12.2
8.2
9.5
13.6
39
26
38
28
37
27
39
28
3.4
n/a
6.2
3.4
30.5
21.1
16.4
10.4
19.0
6.8
27.2
17.8
2.3 Salt Lick and Water Resources and Management

In traditional systems the only supplement provided by the herders is a salt. It
could be common salt (NaCl) or a particular type of soil dug from a specific
location. Camels also forage on salty plants or are watered from salty wells if
available.
Camels have a higher salt requirement than other livestock (Wilson, 1994).
Supplementation is in the form of mineral salt, or allowing grazing on salty grasses
on saline soils for at least 5 days. Many Ethiopian Somalis offer kg table salt per
head at 2 month intervals especially during wet season.
In general, ruminants in tropical regions do not receive mineral supplements other
than ordinary common salt (sodium chloride), but depend on pastures for their
mineral needs (Mcdowell et al., 1995). The observation of Macdowell (1995) that
such animals consume a considerable amount of earth was confirmed by the
present study. However, the mineral contents in soils are highly variable. The
41
importance of salt for camels is common knowledge among camel herders. In the
study area, camels depend on salt plants (halophytes), salty soils (kuro) and
sometimes commercial salt supplements for their mineral needs. Most herders
(70%) claim to follow a regular deficiency preventive routine. Camels kept in the
home-based herd were more frequently supplemented with purchased salt. This
was attributed to the fact that they had limited access to distant grazing areas with
salt plants. Salt deficiency symptoms revealed by the herders included chewing
bones, eating soils from anthills, reduced milk yield, reduced water intake, and
increased straying in search of salty plants.
Periodic salt supplementation was reportedly done once or twice a year in Somalia
(Elmi, 1989) and six to seven times in Kenya (Ayuko, 1985). Mineral deficiency can
cause a high susceptibility to skin disease (Dioli and Stimmelmayr, 1992; Bornstein,
1995) and consequently affects production. In addition, there are risks of loss or
predation when animals stray or break out of night enclosures in search of salty
plants. Camels manifesting bone chewing (pica), an indication of poor mineral
nutrition, was reported by 98% of the respondents. Further, 81% of the
respondents claimed to have seen their calves born with bent or weak legs, which
recovered later in life. A possible reason for the calf-hood defects is the insufficient
concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the bone matrices (rickets) in calves
from deficient dams. This suggests that mineral deficiency is widespread, posing
constraints to the performance of camels.
In the Afar Aba-Ala there is salt feeding proactice to lactating camels. The camels
respond to salt feeding calls from about 500 meters, they voraciously consume the
salt each camel was supplemented about 100g/camel/ day. Also seasonally
camels were sent to a place called Dergha a sort of special soil where animals were
able to lick mineral on voluntary basis. Its content was not dermined. Salt
supplementation was known to increase milk production. Sodium facilitates the
absorbtion of propionate a precursor of lactose in the rumen and also increases
water intake which inturn increases milk yield. Animals had access to water based
on groups, pregnant camels and males were watered every eight days. Lactating
came every other day and those at the end of lactation everty 5 days.
2.4 Water supply to camels
Water is by far the most important nutrient and an indispensable necessity for the
camel and livestock. The camel is highly resistant to water deprivation it can loose
upto 20% of its body weight and drink upto 200 liters in 20 min. However, the
ablity of the camel to withsand water deprivation should not be over exploited for
production puropses. It is necessity and must be provided on daily basis if water is
42
available. Water requirement is influenced by ditary and environmental factors

such as dry matter, minerals and ambient temperature, physiological condition
such as lactation.
The watering interval for the camels was generally in agreement with that of Evans
et al. (1995) who reported an interval of between 7 10 days among the Somalis. It
was also close to the range of 814 days given by Cossins and Upton (1987) for the
Borana tribesmen. In Somalia, the watering interval for camels is 14 21 days,
decreasing to 67 days during severe dry seasons (Elmi, 1989). The overall picture
in the current study is that the home-based herds were more frequently watered
than the nomadic herds (after 6 and 10 days respectively) This may be explained
by differences in forage availability, the water content in the forage, and distance
to water sources. The nomadic herds are less frequently watered because they
feed in areas with good and relatively plentiful forage, usually far from watering
points. Watering intervals are particularly important in lactating camels. This is
because water deprivation has been reported to influence milk yield and milk
quality. For example, in an experimental study in northern Kenya, Simpkin (1983)
reported that dehydration affected daily milk yield, with yields being significantly
higher on the day after watering than the day before watering.
Lack of water is generally a limiting factor to pasture utilisation in pastoral areas. In
these areas, the challenge associated with water scarcity is compounded by high
ambient temperatures and high solar radiation, in addition to poor nutrition.
Additionally, watering interval determines the foraging radius around water
sources. Thus, watering management is closely related to grazing management.
Upton (1986) reported that inappropriate distribution of water points for livestock
could limit rangeland use, leading to partial overgrazing and partial underutilisation of the rangeland. Long watering intervals reported in the present study
are part of grazing management. They take into account the available forage
quality and distribution of water points. The herders, therefore, seem to
compensate for low water intake through forage by reducing watering intervals
during the dry seasons. The distance to the nearest watering point and the labour
required to water herds may also constitute major constraints to watering
frequency in camels. Better utilisation of rangelands could, thus, be achieved by
improving water supply and distribution, security, and predator control.
43
Water Conservation Mechanisms in Camel

Their ability to withstand long periods without water is due to a series of physiological
adaptations.
Camels do not store water in their humps as is commonly believed. The humps are
actually a reservoir of fatty tissue. Concentrating body fat in their humps minimizes
heat-trapping insulation throughout the rest of their body, which may be an
adaptation to living in hot climates. When this tissue is metabolized, it acts as a
source of energy, and yields more than 1 g of water for each 1 g of fat converted
through reaction with oxygen from air. This process of fat metabolization generates a
net loss of water lost through respiration for the oxygen required to convert the fat.
A camel's thick coat is one of their many adaptations that aid them in desert-like
conditions.It is whitish in color and the skin has few sweat glands.
Their red blood cells are highly elastic resist high osmotic variation without rupturing
when drinking large amounts of water ranging from 100 litres to 150 litres.
Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption
that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34 C (93 F) at
night and up to 41 C (106 F) during the day, and only above this threshold will they
begin to sweat. The upper body temperature range is often not reached during the
day in milder climatic conditions, and therefore, the camel may not sweat at all during
the day. Evaporation of their sweat takes place at the skin level, not at the surface of
their coat, thereby being very efficient at cooling the body compared to the amount of
water lost through perspiration. They accumulate heat during the day and lose it at
night though conduction and convection instead of by sweating.
They can withstand at least 2025% weight loss due to dehydration (most mammals
can only withstand about 15%). A camel's blood remains hydrated, even though the
body fluids are lost, until this 25% limit is reached
Camels water requirement is 1 litter of water for 1 kg of dry matter consumed. If the
plant eaten by camel contains 50% dry mater then the camel does not need to drink
water.
The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at retaining water. Urine
comes out as thick syrup, and their feces are so dry that they can fuel fires. The camel
has long loops of Henle in the nephron and an ADH (Anti Diurtic Hormone) hormone
regulates the reabsorbtion of water meaning that they can concentrate their urine ten
times more than cattle.
44
Figure 2.1 Drinking

water
in
pond
shoats first, cattle
second and camels
third depending on
the time required to
consume water.
Figure 2.2 Water

troughs in Somali
Regional State
Appendix Table 21: Palatability of the different woody species for livestock species
Plant species
Grewia bicolor
Commiphora
Africana
Vernonia
phillipsiae
Dobera glabra
Dichrostachys
cinerea
Solanum
Vernacular name
Haroressa
Hamessa
Palatability
Highly palatable
Intermediate
Livestock species
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Qexxee
Highly palatable
Camel and goat
Adee
Germie
Unpalatable
Intermediate
Camel and goat

Goat and camel
unpalatable
unpalatable
Intermediate
Intermediate
unpalatable
Goat and camel

Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Serritee
Acacia horrida
Acacia reficens
Allophylus
Chirree
45
abyssinicus
Borassus
aethiopum
Rhus natalensis
Dodonia viscosa
Acokathera
schimperi
Acacia
drepanolobium
Acacia bussi
Olea Africana
Cordia gharaf
Cocumis ficifolius
Grewia ferruginea
Grewia tembensis
Premna resinosa
Rytigynia neglecta
Lennae triphylla
Acacia albida
Borassus
aethiopium
Heeria reticulala
Ficus ovata
Croton
macrostachys
Commiphora
species
Ipomoe
hildebrandtii
(Commiphora)
Duranta repens
Calpurnia
subdecandra
Qalqalcha
Unpalatable
Goat and camel
Xaxeessa
Itacha
Rukessa
Qararuu
Highly palatable
Unpalatable
Intermediate
Unpalatable
Goat and camel

Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Intermediate
Goat and camel
Qachachluu
Highly palatable
Intermediate
Intermediate
Highly palatable
Intermediate
Highly palatable
Highly palatable
Intermediate
Unpalatable
Intermediate
Intermediate
Goat and camel

Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Dabobessa
Biqqa
Garri
Dembii
Mokonessa
Highly palatable
Highly palatable
Intermediate
Highly palatable
Unpalatable
Goat and camel

Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Ejersa
Menayera
Guurbi hola
Dhogonuu
Deeka
Urgessa
Mudduguree
Andrakaa
Garbicha
Intermediate
Caalanqaa (sanga Intermediate
ajii
Omboorkeee
Intermediate
Goat and camel

Goat and camel
Sanaejo
Fonqolcha
Hammerrssa
Cheekata
Intermediate
Unpalatable
Unpalatable
Unpalatable
Goat and camel

Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
Miessa
Intermediate
Goat and camel
Goat and camel
(Source: Field survey result)
46
Figure 2.3 Water wells in Somali Regional state
2.5 Sources of water for the camel

Plants are the main source of water for the camel, the water requirement of the
camel is 50% of total intake, that is for each kilogram of dry matter one litter of
water is required. Thus if a camel subsists on 50% dry matter the water
requirements are fulfilled. There are ancedotes that camels living without water
for months. Most of the shoots of browse plants contain 50% DM as the camel
selects and feeds on these parts of the plant it can refrain from drinking water for
long periods.
Other sources are Rain water; in ponds, pools, rivers, streams, canals and rivers.
47
Source of water
Rain water
Ground water
River
Spring
Ponds
Shallw well
Lake
Deep well
Reservoir
Tube well
Figure 2.4 Water sources for the camel
48
CHAPTER THREE: CAMEL BREEDS AND BREEDING

Melaku Tefera,
Campus, Ethiopia, melaku22@yahoo.com
Breed characterization is a primary step to design of appropriate management and
conservation programs of livestock in developing countries. Relative genetic
diversity can be determined using phenotypic characteristics and/or molecular
markers. Phenotypic characteristics of livestock breeds as well as their adaptive
characteristics are important in identifying breed attributes for immediate use by
farming communities In Ethiopia camel breed studies are very scanty. The genetic
diversity and relationship among the dromedary populations is poorly
documented. Data on camel productivity under pastoralists condition are limited,
and this is true of the Ethiopian camel (Schwartz et al., 1992), even though the
country has about two million camels. There is no conceptual classification of
camel breeds or strains or categorization using breed descriptors. Production wise,
there are wide differences between individual camels. Despite researchers
attempts classify camels, the phenotypic and morphometric disparity is not as
wide as found in other domestic livestock and the variation noted appears more
physiologic than anatomic.
Although there are several definitions of breed we have adapted the combined
definitions of FAO (2000) and Khler-Rollefson, (1997): A breed is a homogenous,
sub-specific group of domestic livestock with definable and identifiable external
characteristics that enable it to be separated by visual appraisal from other
similarly defined groups within the same species, or a homologous group fulfilling
the criteria of (i) being subjected to a common utilization pattern, (ii) sharing a
common habitat/ distribution area, (iii) representing largely a closed gene pool,
and (iv) being regarded as distinct by their breeders. Reproductive indices can be
used as indicators of health, to measure responses to treatment or control
measures and are used as guide to husbandry and management question.t This
section summarizes the various works on breed and reproductive performance of
Camels in Ethiopia
3.1 Breeds
Most of the breed studies in Ethiopia are Marco level studies similar to a survey
methodology developed about a decade ago by IEMVT/CIRAD (ILCA, 1992). The
macro study based on a stratified sampling procedure collects information about
herds and animals. It asks basic information about the animal and takes some
measurements. Additional historical information about the farming system and
herd production can be collected on direct questioning of the farmer. An analysis
from this kind of survey will give information about the general composition of the
49
herds specifying the animal breed, age, sex and usage. Reproduction and
production parameters are also available from the analysis (ILCA 1992).
The following list of six broad categories of breed descriptors were used
1. General identification consisting of country (region) species, breed or
population and location within the country the where breed is found.
2. Physical characteristics including coat color, giving details of special colors and
color combinations.
3. Measures of adult size and weight including wither height, live weight, and
body length (for each sex) with anindication of the precision of records, and
their standard deviation and range.
4. Current uses (purposes) as indicated by producers and ranked by priority.
Possession of special or unique adaptive traits such as resistance to major
diseases and to climate
5. Qualitative description of the predominant management system (stationary,
transhumant, nomadic, housing, feeding etc)
6. Biological performance important traits applicable to dairy, meat or dualpurpose breeds, giving an indication of variation.
3.1.1 Breed classification based on location
Each tribe and clan is a closed system of relationship all social activity takes within
the clan. Similarly for the camel as a clan may share a camel bull for breeding and
herds of camels may be exchanged and given as gifts. Although the external
features of the camel are not distinct, sometimes camels are classified by their
locality (See Fig. 3.1-3.3), for example the Kunama camel, the Afar camel,
theSomali Camel, the Borena camel, and the Kereyou camel. However, the Irob,
Kunama and Raya obtain camels from the Afar, usually males that are used for
transporting merchandise.
3.1.2 Breed classification based on color
The Kunama camel has a distinct whitish colouration unlike that of Afar and Somali
camels which is robably due to its origin from North Africa via Egypt. The Afar
camels are darker while the Somali camels are an intermediate golden brown.
However a mix of lighter and darker animals may occur in tribal herds. Color is
affected by age and younger animals tend to be darker. Classification based on
color is misleading. Darker camels are considered low producing but they may
possess other beneficial traits of survival.
3.1.3 Breed classification based on size
The Kunama camels are larger and taller while the Afar camels are lighter and
Somali camels are intermediate. Size is affected by age, sex, and plane of nutrition.
As there has never been an on-station evaluation, size can be misleading. In the
50
same herd it is possible to see different sizes of animals and seasonal body
condition fluctuations.
3.1.4 Morphometric measurement
Some relevant measurements were used to assess the phenotypic appearance of
the Afar and Somali camels. The mean heights of male and female camels were
1.89m, and 1.82m, respectively. The average mature weight of male camels ranged
between 350-500 kg and of females between 350-450kg under traditional system
of management. The mean weight of newly-born calves was 33.69 kg. Somali
camels were taller as shown on Table 3.1 with ashoulder height of 1.96 m. and
weight of 486 kg.
3.1.5 Breed classification based on production performance
Milk, meat and work performances are used for selection of breeding animals. The
trait most selected for is milk production and related characteristics are posture
and size of udder and mammary gland and pedigree. Three types of camels are
identified based on milk production, high yielding up to 10 litres, intermediate 7-5
litres and low yielding 4-3 litres per day. Female animals are never used for work as
the associated stress may hinder reproduction. Except for breeding bulls all males
are used as pack animals after they are trained to fit into a line caravan at age 5.
As it is difficult to differentiate camel breed based on external appearance, a tribal
herd of camels may be branded with an identification mark to show to which tribe
they belong. Moreover, variation in breeding success between males is a main
source of phenotypic selection pressure. No female is culled. In camel only the bull
is selected for breeding and practically any female camel is bread.
Over the last decades, advances in DNA-based marker technology make it possible
to identify genome regions, namely quantitative trait loci (QTL) underlying complex
traits such as milk yield in dairy cattle. Instead of traditional animal breeding
programmes solely relying on phenotype and pedigree information, the
incorporation of detected QTL into genetic evaluation provides a great potential to
enhance selection accuracies, hence expediting the genetic improvement of
animal productivity. The most important traits of dairy cattle are expressed only in
females, but the main opportunity for selection is in males. Intense selection of the
best bulls, combined with the worldwide use of these bulls through artificial
insemination and frozen semen, has created a global population and caused
concern that the genetic variation available in the future will be reduced.
51
Figure 3.1 Afar camel the reddish brown, lighter in color above and the
darker colored below
52
Figure 3.2: A herd of afar camels above and a Somali camel below
53
Figure 3.3: A female Somali camel, suckling its new born with
prominent mammary vein (above) and a two year old kunama
camel (below)
54
Table 3.1 Morphometric variables for Male Afar and Somali camels under pastoral
husbandry.
Morphometric
variables Mean (cm)
Neck length
Neck width
Hump height
Hump circumference
Tail length
Ear length
Chest width
Forelimb length
Hind limb length
Shoulder height
Thoracic girth
Abdominal girth
Afar*
Somali**
male
114.95
29.65
21.8
102.3
54.6
10.5
36.4
136.8
175.5
189.65
194.5
216
female
118
26
26.9
110.5
53.5
10.4
32.8
133.4
171.1
182.4
189.3
212.2
Male
female
1.96
2.04
2.52
* (Tefera, 2004 unpublished), ** (Getahun, 1998)
Using the barymetric weight determination formula of Schwartz et al (1983), the

calculated weight of mature male camels ranged between 350-500 kg and of
females between 350-450 kg under traditional system. The calculated average of
weight of 5 calves (newly born to one week age) was around 33-69kg. To estimate
the weight again of the afar camel, camels were grouped according to their age,
fed on natural vegetation and measured to calculate their body weight based on
their age (Table 3.2)
Table 3.2 Age and average weight of the afar camels, which are kept under natural
vegetation.
Age
Weight
34
139
249.
273.
336.
376.
388.
421
470
500
55
Breeds of Racing Camels

The camel occupies an important place among the pastoralist in Ethiopia; it is mentioned in
myths legends and folktales. It is considered sacred animal although not worshiped. The
camel is never ridden or slaughtered unless a very demanding situation compel. Camels are
customarily used for milk, meat and as baggage and m and are bred for their milk. The
female camel is never used for transportation only males are set in a line caravan.
However camel-racing, a traditional sport, is extremely popular in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) and has come to be recognized as a serious international sport and a great tourist
attraction. Events draw participants from throughout the world, and winners of races
receive handsome prizes, including large cash awards. Camels are now specially raised for
the track, using carefully controlled methods of breeding, training, and feeding. Special
artificial insemination and embryo transfer techniques are used for crossbreeding select
lineages. In the UAE) which is the centre of camel racing in the Middle East, sophisticated
training methods, such as working animals on treadmills and in swimming pools, are used
to prepare racing camels for competition, and the local government encourages breeding
programs and provides subsidies to camel owners and breeders. A well-bred racing camel
with an excellent track record can sell for a high price.
There are two main breeds being raced, the Omani and Sudania which differ in color - the
Omani being very light and the Sudania more of a tan color. Traditionally, a racing camel
was fed on dates, honey, alfalfa, milk and seeds. They were never allowed to drink the day
before a race and were prevented from feeding for the 12 hour prior to a race. With
racingtype of saddle the jockey sits behind the camel's hump.
In Ethiopia it is important to add value to the camels in Ethiopia by introducing camel
racing and attracting tourists from the Middle East.
56
Figure 3.4: Pastoralist breed selection criteria include a prominent mammary

vein and good conformation of male calves
57
3.2 Reproduction
Reproductive indices can be used as indicators of health, to measure responses to
treatment or control measures and as a guide to husbandry and management
practices. Ethiopian camels reach puberty at a relatively advanced aged, and
calving intervals are extended. The overall effect is that the parent herd grows very
slowly while the human population is growing at a higher rate. Seasonal
fluctuations of rainfall, watering frequency and drought cycles are directly related
to forage availability thus production and reproduction also fluctuate. For this
reason it has been difficult to exactly determine the maximum production and
reproduction potentials. Although the camel is capable of thriving in harsh
conditions provided there is good management, nutrition and health care
productivity is expected to increase.
3.2.1 Breeding behavior
Only one male camel, the alpha male (in Afar Shiden) manifests sexual activity
called rutt or math . A ratting male inflates a palatal flap as shown in Figure 3.5,
froths at the mouth, urinates back onto its body, does not eat and produces a
gurgling sound which induces sexual behavior . The camel bull or alpha male was
the largest and the strongest of the herd males and phermonally suppresses the
sexual appetite of other males, which undergo testicular atrophy. If this alpha
camel is removed thenthe sexual activity of the other males begins and fighting
occurs between them with the winer becoming the alpha bull. The breeders
themselves select a breeding bull and the criteria used are mainly body
conformation, color of the bull calf; milk production and pedigree of the dam. The
pastoralist detect heat in she camel symptomatically and hand mate it with a bull.
The she camel becomes restless, bleats when approached by the camel bull locally
known as Shiden or Koren.
3.2.2 Copulation
Copulation in camels, unlike other domestic animals which takes place in the
standng position, takes place in sittng position. The breeders assist the
coopultation by redirecting the penis for inexperienced bulls. If a female camel is
pregnant then she curls the tail up and refuses to breed as shown in Figure 3.5 . A
she camel in heat, will show flaping the tail, frequent urination vulval flipping and
accept for copulation when approached by a bull . Puberty in male camels occurs
at between 5 and 6 years of age. Mean rutting vigor in years for Ethiopian camel is
male Afar camel 7.85 0.51, with nine mountings per day and mean copulation
taking up to 7.31.46 minutes, (Tefera and Gebreab. 2001).
58
3.2.3 Reproductive performance of male camel

