Foreword

In fact Planning refers to the process of deciding what to do and how to do it. This paper
summarizes key principles and practices for effective planning, for the most part
organization use and transportation planning. Planning involves identifying priority needs
and opportunities, discussing and testing the various achievable courses of action, choosing
the most appropriate one (or ones), agreeing what you can expect to achieve, calculating the
human and material possessions needed to reach your objectives, anticipating possible
problems and getting agreement among all disturbed about clear targets and timetables for
the work in view. It's concerned with both ends (what's to be done) and means (how its to be
done). Planning can either be formal or informal. All managers engage in some planning,
but their planning might be informal.

Introduction
The need for project planning:

Planning techniques can address many organizational problems and opportunities, including
institutional development. It gives you the means to test out various possibilities, think
through the difficulties that might arise and prepare to overcome them. Good plans always
allow for flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances. It helps you analyze and assess
present needs and future challenges.
Common to these many kinds of planning are various phases of planning and guidelines for
carrying them out as effectively as possible. Planning is a noble but underappreciated
profession [1]. Planners help communities create their preferred future good planning
makes progress toward paradise while bad planning leaves a legacy of problems and
disputes. Planners perform civilizations heavy lifting by anticipating and resolving
community conflicts. Good planning requires special skills and perspectives.
According to Harvard University Professor Daniel Gilbert (2006), the human species greatest
and most unique ability is to imagine and anticipate objects and episodes that do not
currently exist, that is, to plan for the future. That is our individual and collective strength.
Planners are the coaches.
Of course, planners are not infallible; we can make inaccurate predictions and bad
recommendations, and a planning process can encounter unexpected problems. But planning
failures stand out because they are unusual [1]. Planners who follow professional practices
generally do a pretty good job of identifying the best course of action.
Planners are professionals who facilitate decision-making. Planners do not make decisions
themselves; rather, they support decision-makers (managers, public officials, citizens) by

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Coordinating information and activities. Their role is to create a logical, systematic decisionmaking process that results in the best actions.
In informal planning, nothing is written down, and there is little or no sharing of goals with
others in the organization [4]. This type of planning often is done in many small businesses
where the owner-manager has a vision of where he or she wants the business to go and how
to get there. Informal planning is general and lacks continuity [4]. Although it's more
common in smaller organizations, informal planning exists in some large organizations as
well. And some small businesses have very complicated planning processes and formal
plans.
Project management:

Planning should never start and end in an office or committee meeting. Project planning
should never be done alone or in isolation from those who have to implement the plans, or
who will benefit from them. In fact, the most successful and sustainable projects make an
effort to involve those who are to benefitin all stages of project planning and
implementation [4]. It is important to find out what the beneficiaries really think about the
problem and about how to address it.
Project planning:

Project planning covers the first three stages of "the project management cycle." This cycle,
illustrated below, describes the various stages for conceptualizing, planning, implementing
and evaluating a project and recognizes that even when a project is finished; it may provide
the starting point for a new one[14].

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Conceptualize project scope and objectives:

Explore the problem, identify priority needs, consider project solutions and evaluate
organizational capacity [5].
Plan the project:

Establish the project scope; clarify goals and objectives; choose the most appropriate course
of action; identify the inputs and resources required in terms of people, materials, time and
money; develop a budget and draft a project plan.
Prepare project proposal:

Present the project to important stakeholders, receive their feedback and secure the necessary
material, human and financial resources.
Implement the project:

Implement the project by following a work-plan and completing pre-determined tasks and
activities. Monitor progress and adjust as necessary.
Evaluate the project:

Review what has happened, consider the value of what has been achieved, and learn from
that experience in order to improve future project planning.Planners should strive to be
objective and fair. For example, a planning process to determine the rules that dog owners
must follow in public parks should not be affected significantly by whether the planners
involved love or hate dogs, since decisions should reflect the communitys rather than
planners preferences. Planners should insure that the planning process includes perspectives
and groups that might otherwise be ignored, such as people with lower incomes, disabilities,
and future generations.

