Applied

pp
Thermo Fluids-II: Module-1 ((Thermodynamics
y
of p
power p
plant cycles)
y
)
(Autumn 2014)
Dr.M. Ramgopal, Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur

Introduction
Electrical energy is considered to be energy of highest
grade as it can be converted into almost all other forms of
energy with
ith very high
hi h efficiency
ffi i
Per capita consumption of electricity is considered to be an
i di i off the
indication
h development
d l
off the
h country
Per capita consumption of electricity is increasing
continuously
i
l in
i India.
I di
However, the per capita electricity consumption in India is
still much smaller than that of most of the developed
countries

Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, 2012

In India, a major part of electricity is generated in coal based thermal power plants. It is
expected that these thermal power plants will continue to dominate the energy sector in the
coming decades also

However, Indian coal has low calorific value and high ash content, as a result, per kWh
consumption of coal is higher in India ( 0.7 kg/kWh) compared to other countries ( 0.45
kg/kWh
g/
for US p
plants))
The poor quality of coal affects both the plants thermal performance as well as emissions
Advanced and innovative technologies are needed to address these issues

Coal based thermal power plants also dominate the energy sector in many other
countries!
Hence, proper understanding and improving the overall performance of coal and
other fossil fuel based thermal power plants is very important for these countries.

Thermal Power Plants

Th
Thermall power plants
l
use a variety
i off ffuels/energy
l /
sources
such as:

Coal
Natural Gas
Various types of petroleum products such as diesel
Nuclear fuels
Solar energy
Geothermal energy
Ocean Thermal Energy etc.

All the thermal power plants employ a thermodynamic cycle

that continuously converts the thermal energy into
mechanical or electrical energy
Hence all these power plants are subjected to the
f
fundamental
laws off thermodynamics

Basic thermodynamics of thermal power plant cycles

Sign Convention: Heat supplied and work produced are positive

Thermal power plant cycle with two thermal reservoirs

Carnot power cycle

Carnot cycle is a completely reversible,
reversible but hypothetical cycle,
cycle that
serves as an ideal for 2-temperature power/refrigeration cycles

Sadi Carnot (1796-1832)

Thermal efficiency of a reversible (e.g. Carnot) cycle

Carnot Vapour Power cycle with water as the working fluid

Carnot cycle and practical problems

Performance of Carnot cycle is a function of temperatures only, and is

independent of working fluid
Hence, theoretically Carnot cycle can be a vapour cycle or a gas cycle
C
Carnot
t gas
g
cycles
l
are almost
l
t impossible
i
ibl to
t develop
d l
as they
th require
i
isothermal heat addition and heat rejection
Using the process of phase change, nearly isothermal heat transfer can
be achieved Vapour cycles that resemble Carnot cycle are feasible
Due to heat transfer and fluid friction, it is not possible achieve
reversible, adiabatic compression and expansion processes in pumps
and turbines, respectively.
A finite temperature difference is required for transferring heat at both
high and
d low
l temperature
t
t
ends
d Cycle
C l has
h to
t be
b externally
t
ll irreversible
i
ibl
Need for avoiding presence of two-phase mixture in turbine and pump,
calls for non-isothermal heat transfer

Rankine cycle Basis for most thermal power plants

William Rankine (1820-1872)

Simple Rankine cycle

Simple Rankine cycle

The simple Rankine cycle deviates from the Carnot cycle as the heat addition
process in the boiler is no longer isothermal

This is because, an isothermal heat addition requires, compression/expansion of

two-phase mixture or compression of condensed liquid to very high pressure
followed by non-isobaric heat addition. Both these processes are either not desirable
or extremely difficult to achieve in practice.

In view of the above, in Rankine cycle a compromise is made between efficiency and
practical problems, which calls for deviation from the ideal Carnot cycle.