The reproductive performances as reported bt Tefera and Gebreab(2001), of
Somali and Afar male camels are depicted in Table 3.3. The mean age of puberty
was found to be 4.85 0.89 years, varying from 3 to 8 years. In general
environmental, husbandry and/or genetic factors have been reported as the major
reasons for the late age at puberty in the camel (Arthur et al., 1989).
Peak rutting vigor varied from 6 to 9 years depending on climate and feed. The
average age of peak rutting was found to be 7.85+ 0.51 years. Depending on the
season of the year and age of the male camel, mountings per day varied from 2 to
20. The average duration of copulation in the Afar camels was found to be 7.3
1.46 minutes and ranged from 2-10 minutes. The reproductive span varied from 8
to 15 years and averaged 11.5 1.2 years.
The ratio of male to females in a breeding herd is 1:25, but might go up to 1:150, in
case if the male is in peak rutting vigor and in a good season of the year. Camel
bulls are not usually selected for reproductive vigour.But female camels are
selected for their prolificity.
Several reproductuive diseases were known by the Afars they are listed in Table
3.5. These diseases were considered as major causes of infertility. Male to female
ratios as high as 1:50 have been observed in herds of camels (Williamson et
al.1978),
3.2.4 Reproductive performance of the female camel
3.2.4.1 Puberty
The mean age at puberty of female camels was 3.79 0.77 years as recorded by
Tefera (1985).This finding is comparable with that of Muskasa-mugera (1981) and
Wilson (1984) who showed age at puberty in female camels to occur at 3 to 4 years
and 4 years, respectively (Tefera and Gebreab, 2001 and Singh, 1966). However,
Dimities et al. (1989) reported that the Arvana breed is early maturing and reaches
maturity before the age of 2 years. The late age at puberty in the Afar camels could
be attributed to inadequate nutrition due to recurrent drought, slow rate of
growth.
59
Figure 3.5: Sequence of copulation in the camel, right bottom picture shows a
pregnant camel manifested by tail lifting when approached by the bull
60
Figure 3.6: Attending distokia, cleaning the calf and feeding

colostrum
61
3.2.4.2 Breeding season

Ethiopian camels are yearly polyoestral. However, reproductive management by
pastoralist tends to group breeding to ensure supply of milk at any time. The graph
shows distribution of 627 births in Abala Wereda, Afar. The moving average shows
two peaks probably related to management or abundance of feed in grazing
calendar.
100
80
60
40
20
0
S
Figure 3.7: Distribution of camel births in abala, afar
3.2.4.3 Gestation and pregnancy diagnosis

The mean length of gestation 375.8110.05 with no differences between parities
or sex of offspring (Shwartz et al., 1992, Aboul, 1994 and Wilson, 1998) and is
commonly quoted to be exactly 1 years. Yagil (1985) reported the average
gestation length to be 390+2 days for camels in Israel. This difference may be
brought about by environmental and/ or breed differences. Pregnancy is
diagnosed by observing signs of refusal to breed, tail flapping and development of
the abdomen.
3.2.4.4 Calving
Calving takes in the recumbent position. Most calving takes place early in the
morning and or during the evening. Parturient animals need to be confined
otherwise they tend to stray. Dystocia is common. A pastoralist attending a
distocia case is shown on Figure 3.6. The umblicus is cut, the skin over the hump is
stretched to make the hump bigger. Calves are fed colostrum immediately.
62
Table 3.3 Reproductive parameters of male camels
Parameter
Age at puberty (years)
Peak rutting vigor units?
Mountings / day
Refractory period unit?
Duration of copulation unit?
Reproductive span unit?
Male to female ratio
Age for castration Unit?
Seasonality
Mean
SD
4.8
7.85
9
40
7.3
11.5
1:150
5
Year round
Range
0.9
0.5
2
12
1.46
1.2
75
0.4
3-7
6-9
2-14
30-100
2-10
8-15
25-200
4-6
(Tefera and Gebreab, 2001)
Table 3.4 Reproductive parameters of female camels
Reproductive parameter
Age at puberty (years)
Age at first calving (years)
Days to first service
Days open
Number of service per conception
Conception rate
Calving interval (months)
Calving rate
Gestation length Unit?
Reproductive span (Years)
Life time calf production
Length of gestation (days)
Dystokia Unit?
Seasonality
Mean
3.84
5
12
14
1.8
60
25.8
90
13
17
8
375.8
2
SD
Range
0.71
2-6
0.84
3-6
3.2
9-18
6
12-24
1-4
18
55-80
4.2
18-36
10
80-95
1.2
12-13
2
12-24
1
6-11
10.
365-395
1.2
2-8
Year
round
(Tefera and Gebreab, 2001)
63
Table 3.5 Reproductive disorders in camel
Male
Disease
Orchitis
Paraphimosis
Balantitis
Phimosis
Name in Afar
Beraa
Delle
Dhuh
Hayishowoso
Female
Disease
Metritis
Mastitis
Vaginal prolapse
Infertility
Repeat breeder
Anestrus
Abortion
Name in Afar
Ootcadabhintia
Due
Basur
Medelayto
Gerarta
Guhay
Bihay
Table 3.6 Survival rates in camel
Abortions
Stillbirths
Weaning age
Preweaning calf mortality
Post weaning calf mortality
Adult mortality per year
Mean%
Range
0.5
0.1
6
25
4
9
0-5
0-2
3-9
0-20
1-10
1-10
The calving interval varied from 18 to 36 months, and the mean calving interval
was found to be 25.804.2 months (Tefera and Gebreab 2001). Climate, feed and
need for milk was found to affect the calving interval. In drought areas, when
forage was scarce, maturity was delayed and first conception occured at a later
age. The Afar female camel can remain fertile to an age of 24 years and they
produce up to 12 calves but in pastoral production systems only a small number of
breeding females achieve this and the average life-time production was 8 calves,
and the mean reproductive span was 17 2 years, variying from 12 to 24 years.
The mean age at first calving 5 0.84 which varies slightly from place to place
according to Tefera and Gebreab, 2001 and Wilson, 1998 who reported 5 years,
and 4 year and 10 months, respectively. The relatively delayed age at first calving
in the camel could be attributed to the common practice of camel herders to
withhold females from breeding until they reached their nearly mature physical
size. Better feeding, improved health care and better overall management should
be implemented to enable camels to produce their first calf at younger age.
Female camels with calves were separated from the herd for milk, the females
being mated only a year after calving. An abortion or the death of the young
before weaning lead to a shorter lactation and calving interval than if the young
survive to weaning (Wilson, 1998). This was probably because lactation stopped
so the hormones controlling milk production which also suppress the reproduction
64
hormones disappeared and allowed animals to start their sexual cycles (Yagil,
1985).
3.2.4.5 Calf management
The calf is fed milk for 6 months. The importance of the presence of the calf on
milk letdown was well understood by camel herders (men) and in most
circumstances the calves were always present to iitiate milk letdown before
milking. At first the calf was brought near by the dam with no physical contact but
within the range of visual and auditory stimulation. If this failed to yield results
then the calf was brought into physical contact with the dam without suckling and
as a final option the calf was allowed to suckle for few seconds then the dam is
was milked. Only men were allowed to milk the camel. The calves were partially
weaned at about 6 months. The milk off-take rate is 50-75%, the pastoralist milk
two or three quarters and one quarter one or two quarters are left for the calf.
When a calf dies its skin is dried and the dummy is was shown to the camel during
every milking. Otherwise milk let down does not take place, and the lactation
would be shortened. The hide of the stuffed calf is salted so the dam licks it in
order to simulate the presence of the calf and enhance milk letdown (Hussien et al.
2008), as depicted on Figure 3.8 during milking or a bark made from special plant is
introduced in to the vagina of the dam so that it will be easily milked or foster feed
the orphan calf.
The calf mortality is very high. Most diseases like camel pox, pustular-dermatitis,
dermatomycosis, and camel mange affects the young. In comparison to other
animals, the camel calf has larger body surface area thus predisposing it to cold
stress (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997).
Calves are housed separately form adults in a pen. Diseased calfs are also
separaeed. If the dam dies it is common to.
65
Figure 3.8: Housing of calves and traditional practice of managing she camel for
milking if the calf is dead
66
The paradox of camel reproduction

A major goal of any pastoral herd is to increase the amount milk per lactation. In
order to achieve this goal one should recognize the main factor that influences and
contributes to milk production, namely reproductive status. Herd reproductive
performance and efficiency have great impacts on milk yield per lactation, overall
lifetime production, number of calves born, and therefore the overall profitability of
the herd. It should be clear that pregnancy is essential for milk production. In other
words, the complete development of the mammary gland and initiation of lactation
primarily depends on a succesful calving. A 500 female camel herd with a mean
calving interval of 2 years produces 150 less calves than a herd with a calving
interval of 15 months. However, if a camel becomes pregnant milk production
decreases acutely and the lactation period decreases to as short as 5 months. Thus
pastoralist prefer long calving intervals even though daily yield is not high. This has
another advantage in subsistence production as excess milk is wasted because milk is
a perishable item and camel milk cannot be churned to butter. Moreover, pastoralist
relay on milk rather then meat. Excess calf crop without milk will not sustain
pastoralist livelihood.
Herd reproductive performance, which can be evaluated from the calving interval
(conception and pregnancy rates, number of days open are other measures of
reproductive perfomance, that affects the average milk production. (Tank average).
Calving intervals directly influence the average days-in milk and the latter affects
average daily milk production. In general, as mean calving intervals increase, the
average days in milk for the herd increases as well. The question becomes what is
bad about having high average days in milk? The answer is that there is an inverse
relationship between average days in milk and average daily milk yield. In other
words, the longer the average days in milk is, the lower average daily milk yield
production becomes.
67
CHAPTER FOUR: PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF THE CAMEL

1
Solomon Nega and 2Melaku Tefera
FAO-Addis Ababa
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University. P.O.Box 144 Haramaya
Campus. Ethiopia. 251-0914722459, melaku22@yahoo.com
2
The dromedary can survive and reproduce under harsh environmental conditions,
and still provide milk, transportation, draught and meat for its owners. The
available literature indicates that the carcass characteristics of camel meat are
generally comparable to those of other red meats, including beef, lamb and goat
and even of chicken (Alkahal, 1994).. Among the camel rearing pastoral
communities, the camel plays a key role in ensuring household food security. This
is because it is able to survive and remain productive in extreme weather and
fragile environments.
Interventions to enhance the production and productivity of camels and promote
use of appropriate technologies to add value to camel milk and meat leading to
increased marketing opportunities are designed to provide camel pastoralists and
key extension workers with the necessary skills and tools.
Camels are kept for the purposes of milk and meat production, transportation, to a
certain extent, traction and also for various other socioeconomic reasons, such as
rituals in Hajji, paying alms (Zeka) to the poor and cultural uses, such as dowries for
marriage (Wilson, 1989). The role of the camel is very important, as it is a more
versatile animal in such a fragile environment than any other livestock species. In
the Eastern region of Ethiopia, camel milk and meat are commonly consumed and
are sometimes preferred to those of cattle. Camel meat probably constitutes the
most important source of protein?? in the region, as it does elsewhere in arid
areas, such as Arab countries (Knoses, 1977). However, the potential of the
dromedary for producing meat and milk and its social and food values in the
pastoral areas of Ethiopia has received little attention
This chapter of the camel book aims to present a summary of the performance of
camel in production of meat, milk, and hide, and as a pack animal specifically in
Ethiopia.
4.1 Meat
Camel meat production represents about 0.7% of the world meat production, i.e.
216,315 tons (FAO, 2006), but information are quite difficult to collect as the main
part of the camel meat data comes from the informal market.
Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek
writers as an available dish in ancient Persia at banquets, usually roasted whole.
The ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus enjoyed camel's heel. Camel meat is
68
generally a common food item in Somalia, (where it is called Hilib geel), Ethiopia
Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Kazakhstan and other arid regions where camel
meat has had a long cultural history.
According to the studies done by Kurtu (2004), the dromedary camel is a good
source of meat especially in areas where the climate adversely affects the
performance of other meat animals. This is because of its unique physiological
characteristics, including a great tolerance to high temperatures, solar radiation,
water scarcity, rough topography and poor vegetation.
In Ethiopia, camels are exclusively produced under traditional extensive systems
on poor levels of nutrition and are mostly slaughtered at older ages after a career
in work, or milk production. In the recent years, urbanization has increased the
camel meat demand in most of the country including in Addis Ababa due to the
increasing numbers of Somali inhabitants (personal observation).
A survey on camel meat productivity and consumption conducted in Jijiga and
Harar towns by Kurtu (2004) indicated that, the dressing percentage of eastern
Ethiopia camels was 54.035.13 for male camels and 50.653.70 for female
camels. Camel carcase weight was found to be 230.02 - 240.28 kg for males and
187.74 - 195.14 kg for females in Babilie, respectively, whereas in Kebribeyah it
was 214.77 - 225.03 kg for males and 199.76 - 207.16 kg for females.
4.1.2 Characteristics of camel meat
Camel carcasses contain about 57% muscle, 26% bone and 17% fat with fore
halves (cranial to rib 13) significantly heavier than the hind halves. The meat of a
camel up to 5 years of age is similar to beef, after which it may become tough
(Field, 2005). It has high water content, 22% protein and only 1% fat as this is
stored in the hump. Camel meat is low in cholesterol. The fat has a high melting
point and can be stored for at least a year without breakdown and smelling or
tasting unpleasant
Field (2005) reported that camel lean meat contains about 78% water, 19%
protein, 3% fat, and 1.2% ash with a small amount of intramuscular fat, which
renders it a healthy food for humans. Camel meat has been described as raspberry
red to dark brown in color and the fat of the camel is white in color. Camels
achieve a live weight of 350 kg in 6 years as shown on Figure 4. The dressing
percentage was 45%. The average price per kilogram in Afar was about 10 USD.
Camels were not slaughtered every day but only during special occasions when
one or two camels would be slaughtered in Asyta the capital city of Afar. Eighty
percent of slaughtered camels were old males, but sometimes, if a female gives
birth repeatedly to male calvesw then the calf is slaughtered to discourage the
dam from producing male calves. Slaughtering is mostly caied out on the floor and
the carcase is flayed from the back not from the belly as in other animals. Mostly
69
the slaughter method is halal in which the neck is severed at the thoracic junction
without prior stunning. There are no clear carcass cuts. The average price of an
adult camel ranges from 500-1000 USD, however, prices tend to fluctuate
according to seasonal demands, age and sex as shown in Table4.1.
4.1.3 Consumption
Camel meat is voraciously consumed in the region in second preference to mutton.
Camel hump and liver were the most preferred parts and may be eaten raw. Meat
is eaten either roasted or soup. Excess meat is dried in the sun and smoked. Table
4.1 Camel market prices
Table 4.1
Female
Price in USD
Male
Price in USD
Calf (1-12 months year)
700
Calf
600
Heifer 3-4y
1000
bullock
1000
Adult
1500
bull
1500
baggager
6000
4.1.4 Food Value

Camel meat is generally believed among Somali and Afar communities to have a
high food value, promoting growth and providing bodily strength. Thus, it is an
advisable food for all age groups, especially the most vulnerable, including young
pre-school children, the sick and old people in the household. This high food value
may be due to the meats composition compared with that of beef. The meat of
the Arabian dromedary has a higher amino acid and inorganic mineral content ,
less fat and a higher moisture content. (Alkahal, 1994; Elqasim et al., 1987 and
personal observation). It was also noted that the adipose tissues contains less
cholesterol than beef or lamb (Dawood, 1995), which may mean that camel meat
is healthier than either beef or mutton.
In addition, according to the surveys reported by David (1995), camel meat is
claimed by the Somali people to have a remedial effect for at least 13 different
kinds of diseases, including hyperacidity, hypertension, pneumonia and respiratory
diseases, and is also thought to be an aphrodisiac. Similar claims have been
reported in India (David 1995).
According to Kurtu, (2004), camel meat is preferred to that of any other livestock
by some people, particularly by the Somalis in Jijiga town.
70
The main problems and constraints associated with camel meat, as identified by
the consumers, is toughness and some undesirable favors, especially for an
occasional consumer. The general opinion is that camel meat is tough. This may be
due to age, since almost all the camels are aged when slaughtered. Elqasim and
colleagues (1987) stated that the meat of young camels (below 3 years of age) is
generally comparable in taste and texture to beef.
4.1.5 Meat preservation
According to works of Kurtu, M.Y. (2004) in Kebribeyah reported that it stayed
unspoiled and safe for consumption for more than one year. The findings of a
similar study, conducted by Tezera (1998) in Jijiga confirm that olobe (Dried
meat)can be consumed safely for more than one year
Table 4.2: Mean and standard errors of live carcass weights and dressing percentage of
dromedaries in Ethiopia.
Parameter
Males (n=88)
Live weight (kg)
46563
Carcass weight
25226
(kg)
Dressing %
545
**P<0.01 between male and female
Females(n=18)
33542
17020
Significance
**
**
503
NS
Table 4.3 Carcass weights, by component
Parts of carcass
Males (n=88)
Hind quarter
Fore quarter
Neck
Hump
Longismus dorsi
Total meat
Red offal
Bones
Total carcass
Female (n=12)
Hind quarter
Fore quarter
Neck
Hump
Longismus dorsi
mean
SE
Weights (kg)
Minimum Maximum
47.2
76.0
13.5
33.5
24.7
195.0
10.0
47.0
252.3
12.0
11.8
3.5
7.7
4.8
39.3
1.5
2.6
44.5
35.2
64.1
10.0
25.7
19.7
154.9
6.1
44.8
206.0
59.0
87.0
17.0
41.2
29.5
233.5
11.3
50.0
296.0
36.0
45.8
10.3
19.8
14.3
10.3
8.9
2.9
5.8
3.79
25.4
36.9
7.3
14.0
10.4
46.3
54.7
13.3
24.9
18.0
Significance
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
71
Total meat
126.4
32.2
94.2
157.0
Red offal
6.2.0
1.3
5.7
10.1
Bones
37.5
3.03
36.8
46.0
Total carcass
170.1
42.9
127.0
213.00
** P<0.01 for difference between male and female (Kurtu, 2004)
Figure 4.1: Camel slaughter.
4.2 Milk
4.2.1 Milk yields and lactation length
According Kuria et al 2005 study, It is difficult to estimate the daily yield of the
camel under pastoralist condition owing to the inconsistency of milking frequency.
Milk yield also varies with species, breed, stage of lactation, feeding and
management conditions. The length of lactation can vary from 9 t0 18 months,
depending on husbandry conditions which are largely determined by the need for
milk; more being required during the dry season than in the wet months when
other sources are available. Estimates of milk yield for different countries are
shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Camel milk yields reported from various countries
Country
Algeria
Ethiopia
India
Kenya
Pakistan
Somalia
Average daily yield

(kg)
4.0
5.0
6.8
4.5
8.0
5.0
Lactation length
(months)
9-16
12-18
18
11-16
16-18
9-18
Calculated annual
yield (kg)
1,460
1,825
2,482
1,643
2,920
1,825
Source: Kuria et al., (2005)
72
Figure 4.2 Milking frequency
Figure 4. 3 Lactation lengths in camel