Project Planning a Step by Step [1...3, 6]

The key to a successful project is in the planning. Creating a project plan is the first thing
you should do when undertaking any kind of project. Often project planning is ignored in

favor of getting on with the work. However, many people fail to realize the value of a project
plan in saving time, money and many problems. This article looks at a simple, practical

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approach to project planning. On completion of this guide, you should have a sound project
planning approach that you can use for future projects.
Project Goals

A project is successful when the needs of the stakeholders have been met. A stakeholder is
anybody directly or indirectly impacted by the project. As a first step, it is important to
identify the stakeholders in your project. It is not always easy to identify the stakeholders of
a project, particularly those impacted indirectly.
Examples of Stakeholders are:

The Project Sponsor.

The customer who receives the deliverables.
The users of the project outputs.
The project manager and project team.

Once you understand who the stakeholders are, the next step is to find out their needs. The
best way to do this is by conducting stakeholder interviews. Take time during the interviews
to draw out the true needs that create real benefits. Often stakeholders will talk about needs
that aren't relevant and don't deliver benefits.
The next step, once you have conducted all the interviews, and have a comprehensive list of
needs is to priorities them. From the prioritized list, create a set of goals that can be easily
measured. A technique for doing this is to review them against the SMART principle. This
way it will be easy to know when a goal has been achieved.

Once you have established a clear set of goals, they should be recorded in the project plan. It
can be useful to also include the needs and expectations of your stakeholders. This is the
most difficult part of the planning process completed. It's time to move on and look at the
project deliverables.

Project Deliverables

Using the goals you have defined in step 1, create a list of things the project needs to deliver
in order to meet those goals. Specify when and how each item must be delivered. Add the
deliverables to the project plan with an estimated delivery date. More accurate delivery dates
will be established during the scheduling phase, which is next.
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 Project Schedule

Create a list of tasks that need to be carried out for each deliverable identified in step two For
each task identify the following:
The amount of effort (hours or days) required to complete the task. The resource that will
carry out the task. Once you have established the amount of effort for each task, you can
work out the effort required for each deliverable, and an accurate delivery date. Update your
deliverables section with the more accurate delivery dates.
At this point in the planning, you could choose to use a software package such as Microsoft
Project to create your project schedule. Alternatively, use one of the many free templates
available. Input all of the deliverables, tasks, durations and the resources who will complete
each task.
A common problem discovered at this point, is when a project has an imposed delivery
deadline from the sponsor that is not realistic based on your estimates. If you discover that
this is the case, you must contact the sponsor immediately. The options you have in this
situation are:

Renegotiate the deadline (project delay).

Employ additional resources (increased cost).
Reduce the scope of the project (less delivered).
Use the project schedule to justify pursuing one of these options.

Supporting Plans

This section deals with plans you should create as part of the planning process. These can be
included directly in the plan.
Human Resource Plan

Identify by name, the individuals and organizations with a leading role in the project. For
each, describe their roles and responsibilities on the project.
Next, describe the number and type of people needed to carry out the project. For each
resource detail start dates, estimated duration and the method you will use for obtaining
them.

Create a single sheet containing this information.

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Create a document showing that needs to be kept informed about the project and how they
will receive the information. The most common mechanism is a weekly or monthly progress
report, describing how the project is performing, milestones achieved and work planned for
the next period.
Risk Management Plan

Risk management is an important part of project management. Although often overlooked, it

is important to identify as many risks to your project as possible, and be prepared if
something bad happens. Here are some examples of common project risks:
Time and cost estimates too optimistic.
Customer review and feedback cycle too slow.
Unexpected budget cuts.
Unclear roles and responsibilities.
Stakeholder input is not sought, or their needs are not properly understood
Stakeholders changing requirements after the project has started.
Stakeholders adding new requirements after the project have started.
Poor communication resulting in misunderstandings, quality problems and rework.
Lack of resource commitment.
Risks can be tracked using a simple risk log. Add each risk you have identified to your risk
log; write down what you will do in the event it occurs, and what you will do to prevent it
from occurring. Review your risk log on a regular basis, adding new Risks as they occur
during the life of the project. Remember, when risks are ignored they don't go away.