Analysis of simple, ideal Rankine cycle

A simple,
p , steadyy state analysis
y of the cycle
y yyields useful information related to:
a) Mass flow rate of working fluid for a given power output and operating conditions
(assuming that the working fluid is fixed, i.e., water)
b) Heat transfer rates across boiler and condenser
c) Power output from turbine and power input to pump
d) Cycle efficiency and sources of losses (?)
e) Effects of working fluid and operating conditions on cycle performance
Simplifying assumptions:
1) The cycle is internally reversible
2) The system is operating in steady state
3) The potential and kinetic energy changes across any component are negligible
compared to work and/or heat transfer across the component
4) The working fluid circulating through the system is a pure fluid (water)

Analysis of simple, ideal Rankine cycle (contd.)

Steady State, Steady Flow Energy equation (one inlet and one outlet):

Turbine (process 3-4; assumed to be reversible and adiabatic):

Condenser (process 4-1, assumed to be isobaric):

Analysis of simple, ideal Rankine cycle (contd.)

Pump (process 1-2; assumed to be reversible and adiabatic):

Boiler (process 2-3; assumed to be isobaric):

Analysis of simple, ideal Rankine cycle (contd.)

Overall energy balance for the cycle:

Thermal efficiency of the cycle, th is defined as:

Analysis of simple, ideal Rankine cycle (contd.)

Tm is termed as entropic mean heat addition

temperature, and is defined as:

In terms of mean temperature Tm the thermal efficiency of the cycle, is given by:

Since Tm is less than T3, for same maximum and minimum temperatures, the efficiency
of Rankine cycle is always less than that of Carnot cycle!
Second law or exergetic efficiency of the cycle, 2nd is defined as:

Example Problem on Simple Rankine cycle

Given:
Boiler Pressure = 163 bar
Condenser pressure = 0.07 bar
Max heat addition temp.,
Max.
temp = 538 oC
Net power output = 500 MW
Results

F
From
property data
d
(EES)

Improving efficiency of Rankine cycle

Rankine cycle efficiency can be increased

either by increasing the mean

temperature of heat addition (Tm) and/or decreasing the temperature of heat

rejection (Tc)
Decreasing Tc significantly is not possible due to the constraint imposed by the
available heat sink
Increasing Tm is possible by using either reheat and/or regeneration
In actual power plant cycles, both reheat and regeneration are used to maximize
the efficiency subject to economic constraints
Reheat is also beneficial as it minimizes wet expansion and also provides an
opportunity
oppo
tu ty for
o increasing
c eas g tthe
e bo
boiler
e p
pressure
essu e

Effect of increasing boiler pressure

The mean temperature of heat addition (Tm) can be increased by increasing the
boiler pressure Thermal efficiency increases for given heat source temperature

Though the efficiency increases by about 2%,

2% for an increase in pressure of 100 bar,
bar increased
boiler pressure decreases the dryness fraction at turbine exit Not desirable
Hence operating the cycle at very high pressure in a simple Rankine cycle is not very beneficial
Increased boiler pressure together with reheat results in better performance

Rankine cycle with single reheat

Performance comparison with and without reheat

Given data: Boiler p
pressure = 163 bar,, Condenser p
pressure = 0.07 bar
Highest temperature of heat addition (T3) = 538oC

Performance comparison with and without reheat

Given data:
Boiler pressure = 163 bar, Condenser pressure = 0.07 bar
Highest temperature of heat addition (T3) = 538oC
Results show that for given boiler and condenser pressures and heat addition
temperature there is an optimum intermediate pressure at which the efficiency
temperature,
reaches a maximum

Possibility of employing superheat and reheat

Whether superheat/reheat is possible or not depends upon the type of external heat
transfer fluid used in the boiler and the boiler pressure
For higher performance, generally a counterflow type arrangement is used in the
boiler of the power plant
The point where the temperature difference between the external fluid and steam
reaches a minimum value is called as a pinch point
For a given pinch point temperature difference, the
slope of the external fluid temperature depends upon
its thermal capacity, i.e.,

Pinch
point

L
In systems where either the mass flow rate of the external
fluid and/or its specific heat is very large, then the slope
is small.
This puts a constraint on the amount of superheat/reheat
that can be employed for a given heat transfer rate.