(Line shows moving average)
The milk yield of camel varies greatly depending on the region and is a highly
debated one because of the conflicting data emanating from different regions of
the world. A peak total yield of 13,560 kg per lactation has been reported and a
single daily yield of as high as 50 litres a day has been reported from Northern
Kenya while camels in Tunisia yield milk of 2-4 kg a day during an 8 month lactation
period. The beauty with the camels is that they are capable of yielding more milk
than cows maintained at similar arid conditions in which camels yielded an average
of 4 litres of milk while cattle yielded 1-2 litres of milk. This reflects the potential of
camels as good dairy animals.
The lactation curve of camels is entirely different from that of other lactating
mammals because in cows the milk yield is low at the beginning of lactation and
gradually increases until a plateau is reached before declining. However, in camels,
it is high in the first seven months and then declines rapidly. The difference could
be due to poor management as well as milking practices. The milk yield of Bactrian
camels is low compared with that of the Dromedary.
In all pastoral systems the milking frequency ranged from 1-4 per day as depicted
in Figure 4.2, depending on the necessity and yield. The modal value was three and
milking times were 6am, 3pm and 6pm, with average yields of 5, 2.5 and 2 liters
respectively. The Afars believed three milking per day give a better yield than two
milking. The daily milk yield ranged from 0.5 to 8 liters with mean of 4.61.4 liters
per day. A maximum yield of up to 9 liters / milking was observed. The peak daily
yield was observed at 41.2 months post calving. The lactation length varied from
8-24 months and the most frequent lactation length was 15 months as shown in
Figure 4.3. Milk yield was estimated 1168-2190/year 3000l/ lactation. The camel
was milked in the standing position as shown in Figure 4.4. The importance of the
presence of the calf on milk letdown was well understood by camel men and in
73
most circumstance the calves were always present to imitate milk letdown before
milking. The offtake rate was75%, Otherwise milk ejection does not take place.
And the lactation would be short. Other factors that reduce the lactation period
were pregnancy and lack of food and water. When a she camel is pregnant milk
production is reduced. Primiparous camels had much lower milk yield and shorter
lactation than multiparous camels.
4.2.2 Milking process
The milking of camels is a process which varies according to the different pastoral
groups. In the Somali community camels may be milked once or several times a
day (personal observation). In general it is normal practice among most pastoral
communities to milk their camels in the early morning before animals are taken for
grazing and at evening when they return from grazing.
The milker stands on one leg, puts the milk pot on the upper part of the leg and
milks with one or two hands. Traditional hand milking is the only type of milking
used. Washing of udder and teats before milking is not practiced and the
producers believe that the teats get washed by the saliva of calf while suckling
Division of labor for milking is dependent on the species of animal: cows and goats
are milked by women, while milking of camels is commonly done by men. The
rapid let-down of milk in camels has been recognized by pastoralists who normally
milk with two people simultaneously, one on each side.
Traditionally calves are allowed to suckle their dams before (to initiate milk
letdown) and after milking (to drain whatever is left in the udder). Cows are milked
once or twice a day whereas camels are milked between one and six times a day
depending on the season.
Figure 4.4: Milking the camel and a child getting its meal
74
If a calf seems weak or becomes ill, its dam will be milked less frequently and the
amount of milk taken on each occasion will be reduced. In case of cow milking,
twice daily milking is a common practice in the wet season. However, milking
frequency decreases to once a day (in the evening) during the dry season (Table
10). Milking frequency in the area also depends on feed availability. Evening
milking in the dry season is practiced because cows are kept far from the
homestead for grazing during the daytime. Milk produced in the evening is kept in
properly washed and smoked utensils and marketed in the next morning (Hussien
et al. 2007).
In eastern Ethiopia, during dry times camel milk was the prime source of income to
the pastoralists, and camels contributed 59% to this source. There was an average
daily milk oftake of 3.6 and 6.5 kg from camels in the dry and wet seasons,
respectively (Baars, 1999).
Camels continue lactating during times of drought because water is not absorbed
from the mammary gland in order to conserve body water. In fact the milk
becomes more diluted, a phenomenon which is hormonally controlled (Yagil,
1988). The lack of drinking water increases the secretion of aldosetrone and
vasopressin, the hormones governing salt and water metabolism, leading to the
conservation of water and salt. This occurs when these hormones regulate
homeostasis but when they regulate homothermia, water is lost from the skin for
evaporative cooling. As the mammary glands have the same ontogeny as sweat
glands, the effect of vasopressin also causes water secretion into the mammary
glands, hence diluted milk. This phenomenon was also found in rats exposed to
heat and treated with vasopressin; instead of milk being concentrated it became
diluted (Etzon and Yagil, 1981). In addition, vasopressin in large concentrations
acts on the kidneys and mammary glands in the same way as oxytocin and vice
versa (Yagil, 1985). Therefore, dehydration leads to added water secretion and
hence protects milk volume while diluting milk. This is also the reason why
attempting to stop lactation by restricting drinking water in women or dogs fails
lactation continuesor is even enhanced. This finding was further reinforced by the
finding that diluted milk in cows was caused by increased vasopressin
concentrations when the animals were allowed only a fraction of the daily water
requirements (Yagil et al., 1986). Dehydration in camels leading to an increase in
salt content, thereby providing the calves with essential salt for metabolism.
These facts are important when considering using camels milk for various
products as the state of hydration will affect the composition of the milk and,
hence the product itself. Knoess et al. (1086), showed that camels were yielding
from 17 to 26 litres of milk per day and that after one year these volumes were
often unchanged or only slightly lowered (11 to 26 litres). Lactating camels still
maintained lactation capabilities after one-and- a- half years in spite of
75
participating in various research projects (Yagil, personal observation). In these

projects included use of bladder catheters, venous punctures often carried out
many times a day and also periods when the camels we subjected to water
deprivation for 14 days at a time. The low pH of camels milk appears to be
correlated with the high vitamin C content, giving the milk its sweet taste, which
can be masked if the animal eats salty or bitter vegetation. The pH of camel milk is
much lower than that of cows (6.8) or women (7.6). The stories of desert travelers
taking lactating camels with them are, therefore, based on the fact that milk yields
are virtually unchanged during a long, stressful march. In fact the milk is diluted,
making it a good source of water for the travelers. This is in striking contrast to the
ruminants, sheep, goats and cattle, where the lack of drinking water leads directly
and quickly to a decline in milk production (Konar and Thomas, 1970).
The physiological or evolutionary adaptation of she- camels to aridity allows them
to continue providing milk with longer lactation length while the quality changes in
order to guarantee life for their young, but is also admirably suited for human
consumption. The camel can produce high volumes of milk and so should be
selected as milking animal. All of these scientific data confirm the words of the
Koran that when people were suffering in the hot climate God saved them:the
she-camel to drink of its milk (Khan, 1974).
Strengthening the above facts about the camel, various researchers indicate that
when the camel faced with a lack of drinking water the milk production of the
camel is unaffected (Yagil and Etzion, 1980b), unlike that of most other milk-giving
animals (Bianca, 1965; Konar and Thomas, 1970).
4.2.3 Uses of Camel Milk
The diet of Afars consisted of 80% sole milk and 20% bread made of wheat or corn
flour the main use of camels milk will of course be for drinking. As the nutritional
value is high, the camel therefore provides a nutritious and diluted food, supplying
calories, minerals and water, which are greatly needed.
Table 4.5: Preference, consumption and marketing of camel milk by nomadic pastoralists in
Shinile and Jijiga Zones (n=70), (Source Seifu, 2007).
Variable
Prefered milk type
Cow milk
Camel milk
Sheep milk
Goat milk
Consumption of Camel Milk
Number and
responses
proportion
1
2
3
4
76
(%)
of
Fresh
Sour
Mixed with other milk
100%
80%
13%
Most of the camel milk produced in Kenya is consumed at home, while only a small
portion is marketed. Among camel keeping pastoralists in Kenya, camel milk
constitutes almost 100% of total milk consumption in households during the dry
season and drought periods. A good example is among the Rendille pastoralists of
northern Kenya where camel milk provides 80% of the milk diet (Simpkin and
Guturo, 1995). During prolonged droughts, camel milk may contribute up to 50%
of total nutrient intake of some pastoralists groups
In Somalia camel milk is traditionally consumed either fresh or in the form of
fermented milk, known as Sussa. To prepare Sussa, the milk is left in a quiet
place, often in a covered container sheltered from dust for usually 2448 hours
until it becomes sour. The ambient temperature is normally between 25 and 35 C.
Due to the spontaneous nature of the fermentation, this traditional method
resulted in a product with varying taste and flavor and often of poor hygienic
quality.
Contrary to fermented milk, the manufacturing of butter and cheese from camel
milk is not a tradition in Somalia (Farah, 2003).
Camel milk is one of the most valuable food resources for the nomads in Sudan.
The milk is usually drunk fresh or when it has just turned sour. Traditionally, the
Sudanese camel owners consume milk in different forms, for instance fermented
or dried. The famous fermented camel milk in Sudan is called Gariss or Kashieb,
which is prepared in large skin bags or siin. Fermented camel milk or Gariss is
popular among the nomads in Sudan; it was first consumed by camel herders,
particularly in Gizu steppe land. Usually, two large skin bags full of fermented milk
(Gariss) are hung on to the saddle of a special camel (the Gariss camel). A few
seeds of black cumin and onion bulb are added to the Gariss skin bag for flavor.
The nomads, depending only on Gariss for long periods, also carry a lot of skin bags
of Gariss when crossing the desert during their routes to Egyptian camel markets
and when fetching salt as brine (Atron), from some hills in the middle of Libyan
desert. Faye, et al., (2011)
4.2.4 Characteristics of camel milk
The quality of camels milk is similar to that of a cow in many respects.
Fundamental differences, however, exist in butterfat, vitamin C, and protein
contents. The butterfat is lower in camel milk (3.7%) than in cows milk (5.7%) and
does not separate easily (Yagil, 1982). The milk is rich in vitamin C, ranging
between 5.7 and 9.8 mg/l or about three times the level in cows milk, probably
77
because of the kind of feed the camel is able to access. In the literature, you may
find other authors reporting a wider range of vitamin C in camel milk. This is very
important in ASAL (Arid and Semi Arid Lands) regions where fruits and vegetables
are not available as source of the vitamin to the pastoralists. The protein
lactoferrin in camel milk is about 10 times the content in cows milk. Protein
lactoferrin and vitamin C give camel milk strong medicinal properties against both
viral and bacterial diseases in human, e.g. diabetes, tuberculosis, stomach ulcers,
gastro-enteritis and cancer (Khler-Rollefson, 2000). A recent study in India
(Agrawa et al. 2002) has given scientific support to this belief. The Kenya Medical
Research Institute (KEMRI) in collaboration with the Kenya Camel Association is
currently testing the efficacy of camel milk in the management of diabetes in
humans in Kenya, comparing it with cows milk.
4.2.5 Camel milk preservation
As soon as production is higher than consumption, other ways of preserving and
marketing camels milk products must be found. Soured milk products are the
most common milk products of all mammals Smoking the container is the common
traditional preservation method and is practiced to improve the taste and the
quality of the milk. Moreover, it was noticed that only some selected plant species
are used to smoke the container because they were considered superior, and do
not affect or spoil both taste and odor of the milk (Ahmed Shiek 2010,
unpublished)
Soured milk
Souring of milk is practiced at any time when surplus milk is available and mainly
during wet season in a lactation period of 12 to 18 months.
Table 4.6 Traditional preservation tree species use to smoke camels milk vessels
Somali name
wigir
kidi
sogsog
Scientific name
Olea africana
Balanites galabra
Acacia ethaica
(Seifu, 2007)
4.2.6 Composition and nutrients in camel milk

Studies on the effect of milk yield on the chemical composition of Dromedary
camel was found that protein content was significantly lower in high-yielding
camels than in the milk of low-yielding ones. However, there was no clear
difference in contents of milk fat, lactose, and water between low and highyielding camels. (Khan & Iqbal, 2001)
78
4.2.6.1 Colostrum
Colostrum of camel is yellowish white in color and has a lower viscosity than that
of cattle. It contains high levels of total solids including total proteins, especially
the whey proteins and immunoglobulin. It also has high contents of ash and
chlorides, but low levels of lactose which are similar to bovine colostrum. Most
reports suggest that camel colostrum contains very low fat content when
compared to bovine colostrum which is rich in fat. Some differences between
colostrum composition of Dromedary and Bactrian camels are also noted, with
Bactrian colostrum being higher in lactose, protein, and ash content than that of
Dromedaries. (Khan & Iqbal,2001)
Casein, whey protein, and non-protein nitrogen represent 34, 57, and 9% of total
nitrogen respectively and these ratios are quite different from those of bovine
colostrum. Generally, non-protein nitrogen is higher in camel colostrum than in
that of cows, goats, and human colostrum. The mineral contents decreased with
progressing lactation. (Khan & Iqbal,2001)
4.2.6.2 Normal camel milk
Dromedary camel milk has a very white color and can be foamy and similar to
Bactrian camel milk. The taste of camel milk is usually sweet when camels are fed
with green fodder but sometimes it is salty when fed with certain shrubs and herbs
available in the arid regions. The physico-chemical parameters of camel milk given
in the above table vary widely depending on the country and factors such as type
of sample (individual or bulk), the analytical procedure used, lactation period,
breed of camel, feeding regimen etc. The total solids content is higher in Bactrian
camel milk than in Dromedary milk.
The effect of lack of drinking water on the composition of Dromedary camel milk
was studied and it was found that water content of milk changes greatly, although
the diet remained unchanged throughout the year. Water content of milk was 86
per cent when drinking water was freely accessible, but when drinking was
restricted, the water content of milk increased to 91%. This may explain why water
and total solids contents of camel milk in different data varied.
BUTTER FROM CAMEL MILK

Milk is a perishable Item. The majority of the pastoralists do not have access to market.
Thus they prefer to churn cow or goat milk and convert it in to butter. The shelf life of
butter is months so that they can market it safely. However, despite camel milk has high
butter fat content up to 5%., none of the camel milk is converted to butter in Ethiopia. There
is a widespread belief that with the traditional cow and goat milk processing technique
camel milk produces an oily liquid not a solid fat like cows milk. This is indicates that camel
butter fat is liquid at temperatures in the range 20-30 C. However, some literature on
camel milk argues that butter from camel milk contains significantly higher percentages of
solid fat over the entire melting range relative to butter from bovine milk. Camels milk has
a higher content of polysaturated fatty acids. The reason for the difference in churnabillty
was attributed partly to the membrane of droplets and higher melting point of milk fat of
camel and it was concluded that camels milk requires a different procedure of churning in
order to produce butter (Regg and Farah, 1991).
79
Table 4.7: Composition and physico-chemical parameters of Dromedary and

Camel Milk
Country Water TS Fat SNF Protein Casein Whey Lactose Ash pH Sp. Acidity (% Chloride %
%
% % %
%
% protein %
%
gravity of lactic
%
acid)
Dromedary
Egypt
87.8
12.2 3.75 8.56 3.13
2.43
0.95
4.50
0.80 6.53 1.03
0.16
0.19
Libya
87.0
13.0 3.30 9.70 3.30
NA
NA
5.60
0.80 NA NA
NA
NA
Saudi
Arabia
87.7
12.3 3.49 8.87 3.26
1.90
0.90
4.78
0.83 6.50 NA
0.13
NA
Somalia
86.9
13.1 4.60 8.50 3.00
NA
NA
4.90
0.60 6.50 1.03
NA
NA
Ethiopia
85.6
14.4 5.50 8.90 4.50
NA
NA
3.40
0.90 NA NA
NA
NA
Kenya
87.7
12.3 4.33 8.62 3.20
2.64
NA
4.34
0.82 NA NA
NA
NA
Tunisia
87.9
12.1 3.76 8.37 3.43
2.88
NA
NA
0.81 6.53 1.03
0.16
0.20
India
90.2
9.80 3.20 6.60 2.70
NA
NA
4.20
0.60 6.50 1.03
0.17
NA
Pakistan 87.1
12.9 5.22 7.71 2.68
NA
NA
4.30
0.73 6.60 NA
0.14
NA
Figures given in the table are mean values arrived at from different sources; NA means Not Available
80
4.3 Camel Hides

The camel hide is rarely processed traditionally. In most instances it is used as
sleeping mats, making sandals, ropes or whips. It is an important potential
resource that could contribute significantly to the pastoral incomes if a reliable
market is found and quality standards are met. Skin and hides were processed
locally using plant material. The Afars produce carpets for bedding and saddles and
made leather straps and shoes. Camel hide is uneven and it was hard like paper
after local processing. Cattle hides were preferred. The hair of camel is used to
make carpet. There are very few anatomical studies on camel skin, the unique
translucent structure of camel hide makes it especially suitable for making articles
such as lamp shades and drums.
In Ethiopia skin diseases in the camel are very prevalent with camel pox, camel
mange, skin necrosis, dermatomycosis, ticks plus saddle wounds and abscesses
being the commonest. In the slaughter houses camel hides are not conserved.
Figure 4.5: Skin lesions due to dermatomycosis rendering camel skin value less
4.4 Work Performance (pack and transport)

Transport
Mostly males were used as pack animals. The starting age was 5 years. Camels
were trained before they were set in a line caravan. The camel had higher
endurance and was walked 12 to 16 km in a day depending on the route. They
carried 20550 kg of salt without food or water from an altitude of 116 meters
below sea level at Afar depression from the town of Berahle to the town of
Mekelle (altitude 500m ) and this journey takes some 16 days from one of the
hottest and the lowest places. The saddles of the Afar camel were called locally
koa, koncha and kebel. Koa is wooden and made inverted Vs attached on both
side of the camel. Under the wooden frame a cushion was placed on the back. The
cushion had a central opening for the hump. Apart from the salt trade, camels in
the study area occasionally carried other goods. Camels were not used for plowing
or riding. However, some times they are ridden by children, women and sick
81
person. No body mounts on a back of a camel as a honor and respect to the

animal. Males are more docile to handle because they are trained to obey the
command of the owner.
The camel is used as a pack animal and for draught purposes and racing. As a pack
animal, it is able to walk at 4-5 km/h for 10 hours with a load of 150 to 300 kg.
Extreme loads of 400-500 kg are reported in Pakistan. In Niger, the camel is
commonly assigned to agricultural works (ploughing, carting, and sowing); the
racing camel can run 50 to 100 km per day at the speed of 10-12 km/h. In a short
race (10 km), the best runners can reach 34 km/h with a maximum of 40
km/h.where its performance is similar to that of the horse (Schwartz and Dioli,
1992).The weight of the loaded packsaddle is between 200 and 250 kg. The pack
camel could transport this load for 30 to 35 days, walking 60 km each day (Tefera,
1985).
Figure 4.6: Camel in a salt caravan Afar
82
Figure 4.7 Morning sene at salt quary at Danakil depression Afar (Sorce National Geography 2012)
83
Figure 4.8: Camel transporting household equipment above and in merchandise in towns
below
84
CHAPTER FIVE: CAMEL MARKETING AND ITS VALUE CHAIN IN ETHIOPIA

Melaku Tefera, Berhanu Admassu and Fisseha Abnet
1
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University, P. O. Box 144 Haramaya

Campus. Ethiopia. 251-0914722459, melaku22@yahoo.com ,2Tuft University
3
Ethiopian Veterinary Association
Pastoralists live in the arid and hyper-arid regions of Ethiopia and are thus subject
to higher levels of risk than those living in areas where farming is a viable option.
Pastoral livelihoods are based on well-designed risk-management and adaptation
strategies. Until the last three decades livestock and livestock products where not
marketed but rather bartered to highlanders for cereal. However, during the last
decade commercialization has been on the rise. The concept of subsistence
farming has been associated with backwardness and inefficiency (Bruentrup and
Heidhues 2002). This sector is characterized by low profitability, lack of
competitiveness. Subsistence farming in fact has a very important role as it is
sometimes the only means to survive during difficult periods, characterized by
inefficient input, output, credit and labor markets, risks and uncertainties
(Bruentrup and Heidhues 2002). At the same time subsistence farming offers
employment when off-farm employment opportunities are scarce. It is important
that the policy makers address the underlying reasons which have lead to crisi and
not try to fight it per se. Therefore policies that aim at increasing
commercialization should concomitantly take into consideration the aspects
related to sustainability. However, the outside world is changing rapidly, altering
production methods and exchange systems, affecting the very fabric of all societies
(Grahn, 2008). Pastoralists are not static and recognize the need to change and
adapt, and have been doing so for the past millennia. They are shifting from the
subsistence mode of production to commercial production. In the past pastoralists
were marginalized to the periphery of the country and they had poor contact with
the central government with increasing market integration and infrastructure
development nowadays the camel is even appearing close to the capital Addis
Ababa which lies at an altitude of 2,400 masl (Aklilu and Catley, 2011). To some
extent, market exchanges are also a determinant of pastoral livelihoods, especially
during the dry season when internal food production does not always satisfy
households' energy requirements. Livestock products represent the most
important source of income for the predominantly pastoral population, and ensure
food security. Meat and milk constitute 55 percent of the calorie intake of the
pastoralist, and revenues from the commercialization of pastoral products provide
much-needed resources to purchase imported staples. Livestock and livestock
products are the major foreign exchange earners for Ethiopia, only second to
coffee, with hides and skins contributing the most. For example, in 1995/1996
livestock exports accounted for close to 14% of the total value of agricultural
85
exports, of which 96% came from hides and skins. Thus commercialization
promotes agricultural and economic growth. The objective of this chapter is to
review commercialization of camel milk, meat and live animal value chains and
marketing structure in Ethiopia
5.1 Milk production and marketing
Camels are the most important signifier of wealth and determinant of status in
pastoral communities; their milk has been mostly used for domestic purposes. Sale
of milk was considered as Haram a taboo. However these days the sale of camel
milk is on the rise partly due to settlement of pastoralists and consumer demand
for camel milk, by economic factors and a break in traditional beliefs that selling
camel milk causes a decline in milk production of the herd. Camel milk is consumed
fresh and the main benefit is its high content of vitamin C which will be destroyed
if the milk is boiled. A camels lactating period is longer than a cows. Moreover,
camel milk is produced even under dry climatic condition. Camel milk has some
medicinal value, for example it is considered that the high content of selenium and
the amino-acid glutathione act as as immune boosters. In Ethiopia camel milk is
consumed by Muslims only and none of the Orthodox Christians use it.
Figure 5.1: Camel milk production in Africa (FAO, cited by SPORE, 2011)
In general the proportion of household milk utilization depends on a number of
variables including: accessibility of pastoralists to market; the numbers of milking
animals; the quantity of milk produced, and; the number of neighbors and relatives
that have insufficient numbers of milking animals. Seasonal and yearly climate
fluctuations also influence the proportion of household milk utilization and when
deciding what to do with the milk produced by their livestock, pastoralists have
several choices. Initially they must decide between:
i) Letting unweaned young animals consume all their dams milk, or;
86
ii) Partially withdrawing some milk for human consumption or;

iii ) Selling the dairy produce
5.2 Milk market actors
Actors along the market chain include pastoralist producers, traders and
consumers. However, there is no clear line drawn in the roles of the actors, as
producers also often act as collectors and sellers and traders also own livestock
and produce milk. Even the consumers who are mainly urbanized people keep
livestock on a smaller scale and produce milk. However their milk production is not
sufficient for their household needs hence they purchase milk from the local
market. Other consumers include hotels and restaurants (CARE-Ethiopia, 2009)
Actor
Producer
Quality assurance
Retailer
Individual
Cooperatives
Whole sellers
Producers
Shops
Supermarkets
Hotels
Consumer
Role
Milk production, Ghee ,

butter, yogurt
production processing,
transporting
Hygiene control
Pasteurization
Safety and content
Sell, milk and milk

products, partly process
the milk, like butter
extraction, boiling,
cooling, sells milk and
products in secondary
and tertiary markets
Buy milk and milk

products, fresh, or
processed
Pricing
Sets the basic price
Camel milk is not

pasteurized and boiled it
is consumed fresh
Prices are higher in

secondary and tertiary
markets. As demand and
purchasing power is
more
Availability of milk and

milk products is
variable. Those who
have children consume
more milk
Figure 5.2: Actors in milk value chain market (Lumadede et al., 2010)
87
Figure 5.3: Milk market at Key Afar southern Ethiopia
Figure 5.4: Somali household camel milk containers
Milk marketing is traditionally done by women. The key actors involved in the milk
market chain are the producer, the trader and the consumer and all sectors are
dominated by women. Their organization is along kinship lines. Milk products
found in the market include fresh camel milk and fermented camel milk (Susac).
88
Milk is not processed except ghee made out of goat or cow milk. Camel milk is the
most preferred in Afar and Somali regions. It fetches the highest price and has the
highest turnover irrespective of the season.
5.3 Constraints of milk market
Some constraints to milk marketing are: poor infrastructure (roads, transport,
market buildings), and; especially the lack of cooling systems. There is no value
addition in the market chain, like pasteurizing, packing, churning. ASummary of
proposed intervention for the milk value chain are shown on Table 5.1
Table 5.1 Milk value chain improvement interventions
Proposed Intervention
Targeted audience
Impact
Training workshop on Producers, traders Improved
milk
quality,
improved hygiene
and consumers
increased sales of fresh milk
and increased income
Introduction of hygienic Producers, retailers
Reduced spoilage of milk,
milk
equipment
and
and increased income
handling
Milk testing practices
Producers, traders
Reduced adulteration of milk
Capacity
building
on Producers
and Increased income
buissness
management retailers
and marketing
Training on milk processing Producers retailers
Excess fresh milk can be
processed and stored
Improving
marketing Producers, retailers, Reduce spoilage of milk,
infrastructure, collection consumers,
local increase shelf life, leading to
points,
cooling
and authorities
improved public health
transporting
Strengthening link beween Prodiucers, retailers, Increased supply of milk,
market chain actors
transporters,
and stable market and prices
consumers
Lobbying with relevant National
and Improved policy environment
ministries for development Regional
to develop the dairy sector in
of the pastoral dairy Governments, Dairy the pastoralist areas and
industry
board, NGOs
formalizethe market
(Lumadede et al., 2010)
5.4 Availability of milk

