2/17/2015

Tutorial 2: Quantum Theory

and Atomic Physics

Particles
Position x
Mass m
Momentum p=mv or p= mv

Waves
wavelength
Amplitude A
Frequency (f=v/): number of
cycles per second (Hertz).

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Waves
Electric and magnetic fields
act like wave
Superposition principle:
Interference and diffraction

Particles
Photons
Collision/scattering with
electrons and atoms, e.g.
Photoelectric effect

All quantity, usually thoughts of as particles, should exhibit

wave-like behaviour.
Implies that electrons, protons, etc..., are waves at the same
time!

h
p

de-Broglies wavelength

It relates particle-like property (p) to wave-like property ().

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The wave and particle description of

physical quantity are complementary,
i.e. we need both descriptions to
complete our understanding of
nature. However, we will never need
to use both descriptions at the same
time to describe a single part of an
occurrence.

To see or resolve an object, we need to use light of wavelength

no larger than the size of the object itself.
Since the wavelength of light is about 0.4 to 0.7m, an ordinary
light microscope can only resolve objects as small as this, such as
bacteria but not viruses.

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To resolve even smaller objects, have to use electrons with

wavelengths equivalent to X-rays

Question 1. [Wave-Particle Duality]

(a) Suppose we wish to observe a bacterium that is 5107m in size using light.
(i) What is the maximum wavelength that can be used?
(ii) What is the corresponding energy of the photons?

Maximum wavelength is the size of the object itself:

max 5 10 7 m
It is near blue end of the visible light spectrum.
Energy of the corresponding photons:

Emin

hc

max

(6.626 10 34 J s) (2.998 108 m/s)

5 10 -7 m

3.97 10 19 J

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Question 1. [Wave-Particle Duality]

(b) Now suppose we use electrons instead of light to observe this bacterium.
(i) What is the minimum speed they must be travelling at?
(ii) What is the corresponding energy of the electrons?
[This question shows that, for a given resolving power, using electrons requires much
less energy than using photons. This is one of the reasons why electron microscopes are
more practical than light-based ones when resolving very small objects.]

Momentum of the electrons: de Broglies formula

pmin

max

6.626 10 34 J s
1.325 10 27 N s
5 10 7 m

Minimum speed of the electrons:

vmin

pmin 1.325 10 27 Ns

1.45 103 m/s

m
9.1110 31 kg

Energy of the corresponding electrons:

Emin

2
m vmin
(9.11 10 31 kg) (1.45 103 m/s) 2

9.58 10 25 J
2
2

Mosquitos head

Staple through paper

Toilet paper

Cucumber skin

Scratch and sniff paper

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The conventional method of photolithography hits its limit

around 200nm (UV region).
It is possible to use X-rays but it is difficult to focus
Use electron or proton beams instead

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The conventional method of photolithography hits its limit

around 200nm (UV region).
It is possible to use X-rays but it is difficult to focus
Use electron or proton beams instead

x p x

h
4

Statistical
Interpretation

x: uncertainty in position, px: uncertainty in momentum

The more accurately you know the position (i.e., the smaller
x is), the less accurately you know the momentum (i.e., the
larger px is); and vice versa.
In a three-dimensional situation, there are also independent
uncertainty relations in the y- and z- directions.
HUP: Cannot measure BOTH position and momentum
Precisely, Simultaneously!!

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KT7xJ0tjB4A
Laser beam

Slit sizes

x is small

y is small

px is large

py is large

screen

xpx h/(4); ypy h/(4); ypx = 0; xpz = 0

x p x

h
4

HUP

It is impossible to known both the position and momentum

exactly at the same time, i.e. x=0 and px=0
A quantum particle can never be in a state of rest, as this would
mean we know both its position and momentum precisely.
For quantum particles there is no deterministic path.

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Question 2. [Heisenbergs uncertainty principle]

(a) In classical physics, what is the minimum speed that an electron can take?
(b) Since the electron is so small, we should not forget quantum effects!
Consider an electron that is confined somewhere inside a region 1010m in
size, i.e., the uncertainty in its position is x = 1010m. What is the minimum
uncertainty in its speed? What minimum speed does this translate into?
(c) Your final answer in (b) is actually the minimum speed that an electron can
take inside an atom (which is around1010m in size). Why then do you think it
does not just fly out of the atom?