Goals and objectives [6.8]

Goals are broad statements that describe the overall purpose of the project. Objectives are
much more concrete. Remember to use the SMART guidelines for writing objectives. These
are:
Specific

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 Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Time-bound
After the project scope, goals and objectives have been defined, the next step is to develop a
more detailed project description and strategy that answers the following questions:
What aspects of the problem will this project address? What aspects won't it address?
Who will benefit from this project?
What needs will be met?
What will the beneficiaries receive?
What is expected of the beneficiaries?
What is the general strategy that this project will pursue?
What is the expected outcome resulting from the project?
What is the methodology for implementation for the project and each project
Component? Projplan1.doc June 2000 10/27

Prepare project proposals

Writing-up and presenting a project proposal

If you have to write about a project (a letter to a Government
Ministry, a paper for one of the National Society's committees) you may have to develop
different communication skills. Sometimes a local authority or a funding organization asks
for a special application form to be completed (especially for a donor organization). Even if
you have to complete a form, send it with a covering letter that states:
What your National Society is already doing in this direction.
What new needs you has identified.
What you want to do about them.
How you plan to reach the goals.
What resources will be needed?

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 How progress will be measured, and sustained in the long-term.

Why you think this project is important.
Review and critique of draft project proposal

This reviewer should consider the following questions:

For example does this project correspond to the basic principles of the Red Cross/Red
Crescent movement, government regulations, and the plans of the National organizations,
including plans to cooperate with other organizations?
Does this project correspond to local economic, social and political realities?
Is this project directed to the most vulnerable?
Has the impact of the plan on the environment been considered?
Do people really want and need the project?
Is the project realistic?
If the project is successful, how will it be sustained on a continuous basis?
Project description

There is no single recipe for a project proposal outline. Every donor or customer has the right
to ask that their specific project description requirements be used. Before writing a project
proposal, you should verify the information that the potential donor requires and address it in
your proposal. In general, however, most project proposals will require that you include the
following information:

PROJECT PROPOSAL OUTLINE

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 1. Identification and Description of the Problem

Basic data on country, region, sector, community

Definition of problem
- Clear information on how serious it is
- Causes of the problem
Existing local efforts to solve the problem
Knowledge and experience about efforts elsewhere
Summary of why a new project is necessary
2. The Proposed Project

Brief description of the project

Statement of project goals and specific objectives in terms of expected resul
Why the proposed solution is appropriate
Identification and rejection of other alternatives
Expected project benefits (direct and indirect)
3. Plan of Action
Description of activities
Timetable, including reports and evaluation
4. Management and Staffing

Organizational structure for project management

Functions, responsibilities of different senior jobs
Personnel and recruitment requirements

5. Budget

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 Budget summary of expenditures

Description and costing of inputs required
Long-term financial projections
6. Expected Funding Sources

Proposed sources and amounts of initial funding

Other possible sources of assistance
Long-term financing plan for running costs
While activity charts should contain some general categories of information, they can be
adapted to meet your specific needs and situation.
To be useful, plans need some specificity, but the plans should not be cast in stone.
Managers must recognize that planning is an ongoing process. The plans serve as a road map
even though the destination may be changing constantly due to dynamic market conditions.
They should be willing to change directions if environmental conditions warrant. This
flexibility is particularly important as plans are implemented.

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The Planning Process

In my point of view Planning is one those things that we all know is good for us, but that no
one wants to take the time to do. It is the same for a business operating without a plan.
Critical issues do not get addressed - and some tasks get done that have no relationship to the
direction the business needs to go. For a business, however, the consequences of these
unaddressed issues can range from inconvenience to bankruptcy.
The word "plan" originated from then Medieval Latin word planes which mean a level or flat
surface. This evolved in French into being a map or a drawing of any object made by
projection upon a flat surface. In English this has become a more general sense of a scheme
of action, design or method. Planning in its current usage in business implies a consciousness
of what is happening in the business.
Part of this reluctance is due to how complicated the process is viewed. Yet a complicated
plan is almost as useless as none. The real question is how to make something simple that fits
your business' needs. Can a good grocery list system be devised that isn't unnecessarily
burdensome for all involved? Of course. Let's take a look as what planning really entails.
It does not preclude creativity or instinct, but it does add a layer of awareness that spells the
difference between survival and extinction in a changing environment. Planning does
involve:

an understanding of the business' history

an examination of the business' environment
an assessment of the business' mission
goals
a process for reaching those goals
a process for gathering information

A realization that planning is a continuing process that is constantly evolving.

Planning does not necessarily mean trying to project the future, but being aware of a range of
likely futures and being prepared for them as occur.