The Somali Region of Ethiopia is characterised by a biannual rainfall pattern, which
influences the milk production in line with availability of feed for livestock. Jilal is
the dry period from December to March with a reduced volume of milk
89
production. Guu is the main rain period from April to July when high milk yields are
expected. Hagaa is the cold and dry period from July to October again with lower
milk production and Deyr is the second main rainy season from October to
December with high milk production. The major milk production is in the rainy
seasons of Guu and Deyr. Despite the limited data, the trend for camels, cattle and
goats is the same and shows that the highest proportion of milk produced (6780%) by the three species is sold, while 20-33% is consumed at household level.
Milk yield per lactation is about 3,500 litres 25% is fed to the calf: pastoralists
manage this by leaving one quarter for the calf and offtake is 75% which means a
net yield of 2,625 litres, if 20% is consumed by household then 2100 liters can be
sold on the market at a price of 0.35 USD/ litre.
At producer level two thirds of the milk produced is sold, indicating that milk sale
contributes considerably to the household income. At the producer level the
average daily income during the dry season from milk sales is Birr 23.5, while it
almost triples during the rainy season to Birr 65.88. At the trader level the average
daily income does not vary much between the seasons and is some Birr 46.2
during the dry season as compared to Birr 44.75 during the rainy season. The
reason for this might be the producers increase their selling price during the dry
season by as compared to the rainy season and so the traders increase prices
proportionally Hence producers earn less income from milk sales during the dry
season, while traders can maintain their income by charging higher prices in the
dry season and benefitting from higher volumes during the rainy season. Milk is a
highly perishable commodity, especially under the high temperatures found in
Southern Ethiopia and milk spoilage is further compounded by long distances to
the market, which poses a challenge to the market chain especially the producers.
A requirement for effective marketing of milk is improved organization of the
producers and traders themselves. Currently, neither milk producers nor traders
are organized adequately for milk marketing. Thus a jerry can of milk that a woman
milk seller has in a market may contain milk from several households.
90
Milk
Fermented Milk
Fresh Milk
Cream
Consumption
Consumption
Market
Fed to calves
Churned
Market
Butter
Soar butter milk
Butter oil
(Remove
moisture)
Consumption
Consumptio
n
Market
Market
Market
Cottage
cheese
(Precipitate)
Consumption
Heat 50C
Whey
(Supernatant)
Fed to calves
Figure 5.5: Traditional milk processing and products
This pooling of milk could, however, also lead to spoilage of milk, depending on the
health of the milked animals since no rigorous tests are carried out to enable
identification and isolation of bad milk. Improving hygiene standards at this level
will have a positive impact on the overall milk quality in the market (Lumadede et
al., 2010). This could include the joint procurement of cooling facilities such as
freezers and running of milk bars. Improving infrastructure is a key to the
improvement of the milk market chain. As it might be difficult to have an influence
on the improvement of roads, the simple introduction of strategically placed
collection points, e.g. using charcoal coolers or simple facilities with water and
cooling and the development of milk sheds and/or milk bars would contribute
positively to the improvement of the milk quality in the market. Currently these
structures are non existent and traders sell their milk sitting on the ground in the
market place. Awareness creation with line ministries and lobbying for the
91
development of the dairy sector in the pastoralist areas is also recommended in

order to create a friendly environment for this sector.
Intensification of Camel dairy the experience of Tiviski dairy (IFADA, 2005 )
Tiviski is the first dairy in Africa and the second in the world to pasteurize camel milk.
Based in Mauritania, it processes camel milk into modern, high-quality market products
(including cream, yoghurt and cottage cheese).
Although it is generally true that more needs to be done to improve methods for
preserving raw camel milk, this small dairy is a positive example of how to (a) use
appropriate technologies to develop "good" camel milk production, (b) apply
appropriate collecting and processing practices to ensure the safety and quality of
camel milk and dairy products; and (c) develop camel milk and dairy product standards
to facilitate trade and export to the rest of the world.
The mini dairy started up in 1989, when camels were used almost exclusively as a means
of transport. Despite some initial constraints (such as the traditional prejudice against
selling milk and a consumer preference for imported goods), high-quality fresh dairy
products eventually won over imported sterilized milk, and sales gradually increased. In
2002, milk deliveries reached 20,000 liters a day, but a drought dealt a severe blow to
the sector. Over the years, herders have found that the regular income from milk sales
has improved their living standards and enabled them to feed their livestock in dry
periods. Today, thousands of camels, cows and goats are milked by hand, (machine
milking technology is also available). wherever they happen to be, and a network of
pick-up vehicles carries the milk churns twice a day, over distances of up to 90 km, to
three collecting centers located in towns along the Senegal River. Herds continue to
move around, their owners still live in tents or huts in the traditional way, but 1,000
households receive a regular income from their milk. The dairy also provides veterinary
care, vaccination and feed, on credit, as well as instruction in hygiene.
With the help of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the dairy
also discovered how to curdle camel milk (which does not curdle naturally). Two types of
cheese were made and designed for the European market, cheese not being a
tradition in Mauritania. Unfortunately, European regulations do not include camel milk:
new regulations must therefore be specially drafted. It is hoped that camel cheese will
be exportable soon.
5. 5 Livestock and meat marketing
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Livestock production systems in Ethiopia are generally subsistence oriented and

productivity is very low as due to the low levels of inputs provided. Presently, due
to the low productivity of the animals and the absence of market-oriented
production systems, the volume of marketed surplus is very low (Solomon et al.,
2003). In addition, the different live animals supplied to the market by pastoralists
and farmers do not meet the quality attributes required by diverse markets. This is
because of poor links of producers and other actors in the chain to the critical
support services. Many positive interventions take place in the sector (e.g.:
improvements in the veterinary services, government export promotion policy,
support for the sector from bilateral and multilateral donors, emerging producers
organizations, increased finishing operations, and existence of basic facilities for
slaughter and export) which are supportive for further commercial investments.
However, there are still many constraints and pitfalls including high mortality
rates, low levels of nutrition, low productivity, poor quality of animals, low growth
rates, long maturity periods, small body size, poor fertility rates, long calving
intervals, high abortion rates, poorly developed marketing system, limited export
facilities, and limited feed resources. These problems seriously constrain the
sector.. However, the Ethiopian government together with bilateral and
multilateral organizations and donors is working hard to improve the situation and
provide support for investment in the sector and export.
In reality, there is an ongoing vibrant camel trade in Ethiopia involving some
twenty or more markets with a trade volume of about 3,000 camels per week in
the peak seasons. The volume of this trade alone challenges camel population
estimates in Ethiopia. This trade engages various actors composed of mixed ethnic
groups with overlapping roles: pastoralists, who are the primary producers but
also double as trekkers; agro-pastoralists, who play various roles as primary
producers, conditioners, and/or trekkers, livestock marketing cooperatives and
private exporters.
5.6 Trends of meat and livestock market
The meat and livestock sector in Ethiopia is an important economic sector; it
contributes 16 % to the Gross National Product and 14 % to national exports.
There is a good potential to increase quantity as well as quality through promoting
the sale of animals at a younger age and through improved fattening of the
animals either by small farmers or in feedlots. Up to now the export of meat and
live animals is limited, primarily through import restrictions.
5.7 Pricing Policy
Pricing policy is very, very important for any organized enterprise. It is based on
proper stock of animal and records. It helps determine demand and supply in fixing
up rate sales as well as purchases. Price raw materials must be kept slightly lower
than the cost of production so that flow of raw material (Milk and meat) for sale
93
my be feasible. This is to be determined keeping in view the expenditaure involved

in transportation, processing, distribution packaging etc.
Factors influencing formulation of a good pricing policy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Consumer purchasing power

Protection of consumers interests
Protection of producers interests
Seasonal fluctuation in supply
Overhead charges in processing, collection, transportation, chilling
Welfare of public health
Types of pricing plan

1. Flat price plan
A flat fee, also referred to as a flat rate or a linear rate, refers to a pricing structure
that charges a single fixed fee for a any product regardless of quality of animal,
regardless of size or age.
2. Classification price plan
Class prices based on component values there is no longer any base price at a
given test. Instead, there are component values associated with each product.
Each producer will have a unique price based on the total value of their products
components, plus the Producer Price differential. Each component value is based
on its relationship to animal product yield and value. The product used in this
valuation depends on the class.
3. Base price policy
Base point pricing is the system of firms setting prices of their goods based on a
base cost plus transportation costs to a given market. Although some consider this
a form of collusion between the selling firms (it lowers the ability of buying firms to
gain a competitive advantage by location or private transportation), it is common
practice in the steel and automotive industries. It allows firms to collude by simply
agreeing on a base price.
4. Classifiction base surplus policy
The common thread is that one first calculates the cost of the product, then adds a
proportion of it as markup. Basically, this approach sets prices that cover the cost
of production and provide enough profit margins to the firm to earn its target rate
of return. Cost-plus pricing is often used on government contracts (cost-plus
contracts), and has been criticized as promoting wasteful expenditures in the form
of direct costs, indirect costs, and fixed costs whether related to the production
and sale of the product.
94
5.7 Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) of the meat sector in
Ethiopia
Internal Environment
Strengths
Weaknesses
Large livestock population
Subsistence production/ irregular
sales
Potential to increase productivity and
offtake
Land ownership problems
Potential for ranching and feedlots
Poor market infrastructure
Low labour cost
Poor road transport
Livestock and meat export firms
High transaction cost in marketing
channel
Plans for export zones and
certification
Illegal border trade
Export abattoirs*
Animal disase OIE list A
Multilateral and bilateral support
Poor veterinary services
Projects on fattening
Lack of value chain approach
Donner projects (USAID)
Obsolete slaughter equipment
Export promotion policy
Not oriented to wards quality and
consumer demand conscious
Foreign investment policy
Poor export facilities
Shortage of cooling/ freezing facilities
at the airport*)
Reliable of air transport
Strict financial export procedures
External Environment
Opportunities
High demand in the region (Middle
East and North Africa)
Relatively low sanitary requirements
(Middle East Market)
Potential cooperation with NGO
sector
EVD support (Netherlands)
Joint ventures
Threats
Import bans /Sanitary regulations
(Europian Markets)
Complication (Australia, NZ, Sudan)
Land locked country
Natural disaster (drought, famine,
conflicts)
*A warehouse with a special cooling unit for meat and carcasses has been inaugurated at
Addis Ababa airport and Mekelle (Nell, 2006).
Pastoral livestock trading has grown tremendously in recent years as a result of

expanding markets and networks. Sales volume of key pastoral livestock species of
camels, cattle, sheep, and goats have soared as regional markets have grown to
accommodate the rising sales. While cattle have largely remained commodity for
local consumption, camels are being exported to the Middle Eastern countries.
95
Camel exports to Egypt flow through either Moyale to Nazareth to Djibouti and
Egypt or the Nazareth to Hamara (Ethiopia) or Sudan route. Sudanese traders
prefer the Djibouti route because it is less risky and camel deaths are fewer.
Camels from Moyale are preferred to those within Sudan due to breeed
preference and Sudanese traders are searching for cheaper animals elsewhere in
the region because camel prices in the Sudan have increased tremendously in
recent years, which has made their business tougher.
Camels are traded in small numbers along numerous markets, leaving the casual
observer with the impression that camels in a specific market are destined only for
local use. Additionally, unlike cattle or shoats that are transported on trucks, trade
camels are usually trekked on hoof through inaccessible paths to vehicles, far away
from the prying eyes of authorities. Camels bought from primary markets are not
immediately sold in terminal markets. They may be used as working animals or
conditioned to gain body weight at various transaction points for a year or more
before they are sold again.
96
Figure 5.6: Livestock terminal Market at Chifra Afar
Figure 5.7: Traditional butcher and carcass cuts
Because of larger capital requirements, small traders are not able to buy more
than 50 camels at most at a time, compared to cattle and shoats traders who
usually buy hundreds of cattle or thousands of shoats.
Egypt consumes a significant amount of camel meat from Ethiopia, Eritrea and the
Sudan, Treands shows that Ethiopia is the preferred transit country for traders and
exporters dealing in Kenyan and Somali camels. The pricing, sales, and other
activities of the camel market in Moyale, Ethiopia are heavily dependent on
97
brokers. Sudanese traders in Moyale praise the role of their brokers for helping
them in the market place and reward them with some payment. Brokers are a
valuable link between Sudanese exporters and local pastoralists and sometimes
act as guarantors for both sides.
5.8 Structure of the livestock Supply markets
Livestock markets in Ethiopia function at three levels: primary, secondary and
terminal Markets (Solomon et. al. 2003.
Primary markets: village level markets, with generally less than 500 head of cattle
sold per week. Farmers and pastoralists sell animals to traders, other farmers
(replacement animals) and sometimes to consumers and local butchers. Generally
there are no facilities for weighing, watering and feeding.
Secondary markets: middlemen, trader and butcher dominated markets, with a
turnover of 500 1000 animals per week consisting of finished, breeding and
draught stocks and located mainly in regional capitals. Secondary markets serve
the local butchers and feed the terminal markets.
Terminal markets: located in the large urban centers. Medium to large-scale
traders dominate these markets. The supply of livestock to the primary, secondary
and terminal markets is mostly based on urgent needs for cash . Producers come
to the markets with no information beforehand on the going price of the day and
may take back their animals if the price offered is too low and l try their luck next
time at the same or another market.Livestock trading is subject to several service
fees and charges.
Figure
5.8:
Camel market
in
Somali
region
and
loading
for
export
98
Figure 5.8: Camel market in Somali region and loading for export
5.9 The Trekking trade route

Traders and producers use traditional stock routes to trek their animals to the
market. Animals sold by primary producers (both farmers and pastoralists) usually
move from the central eastern parts to northern Ethiopia and Sudan. The main
destination markets are the salt mines in northeastern Ethiopia and the crossborder trade to Sudan, with numerous staging and conditioning points in between
the twenty or so markets en-route. This market chain generates a transaction of
some two to three million U.S. dollars per month for an average of nine months
per year and involves a forty-day trek from the primary markets in the central-east
Ethiopia to the crossing point into Sudan (Legesse, et. al., 2008).
Different levels of government are involved in the camel trade. Local councils
charge market service fees for providing space to conduct the market transactions.
Charges for camel vary between 1 to 20 Birr per head. Furthermore Transit fees
are charged, this is sometimes translated as market entrance fee. Transit fees are
also charged on animals which are trekked or trucked from one market to another.
Traders could be charged transit fees a number of times when they pass a local or
regional border.
99
Figure 5.9: Camel tracking routes to market and export
In Ethiopia, the pastoralist and agro-pastoralist areas such as Borena, Afar and
Somali are considered the traditional source of livestock supplying 95% of livestock
destined for export market (Belachew and Jemberu 2003).
5.10 Live animal and meat export value chains
The export market is relatively old but highly variable depending on production
condition of the country, changes in consumer preferences and greater demand
for high quality products with adequate guarantees of food safety (Ayele et al.
2003). The livestock market is structured so that the marketable livestock from the
major producing areas reach the final consumer or end user after passing through
complex channels along the supply chains involving various actors including
producers, middlemen, and livestock trading cooperatives, traders, live animal and
meat exporters. Market routes linking live animal and meat exporters with
secondary and primary markets, the generalized supply chains and marketing
channels for live animal and meat export are depicted in Figure 5. 8.
Value chain analysis is very effective in tracing product flows, showing the value
adding stages, identifying key actors and the relationships with other actors in the
100
chain (Schmitz 2005). Typically, a simple agricultural supply chain might include the
different market participants and their linkages, enabling business environment,
and business and extension service providers (Albu and Griffth 2005). The export
livestock marketing chain actors for cattle, shoat and camels are those who
transact a particular product as it moves along the chain from the primary
producers to the end users: producers, middlemen, traders, live animal and meat
exporters. The enabling factors for live animal and meat export market business
environment are the critical factors and trends that are shaping the market chain
environment and operating conditions which are generated by structures and
institutions (policies and regulations) that are beyond the direct control of the
market participants. Inputs and other services from other enterprises or service
provider organizations are provided for all the participants in the chain which will
allow the actors to grow and maintain their competitiveness in the supply chain.
Typically, a simple agricultural supply chain might include the different market
participants and their linkages, enabling business environment, and business and
extension service providers (Albu and Griffth 2005).
Figure.5.10: Meat production system in Ethiopia (M1= primary market; M2= Secondary
101
markets and M3= Terminal market (Niell, 2006)
Most of the export abattoirs and live animal exporters collect animals either
through their own purchasing agent assigned in major livestock markets or
through other small- and large-scale traders. Sometimes livestock trading
cooperatives also directly supply animals to the exporters. Purchasing agents of
exporters in turn collect animals either from collectors, small traders, livestock
trading cooperatives, farmer groups or directly from producers. Producers have
the option of selling their animals to the collectors in their village, small traders,
and livestock trading cooperatives. Some farmers also form groups and supply
animals to the market. Other than the domestic channel, foreign national live
animal exporters-importers collect animals directly from the collectors in most of
the livestock markets using licensed Ethiopian traders. This channel is now
considered as the most rapidly expanding and competitive channel for the live
animal and meat exporters.
Figure 5.11: Factors vital in improvement of the camel market chain in Ethiopia
(Adapted from Mussa and Greenhalgh, 2007)
102
One of the special features of livestock marketing system in most livestock markets
is the involvement of brokers/middlemen in every segment of the marketing chain,
to match buyers and sellers and facilitate transactions. The volume of trade,
transaction costs, prices, and efficiency of the different market actors in each
channel requires detailed study. The roles of each of the livestock marketing chain
participants and a description of their relationship and transactions with other
participants in the chain are described below.
5.11 Market participants
Producers: These are pastoralists, semi-pastoralists and farmers producing shoats,
cattle and camels. Although these are the main source of marketed livestock, they
are located in the rural areas where access to the market is very difficult.
Marketing information for the producers is very scarce.
Collectors: These are important market agents collecting animals from their
locality and remote markets for supply usually to large and small-scale traders and
sometimes to livestock trading cooperatives. Collectors reach remote pastoral
areas around borders and collect animals in pastoralists temporary residences or
central watering points where they can find large number of producers. In most
cases, these actors are independent operators who use their local knowledge and
social relationships to collect animals from their surrounding and other remote
areas. To some extent, traders often place orders with trusted collectors.
Feedlot operators: Most of the feedlot operators are available at Adama and Dera
areas with their main role of fattening cattle for different markets. As part of
requirements of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agrement and according to the
rules and regulations of animal quarantine, fattening is carried out after providing
the cattle with the necessary vaccines and medication. But not camels.
Big traders: These are those market participants permanently operating in the live
animal and meat value chain and usually known by purchasing large numbers of
animals from different sources for supply to their customers. They are few in
number compared to small traders. One or two large traders are operating in a
certain area serving as agents for abattoirs.
Medium/small traders: Although medium traders are large in number relative to
large traders, the volume of their purchases is smaller than that of big traders.
Since they buy smaller number of animals at a time, they have very limited number
of collectors from the primary markets. Medium traders have smaller amounts of
operating capital as a result of which they collect limited number of animals on a
weekly or bi-weekly basis and transport them directly to abattoirs using rented
vehicles than waiting for the abattoirs trucks. In some other places like Borena,
these traders use abattoirs collection point as selling outlets. They also serve as
suppliers to the large traders in the secondary and terminal markets.
Medium/small-scale traders do not have strong trade relationships with specific
abattoirs. As a result, they do not have precise market information like that of
103
large traders. The information disseminated through such agents sometimes