Pinch
point

In a PWR based power plant, due to operational constraints the maximum temperature
of the pressurized water is limited. In addition, since the cp value of water is very high,
the temperature variation is small Limited scope for superheat steam at turbine
inlet is close to saturation
For the same pinch point temperature difference, in a gas cooled reactor or in a
conventional coal based power plant, the temperature gradient is very steep, hence it is
possible to employ superheat/reheat in these systems

Effect of pressure for plants with low external temperature variation in boiler

Worked out example: Steam power plant connected to a PWR

Given:
Wnet = 500 MW
Condenser Pressure = 0.07 bar, boiler pressure = 75 bar
Inlet temperature of heat source (pressurized water) = 318oC
Outlet temperature of heat source (pressurized water) = 289oC
Temperature difference between heat source (inlet) and boiler exit = 18 K
Condenser water inlet temperature = 30oC
Condenser water outlet temperature = 35oC
Find:
1) Thermal efficiency of the plant
2) Flow rates of steam, pressurized water and cooling water in condenser
3) Pinch point location and the temperature difference at pinch point
4) Entropy generation (total,
(total condenser and boiler)
5) Carnot efficiency

Property data:

Results:

1) Thermal efficiency of the plant = 37.35

37 35 %
2) Flow rates:
a) Steam = 506.9
506 9 kg/s
b) Pressurized water = 8308 kg/s
c)) Coolingg water in condenser = 40136 kg/s
g/
3) Temperature difference at pinch point = 10.74 K (at sat. liquid)
4) Entropy generation:
a) Total = 422.3 kW/K Lost work = 129 MW
b) In condenser = 57.9 kW/K
c) In boiler = 364.4 kW/K
5) Carnot efficiency = 47%

The example shows that of the total entropy generation in the power plant, almost
76% is generated in the sub
sub-cooled
cooled region of the steam generator itself, even though
the heat transfer rate in this region is about 42% of the total input.
This is obviously due to heat transfer taking place over a very large temperature
difference in this region.
This remains true for all the external heat sources (e.g. PWR or flue gas based)

The 3 zones in a steam generator

Temperature profile in steam generator

The concept of regenerative feedwater heating

Analysis
y
of simple
p
Rankine cycle
y
shows that the
irreversibility due to heat transfer is very high in the
subcooled liquid region due to the large temperature
difference between the heat source and the working
fluid (feed water)

Id ll this
Ideally,
thi irreversibility
i
ibilit can be
b eliminated
li i t d if the
th
feedwater enters the boiler at point b, instead of point 2.

This can be done using regenerative feedwater heaters

Conceptually, in regenerative feedwater heating, the feed

water is heated internally by extracting heat from the
expanding steam in the turbine

Ideal, regenerative feed water heating

Under ideal conditions, the feed water from the
pump (2) is
i heated
h
d reversibly
ibl by
b the
h steam that
h
is expanding in the turbine such that it is
saturated at the inlet to the boiler (3) The
economizer is integrated with the turbine!

The resulting cycle will have completely

isothermal heat addition and heat rejection

If there are no other internal or external

irreversibilities, then the efficiency of this cycle
is same as that of a Carnot cycle!

However, it is impossible in practice to

construct such a system in which there is
reversible heat transfer from the high speed
vapour
apo r flowing
flo ing through
thro gh the turbine
t rbine blades to
the feed water

In addition, the amount of liquid that forms

d i g the
during
th
expansion
i
process will
ill be
b
unacceptably high!

Saturated Rankine cycle with

ideal regeneration

Regenerative feedwater heating

Since it is not possible to heat the feed water reversibly by direct exchange
of heat with the expanding steam in the turbine, in practice, separate
feedwater heaters are used in all steam power plants

Unlike ideal regeneration, use of feedwater heaters does not completely

eliminate the external irreversibility but minimizes it

p
g upon
p the type,
yp , feedwater heaters can be classified as:
Depending
Open or direct contact type feedwater heaters
Closed or indirect contact type feedwater heaters
Drain cascaded backward
Drain cascaded forward

IIn actual
t l power plants,
l t the
th feedwater
f d t is
i heated
h t d internally
i t
ll using
i g as many as
5 to 6 feedwater heaters, out of which at least one is an open feedwater
heater.