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 Business Plan

According to planning a business plan is used when one is starting a new business or a new
process or product within a business. It includes not only a description of the new business,
process or product, but also a discussion of how one plans on managing the marketing,
development, production, and financing of this new venture.
Organizational Plan

In fact Organizational planning, when it does occur, too often is spurred by crisis, focused on
the short term, and not well thought out. To create healthy futures, organizations must
construct processes for creating their futures that are not fueled by crisis and turmoil. It can
be done.
One of the most confusing aspects for those who want to plan is the variety of terms that are
used in conjunction with planning. How do you differentiate between a business plan, a
financial plan, a marketing plan, a human resources plan, an operations plan, a strategic plan,
a long-range plan and just plain general planning? The simple answer is that each area of
your business needs planning so each area should have its own grocery list of what it wishes
to accomplish in the future.
Strategic Plan
A strategic plan usually refers to the overall direction you wish your business to take over the
longer term. Consequently, a long-range plan and a strategic plan are often used
synonymously. Within that overall strategy a business will have shorter term financial goals,
marketing goals, production goals, and human resource goals that will each need some type
of plan if they are to be achieved.
Just because a strategic plan is longer term does not mean it is never changed, however. One
of the most serious mistakes businesses make is not revising their strategic plan regularly.
The environment the business is operating in is changing constantly. The plan must be
revisited at regular intervals to reflect the impact on the business of these external factors.
There are some universal principles that are true across all types of planning. Before tackling
more specific planning models, it is wise to gain an understanding of the basic principles of
general planning.
Planning Principles

Any plan should include who, what, when, where, how, and why.

Who is needed to accomplish this task?

What needs to be done?

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When does it start and end?

Where will it take place?

How will it happen?

Why must we do it?

Along with the answers to these questions there needs to be some operational scheme to
organize the tasks needed to achieve the goal.
A helpful approach is to work backward from the goal to decide what must be done to reach
it. The backward approach is a way of looking at the big picture first, and then planning all
tasks, conditions, and details in a logical sequence to make the big picture happen. From this
a to-do list can easily be made. This list will become a checklist to ensure everything is
progressing as planned. Adjustments can be made based on changing circumstances. The
plan (list) should be referenced often as a set of signposts on the journey towards the goals.
For many of us who left corporate America in favor of a smaller work environment, the idea
of drafting a plan may seem offensive. After all, isn't frustration with all that busywork one
of the reasons we left in the first place? We all have an aversion to doing anything on our job
that doesn't immediately help the situation we are now experiencing. However, isn't it also
true that a little foresight and action before the fact can help eliminate many of the problems
we face each day? Wouldn't it be nice to anticipate something like a price cut by your major
competitor or a rise in the interest rate on your credit line? Of course it would. And with that
anticipation comes an organized and effective response. That is what planning is really about.

References and Resources for More Information:

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 Teacher Lectures and Notes

Book and Internet Recourses
[1] Litman, Todd.(2010), Planning Principles and Practices . s.l. : Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 9
july .
[2] Haughey, Duncan.(2009), Project Planning a Step by Step Guide. 7 December 2009.

[3] Carissa Schively, Meagan Beekman, Cynthia Carlson and Jenn Reed (2009), Enhancing
Transportation: The Effects of Public Involvement in Planning and Design Processes, University of
Minnesota, for the American Institute of Architects; at www.cts.umn.edu/pdf/CTS-07-10.pdf.
[4] John Poorman (2009), A Holistic Transportation Planning Framework For Management And
Operations, ITE Journal, Vol. 75, No. 5 May 2009, pp. 28-32.
[5] PlaceMatters.Com provides community-based planning resources.
[6] FHWA and FTA (2009), The Transportation Planning Process Key Issues: A Briefing book for
Transportation Decision makers, Officials, and Staff, Federal Highway Administration, Federal
Transit Administration, FHWA-HEP-07-039
[7] Todd Litman (2010), Well Measured: Developing Indicators for Comprehensive and Sustainable
Transport Planning, VTPI (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/wellmeas.pdf.
[8]Gary Toth (2007), Back To Basics in Transportation Planning: Rediscovering Our Roots Can Solve
21st Century Traffic Woes, Making Places Bulletin, Project for Public Spaces (www.pps.org); at
www.pps.org/info/bulletin/back_to_basics_in_transportation.

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