misleads the producers as it may not be accurate.
Cooperatives: Livestock trading cooperatives are organized in pastoralist and semipastoralist areas based on the good will of their members who are residents in
specific market areas. They work using operating capital obtained from members
contributions. As a result, they usually try to deny other traders entry into primary
markets where they are operating. Livestock trading cooperatives mostly operate
in the shoats market due to its low financial requirement relative to that of cattle
and camels. They buy animals from their area (from both members and nonmembers) by weight (measured) using spring balances and sell them to large
traders or purchasers of abattoirs in those areas where they have purchasing
stations.
Brokers: These are those market agents that serve as mediators between buyers
and sellers in the livestock market. They usually link buyers with sellers, moderate
negotiations and facilitate the terms of exchange.
Exporters: These are exporters of live animal and meat to different countries
through the formal channels. Live animals are exported to Egypt (camel), Yemen
(cattle, camel and sheep), Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. Meat is exported mainly to the
Middle East countries (shoats meat) and Congo Brazzaville (beef). Ethiopia has a
comparative advantage in exporting chilled meat to the Middle East because of its
geographical proximity to the region and the cheaper air transportation from Addis
Ababa to these countries compared to the transportation cost from other
countries like India and Australia.
5.12 Market operation
There are three livestock marketing outlets in the country: the domestic channel,
the formal live animal and meat export channel and the informal cross-border live
animal trade. The level of competition for livestock among these channels is not
clearly known. Analysis of this competition requires in-depth study of the
operations of these channels and in the absence of such studies there are currently
alternative ideas about competition between the different actors in the livestock
marketing chains. This issue must be considered by referring to the different
marketing factors such as the type of animals traded, the location, the type of
channel, season etc.
5.13 Market information system
This is a system needed to disseminate up-to-date market information to keep all
livestock market participants at the same level of access for market information
(price, time specific demands, quality information etc). This enables all market
participants to make well-informed decision in making transactions. In livestock
marketing systems in Ethiopia, however, information is held as a private property
and not equally shared among the different participants in the value chain and
usually lacks trickle down effect. In this case, those that have the power to dictate
104
the terms particularly those in the higher end of the chain act only in their own
interests. This forces farmers who do not have countervailing economic power to
also act in their own price interests. Information about the the quality and quantity
of traded livestock which is demanded by the end-user does not properly filter
down to the lower ends of the chain. Conversely, information about livestock
production and associated cultural practices is not clearly understood at the higher
ends of the chain. There is no significant investment in the relationship; rather the
relationship in the market is based on mistrust. In this type of relationship, for the
most part, farmers are considered as input suppliers rather than strategic partners
in the value chains. The goal of the production system is only to satisfy producers
own requirements for cash, without giving much emphasis to meeting the market
demand and ensuring a sustainable supply of livestock to the market. This results
in unpredictable quantities and quality of products destined for different internal
and export markets and less remunerative prices for producers (Jabbar and Benin
2004). It also limits the development of value addition by various participants such
as producers, traders and processors.
As indicated above, market actors in the lower ends of the chain (producers and
collectors) are usually far from up-to-date market information. A practical example
in this regard is a misinformation about the export ban as a result of Rift Valley
fever reported in Kenya.
5.14 Market centres
Market centres and their associated infrastructures are important factors that
have to be considered in the move to increase the supply of livestock for both
domestic and export markets. Due to the wider geographical location of
pastoralists, some important sources of livestock are very far from market centres.
Pastoralists from the border areas need to travel for a week or more to reach
these market areas. This influences the marketing behaviour of pastoralists that
they either have to keep their animals unsold or they have to go to nearby
informal markets in the neighbouring countries.
The shift from subsistence dairying to commercial meat operations fundamentally
affects the pastoral community. A successful beef -or mutton- producing operation
requires a high survival of male stock; both heifer and bull calves must receive
adequate supplies of milk. For a pastoral community, raising bull calves on milk is a
luxury to be enjoyed only after human hunger is satisfied, and during the frequent
periods of low milk production male stock beyond herd reproductive requirements
may be allowed to starve. That is, in the hierarchy of milk consumers, pastoral children
in a subsistence dairy operation take precedence over animals. Shifting from
subsistence dairying to commercial meat production tends to reduce the size of the
pastoral livestock population. Commercialization can lead to displacement of labor
from poorer, subsistence-oriented pastoral households. This loss of a work force of
course further reduces the productivity capacity of poorer households
Population growth was the greatest challenge in the pastoral area as per capita
livestock holding had decreased from several hundred to a few animals. Due to the
105
above listed pressures the camel is disappearing from its former range and
reappearing in new areas. The reason why the camel appeared at higher altitudes was
partly due to new owners using the camel for packing as it is drought resistant and
partly due to an increase in the camel population. Nevertheless, the increase in
numbers of camel is not due to increased fertility but due to relative peace in Ethiopia
many Somali camel pastoralists were living inside Ethiopia (Tefera and Gebreab,
2001). Or, an increased trade-off as settlement was expanding creating a new habitat.
As former pastoral areas were converted to settlement, irrigated farms and parks the
camel pastoralists would be forced to browse their animal in remote areas and as a
result the camel has disappeared from its former range Afar camels reach puberty at a
relatively advanced age and the calving interval was 2 years. The overall effect of this
is that the parent herd is growing very slowly while a mere 2% offtake per year is a
stress to camels as they camel fertility is poor. Hence to improve productivity one has
to reduce mortality and increase fertility. Otherwise, it is like fishing the available
resource with no opportunity to regenerate.
On the other hand camel and other livestock export serve as a destocking gate which
improves the carrying capacity of the range.
Figure 5.12: Primary camel market in Somalia
106
Figure 5. 13: Secondary and tertiary camel markets
107
5.15 Monetizing pastorlaism: Tradeoffs and challenges

Pastoralist assets are communally owned such as land, and water. Hitherto,
Hardins economic theory, the tragedy of commons, that is, the depletion of a
shared resource by individual pastoralist , acting independently to each one's selfinterest, has been widely criticized, on accounts of the breakdown of management
of common grazing land was inaccurate, and that such commons were effectively
managed to prevent overgrazing.
Fig. 5.14: Hardins model of tragedy of commons
Effective mechanism like taboo on selling animal and animal products was in place.
Moreover each pastoralist was not accumulating wealth other than livestock.
Exchange was through bartering, gifts and loans of animals and animal products.
With advent of monetizing pastoralism and expansion of markets in communal
land ownership, there will be a break in endogenous institution and culture Thus
maximizing individual share from the common property will increase resulting
ultimately in environmental degradation and lose of livelihood. Productivity per
hectare in the pastoral herd is very law. Thus the viability of pastoralism is a
challenge for policy makers. Credit can help herders replace livestock after
drought. The problems are mobility, unexpected risk of disease and draught and
lack of collateral for banking. Experts broadly agree that livestock production
needs to intensify and expand to keep up with population growth and meet the
increasing demand for meat and other livestock products But opinions diverge
about the how and how much. Between the two approaches, optimize production
processes and the use of locally available resources or change the system and
replace adapted strategies and labor with technology and energy.
108
Figure 5.15: the Pastoral Economy
109
CHAPTER SIX : CAMEL WELFARE

Melaku Tefera, College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University. P. O. Box 144
Haramaya Campus. Ethiopia., melaku22@yahoo.com
In many societies the cow is considered a sacred animal, but in Ethiopia the same
could be said for the majestic camel. In the hyperarid parts of Ethiopia, "the camel
is the closest thing to their hearts", according to the Afar and Somali people A
father without a camel is not a father. Except by the Kunamas the camel is never
ridden nor a female camel used to carry goods or work or sold for slaughter unless
due to old age or emergency.
Animal welfare codes are species-specific and cover the main considerations to
achieve a desired standard of animal welfare. . The codes generally contain a mix
of general and prescriptive statements. They are not comprehensive manuals on
how to care for animals as they do not contain detailed animal care information,
such as diets, plans for building animal accommodation or animal health regimes.
Codes can go into much more detail about individual types of animals or animal
use than animal welfare legislation can. Legislation would be hundreds of pages
long if it covered all the material contained in codes. Codes are more flexible than
legislation because, unlike legislation, codes don't have to be written in 'legal
language' and they don't have to be based on sanctions.
Codes are also very useful for informing the general community. There is no
Animal Welfare Code, including for the camel. The following model is adapted
from other countries code of conduct for camel welfare.
6.1 Promoting the Five Freedoms framework
Animal welfare (how an animal feels) is influenced by the factors included in the
Five Freedoms, which are as follows:
1. Freedom from hunger and thirst
2. Freedom from discomfort
3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease
4. Freedom to express normal behavior
5. Freedom from fear and distress
The Five Freedoms provide a valuable and comprehensive framework for assessing
welfare, and help ensure that certain welfare determinants (e.g. alleviating pain)
are not considered at the exclusion of other key determinants (e.g. providing a
suitable environment that allows for expression of normal behavior). The
framework is extremely useful in structuring how, you are going to improve
welfare. Perhaps more importantly, use it to identify areas that have not been
taken into account so that welfare can genuinely be improved, not just in certain,
limited, ways. Its not realistic to expect all of the Five Freedoms to be achieved all
110
of the time, but this should be for practical reasons (e.g. economic, cultural), and
not because you hadnt considered the Five Freedoms, and therefore all of the
ways in which welfare can be affected: Food and water, accommodation or living
conditions, the display of normal patterns of behaviour, treatment for disease or
injury, and the handling of the animal. Animal welfare is an important emerging
global issue, and the role of the veterinary profession has been identified as key
(OIE 2006). There is therefore a very worthwhile contribution to be made by vets
offering their skills on a voluntary basis in developing countries.
6.2 Duty care to camels
Whoever is in charge of an animal, he/she has a legal duty of care to that animal.
Being in charge of an animal usually means that you own it or have custody of it.
Having a duty of care to an animal means you are legally obliged to provide for its
needs by following certain welfare issues.
Anyone who owns manages or handles camels may have a legal duty of care and,
therefore, a responsibility to ensure acceptable welfare standards. This includes:
camel owners (commercial and non-commercial)
sale /yard agents
stock managers
veterinarians
stock handlers
processors
contractors
transporters
The basic behavioral, anatomical and physiological needs of camels are considered
in this code and comprise::
Water, food and air and salt to maintain health
Social contact with other camels
Sufficient individual clean dry space to stand, walk freely, lie down, escape
aggressors, stretch and groom
Protection from predation
Protection from disease
Protection from adverse effects of climate extremes or unusual changes in
weather conditions
Protection from unnecessary, unreasonable pain and suffering and injury
Water
A camels water requirement depends on age, body weight, disease status, level of
exercise, lactation status, temperature and dry matter content of feed eaten.
Camels should have daily access to water otherwise at least every other day.
111
Food
Camels are browsers and feed on trees, shrubs, bush and grasses.They prefer
plants with moisture and a high mineral content. In intensive farming camels
should be fed adiet containing 5-10 Kg of fibre each day. The feeding facility should
provide access to all camels. It is essential to provide licks containing salt, other
minerals and vitamins. They should be protected from poisonous plants.
Predation
Camels particularly young ones must be provided with adequate protection from
predators, such as hyenas, jackals and wolves and the Red-billed Oxpecker,
Buphagus erythrorhynchus.
Protection from climatic extremes
If housed there should be efficient ventilation, as camels lose heat by convection
and conduction, Housing must be well drained to permit the camels to sit down.
Protection from cold for non acclimatized camels and during transport should be
provided
Management
Handling: Patience and the use of positive rewards (positive reinforcement) in
handling the camel are effective. All camels are quick to learn good and bad
behavior and with experience to hat to avoid. Management practices that may
cause pain must not be carried out where a painless and practical method is
available. Restraint should be the minimum necessary to perform a given
management procedure efficiently. Any injury, illness or distress observed should
be treated promptly in any situation and a competent person must supervise.
Most camels are examined in sternal recumbency. Care should be taken to avoid
kicking and biting. When handling camels he first procedure should be to control
the head
Training
Camels should not be use for riding until 3 years of age. A four to five year camel is
considered as mature.
Load bearing
A camel should not be loaded with the maximum weight of 250 kg (for an adult)
until the age of seven years
112
Tethering
If a camel is to be tethered, the rope must be long enough to enable the camel to
lay down. Camels that are tied with short rope could strangle.
Hobbling
Hobbling for up to 12 hours or overnight is an acceptable husbandry procedure
provided that the camels are trained and hobbles are well constructed and used so
as to avoid pain and injury
Yard design
Height of race wall should be at least 1.8 m
Gate slide should be at least 2.4 m
Floors should not be slippery or abrasive
Yards should be designed without protruding objects that could cause injury
Cattle holding facilities are suitable for use with camels as long as they are
appropriately modified.
Castration
Surgical castration without general or local anesthesia is unacceptable
Castration must not be performed on calves
Nose pegging
It is recognized that nose-pegged camels are more effectively controlled than
haltered camels. Other methods of control of camels are the use of a rope halter,
nylon halter or chain halter. Those are preferable to nose peg on welfare grounds.
However they provide less control over the animal.. The decision to nose peg must
be based on the nature of the animal, the degree of training of the animal and
handler and level of control required. The nose peg is used as a steering aid and
not to restrain the camel. Once a camel is trained to sit down and stand up, only a
a light tug is required as the camel should respond to a voice command. The string
attached to the nose peg must be designed to beak in emergency it must not be
used as lead or pulled continuously as this may cause injury
Identification
A suitable method of permanent identification of camels needs to be developed.
Currently hot branding remains the only practical method and this is unacceptable.
Branding with corrosive materials is also unacceptable. Tattooing of the inner lip,
and plastic or metal ear tags are also suitable
113
Health
Camels should be treated for any ailment for which a remedy is available.
Prophylactic vaccines should be administered. Camels are extremely pain tolerant
and are sometimes reluctant to move if sick, thus they should not be beaten and
considered as malingering.
Transport
Camels dislike strange sounds during loading and transport. Camels of the same
size should be grouped together during loading. Bulls in rut should be penned
individually. Pregnant animals due to calve should not be transported as this may
cause abortion. Recently calved camels with suckling calves should be transported
together Animals should be fed and drink water before loading. Camels usually sit
down during transport there should be sufficient space for this. Seated camels
need to move their legs to stimulate blood flow and iff tied in the sitting position
must be allowed to stand every 4 hours. There should be adequate bedding.
Camels can be transported for a maximum of 3 days provided that feeding
watering and appropriate rest is given.
Euthanasia
If camels for some reason they have to be destroyed appropriate pharmacological
agents or physical method should be used. If the camel is to be slaughtered a
captive-bolt pistol should be used and once the animal collapses the major blood
vessels of the neck must immediately be severed.
Figure 6.1: Site for application of captive=bolt in camel
6.3 Traditional slaughter method and issue of camel welfare

The camel was restrained before entering the abattoir and pulled to the slaughter
place with the help of two people who are experienced in the slaughter of
camels. After the camel enters the slaughter hall, it is first put into a sitting
position by cutting the Achilles tendons. The head is secured in a caudal position
114
(i.e. turned towards the tail) and the the main blood vessels in the neck, the
jugular vein and common carotid arteries, are severed with a single cut by a sharp
knife. Death occurs immediately. The Koran forbids stunning.
Figure 6.2: Slaughtering method of the camel at Diredawa Abattoir
115
Halal: The great festival of Eid-ul Adha, is celebrated by the Muslims all over the
world every year through sacrifices and prayers in memory of the glorious sacrifice
of the prophets Ibrahim Khalilullah and Ismail Zabihullah (peace be upon them).
Thousands of camels are slaughtered on this auspicious day with a view to
receiving the Divine Mercy through benevolence, samaritanism, patience and
constancy. What is more, the Islamic practice of slaughter or sacrifice by slitting the
throat with a sharp knife has come under attack by some animal rights activists as
being an inhuman form of cruelty to animals. In Muslim countries the Islamic
method of slaughtering with a knife is considered to be the least painful and thus
the most humane method of killing an animal. In most of the Western countries, it
is required by law to first stun an animals to render itunconscious and thereby
preventing it from reviving before it is killed so as not to slow down the movement
of the processing line. It is also used from a humanitarian point of view. It is
presumed that this stunning prevents the animal from feeling pain before it dies.
Every year tens of thousands of animals die on the ships before they reach the
Middle East, and more succumb to illness and disease after arrival. These animals
may be the lucky ones. Most of them get injured, and many are trampled or gored
to death as they are thrown about in lorries that drive at breakneck speed. Also,
animals are tied together with ropes running through their pierced noses for
hundreds of kilometers, illegally crossing State borders by illegal traders. The
organisation Stop Live Exports is committed to ending the export of live animals
for slaughter. Stop Live Exports considers that animals ought to be slaughtered as
close as possible to where they were raised to avoid unnecessary suffering
116
Figure 6.3:
Abuse of camel
by overloading,
over working
and tracking
long distances
on track and
foot
117
CHAPTER SEVEN: DISEASES OF CAMEL IN ETHIOPIA

Gelagay Ayelet1 and Getachew Abebe2 and Melaku Tefera3
1
National Veterinary Institute, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia,
2
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
3
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University. P.O.Box 144 Haramaya
Campus. Ethiopia, melaku22@yahoo.com
The camel is a comparatively hardy animal and is less susceptible to many of the
diseases that affect other livestock species in the same areas (Dirie and
Abdurhaman, 2003). However, it is apparent that we know too little about the
diseases from which it does suffer (Higgins, 1983). Scarce research information on
diseases reveals that camels may be either carriers of, susceptible to or suffering
from a vast array of infectious and parasitic diseases.
The diseases of Ethiopian camels have not been extensively investigated in
comparison with those of other domestic animals, probably owing partly to the
non-sedentary nature of the herds: constantly moving in search of grazing and
water. It is only in a few places, where the animals are found in favorable
environments, often alongside other species. In addition, the dominance of other
ruminant species over camels perhaps might have masked the potential
contributions of these animals to the national and household economy. As a result,
camels have been neglected, or at least their importance underestimated by
society. Consequently, livestock production planners and researchers have
overlooked its usefulness for the local community and roles in national economy
and have not so far considered the animals in any research and development
agenda (Bekele, 2010).
Trypanosomiasis, camel pox, contagious skin necrosis, pneumonia, mange mite
infestations and internal parasites are among the major health problems
previously reported in camels in Ethiopia (Richard, 1979; Demeke, 1998). Camels
may also be susceptible to bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), contagious ecthyma,
rinderpest, foot and mouth disease (FMD), Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR),
parainfluenza-3 (PIV3), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rift valley fever (RVF)
(Brown, 2004; Odeh et al., 1999). Of the many diseases of camels that are rampant
in the country, the recently emerged camel disease with still unknown causes is
the single most important disease with huge mortality. The 1995 camel disease
outbreak of Ethiopia with severe respiratory involvement, which drew attention of
the nation and certain international agencies and affected almost the whole camel
population in less than a year, is worth mentioning. By then the disease had a
highly contagious nature with a high morbidity rate of over 90% and variable rate
of mortality (Fekadu et al., 2003; Roger et al., 2001). Diseases are still flaring up in
the region though the causative agents involved seemed to vary. However,
118
researchers who made studies on camel respiratory diseases in Ethiopia agree that
Manhaemia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Parainfluenza virus, and Morbillilike viruses are the major incriminated agents causing repeated outbreaks in the
country (Bekele, 1999; Fekadu et al., 2003; Rogers et al., 2001).
Various lower respiratory tract diseases have been reported in camels although
the definitive etiology of most respiratory diseases is not determined. A variety of
viruses have been associated with outbreaks of respiratory disease among camels.
Adenovirus (AdV), IBR viruses, influenza viruses A and B, PIV 3 and RSV were
identified so far in respiratory infections of camels (Dioli and Stimmelmary, 1992;
Intisar et al., 2009, 2010a, 2010b). Respiratory infections caused by AdV, PIV or
RSV may result in severe lower respiratory tract disease (Corne et al., 1999; Intisar
et al., 2010a; Trei, 2010).
The purpose of chapter 6 is to compile the most important bacterial, viral and
parasitic diseases that have been reported in Ethiopia and identify the gaps in the
study of camel diseases in the country.
7.1 Bacterial diseases
Camel respiratory diseases
The respiratory tract is continuously exposed to air that contains dusts, bacteria,
fungi, viruses and various noxious agents and to downward spread of the bacteria
which commonly colonize the nose and throat (Howard, 1993). Under normal
conditions the airways and the lung parenchyma prevent the entry of
microorganisms and neutralize or remove infectious agents so that the lung
contains very few, if any, organisms beyond the terminal lung units (Radostits et
al., 2007; Jones and Hunt, 1983). Hence, the effect of the infection here are more
severe and more ominous than in the upper respiratory tract (Jones et al., 1997).
However, the respiratory system has developed a series of effective measures to
counter against this. These complex protective mechanisms of the upper and
lower respiratory tracts are broadly categorized as physical defenses, cellular
defenses, and secretory defenses (Howard, 1993).
Respiratory diseases in food animals are due to a complex of factors that often
interact to produce disease. The management and environmental stress placed on
these animals are often the decisive factors between the development of clinical
diseases or the disease remaining sub clinical (Howard, 1993). Environmental and
management stresses like over-work, undue exposure to cold winds and rain,
sudden change of climate, insufficient food and chronic diseases, particularly
trypanosomosis, play an important role in disarming the respiratory defense
mechanisms through dehydration and increased level of circulating glucocorticoids
(Abdurahman and Bornstein, 1991; Dungworth, 1993; Andrews and Kennedy,
1997) as well as increasing in number and virulence of the agents (Radostits et al.,
2007). Once this normal pulmonary function is impaired or pulmonary tissues are
119
damaged, potential bacterial pathogens that normally reside in the upper

respiratory tract could establish a foothold to initiate respiratory disease. This is
particularly true for Pastuerella infection (Carter, 1984; Moiser, 1997).
Several infectious agents can commonly be isolated from the respiratory tract of
clinically sick and healthy animals. Most of the infectious agents which cause
respiratory disease are ubiquitous in the environment and are present as normal
residents in the nasal cavities of normal animals. This often creates difficulty in the
interpretation of the microbiological findings in outbreaks of respiratory diseases
(Radostits et al., 2007). According to Schwartz and Dioli (1992), pathogenic
bacteria associated with respiratory disease outbreaks of camels include
Pasteurella multocida, Mycobacterium bovis and Streptococcus, Corynebacterium,
Actinomyces and Klebsiella species.
In Ethiopia few studies were conducted on the extent of respiratory problems of
camels as compared to other species of livestock animals (Shemsedin, 2002;
Mohamed, 2007; Ahmed, 2008; Bekele, 2003). Of the many diseases of camels
that are rampant in the country, respiratory diseases are the single most important
disease posing a huge threat to the camel population. The disease was
characterised by sero-muco-purulent nasal discharge, lacrimation, productive
coughing and abdominal breathing, with elevated body temperature (41- 42oC).
Oxytetracycline and streptomycin treatment gave good therapeutic effect
particularly at early stages of the disease. In spite of huge loss of camel population
due to different disease syndromes, the causative agents are not yet well known
except some reports indicated the involvement of PPR-like virus, streptococcus
equi, Mycoplasma species (Roger et al., 2000) but (Bekele, 1999) indicated the
association of pasteuralla species.
Most recently studies were conducted at the National Veterinary Institute (NVI) in
collaboration with students from Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (FVM-AAU) to
investigate the type of pathological lesions encountered in lungs of camels and the
type of bacterial and viral species involved in respiratory diseases of camels. The
studies were conducted in Akaki municipality abattoir, Oromia zone in Amhara
region and Jigjiga abattoir. The findings showed that camels of Ethiopia suffered
with different lung disease problems such as; emphysema, hydatidosis,
pneumonia, atelectasis, aspiration, pneumoconisosis, pulmonary edema and
congestion, abscessation, pleurisy and granulomatous pneumonia (Table 7.1). The
findings of Nesibu (2010) in Akaki showed that, a total of 54 bacterial species were
isolated and identified from 50 pneumonic lung samples. These were coagulase
negative Staphylococci (21.1%), Streptococcus species (19.3%), E. coli (17.5%),
Francisella tularensis (5.3%), Flavobacterium species (5.3%), Rhodococcus equi
(5.3%), Bordetella bronchoseptica (3.5%), Aeromonas hydrophila (3.5%), Neisseria
species (3.5%), Streptococcus agalactia (1.8%), Staphylococcus aureus (1.8%),
Pasteurella trehalosi (1.8%), Pasteurella anatipestifer (1.8%), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (1.8%), Micrococcus species (1.8%) and Mycobacterium species (5.3%)
120
(Based on Ziehl Neelson staining). In addition three acid fast positive bacteria
(Mycobacterium spp) were obtained on Ziehl Neelson staining of three lung tissue
samples, while Mohammed (2011) identified a total of 37 bacterial species from 32
pneumonic lung samples collected from Oromia zone of Amhara regional state
(table 7.2). Also Ahmed (2010) conducted a study at Jijiga from October 2009 to
May 2010 to isolate and identify the bacterial species from lung of apparently
healthy camels slaughtered at Jijiga Municipality Abattoir and his findings showed
that coagulase negative staphylococci, Streptococcus pneumonae, Escherichia coli
and Mannheimia haemolytica were the most important bacteria inhabiting the
respiratory tract of camels (Table 7.2). The findings of the studies showed that
pathogenesis of respiratory diseases is complex and multifactorial and therefore,
these bacterial pathogens could themselves induce diseases or predispose camels
to other concurrent or opportunistic infections.
Table 7. 1: Prevalence of different pulmonary lesions encountered in lungs of camels
Lesion type
Prevalence
(%)
(Akaki, 2010)
60.2
21.2
18.6
10.6
4.9
3.9
and 2.6
Emphysema
Hydatidosis
Pneumonia
Atelectasis
Aspiration of blood
Pneumoconiosis
Pulmonary edema
congestion
Abscess
Pleurisy
Granulomatous pneumonia
1.6
1
0.8
Prevalence (%)
(Oromia
zone,
2011 )
49.14
22.41
35.34
6.03
16.38
12.93
0.86
Prevalence (%)
(Dire
Dawa,
2008)
30.80
34.62
-
6.89
9.48
-
3.85
50
-
Table7. 2: Frequency of isolation of bacterial species from lung of camels