System with one open or direct contact type feedwater heater

1. No. of pumps required = No. of Open Feedwater heaters + 1

2. The pressure at the exit of low stage pump P1 (2) cannot be higher than the pressure
at which steam is extracted (7), otherwise there will be reverse flow of condensate
water into turbine
3. Mass fraction of extraction steam (y) should be such that the state of the mixture at
the exit of the OFW (3) is either saturated or subcooled liquid.
4 If the
4.
th extraction
t ti steam
t
flow
fl rate
t is
i more than
th required,
i d then
th there
th
will
ill b
be:
1. Loss of turbine power, and
2. Inlet condition for high stage pump (P2) will be in 2-phase region

From 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics across each component:

Open Feedwater heater (OFW):

From 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics across each component:

External irreversibility
Open Feedwater heater (OFW):

Internal irreversibility

Worked out example: Steam power plant with an open feedwater heater
Given:
Wnet = 500 MW
Pressures: Condenser = 0.07 bar,, Boiler = 75 bar,, Feedwater heater = 35 bar
Heat source: Inlet temperature = 318oC, Outlet temperature = 289oC
p
difference between heat source ((inlet)) and boiler exit = 18 K
Temperature
Heat sink: water inlet temperature = 30oC , water outlet temperature = 35oC
Find:
1) Thermal efficiency of the plant
2) Turbine and pump power, heat transfer in boiler and condenser
3) Mass flow rate of steam through boiler and steam extraction fraction
3) Entropy generation (total, condenser, boiler and feedwater heater)

Worked out example (contd.)

Worked out example: Results

1. Thermal efficiency, thermal = 39.09 %
(37.35 % without regeneration)
2. Total Turbine output, WTurbine = 505.243 MW
Total Pump input, WPump = 5.243 MW
Boiler input,
input Qboiler = 1279 MW
Condenser heat rejection, Qcond = 779 MW
g boiler = 727.6 kg/s
g/
3. Mass flow rate of steam through
Fraction of extracted steam, y = 0.3531
4.

Entropy generation: Total: 330.9 kW/K (422.3 kW/K without OFW)

Boiler: 62.55 kW
Condenser: 54.44 kW/K
F d t heater:
Feedwater
h t 213.9
213 9 kW/K

Effect of steam extraction pressure

As steam extraction is varied from condenser pressure:

Efficiency increases, reaches a peak and then starts decreasing
Fraction of steam extracted increases Specific turbine work output decreases
Mass flow rate of working fluid (water) increases
It can be shown that the efficiencyy is maximum when the saturation temperature
p
corresponding to the intermediate pressure is midway between the boiler and
condenser pressures, i.e., tsat(pint) (tboiler+ tcondenser)/2
In general, in conventional power plants, only one open feedwater heater is used, which
also acts as a deaerator

Open feedwater heater inner details

www.crazyengineers.com

System with one closed feedwater heater (drain backward)

1. This is the simplest and most commonly used type of feedwater

1
2. This feedwater heater is similar to a shell-and-tube type condenser, wherein the
extracted steam condenses in the shell, while the feedwater flowing through the
tubes is sensibly heated
3. Depending upon the condition of extracted steam (6):
t3 can be higher or lower than tsat (p6)
4. Only a single feedwater pump is required in this system extracted steam
condensing in the feedwater heater is fed back to the main condenser through a
throttle valve = Additional internal irreversibility!
5. A desuperheater & drain cooler may be a part of the feedwater heater

Inner details of a closed feedwater heater

(
(www.levelandflowsolutions.magnetrol.com)
g
)

Closed feedwater heater (drain backward) contd.

Depending upon the state of the bled

steam, the exit temperature of feedwater is:
1.

Greater than the saturation temperature

corresponding
p
g to the extraction p
pressure,,
or

2.

Less than the saturation temperature

6
3

7
2

Case(i): Steam is extracted at

high pressure
6
3

Case(ii): Steam is extracted at

low pressure
6
3

7
2

Case(iii): Steam is extracted

at low pressure

Closed feedwater heater (drain backward) contd..