Classically, minimum allowed speed any particle can take is of

course zero.
Minimum uncertainty in speed when it is confined within1010m:

h
h
me v x
4
4
6.626 10 34 J s
h
v

5.79 105 m/s

31
10
4 me x 4 (9.1110 ) (10 m)

x p

Minimum speed it can take is |0 5.79105m/s|. Quantum

particle that confined to a small region can never be in a state of
rest. Heuristically, this is why electrons do not slow down and
get pulled into the nucleus, i.e. unstable.
Electrons do not fly out of an atom because of the electromagnetic
attraction between the nucleus and the electrons.
Question 2. [Heisenbergs uncertainty principle] Continue
(d) At one stage, physicists were wondering why electrons cannot be found
in the nucleus of an atom. What do you think is the reason for this?
(e) However, we know that the nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.
Does this fact contradict your reasoning in(d)?

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Minimum uncertainty in speed when confining within1014m:

h
6.626 10 34 J s
5.79 109 m/s c !!
v

31
14
4 me x 4 (9.1110 ) (10 m)
This is greater than the speed of light! Electromagnetic attraction is unable
to keep the electron confined in the nucleus of an atom.
For protons and neutrons, we have

6.626 10 34 J s
h
v

3.16 106 m/s

27
14
4 m p x 4 (1.67 10 ) (10 m)
Much less than the speed of light. It is possible for the strong nuclear force
to keep the protons and neutrons bound together in the nucleus.

Hot solid object: emit continuous spectrum (all wavelengths present).

Diluted hot gas will show an emission spectrum (dark background
with bright lines)
Each element in its gaseous state has a unique set of wavelength in
its line spectrum finger-print

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In 1913, N. Bohr (student of Rutherford) provided an explanation of

atomic spectra that includes some features of the currently accepted
theory.
Bohr proposed that only certain orbits for the electrons are allowed.
These orbits are special in a sense that
electrons will not emit radiation(!!)
The issue of stability from Rutherford
model is solved...

h
L mvr n

En

Quantization of Angular
Momentum

13.6 eV
n2

The lowest energy level (called the ground state) corresponds to

n=1 (which corresponds to the smallest orbit) has E1 = 13.6eV.
The next lowest level (called the first excited state) corresponds to
n=2 and has energy E2= E1/22 = 3.4eV.
The next level (second excited state) has E3= E1/32 = 1.51eV.

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Electrons can only take discrete energies (energy is related to

radius of the orbit).
Electrons can jump between different orbits due to the absorption
or emission of photons
Dark lines in the ABSORPTION SPECTRA are due to
photons being absorbed.
Bright lines in the EMISSION SPECTRA are due to
photons being emitted

n n
i

hc
Ei E f

Lyman series: nf=1

Balmer series: nf=2
Paschen series: nf=3
Brackett series: nf=4

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The positions for lines in the emission and absorption spectrum for
the same element are the exactly the same.
This is expected as these are the transitions between the SAME
two energy levels.

Question 3. [Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom]

(a) Find the wavelengths of the four longest-wavelength in the Balmer series of
hydrogen atom.

Wavelengths of the four longest-wavelength in the Balmer series:

(6.6261034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc

657 nm
E3 E2 [(13.6eV / 32 ) (13.6eV / 22 )] (1.6021019 )

(6.6261034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc
487 nm

E4 E2 [(13.6eV / 42 ) (13.6eV / 22 )] (1.6021019 )

(6.6261034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc

434 nm
E5 E2 [(13.6eV / 52 ) (13.6eV / 22 )] (1.6021019 )

hc
(6.6261034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

411nm
E6 E2 [(13.6eV / 62 ) (13.6eV / 22 )] (1.6021019 )

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Question 3. [Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom]

(b) The first four longest wavelengths in the Balmer series of hydrogen atom are in
the visible range. There are more than just these four in this series. Which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (infrared, visible or ultraviolet) do they likely belong to?
(c) What is the shortest wavelength in the Balmer series?

Any other lines in this series must start with ni = 7 or higher and thus
represent a larger energy difference. These photons carry more
energy and will have a shorter wavelength than visible light, e.g.
ultra-violet (UV)
Shortest wavelength in the Balmer series: ni n f 2

min

(6.6261034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc

365nm
E E2 [(13.6eV / 2 ) (13.6eV / 22 )] (1.6021019 )

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