No Bacterial isolate
1
2
3
4
Prevalence
Prevalence (%)
Prevalence
(%)
(Oromia zone, (%)
(Akaki, 2010) 2011 )
(Jigjiga, 2010
)
Staphylococci (Coagulase 21.1
48.7
tive)
Streptococcus spp
19.3
5.4
20.5
Escherichia coli
17.5
21.62
12.8
Francisella tularensis
5.3
=
121
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Flavobacteria spp
Rhodococcus equi
Bordetella
bronchoseptica
Aeromonas hydrophila
Neisseria spp
Streptococcus agalactia
Staphylococcus auerus
Pasteurella trehalosi
Pasteurella anatipestifer
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Micrococcus spp
Mycobacterium spp*
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Manhemia hemolytica
Actinomyces pyogens
Salmonella spp
Proteus species
Corynebacterium species
5.3
5.3
3.5
2.7
2.7
-
=
5.1
-
3.5
3.5
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
5.3
-
5.4
24.32
10.82
2.5
8.1
5.4
5.4
2.7
2.7
-
7.7
5.2
122
Figure 7. 1: Histopathology of the lung [1a: Acute interstitial pneumonia.

Thickening of alveolar wall due to mononuclear cells (lymphocytes) arrow, 1b:
Chronic interstitial pneumonia, Thickening of alveolar wall due to deposition of
fibrous tissue (arrow), 1c: bronchopneumonia. Bronchi filled with purulent exudate
(neutrophils) (A) hyperplasia of peribronchiolar lymphoid follicles (B), emphysema.
(Source: Nesibu , 2010)
123
Figure 7.2: Histopathology of the lung [e: Acid fast bacteria on Ziehl Neelson
staining (arrow) (1000x), f: Hemorrhagic lymphadenitis distended sinus with
bloody exudates (arrow), g: Parafollicular hyperplasia of bronchial lymph node.
Expansion of T cell in parafollicular zone (arrow), h: Purulent lymphadenitis
Distended sinus with massive numbers ofneutrophils and macrophages (arrow)]
(Nesibu Ali)
Brucellosis
Brucellosis is a disease caused by various species of the genus Brucella which is the
most widely spread zoonosis worldwide (Dawood, 2008). The disease can affect
almost all domestic species and cross transmission can occur between cattle,
sheep, goat, camel and other species (Ghanem et al., 2009). These diseases have
great impact on economic development by affecting access to foreign markets,
124
apart from direct losses (morbidity and mortality) and indirect losses such as due
to the costs of treatment and control measures. Brucellosis has considerable public
health importance as owners (Abbas et al., 1987; Gameel et al., 1993) consume
raw camel milk. The prevalence is higher in intensive camel production systems
where large numbers of animals are kept in close proximity in a farm. In extensive
management system the prevalence is low (Abbas and Agab, 2002). Infected
animals show clinical signs of abortion and stillbirth in female and orchitis and
epididymitis in male animals and infertility in both sexes (Radostits et al., 2006;
Agab, 1997; Straten et al., 1997). In diversified production systems the disease
circulates in sheep, goats and cattle and further spreads to dromedaries (Andreani
et al., 1982; Radwan et al., 1992). Camels are not known to be the primary host for
any of Brucella organisms but they are susceptible to both B. abortus and B.
melitensis (Musa and Shigidi, 2001).
The studies conducted in Ethiopia to investigate brucellosis in camels showed that
the seroprevalence rate is generally low. Teshome et al. (2003) has reported 5.7
and 4.2% seroprevalence of brucellosis in camels kept in 3 arid and semi arid
regions of Ethiopia (Afar, Somali, Borana) using Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and
Complement Fixation Test (CFT), respectively. Teshome (2003) also reported 5.2%,
2.8% and 1.2 % seroprevalence from Afar, Somali and Borena which is statistically
significant (P<0.5). Omar et al., (2011) reported 1.6% overall seroprevalence of
brucellosis in Dire Dawa area is in agreement with the 1.8% seroprevalence in
Borena zone of southern Ethiopia by demonstrated Bekele (2004); 1.7% in Tigray
and 1.7% in Hararghe regions of Ethiopia by Domenech et al., (1977). Brucellosis in
camels has been reported in many countries showing different seroprevalences:
Saudi Arabia, 4.3-8.6% (Radwan et al., 1992); Egypt, 10-20% (Radwan et al.,
1992); Sudan, 4.9% (Abu Damir et al., 1984) and Somalia, 3.1% (Ghanem et al.,
2009). These varying reactor rates for camel brucellosis in different countries may
be due to varying husbandry and management practice, susceptibility of the
animal, virulence of the organisms, presence of the reactor animals in the region,
absence of veterinary service, lack of awareness by the nomads about the diseases
and the pastoralists movement from place to place.
Mastitis
Mastitis is an important camel disease, owing to its economic and public health
significance. As in other dairy animals, clinical mastitis in camel is self-evident and
can be detected without special tests by examination of the udder and milk.
Detection of sub-clinical mastitis is, however, difficult and depends on various test
procedures aimed at detecting Pathogens and indicators of inflammation in the
milk.
There are few studies concerning the etiology, occurrence and pathogenesis of
mastitis in Camelidae (Abdel Gadir et al. 2006). Recently, however, cases of
mastitis in camels have been reported from a number of camel keeping countries
125
including Somalia (Abdurahman et al., 1998), Sudan (Obied et al., 1996), Kenya
(Younan et al., 2001), Israel (Guliye et al. 2002) and from different parts of Ethiopia
(Almaw and Molla 2000; Woubit et al., 2001; Bekele and Molla 2001; Abdel Gadir
et al., 2006; Abera et al., 2010).
An intensive study of camel mastitis was conducted by Abera et al., (2010) in
Jigjiga and a total of 145 lactating camels were examined clinically as well as subclinically using mastitis test card with subsequent bacteriological examinations.
Clinical and sub-clinical mastitis were prevalent in 8.3% and 20.7% of the studied
animals, respectively. This gives an overall mastitis prevalence of 29.0% at animal
and 17.9% at quarter levels. The microbiological study of Abera et al., (2010)
showed that Gram positive cocci were the most dominant bacteria comprising
54.5% of the isolates followed by Staphylococcus species (49.1%), Bacillus species
(20.0%), Streptococcus species (5.5%) and E. coli (7.7%). Studies reported that tick
infestation and uses of anti-suckling device (tying the teat with tree fibers) to
prevent calves from suckling the dam are the major predisposing factors for the
occurrence of mastitis in camels.
The study of camel mastitis conducted by Woubit et al., (2001) found that the
major mastitis pathogens isolated were species of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Micrococcus, Corynebacterium and Bacillus, and Actinomyces pyogenes,
Escherichia coli and Pasteurella haemolytica (Table 7.3). The result showed that
the more camels were affected by sub-clinical mastitis than clinical mastitis.
Figure 7.3:
Pictures
that show
lacerations
of the
udder
(Source:
Bekele
Megerssa)
126
Table 7. 3: Mastitis pathogens isolated from camels with clinical and subclinical
mastitis
Number of cases
Clinical
Mastitis pathogens
mastitis
Staphylococcus aureus
2
Staph. hyicus
1
Streptococcus
dysgalactiae
0
Strept. Agalactiae
2
Enterococcus faecalis
0
Strept. Uberis
0
Micrococcus spp.
0
Staph. intermedius
0
Staph. epidermidis
0
Corynebacterium
ulcerans
0
Corynebacterium bovis
0
Actinomyces pyogenes
0
Escherichia coli
0
Pasteurella haemolytica
0
Bacillus spp.
0
Total
5
(Source: Woubit et al., 2001)
Subclinical
mastitis
171
206
Total number
(%)
173 (21.1)
207 (25.3)
28
24
18
7
86
67
81
28 (3.4)
26 (3.2)
18 (2.2)
7 (0.9)
86 (10.5)
67 (8.2)
81 (9.9)
15
13
5
3
1
88
813
15 (1.8)
13 (1.6)
5 (0.6)
3 (0.4)
1 (0.1)
88 (10.8)
818
Tuberculosis
In pastoral communities of Afar, Somali and Borena, camels are kept almost
entirely for milk production. In these communities, camel milk is consumed raw,
and this habit combined with close physical contact with their animals create a
potential public health concern for transmission of zoonotic diseases such as
tuberculosis (TB) from animals to the pastoralist. Although, the extent of TB has
been well documented in humans and most domestic animals, very little is known
about the pathology and cause of camel TB in pastoral areas of the world. Camel
TB has been reported in Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Australia
(Gezahegn et al., 2011). Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis),
Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), and atypical mycobacteria such as
Mycobacterium kansasii (M. kansasii), Mycobacterium aquae (M. aquae),
127
Mycobacterium fortuitum (M. fortuitum) and Mycobacterium smegmatis (M.

smegmatis) have been isolated in camel as causative agents of camel TB.
In Ethiopia, few studies have been conducted to understand the distribution of
camel tuberculosis, but still there is a paucity of information on the pathology and
the causative agent of TB in camels of pastoral regions of the country. Gezahegn et
al., (2009) conducted the first study using cross sectional sampling and reported
5.07% prevalence in postmortem examination from Dire Dawa abattoir. Recently
Gezahegn et al., (2011) conducted research on Camel TB to investigate the
pathology of camel tuberculosis (TB) and characterize its causative agents using
postmortem examination, mycobacteriological culturing, and multiplex
polymerase chain reaction (PCR). From 14 samples processed, 4 were positive
forthe growth of mycobacteria on pyruvate-enriched Loewenstein-Jensen medium
indicating the presence of Mycobacterium bovis. The research findings indicate the
presence of tuberculosis in camel of Ethiopia and warrants further investigation
with respect to its epidemiological and public health significance.
Figure 7.4: Tuberculous lesions from camels in different organs (Source: Gezahegn
Mamo et al, 2011)
1) Disseminated and distinct tuberculous lesions in mediastinal parts of the lung.
(2) Tuberculous lesion in mediastinal lymph node and nodules on other parts as
128
indicated by arrows. (3) Tuberculous lesions in hepatic lymph node. The arrows
show that pea-sized lesions throughout the lymph node. (4) Tuberculous lesion in
mesenteric lymph nodes as indicated by arrow.
Anthrax
Camel anthrax is an acute or peracute disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. Bacillus
anthracis spores may remain viable in the ground for 60 years. Fazil (1977)
indicated that the disease in camels is similar to that in other species but Leese
(1969) is more specific, observing that camel anthrax is similar to the form
observed in horses and pigs. Major signs observed include oedematous swelling of
the head, throat, neck and body. Involvement of the throat may lead to difficult
breathing and swallowing. It is possible for death to occur without septicaemia,
and apoplectic and diarrhoeic forms may also be observed.
In Ethiopia, Richard (1976) reported serious outbreaks of anthrax in camels, with
some grazing areas being notorious for the disease. Bremaud (1969) wrote that
anthrax was particularly rampant in the Wajir camel herding area of eastern Kenya.
7.2 Viral diseases
Viral Respiratory Infection
Pulmonary diseases are among the emerging problems of camels that are causing
considerable loss in production and death (Zubair et al., 2004; Kane et al., 2005).
However, the definitive etiologies of most respiratory diseases of camels have not
yet been determined as a variety of viruses, fungi, bacteria and parasites are to be
the possible causes of respiratory outbreaks among camels (Schwartz and Dioli,
1992). Dioli and Stimmelmary (1992) reported that the viruses that have been
associated with respiratory infections in camels are Parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV3),
Influenza viruses A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and bovine
herpes virus-1(BHV1).Various lower respiratory tract diseases have been reported
in camels, but the definitive etiology of most respiratory diseases is not
determined.
Most of the studies on camels were of parasitic infestations (Al-Rawashdeh et al.,
1999). Al-Tarazi (2001) and other authors had isolated and characterized many
bacterial agents from pneumonic camel lungs. However, there is little or no
information on possible viral etiologies of camel pneumonia or viral flora in camels
in Ethiopia. Recently a study was conducted from September 2010- June 2011 at
Debre Zeit National Veterinary Institute (NVI) in an attempt to isolate and
characterize respiratory viruses from pneumonic lungs of camels slaughtered at
Addis Ababa Akaki abattoir (Wossene, 2011). The study findings showed that out
of thirty five (35) pneumonic camel lungs that were cultured 27 were CPE- positive
characterized mainly by initial rounding of vero cells, elongation, syncytia
formation, swelling and rounding, floating and sloughing of cells (Table 7.4).
129
During the study period the involvement of respiratory syncytial virus and
adenovirus were confirmed as a causative agents for camel respiratory diseases.
Table 7.4 Summary of conventional PCR test results
No.
samples
tested
of
Virus species tested
PCR Results
Positives
Adenovirus
Peste
des
virus(PPRV)
petits
ruminants
Negatives
10
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
Parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV3)
Parainfluenza virus 2 (PIV2)
Parainfluenza virus1(PIV1)
Peste des Petits Ruminants in camel

PPR has been thought to be a disease of only domestic (sheep and goats) and wild
small ruminants. However, PPRV antibodies were detected in cattle in Mali (1.7%),
Cameroon (4.5%), 0.3% in Sudan (Intisar et al., 2010), 20.2% in small ruminants
and also 3% in camels in Ethiopia (Gopillo et al., 2005). PPRV antigen has been
detected in an outbreak of respiratory disease in camel and sick domestic
buffaloes (Roger et al., 2000, Govindrajan et al, 1997 and Khalafalla et al., 2010).
PPRV was suspected to be involved in the epizootic disease that affected camels in
Ethiopia in 1995-1996. According to Rogers et al. (2001) considering the extremely
rapid spread of the disease in Ethiopia, and the fact that the antibiotics had no
effect, they presupposed that the disease observed was initiated by a virus. PPRV
antigen and PPRV nucleic acid were detected in some pathological samples
collected during that outbreak, but no live virus was isolated (Mebratu, 1999). The
outbreak has received growing attention because of its wide spread economic
impacts (Lefevre and Diallo, 1990) and the role it plays in complication of the
ongoing global eradication of rinderpest and epidemiological surveillance
programs (Rogers et al., 2001; Couacy-Hymann et al., 2002; Abraham et al., 2005;
Chauhan, et al., 2009).
130
Most recently Fitsum (2011) conducted a PPR serological study in Afar areas and
found an overall prevalence rate of 13.7% in the study areas. The overall
seroprevalence rate reported in this study is higher than the previous findings from
Ethiopia where seropositivity of 7.8 % (Roger et al., 2001), 3% (Abraham et al.,
2005) and 1.5% (Megersa, 2010) were reported. The result is also higher than
other findings reported from Egypt with 4.2 % seroprevalence (Ismail et al., 1992)
and from Turkey (Albayrak and Gur, 2010) where all the camels tested where
seronegative. The result of current study is similar to the finding from Sudan with
14% seroprevalence (Haroun et al., 2002).
Camel Sudden Death Syndrome
In 2005/06 in Afar and Kereyu area in Oromia region, there was a huge camel
mortality which was characterized by sudden death (Wernery et al., 2006). Also in
2007 a similar syndrome was reported from Somali region and Guji and Borena
zones of Oromia. During the 2005/06 outbreak the Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Development (MOARD) invited scientists from Plum Island Animal Disease
Centre, USA, and the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL) of Dubai to
conduct disease investigations in collaboration with Ethiopian veterinarians from
the National Veterinary Institute (NVI), the National Animal Health Diagnosis and
Investigation Centre (NAHDIC) Sebeta, Regional Veterinary Laboratories. The team
attempted to identify the cause of the disease, but were unable to draw definitive
conclusions.. During this investigation the majority of the camels examined
(necropsy or serology) had parasites including haemonchosis, trypanosonosis,
tapeworms and other round worms and also bacteriologically different species of
bacteria were isolated such as E. coli, Clostridium perferenigens, Sterptococuss,
Enterobacter amnigenus, Bacillus cereus and others, but none of these is
pathogenic under normal condition, particularly for adult animals including camels.
The histopathological investigation revealed lymphoctic myocarditis, in some
instances combined with myocardial degeneration and necrosis which indicated
the presence of viral infection, but no virus was isolated. Virus isolation was also
attempted at the NVI and Plum Island facilities using different cell lines. Cytopathic
effect (CPE) was observed in vero cells, IBRS-2 and BHK cells. However, electron
microscopy and microarray studies were inconclusive and a viral agent has not yet
been identified.
131
Figure 7.5: Picture of a dead camel in Negelle area (Source; Gelagay Ayelet, 2007)
A similar camel disease was reported from Sudan in August 2004, clinically the
disease was characterized by sudden death of apparently healthy animals and
yellowish and later bloody diarrhea and abortion. The researchers conducted
several laboratory tests such as Agar gel diffusion test (AGDT), RT-PCR and virus
isolation in cell culture and reported that tests were positive for peste des petits
ruminants virus (PPRV), a virus belonging to the Morbillivirus genus, member of
the family Paramyxoviridae (Abdelmelik et al, 2010).
A similarly study was conducted at National Veterinary Institute by Dejene (2010)
on samples collected from Borena area during the 2007 camel sudden death
outbreaks with the aim of identifying viral agents. During this study virus isolation
was attempted in Vero and lines cells; four specimens yielded cytopathic virus
when inoculated onto the Vero cell culture. The cytopathic effect (CPE) consisted
of round floating cells, giant cells, rounded refractive cells, ballooning of cells,
sloughing, and some syncytia formation was observed from day two to day seven
post inoculation. The appearance of the CPE was similar among the different
purified tissue samples used for cell infection. The growth of virus was confirmed
by degenerate oligonucleotide primed PCR and RNA virus was detected, both from
tissue and cell culture. The isolated virus types confirmed to of the adenovirus,
morbillivirus, parainfluenza 1-3 and respiratory syncytial virus groups.
Pathogenicity studies on laboratory animals were conducted to determine the
132
progress of the disease under laboratory conditions in laboratory animals. For this
purpose 20 mice of 3-4 weeks of age and 20 adult guinea pigs were used. The
guinea pigs were showed depression, weakness, inappetance, erected and rough
hair, rise in body temperature as well as heart beat and fast and labored breathing
starting from the third day of inoculation onwards. The assay resulted in the death
of six guinea pigs 20 days post inoculation. The negative control animals also died
between 29 to 32 days post contact without showing any clinical signs of disease,
while the mice remain healthy throughout observation period. The finding showed
that guinea pig can serve as a model animal for further study.
Figure 7.6
The
cytopathic
effects (CPEs
of infected
vero cells
with camel
sudden
death
samples.
(Source;
Gelagay
Ayelet,)
Table 7.5 Growth of virus on two cell lines and amplification by DOP PCR from samples
collected during the sudden death outbreak.
Amplification by DOP PCR