Governing equations:
1) Boiler:

2) Turbine:
T bi

Closed feedwater heater (drain backward) contd..

Governing equations:
3) Condenser:

4) Pump:

Closed feedwater heater (drain backward) contd..

Governing equations:
5) Closed feedwater heater:

6) Throttle valve:

Closed feedwater heater (drain backward) contd..

Governing equations:

To solve the problem, we need to specify the condition of feedwater (3) and bleed
steam (7) by specifying Terminal Temperature Differences (TTD) = (t7 t3) & (tsat,p6t7)

Worked out example: Closed feedwater heater (drain backward)

Given:
Wnet = 500 MW
Pressures: Condenser = 0.07 bar,, Boiler = 75 bar,, Feedwater heater = 35 bar
Heat source: Inlet temperature = 318oC, Outlet temperature = 289oC
p
difference between heat source ((inlet)) and boiler exit = 18 K
Temperature
Heat sink: water inlet temperature = 30oC , water outlet temperature = 35oC
Terminal Temperature
p
Difference: Feedwater = 3 K,, Drain cooler = 0 K ((saturated))
Find:
1) Thermal efficiency of the plant
2) Turbine and pump power, heat transfer in boiler and condenser
3) Mass flow rate of steam through boiler and steam extraction fraction
3) Entropy generation (total, condenser, boiler and feedwater heater)

System with one closed feedwater heater (drain forward)

This is also similar in construction to a shell-and-tube type condenser

Throttling losses are eliminated by pumping the drain water to the boiler using a small
drain water pump
Since drain water flow rate is smaller compared to condensate water, inlet condition
to boiler (4) is closer to (3)
This system yields slightly better performance compared to drain backward

Internally irreversible Rankine cycle, Heat rate etc.

Further improvements in power plant performance

Thermodynamic analysis shows that thermal efficiency of power plants can be increased by
operating the plant at higher temperatures and pressures.
Studies show that with every 1 % increase in efficiency, the emission levels from the power plants
can be reduced byy 2 %.

R.S. Yadav and Vaibhav Chauhan, Supercritical Technology in Indian Power Sector, National Seminar on
Thermal Power Plant Performance Management (NSTPPPM), 2014

The Supercritical Cycle - Concepts

The temperature at which water can

boil is limited by its critical temperature
( 374oC)
When an external heat source
temperature is much higher than
374oC, most of the heating has to take
place in the superheated
p
p
zone
The resulting non-uniform temperature
profile, gives rise to a lower mean
temperature of heat addition
Under these conditions, higher mean
temperature and hence higher
efficiency can be obtained by
operating the steam generator in
supercritical region (pressures higher
than, critical pressure of 221 bar)

p < 221 bar

Subcritical cycle

p > 221 bar

Supercritical cycle

Supercritical power cycle

supercritical
c t ca stea
steam ge
generator
e ato tthe
e p
properties
ope t es o
of water
ate cchange
a ge
In a supe
gradually without undergoing any sudden phase change!

Thermodynamic analysis is similar to standard Rankine cycle, however, actual,

design, operating and performance characteristics etc. are different

Supercritical power cycle Performance comparison

Effect of boiler pressure

For a given boiler exit temperature (say 700oC), efficiency of SC cycle increases with
boiler pressure,
pressure however,
however
The turbine exit quality decreases as the boiler pressure increases
Hence in actual power plants, reheat is always employed with SC cycle to reduce the
liquid fraction in the turbine

Supercritical power cycle Performance comparison

Effect of boiler exit temperature

It is seen that for fixed boiler pressures, SC cycle performance exceeds that of a
subcritical Rankine cycle only when the boiler exit temperature is above a certain value
Due to continuous improvement in materials and manufacturing technologies, it is now
possible to operate coal based power plants at much higher pressures and
temperatures
p
Supercritical cycles are becoming, a norm rather than an exception, especially when
the coal is of high quality