No
Tissue
Growth
Growth
DNA
type
on Vero
on Dubca
tissue
culture
tissue
culture
lung
Nt
heart
++
++
liver
++
++
heart blood
++
++
lung
Nt
++
++
RNA
nt= no trial, += weak positive, ++= strong positive and - = negative
133
Camel Pox
Camel pox is a wide-spread infectious viral disease of both Old World and New
World camelids. It occurs throughout the camel-breeding areas of Africa, north of
the equator, the Middle East and Asia, causing economic impact through loss of
production and sometimes death. The disease is characterized by fever, local or
generalised pox lesions on the skin and in the mucous membranes of the mouth,
respiratory and digestive tracts. The clinical manifestations range from inapparent
infection to mild, moderate and, less commonly, severe systemic infection and
death. The disease occurs more frequently and more severely in young animals.
Transmission is by either direct contact between infected and susceptible animals
or indirect infection via a contaminated environment. The incubation period is
usually 913 days (varying between 3 and 15 days). Skin lesions appear 13 days
after the onset of fever, starting as erythematous macules, developing into
papules and vesicles, and later turning into pustules. Crusts develop on the
ruptured pustules. These lesions first appear on the head, eyelids, nostrils and the
margins of the ears. In severe cases the whole head may be swollen. Later, skin
lesions may extend to the neck, limbs, genitalia, mammary glands and perineum.
In the generalised form, pox lesions may cover the entire body. Skin lesions may
take up to 46 weeks to heal. In the systemic form of the disease, pox lesions can
be found in the mucous membranes of the mouth, respiratory and digestive tracts.
The Mortality due to camel pox is reported to range from 2% in the mild form, and
28% to 40% in the severe or systemic form (Abbas and Omer, 2005).
The only study of camel pox in Ethiopia was reported by Bekele Megerssa (2010) in
Borena area. His study was mainly based on observation and he reported the
occurrence of seasonal variation; 14.2%, 0.3% and ???% prevalence during minor
wet, major wet, and dry seasons respectively. This may be due to the fact that
moisture may enhance virus stability in the environment and increase subsequent
transmission to susceptible animal.
134
Figure 7.7: Pictures that show camel pox lesion (Source: Dr. Ulli. Wernery)
Camel Contagious Echthyma

This is predominantly a disease of young camels less than one year old, and is
caused by a parapox virus. It is characterized by the sudden onset of a pustular
dermatitis involving primarily the oral mucosa, particularly the gums around the
incisors, lips, and nostrils (Munz et al., 1986). The pustules develop into fissured
crusts that affect lips severely, leading to complete cessation of feeding or
suckling. The disease spreads quickly in affected herds; all camel calves born during
the same calving season could develop the disease. Khalafalla et al. (1994) have
indicated that browsing on thorny trees during the early rainy season may be one
of the important predisposing factors as the injuries inflicted while browsing could
facilitate the entrance of the causative agent into the body. Swelling of the head
and buccal hemorrhages have been described in severe cases. This may reduce the
body condition and immune respose of affected animals thereby increasing
susceptibility to infectious diseases. The disease usually passes off without causing
death, but 6.6% herd mortality and 38% case fatality rates have been reported
(Khalafalla et al., 1994). The disease has been reported from neighboring
countries, including Kenya (Munz et al., 1986), Somalia (Moallin and Zessin, 1988)
and Sudan (Khalafalla et al., 1994; Agab and Abbas, 1999). Housawi et al. (2004)
reported severe lesions of the disease in one-month-old Saudi camel calves
suffering from lesions on the lips and hard palates and manifesting clinical signs
such panting and restlessness, pain and anorexia following appearance of the
lesions.
135
The occurrence of the disease in Ethiopia was reported by Bekele Megersa (2010)
in young calves with higher incidence rates during the wet seasons (16.0 21.2%)
than the dry period (1.4%). Such a seasonal pattern of occurrence of the disease
was also observed by Agab and Abbas (1999), with higher prevalence during the
rainy season.
Figure 7.8:
Megerssa)
Pictures that show Camel contagious echthyma lesion (Source: Bekele
7.3 Parastic diseases

Mange Mite (Sarcoptes sacabi cameli)
Infestation of skin caused by mites is a big problem in camels as it may lead to
death. Mange infection is a highly contagious disease which can spread to animals
associated with infected animals. The mite may transmit directly by contact or
indirectly through objects such as the saddle, harnessing materials, bedding and
tree trunks. It tends to spread more quickly during cold weather when animal
coats usually grow long and the animals huddle together more often (MukasaMugerwa, 1981). Agab and Abbas (1999) observed a seasonal pattern of mange
mite infection with lower prevalence during the summer season. Close contact of
camels particularly at water points could be responsible for increased exposure
during the dry period of the study. Moreover, feed shortages that reduces the
immunity of the animals may also account for increased prevalence and severity of
the disease during dry periods. The commonest parasites which affected
dromedary camels are sarcoptic and psoroptic mites (Mouchira, 2009).
136
Mange mite infection due to Sarcoptes scabiei var cameli was one of the most
commonly encountered camel diseases in Borana with severe clinical
manifestations. Sarcoptic mange infections were more prevalent and severe during
the dry periods. Moreover, the disease was more severe in young and female
animals (Tefera, 1985) transmission was common during suckling hence the head
of the young and genitalia of the female were the most infection sites. Prevalence
of over 50% was observed by Bekele Megersa (2010) who reported concomitant
infection with other diseases including contagious skin necrosis, abscess and
contagious ecthyma.
Camel mange, sacoptes scabi cameli is very difficult to detect in skin scrapings
boiled with 10% potassium hydroxide. One has to leave the sample in the boiled
solution for longer than 3 hours after boiling in order to to see the mange mites
under a microscope (Tefera, 1985).
Figure7.9: Skin problems

associated with mange
and secondary infection
(Source: Bekele
Megerssa)
137
Tick Infestations
Ticks are a major constraint on the worlds livestock industry. Ticks exert a major
hindrance to improving animal production in the tropical and subtropical regions
of the world by transmitting devastating and often fatal livestock diseases, causing
blood loss, damage to hides and udder, and paralysis (Zeleke and Bekele, 2004). In
Ethiopia, ticks and tick born diseases cause considerable losses to the livestock
economy, ranked third among the major parasitic diseases, after trypanosomosis
and endoparasitism (Pegram et al., 1981). Numerous studies have been
conducted on the ticks and tick-borne diseases of cattle and small ruminants in
Ethiopia, but work on camel ticks is scanty, despite the vital role that camels play
in the livelihood of Ethiopian nomadic society and the likely impact of ticks on their
productivity.
A study conducted by Zeleke and Bekele (2004) to identify the species of ticks
found on camels (Camelus dromedarius) and their seasonal population dynamics in
Eastern Ethiopia showed that the most abundant species of ticks on the camels
were Rhipicephalus pulchellus (85.2%), Hyalomma dromedarii (5.9%), Amblyomma
gemma (4.0%) and Amblyomma variegatum (1.8%). The average tick load per
camel was higher during rainy months than during dry months. The smallest
number of ticks per camel was observed during the driest month (December),
whereas the highest was recorded in the wettest month (August).
A similar study conducted by Bekele Megerssa (2010) in the Borena area revealed
that the pooled seasonally collected ticks belonged to the three genera, namely
Repicephalus (83.2%), Amblyoma (13.6%) and Hyaloma (1.2). The species
identified include R. pulchalus (77.5), R. eversi (18), Amblyoma gemma (13.4%),
Amblyoma vargatum, Amblyoma lipedum, Hyaloma dromedari. The tick Boophilus
is rarely found on camel (Tefera, 1985).
Gastrointestinal Tract Parasitic Diseases
Gastrointestinal helminths cause losses through morbidity and hidden effects on
feed intake, efficiency of nutrient utilisation and also reduce growth rate in young
animals and as a result lead to reduction in productivity and performance of the
infested animal. Rutagwende (1985) stated that dromedary helminthosis is the
third most important production constraint.
Several studies have been conducted in Ethiopia to determine the prevalence, type
of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) parasite in camel and to understand the seasonal
occurrence of the disease. Bekele (2002) conducted one study in the Jigjiga area
and found that of 752 dromedaries examined, 75% were infested by nematodes.
This indicates the extent of the problem in the dromedary rearing areas of eastern
arid lands of Ethiopia. Also Abebe (1991), Birhanu (1986), Melesse (1995) and
138
Bekele and Tezera (1998) has reported prevalence rates of 87.0, 91.5, 95.3, and
95.1%, respectively, from different camel rearing areas of the country.
On the basis of fecal (1,500 samples) and postmortem examination, Richard (1979)
estimated that 92% of the animals examined in various parts of Ethiopia were to
some degree infested with internal parasites (80% with Strongyles ova, 10% with
Strongyloides larvae and 16% with Trichuris ova). Fourteen helminth species were
identified on postmortem examination, the main ones being Monezia spp., Stilesia
vittata, Avitellina centripunctata, Trichuris globosus, Haemonchus contortus,
Trichostrongylus spp. and Impalaia somaliensis. Mixed infections with
Haemonchus sp., Trichuris sp., Cooperia sp. Nematodirus and Trichostrongylus sp.,
to name a few, are the most common. Bekele. (2002) examined sixteen
dromedary gastrointestinal organs for identification and counts of helminths.
Among the adult worms he identified in the abomasum, Haemonchus longistipes
was the most prevalent (94%). From the small intestine Trichostrongylus
colubriformis, Trichostrongylus probolurus, Impalaia tuberculata and Strongyloides
papillosus were identified with prevalence rates of 75, 25, 63 and 20%,
respectively. Moreover, cestodes such as Moniezia benedeni, Moniezia expansa,
Avitellina spp. and Stilesia globipunctata with prevalence rates of 31, 13, 25 and
19%, respectively, were identified.
Sarcocystiosis
A survey of sarcocystis was conducted in camels from southern Ethiopia in
1998/99 by M. Woldemeskel and B. Gumi who worked on a total of 605
haematoxylin and eosin-stained tissue samples from cardiac, diaphragm, shoulder,
masseter and oesophagus muscles of 121 adult camels and 20 tissue samples from
four fetuses. According to their findings sarcocysts were detected in 55 of 121
(45.45%) camels examined. The infestation rate of oesophagus, diaphragm,
shoulder, masseter and cardiac musculatures were 19.83, 11.57, 12.4, 8.26 and
9.17%, respectively. There was no signifcant (P > 0.05) variation between males
(48.6%) and females (40.82%), nor between the two sites studied (Dollo Addo, 40%
versus Negelle Borana 47.25%). None of the 20 tissue samples from the four
fetuses examined harboured sarcocysts.
Trypanosomosis
Among many diseases that affect camels in Ethiopia, trypanosomosis (Surra) is the
most important parasitic diseases (Richard, 1979; Getahun Demeke, 1998;
Thewodros Tekle and Getachew Abebe, 2001) The disease which is widely
distributed throughout camel rearing areas of the Somali, Oromiya (Borena) and
Afar regions (Figure 7.10 and causes considerable economic damage due to loss of
beasts of burden and food. The causative agent of surra (T. evansi) is unicellular
flagellated protozoan parasite belonging to the subgenus Trypanozoon.
139
Morphologically T. evansi is monomorphic and similar to the slender form of T.

brucei. The similarity between T. evansi and T. brucei has led to the suggestion
that T. evansi evolved from T. brucei when camels accidentally came in contact
with tsetse flies infected with T. brucei and gradually disseminated the infection by
caravans travelling across the Sahara (Hoare, 1972).
Figure 7.10 Camel trypanosomosis areas based on parasitological data, NDVI and Tmax
Change (Getachew Abebe, 2005)
Due to the fact that the disease is characteristically found outside the tsetse belts,
it is considered that T. evansi is transmitted mechanically by biting flies such as
Tabanus and Stomoxys. The parasite is incapable of cyclical development in tsetse
fly because it lacks the genes needed for formation of the mitochondrion, which is
a prerequisite for cyclically transmitted members of the brucei groups (Hoare,
1972). The distribution of surra in Ethiopia coincides with the distribution of
camels, which is far away from the tsetse belts of the country.
The pathogenesis of T. evansi infection in camels varies according to the virulence
of the particular strain of parasite, the susceptibility of the host and the local
epidemiological conditions such as the presence of carrier animals and the vector
(Figure 7.11).
140
Figure 7.11: Transmission of Trypanosoma evansi in the presence of carrier animal and the
vector
The acute form of the disease is characterized by intermittent fever, subcutaneous

edematous swelling, progressive anemia, dullness, lethargy, petechiala
hemorrhage of the mucosa and discharge from the eye. In the more chronic form,
which may last up to three years, there is a continuation of the anemia and
progressive emaciation and weakness, often accompanied by development of skin
abscesses (Figure 7. 11 and 7. 12). In Ethiopia surra tends to occur in the chronic
form. Recent epidemiological studies on camel trypanosomosis in Borena region
indicated a prevalence of 10 and 50% using parasitological and serological tests,
respectively (Getahun Demeke, 1998).
141
Figure 7.12: Trypanosome infected camel with poor body condition (Source: Getachew
Abebe)
Figure 13: Trypanosoma evansi in camel blood smear (Source: Getachew Abebe)
142
The integration of camel husbandry into the traditional pastoral economy of the
Southern rangelands is a recent development. The Borena pastoralist who have
lost large number of cattle due to droughts have started to rely on camels as a
more reliable insurance against climatic calamities (Dessalegn Belete, 1984).
Because of limited available grazing lands it is common to see camels herded with
cattle and small ruminants. As a consequence, exposure to contagious diseases
and various endo- and ecto-parasites leads to high morbidity and mortality and
consequent restriction of herd growth and productivity. In realization of this fact, a
study was conducted to determine the prevalence of camel trypanosomosis and
helminthiasis in the southern rangelands of Borena, Ethiopia (Thewodros Tekle and
Getachew Abebe, 2001). Out of 391 blood samples examined 43 (10.9%) were
found to be positive for T. evansi. The disease caused by T. evansi infection is well
known to the breeders by the local name "Dhukane" and is given the first place in
its order of importance among camel diseases. Clinical signs observed in the acute
cases of the disease were hyper-lachrimation, rough hair coat, weakness and
depression. The camel owners also reported a sharp decline in milk production and
abortions in pregnant animals. Trypanosomes were observed in the blood smear of
the animals in the acute stageof the disease. In its chronic form camel owners
reported that the disease was manifested by emaciation, disappearance of the
hump, weakness and general loss of production, decreased milk production and
long calving interval.
Contrary to the parasitological findings, a large proportion of camels were showing
the clinical signs of trypanosomosis. The chronic nature of the disease and the
possible presence of trypanosomes in extravascular locations (Ngernawa et al.,
1993) might explain the difficulty in demonstrating trypanosomes in the blood of
chronically infected camels by the routine laboratory methods employed in this
study. Although blood examinations showed negative results, the response to
treatment resulted in improvement of the health of the camels as stated by the
breeders and this is taken as a good indication of the widespread presence of the
disease in its chronic form.
Balatidiosis
It is a GIT protozoal parasite of camel. Most
camels were infected with no symptoms
(Tefera, 1985).
Balantidium cameli was found in all 200 fecal
samples of camels examined by direct smear
in the Dire-Dawa clinic. The camels were
apparently healthy with no clinical sign. Fecal
samples revealed a ciliate protozoon,
Balantidium cameli. In 50% of the samples we
143
found only the ciliate, while in 24% there were ciliates and strongyle-type eggs.
The consistency of the feces of associated animals was viscous (Tefera, 1985).
No human were affected by it. The species could be opportunistic infection and its
pathogenecity should be determined in the future
Figure 7.14 Balantidia cameli
Cephalopinasis
The disease is caused by Cephalopina titillator, which is an obligate parasite of
camel, and the larvae of which cause nasal myiasis. The larvae infect the posterior
pharyngeal pouch and nasal mucosae of camels. Many investigators have reported
the occurrence of the disease in Ethiopia. Richard (1979), Tefera (1985) reported
that 100% of the Ethiopian camels are infected with C. titillator, in Borena and
Harar which is the highest prevalence rate ever reported in the country. Kassa
(1995) and Bekele (2001) reported that 99.3% and 71.7 % of camels at Dire Dawa
were harboring the larvae respectively.
Figure 7.15: Cepalosis titillator Source (Tefera, 1985)
144
Figure 7.16: Swelling of hind legs and

necrotic tissue (Unknown Camel Disease)
CAMEL DISEASES OF UNKNOWN ETHIOLOGIES

Camel health is a major determinant for improving the productivity and capacity of pastoral
subsistence production, thereby supporting human livelihoods Improving animal health
care would be a positive intervention in pastoral development. However, the camel is highly
pain tolerant and it is difficult to observe clinical signs as easily as in other animals. Camels
inhabit very remote areas where veterinary services cannot be easily accessed. and owners
must rely on ethnoveterinary medicine. The camel seems to be spared from the devastating
epidemic infections which threaten other livestock species in the same region, e.g.
rinderpest, contagious pleuropneumonia and foot and mouth disease, the animal is
however affected by many other diseases, some of which are unknown to date. Camel
diseases that are shared with other species of livestock are comparatively well-known,
while other camel-specific diseases, although well-known to pastoralists for generations,
still remain a mystery to the scientific community. And international collaboration is
important befor a new emerging disease spread.
The rise of unknown Camel diseases namely camel hind leg paralysis which is believed to be
due to ingestion of the plant Capparis tomentosa (the Somali vernacular name is Gomorr or
Gomboor) should also be mentioned at this point. However toxicity studies conducted by
Tefera (1985) demonstrated that this plant is innocuous. The tick Hyaloma has been
incriminated in the respiratory disease complex, and camel sudden death syndrome. This
needs to be investigated in detail. But as 60% of camels are distributed in 4 poor nations,
Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia and Djbouti it will be difficult to undertake research due to
limitation of resource. However there is hope through the concept of one world one
medicine.
145
Saddle wound in camel

Saddle sores were the most frequent problem encountered in adult male camels
as they are used as pack animals. Each camel has its own harness but as the saddle
is not adjustable fluctuations in the hump size due to nutrition or disease may
result in wounds due to friction.
Camels occasionally suffer wounds varying from slight abrasions to deep
penetrating, suppurating lesions which may reach the bone especially at the wither
and loin (Leese, 1927). Occasionally the skin is ulcerated from pressure and
rubbing on neighbouring objects. The adjacent lymph nodes may be involved and
may contain pus.The chief causes of these wounds are badly fitting saddles, bites
from wild animals or from other camels during the rut period. Sharp objects may
penetrate the pads (Singhvi and Bhargava, 1971; Ramadanet al, 1984 and Gahlot,
1984. Abscesses are more frequent in sites of tick bites mainly around the base of
the tail and neck of newly born animals. Other sites include the sides of the neck,
under and between the mandibles, pharanx, shoulder, elbow, sides of the thighs
popliteal and tarsal regions, the fetlock and pastern regions and the caudodorsal
part of the prepuce. The majority of the swellings are tender with a slightly hard
periphery and a soft centre. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis was isolated in
pure cultures from many cases (Radwanet et al., 1988; Cheema, 1983) and
Staphylococcus aureus (Ramadan et al., 1992) Individual abscesses must be
opened when ripe, the cavity is then smeared with tincture of iodine and the
animal given a prophylactic dose of antibiotic for 3-5 days. Large solitary abscesses
may be removed Shwartz and Dioli (1992) reported that singular or multiple
external and internal abscesses are a very common health problem in camels.
Several organisms have been isolated from abscesses such as Corynebacterium
spp., Staphytococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp. and
Actinomyces spp. In adult animals abscessation is usually a common sequel to
traumatic skin penetration. Infected fighting and puncture wounds caused by
thorns, wounds from predators, saddlesores, microlesions caused by ectoparasites
and faulty or nonsterile administration of veterinary drugs can lead to single or
multiple subcutaneous abscess formation. Abscessation of singular lymph nodes is
a common feature in camels.
Fowler (1992) reported that lacerations may occur on the lips, cheeks, face or legs.
Males may bite each other and dogs may attack younger individuals. Debridement
and thorough cleaning of the wound is essential. The skin of camelids is relatively
thicker than that of other species; thus infolding is not a serious problem.
However, there is less flexibility in the skin and it is more tightly adhered to the
underlying structures than in other species, making reconstructive surgery more
difficult. Tension sutures may be used as appropriate. All suture materials are
tolerated by camels. Purohit and Chouhan (1992) describe a detailed study of
wound healing in camels. Neem oil (Azadirecta indica), protomine zinc insulin and
146
camel-tissue-extract were evaluated as topical medicaments. The experimental

study was conducted in 24 camels, divided into 4 groups of 6 camels each and
observations were made over a 20 day period. In three groups full-thickness
cutaneous excisional open wound of 2.52.5 cm were made in the gluteal regions.
The wounds were treated separately with the dressing preparations and with
normal saline solution (control).The healing process were evaluated by clinical
(gross) observations, percent healing, histopathological and histochemical
examinations and biochemical analysis of biopsy specimens for hydroxyproline,
hexosamine, ascorbic acid and trace elements zinc, copper, iron and magnesium.
In the fourth group, cutaneous incisional wounds of 1.5 cm were made on the
gluteal regions and the topical preparations were applied separately to wounds
prior to closure. Mechanical evaluations of breaking strength, tensile strength,
extensibility and energy absorption were performed using the in vitro strip
method. The dressing materials all enhanced tissue repair in the order of insulin
(best), tissue extract and neem oil. Observations on 52 clinical cases supported
these findings.
Qureshi et al., (2002) isolated bacterial microflora from 70 pus samples collected
over a period of 6 months from skin wounds and abscesses in 70 adult male camels
in and around Bikaner city. The percentage frequency of various bacterial genera
and species was recorded and 28 species were identified belonging to 15 different
genera.The most abundant bacterial species encountered in wounds and abscesses
was Staphylococcus aureus (23.39%), present either as pure isolate or mixed with
other bacteria. Most of the isolates were recovered in both the seasons whereas
only few of the bacteria were isolated either in cooler months or only in moderate
months. Tibary and Anouassi (2004) performed a standing castration in 12 camels
of 24 to 28 months of age without complication. After administration of a low
doses of xylazine for sedation and butorphanol tartrate for analgesia, the patient is
placed in stocks and castration was performed as per routine. Advantages of this
technique include the lack of need for general anesthesia or casting which may
result in medical problems or injuries.. The pedestal wounds heal slowly. The
sternal pad injuries are relatively more difficult to treat because of their peculiar
location. Bengoumi et al., (2007) reported two kinds of cutaneous abscesses in
camels; lymphadenitis and skin abscesses. Of all the cases observed, lymphadenitis
represents 63% and especially affects camels less than 6 months of age. The
mortality was estimated as 18%, Staphylococcus aureus was isolated in 91% of
lymphadenitis cases and in 88% of skin necrosis cases. Corynebacterium ulcerans
and Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis were detected in association with
Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcus aureus was sensitive to spiramycin,
gentamicin, tobramycin, florphenicoland marbofloxacine, slightly resistant to
erythromycin, penicillin G, spiramycin and oxytetracyclin and resistant to oxacillin
and lincomycin.The treatment included local drainage and disinfection. The use of
injectable antibiotics is highly recommended in generalised abscesses. The
eradication of this disease must include tick infestation controls. Other surgical and
147
obstetrical interventions practiced by ethnoveterinarians in the study area

included the repositioning and splinting of bone fractures, closed and open
castration, amputation, blood-letting, relief of dystocia (foetotomy or traction),
repositioning of prolapsed uterus or vagina and the manual removal of retained
placenta. Other interventions included management of teat obstruction (corrected
by insertion of a thin, well-polished, fresh Acacia stick), fumigation, and massage.
Salt was the disinfectant of choice in the desert, to clean old wounds prior to
dressing with the ashed leaves, roots or seeds of several plants (Table 7.02). Bone
fractures were corrected by the use of wood supports (loccally known as Gabira)
tightly fixed around the fracture point by a strong thread or thin skin straps. The
healer approached the making of gabira after a detailed examination of the
fracture and the camel as a whole was made. Healers readily advised the slaughter
of animals in complicated cases, specially those following motor accidents or those
in which very fat animals were involved, or whenever the owners could not
provide the necessary nursing.
Figure
7.17
Saddle
soure in
camel
148
Figure 7.18 Traditional and improved camel saddles
149
In conclusion the health status of camel is very vital for the normal production and
productivity. Like other domestick animals camel suffer from different diseases of
bacterial, viral and parasitic origions in addition to physical trauma caused by
heavy loads of household assets and commercial goods. The heathcare of camels
and the extension packages are not well developed in Ethiopia due to the lack of
knowledge and skills in health delivery system. Particular emphasis should be
given to neonatal mortality not only affects the number young calves but also the
milk production.
150
CHAPTER 8: RESEARCH GAPS AND THEWAY FORWARD