Practical Supercritical cycles

To reduce the liquid levels in the turbine, reheat is employed in all practical
Supercritical cycle based power plants
Often double or triple reheat is used
Due to progressively lower operating pressures, reheat temperature can be higher than
the boiler exit temperature,
temperature yielding improved performance
Example problem
Given: Condenser pressure = 0.07 bar
Boiler pressure = 300 bar
1st Reheat pressure = 80 bar
2nd Reheat pressure = 28 bar
Turbine inlet temperature = 600 oC
Find:
Mean temp. of heat addition: 609 K
Turbine work: 391+424+1315 = 2130 kJ/kg
Pump work: 30 kJ/kg
Boiler heat input: 4309 kJ/kg
Thermal efficiency: 48.73 %
Carnot efficiency: 64.25 %

Supercritical cycle with double reheat

Binary Vapour Cycles (Topping and bottoming cycles)

When water is used as the working fluid in a Rankine cycle:

The boiler pressure is very high at high temperatures (of the order of 100 bar)

The condenser pressure is very low at low condensing temperatures (of the order of 0.1 bar)

Very high
V
hi h pressure in
i boiler
b il and
d very low
l
pressure in
i condenser
d
are not
desirable due to several practical problems

When a heat source is available at a high temperatures, it is advantageous to

use a working fluid with high boiling point, e.g., Mercury, Sodium, Potassium etc.

Similarly when a heat sink is available at a low temperatures,

temperatures it is advantageous
to use a working fluid with low boiling point, e.g., ammonia

e.g. at 600oC, Mercury has saturation pressure of about 12 bar!

e.g. at 40oC, Ammonia has saturation pressure of 15.6 bar, while it is 0.07 bar for water

The above facts, give rise to the concept of topping and bottoming cycles, in
which a high boiling point temperature is used in the topping cycle and a low
boiling point fluid is used as working fluid in the bottoming cycle

A binary (Topping) vapour cycle with mercury (www.expertsmind.com)

Combined gas-vapour cycles

Introduction to gas cycles

In gas cycles the working fluid does not undergo any phase change all
the heat transfer processes are sensible processes, and hence are nonisothermal

Among the gas cycles, the Brayton cycle is most widely used in many
applications including for large scale power generation

Since Brayton cycle employs a gas turbine for generating power, Brayton
cycle is also called as a gas turbine cycle

All commercial aircraft systems are based on the gas turbine cycle

Gas turbines are also used in various industries for driving mechanical and
electrical equipment such as compressors,
compressors pumps etc

Due to their high power-to-weight ratios, gas turbines were also used in
some of the racing cars and there are efforts to use them in railways also!

Chrysler gas turbine car

Close view of a gas turbine car

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

Compared to steam power plants,

plants gas turbine based power plants offer
several advantages:

1 For the same output,

1.
output they are smaller in size and lighter in weight
2. For the same output, they also cost less
3 They
3.
Th take
t k less
l
ti
time
t procure, install
to
i t ll and
d commission
i i
4. They are quick-starting and run smoothly
5. They can use a wide variety of liquid or gaseous fuels, e.g. natural gas,
fuel oil, syngas, naphtha, crude oil etc.
6. Environmentally, they can provide better emissions with fewer
restrictions

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

However,
However gas turbines do suffer from some major disadvantages:
For the same maximum and minimum temperatures, their
efficiency is much lower compared to a vapour cycle

They are not preferred for continuous, stand-alone power

generation applications

They are not compatible with solid fuels such as coal

However, using gasification, solid fuels can be converted into
gaseous fuels (e.g. syngas) and used in gas turbine plants,
e.g. integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

Considering the low initial cost,

cost but low efficiency of gas turbine as
compared to high initial cost and high efficiency of steam power plants,
it would be advantageous to develop systems,
systems wherein:
Steam power plant would be operating continuously at base loads with high load
factor and high efficiency
while the gas turbine plant would be put into operation, only during peak loads

Alternately, since due to improved material and manufacturing

techniques, it is possible to operate gas turbines at very high
temperatures (as high as 1600oC) with high efficiency, they can be used
as:
topping cycles in steam power plants, thus improving the overall plant efficiency
tremendously!