Melaku Tefera
Campus. Ethiopia <melaku22@yahoo.com>
In Ethiopia camel research and development themes have not yet been considered
nationwide, though a few isolated attempts have been conducted mostly by
foreigners. The camel research programme through a national commodity
approach started in 1997. Almost 15 years of research on the camel have been
carried at Haramaya University. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at Debre-Zeit
has conducted some research on camels, most of these studies contributed to
students theses. Mekelle University, Werere Research Center and the Southern
Rangeland project have also undertaken research on camels.
Internationally, research and development work on camel production is carried out
in several countries with substantial national herds. For example the National
Veterinary Schools of Sudan, Egypt, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan,
India and Senegal. Other institutions are the Desert Center in Egypt, the Arid Zone
research in Australia, the Bikaner Institute in India and the Institute delvage et de
Medicine Veterinare des pays tropicaux in France, the United Nations
Environmental programme, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), FAO
etc.
The last two decades also show an increased scientific interest in all matters
pertaining to utilization and management of arid lands and with it a substantial
number of scientific publications related to camels.
Most of the publications concerned disease and veterinary aspects, comprising
34% of anatomy and morphology 16%, general physiology 12%, reproductive
physiology 10%. Studies on feeding and nutrition, productivity, production
systems, camel management and economics are rare. Those which have been
published are either based on small numbers of animals, short observation
periods, one-time surveys, interviews or estimates and simulations. Due to fact
that camel production is usually a migratory system and that it is practiced mainly
in remote areas with harsh living conditions., poor infrastructure and low
economic potential such studies would be difficult, time consuming and expensive.
As a consequence not a single long-term methodical study of any aspect of camel
productivity under pastoral production conditions has been published to date. This
makes virtually impossible to evaluate with any degree of certainty the economic
importance of camel production in Eastern Africa.
It can safely be stated that research on camels conducted during the past two
decades has had very little if any impact on promotion and development of camel
production. Numerous symposia and learned conferences on various aspects of
camel have taken place in recent years. Bibliographies on camel research have
151
appeared, national and international institutions have established coordinating

units produced. Newsletters and commissioned consultancies also feature.
However, to date there is still not a single project or programme in the field
focusing mainly on improvement of practical camel production in Eastern Africa
In the past the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) has been
operating without clear and consistent policies on camel research. Problems were
identified and activities initiated by researcher alone and sometimes were ownerdriven. Thus most of the research conducted was of little relevance toward solving
camel pastoral problems.
Rural development and agricultural policies in the last two decades have often
been a cause of resource degradation. These include the policies related to
excessive development of cash crops for export, policies for sedenterization of
nomads, villagization, low prices of agricultural commodities (which favor basically
the urban population).
Linkage between research-extension, to agricultural problem identification and
prioritization, evaluation of technologies and their diffusion was very weak and
non-participatory type. Pastoral development and range management projects
focused on animal health and transfer of western ranching technologies.
Camel research policy directions should address social and economic factors as
well. These factors influence camel herd management and production, yet most of
these factors are poorly understood and almost none has been rigorously
quantified.
Pastoral societies never function in isolation. Traditional links with outside world
include trade, involving the exchange of livestock for crop or other products and
other forms of cooperation with sedentary farming communities.
An important aspect of trade in arid areas is the use of camel as baggage animal.
The more the pastoralist society depends on their camel for subsistence, the less
willing the pastoralist will be to sell animals and their product. The production goal
of pastoralists is largely that of subsistence dairy and contingency meat production
attained by keeping livestock comprising of multiple herd species. African camels
are sold primarily for meat although sporadic attempts have also been made to
establish camel milk marketing system. The potential for camel hair production is
rarely mentioned and there are no reports of successful marketing operations for
commodities in Ethiopia.
The domestic and external support provided to this subsector has so far
concentrated on development programs.
Improved understanding of the existing production system strengthens research is
a prerequisite to the planning of effective pastoral development projects. Once
production systems have been thoroughly understood, packages of innovation
should be designed and introduced in the field under management conditions
appropriate to the pastoral group concerned. Given the high value attached to
independence by the pastoralists they must have the freedom to accept or reject
152
innovations. At any rate it is important to note that research should also carried
out on experimental stations. The packages should then be adapted in light of
initial experience, while more intensive research on specific components, offering
favorable projects for improvement should also be launched. Once a promising
improvement package has been identified, it can be recommended for extension
on a wide scale, with due regard to transferability to systems in which camel are
raised. A coordinated multi-disciplinary approach would appear to be necessary
Research gaps and Research Strategies
General objectives of camel research
Reduction of vulnerability of pastoral communities by increasing security,
access to water and pasture
Increase productivity of the camel
Increase production for export
Development of pastoralist institutions
Increase income by taking a value chain approach to marketing
Rangeland improvement and alleviation of environmental degradation
Research strategy
1) Breed improvement
2) Husbandry improvement
3) Feed amelioration
4) Camel health
5) Camel product and by products
6) Pastoralist socio-economy
1. Breed Improvement
There is no information on the classification of camel breeds, low genetic
potentialand lack of genetic improvement programs
Strategy
Population census
Systematic identification of phenotypes
Molecular characterization
On-farm and on-station breed evaluations
Selection and cross breeding
Breeding technologies and alleviating infertilities
Key areas: Breed characterization, selection, breed registration, reproduction,
2. Husbandry improvements
153
Indigenous knowledge, herding, mating, culling, weaning, milking, Factors that

affect productivity and welfare are not well studied. Technology transfer and
intensification are limited
Strategy
Develop improved management intervention packages
Assessment of husbandry options
Determine stress factors in camel production
Determine factors affecting breeding, culling, calving, weaning,
watering, herding
Develop systems of intensification and stratification
Impact assessment of new technologies for camel husbandry
Impact assessment of methods of artificial breeding
Fertility assessment
Key areas: Management package, reproductive performance, stress,
technology transfer, management model
3.
Feed and Nutrition
Nutritional investigation should continue to focus on capacity of the camel to

survive under stress. The relationship of anatomical and physiological
peculiarities, such as those of digestive system and the camel physiology are
not still fully understood. The role of trace elements, sodium balance and
vitamins need special attention. And the water requirement in relation to
production and growth is not very well known
Strategy
Understand nutrient requirement
Metabolic functions and disorders
Digestion and absorption
Nutritional deficiencies
Assessment of nutritional values of various browse species
Carrying capacities and grazing management
Water metabolism and frequency of watering
Role of trace elements and vitamins
Range ecology
Drought management
Key areas: Digestion and absorption, rumen microbiology, metabolism,
nutrient requirement, Feed data base, feed resources, range management
4. Camel Health
154
Camel health is a major determinant of productivity which is a crucial for

development of viable and self sustaining livestock marketing. It is essential for
improving pastoral productivity and thus its human support capacity. New
camel diseases are appearing, mortality in calves is extremely high,
Trypanosomosis is endemic, helminths and ectoparasites are widespread.
Strategy
Epidemiological study of camel diseases
Assessment of prophylactic and control measures
Etiological diagnosis of disease
Biological production
Pathogenesis
Clinical and laboratory investigation
Efficacy of therapeutic agents
Noninfectious diseases and poisoning
Ethno-veterinary investigation
Key areas: Epidemiology, ethiology, vaccinology, pathogenesis, laboratory,
clinic, therapeutics, non infectious diseases endo and ecto parasite, infectious
disease, Ethno veterinary
5. Camel product and byproduct
Information on supply and demand for camel milk is scarce, meat production is
low, possibility of camel for traction and sport competition is not exploited.
Nutritional values of camel milk and meat is not verywell known. Adding value
to camel products is not envisaged.
Strategy
Lactation in camelFactors influencing high and stable production
Milk processing
Milk nutritive value
Growth rates
Slaughtering methods
Dressing percentage and carcass quality
Camel hide and hair
Camel as draft animal and riding and sporting
Study on value chain market of camels and their products
Production of good and safe products
Key areas: Milk, meat, composition, growth arte, carcass quality, marketing
155
5. Socioeconomy
The pastoral production system can be simply viewed from a systems perspective.
In this case the various pastoral economic, social and organizational structure are
viewed as integrated and complementary to each other, they function to ensure
the survival of entire system in which livestock is the productive capital. The
success of livestock rearing thus revolve around efficient labor organization,
respect for the functionally prescribed norms and value communication networks,
religious beliefs, gender role delineation, resource management need to be
investigated
Strategy
Study of endogenous knowledge
Study of migration patter of various clans
Study labor availability and division of labor
Gender roles
Land tenure regulations
Religion
Demography
Community interaction
Conflict resolution
Key areas: Migration, labor, tenure, Endogenous knowledge, conflict resolution,
demography,
B. Pastoralist fate scenario
The nomads in the past have suffered a paucity of infrastructure and social
services and hence isolation from the center which has limited their integration to
the national economy. Government policies with regard to pastoral economies
have tended to favor state control in the direction of confining pastoralist to
particular territorial boundaries. The rational has been to get them to settle down
for ease of administrative and security service for them. In 1950 the Awash Valley
Authority was established and resulted in expansion of irrigated agriculture by
state and private individuals. In the 1960s, the Livestock and Meat Board was
established with the task of developing water points, markets, veterinary services
and roads. In the 1990s large towns such as Asayata and the new Semera town
projects have transformed the socioeconomy of the pastoralists. Many pastoralists
were transformed intogovernment employees, traders, wage laborers. In addition
an inflow of highland farmers into pastoral/agropastoral areas and expansion of
opportunistic farmers to agropastoral areas resultedin the following:
a) Migration to marginal areas
b) Seizing new grazing areas
c) Becoming sedentary or semi nomadic farmers
156
d) Abandoning camel pastoralism in favor of cattle and small ruminants

e) Abandoning pastoralism altogether
The views and approaches regarding pastoral development approaches are
conflicting; In general there are two schools of thoughts. One school advocates the
preservation of the traditional mode of pastoralism: these are, the conservatives.
The other group prescribing changes are known as reformists. Some of the
contrasting views regarding changes in pastoral system are listed in Table 2.
The opinions although they seem to be opposing, are rational. The important issue
here is the circumstance as each view is situation specific, as pastoral production
differs from area to area. Thus the views should be evaluated on prevailing
conditions.
Camel pastoralism is the most efficient mode of life adapted to arid and semi arid
environments. The rapid socioeconomic changes challenge its sustainability.
Advantage of pastoral production
a) Extensive use of resources meaning less stress on the environment
b) Livestock is a good investment
c) Livestock survive better than crops
d) Low population density decreases disease
e) Mobility provides a way to manage conflict
However, pastoral herds are poor producers, disease is rampant and reproduction
is slow unless series intervention is imitated its sustainability is questionable in the
advent of these changes camel production will remain important. The pastoral
production system has internal dynamism in response to socioeconomic changes ,
nay positive gains expected should be evaluated against the functional aspect of
indigenous practices . There should be appropriate legislation and policies
regarding the status and rights of pastoral habitat. Finally, the national body
responsible for pastoral affair. Intervention in pastoral area have to be
participatory. Decentralized decision making, water point and village
developments. Environmental rehabilitation through reforestation and range
improvement should be reinforced.
Table 2. Opinions to fate of pastoralism in the advent of change
Force of change
Commercialization of
pastoral production
Conservative opinion
It will change the
composition of the herd
in favor of cattle and
small ruminants.
Increase in marketing of
animals decreases the
number of animals for
traditional loans and
Reformist opinion
This trend is not harmful
to the pastoralist. It could
have selective advantage.
Livestock market is an
element of incorporation
of pastoral system into
force of
modernity.Improves the
157
gifts, loss of social and

economic network
Land degradation
Loss of land to other uses

(cows to crops)
Settlement
Pastoralist in their true

representation
supported by their
ingenious knowledge
are a creative dynamic
within their ecological
niches. Thus they have
traditional mechanisms
of avoiding it, hence
free grazing is
advocated by this school
Concentration of
pastoralists in marginal
areas, land degradation,
shift in plant and animal
species. Conflict over
scarce resource
Reduces mobility and

alteration in access to
grazing, leads to
overgrazing, increased
rate of soil erosion and
vegetation
carrying capacity of
rangelands, herders can
pay medical and school fee
The reformist state the
thesis of Hardins tragedy
of the commons. Herders
seek to maximize their
personal gain by increasing
their herd size without
limit, until the common
grazing resource is
completely destroyed.
Hence destocking and
ranching are prescribed
Provided that pastoralists
are the beneficiaries and
obtain due compensation,
pastoral areas should not
for ever be reserved for
exclusive use by pastoral
groups because the valley
are fertile
Agropastoral has
advantage in terms of risk
spreading in areas where
there is enough moisture
and fertile soil
158
ANNEX
(Source : Tefera 1985)
Physiological triads of normal camels
Day time
Number of Animals
Morning (8H-10 H)
17
Afternoon (13H-15H)
16
36.5
35.7-37.4
38.9
37.5-38.9
Respiratory rate /minute

Mean
Range
11
9-16
11
9-16
Heart Rate
Mean
Range
45
35-50
45
40-50
Rectal temperature oC
Mean
Range
Hemogramme of normal camels

(Source :Tefera 1985)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Total RBC
Total WBC
Haemoglobing/dl
PCV%
RBC fragility
Maximum
Minimum
Differential count %
Neutrophil
Eosinphil
Basophil
Monocytees
Lymphocytes
7,000,000
14000
12
36
5,200,000 - 8,940,000
12000 - 16000
9 - 16
27 48
0.44 - 0.36
0.28 0.22
60
2.5
0.5
7
30
48 65
14
01
5 10
24 37
Camel restraing tools and methods (Tefera, 2004)
159
160
Schematic design of camel muzzle and camel holder
161
Steps of restraining the camel in sternal recumbency in camel crush.
162
Restraining the camel in recombency and in standing

(Source; Tefera, 1985)
Restraining the camel in standing position. A, Foreleg ring tie and B, foreleg bend tie
Steps of restraining the camel in sternal recombency. A loop is passed on the

mandible,- then this mouth rope is pulled foreword and down ward,
simultaneously a light stroke on the knee is- necessary (I). Continue the previous
step until the camel becomes fully recumbent (II). Then a rope- is passed
underneath the hind legs and tied over the back, the forelegs are also tied while
bent (III). Finally pull foreword and downward the rope attached to the mouth to
keep the neck flat on the- ground (IV).
163
Diagram of a camel showing left lateral side.

1, cardiac area; 2, lung area; 3, rumen area; 4 renal areas; and 5, spleen.
External palpable lymph nodes of the camel. 1,parotid; 2, maxillary; 3,prescapular;

4,inferior cervical; 5, thoracic; 6,cubital; 8,ilial and 9,poplitial.
164
Dental formula
(Source: FAO )
165
There are 34 permanent teeth. They are larger than

milk teeth and are arranged upper jaw one front
tooth on each side =2, One canine tooth on each side
=2, Six cheek teeth on each side =12. Lower jaw three
front teeth on each side =6, One canine teeth on each
side =2, five cheek teeth on each side =10.
New born (1)

One month(2)
Three
months(3)
Six months(4)
1year
2.5y
3y
4.5y
5y
5.5y
6y
7y
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
No teeth
No teeth
2 cheek teeth on each side
One cheek tooth on each side and 2 front teeth
1 canine , 3 cheek teeth on each side
3 front teeth, 1 canine 2 cheek teeth on each side
1 front, 1 canine, 3 cheek teeth on each side
3 front , 1 canine, 2 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Upper jaw
Lower jaw

4-5 cheek teeth on each side
3-4 cheek teeth on each side
First front permanent teeth are growing
First front permanent teeth are growing
Permanent cheek teeth one on each side
Permanent cheek teeth two on each side
6 Cheek teeth on each side
2 front permanent and 5 cheek teeth on each side
1 front and permanent canine tooth on each side
1 front and permanent canine tooth on each side
Full set of permanent teeth
First cheek teeth on both jaws are black
Table !: Branding marks of Somali and Afar camels

Tribe
Clan
Site of branding
Dadimo
Ogaden Somali Tribe
Lateral thigh
Sherif
Sign
166
Lankeyr
Abeskul
Weyten
Horona
Adali
Lateral thigh
Nose up to ear
Lateral abdomen
Lateral side neck
Lateral arm (L&R)
Abdomen
Lateral thigh
Helelacto
Hump to abdomen
Lateral neck
Infra orbital area ( L& R)
Afar Tribe
Mendita
Banturo
Geraysa
Hereke mela
All Afar
Nose
Lateral neck
Abdomen
Lateral abdomen
Lateral arm (R)
Lateral abdomen
Lateral side neck
Lateral abdomen
Lateral Arm
Lateral arm
(Source: Wesene, 1991); L = left, R= right
Clinical differential diagnosis of 10 major endemic camel diseases in Ethiopia.

Disease
Trypanosomosis
Camel Pox
Mange
Respiratory disease complex
Hemorrhagic septicemia
Clinical signs
Acute thinning of hump, promonent ribs, pale
mucous membrane, abortion
Papule, vesicles, pustule, scabs, swelling of the
head and lymph nodes, nasal and lachrymal
discharges
Pruritis, alopecia
Nasal discharge, grunting, mouth breathing
Swelling of lymph nodes, dyspnoea, tarry faces and
167
Cephalopsis
Camel pustular dermatititis
Dermatomycosis
Gastrointestinal parasites
Plant poisoning
red urine
Coughing by lowering the neck, circling
Wart like growth around the lips, in young animals
Alopecia, no itching, asbestos like crust
Poor body condition
Excessive salivation, paralysis of leg, grinding of
teeth
(Source: Tefera, 1985)
168
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Camel in Ethiopia

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Melaku Tefera and Getachew Abebe

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

The Camel in Ethiopia 2012

Ethiopian Veterinary Association ISBN______

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Professor Belay Kassa

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Figure 1.1: Painting of Queen of Sheba and King Solomon

Figure 1.2: Cave painting of

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Figure 1.3: Origin and distribution of camels in

1.2 Abundance and distribution

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Figure 1.4: Map of Ethiopia showing the peripheral

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

comparison to other livestock, camel production would appear insignificant, if

1.3.3 Potential Evapotranspiration

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Figure 1.5: Dryland areas in

Figure 1.6: Distribution of

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Figure 1.7: Precipitation map

Figure 1.8: Length of

Figure 1.9: Vegetation map

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Usually land units demonstrated by a particular kind of topography and or/parent

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

1.4 Geology of the Afar Depression

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

1.5 Pastoralism and pastoralists / Biocultural diversity

In all pastoral systems the consumption of milk or blood seems to be most

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

1 Afar (North Eastern )

4 Benshangul and Gambella 100

* Central Statistical Agency, 2009 (population in thousands)

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Figure 1.15 Major river basins in Ethiopia (UNOCHA-Ethiopia. 2005)

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

1.6 Camel complex

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

1.7.1 Conservation of resource

Figure 1.16: Altitudinal zonation of Livestock in East Africa (Gulliver, 1955)

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Given altitude/rainfall correlation, pastoralists adjust their annual cycle to put

Doka: Chifra and Aura

Herders move eastwards

Herders move east to

Retreat areas are in

Herders move eastwards

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

1.8 The dynamism of pastoralism

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

production. Otherwise the pastoralists do practice mixed socioeconomic (pastoral

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012