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

Depending upon the arrangement for heat supply and heat

rejection, gas turbine cycles can be classified into:
1. Direct open gas turbine cycle
2. Direct closed gas turbine cycle
3 Indirect open gas turbine cycle
3.
4. Indirect closed gas turbine cycle

Depending upon how they are coupled to the load,

load they can
also be classified into:
1 Single shaft model,
1.
model or
2. Two shaft model

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

1. Gas enters the compressor
p
((C)) at p
point 1
2. Gas is compressed to point 2
3. Compressed gas enters the combustion chamber (CC)

or reactor,
t as the
th case may be
b att point
i t2

4. Compressed gas is heated to point 3

5. Hot compressed gas at point 3 enters the turbine and
expands to a lower pressure at point 4
6. Exhaust gas from turbine at point 4 is expelled into the
p
atmosphere
Note:
a) Since this is an open cycle, only air can be used as the
working
orking fluid
fl id
b) The pressure at point 1 and point 4 have to be
atmospheric
c) Used in air crafts

Direct, open gas turbine cycle

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

1. Gas enters the compressor (C) at point 1
2. Gas is compressed to point 2

3. Compressed gas enters the combustion chamber (CC)

or reactor, as the case may be at point 2

4. Compressed gas is heated to point 3
5. Hot compressed gas at point 3 enters the turbine and

expands
p
to a lower p
pressure at p
point 4
6. Exhaust gas from turbine at point 4 is cooled in the
heat exchanger (HR) to initial condition 1
Note:
a) This is a theoretical cycle, since in practice, mass
balance cannot be maintained with continuous addition of
fuel unless heat is directly added by some other way.
fuel,
way
b) Since this is closed cycle, any gas can be used as the
working fluid
c)) The
Th pressure att point
i t 1 (and
( d point
i t 4) can be
b higher
hi h
than atmospheric pressure Dense gas cycles

Direct, closed gas turbine cycle

(Ideal Brayton cycle)

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

1. Gas enters the compressor (C) at point 1
2. Gas is compressed to point 2
3. Compressed gas enters the high temperature heat

HHX

exchanger (HHX) at point 2

4. Compressed gas is heated to point 3
5. Hot compressed gas at point 3 enters the turbine and
expands
p
to a lower p
pressure at p
point 4
6. Exhaust gas from turbine at point 4 is expelled into the
atmosphere
Note:
a) Used in applications that prevent direct heating of air,
e.g. in nuclear power stations
b) Since this is an open cycle,
cycle only air can be used as the
working fluid
c) The pressure at point 1 (and point 4) is same as
atmospheric
t
h i pressure

Indirect, open gas turbine cycle

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

1. Gas enters the compressor (C) at point 1
2. Gas is compressed to point 2
3. Compressed gas enters the high temperature heat
exchanger (HHX) at point 2
4. Compressed gas is heated to point 3
5. Hot compressed gas at point 3 enters the turbine and
expands
p
to a lower p
pressure at p
point 4
6. Exhaust gas from turbine at point 4 is cooled in the low
temperature heat exchanger CHX
Note:
a) Used in applications that prevent direct heating of air,
e.g. in nuclear power stations
b) Since this is an open cycle,
cycle any gas can be used as the
working fluid
c) The pressure at point 1 (and point 4) can be higher
th the
than
th atmospheric
t
h i pressure

Indirect, closed gas turbine cycle

Introduction to gas turbines (contd.)

Single shaft, open gas turbine cycle

Two shaft, open gas turbine cycle

In single shaft systems, the rotational speed of gas turbine and the external load are
same, as they are mounted on the same shaft
In a two shaft system, the speed at which the gas turbine and load operate can be
different. This is done by splitting the turbine into two parts HT and LT
The high pressure turbine (HT) called as gas generator is connected to the
compressor and drives the compressor
The low pressure turbine (LT) connected to the load can operate at variable speed

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Air
3

Ideal Brayton cycle

Assumptions: Cold Air Standard Cycle Analysis

1. The working fluid is a pure fluid that circulates through the closed system without
undergoing any change in its composition
2. The working fluid receives heat from an external source (in CC) and rejects heat to an
external sink (in HR)
3. All the internal processes are reversible
4. The specific heat of the working fluid (cp) is constant
5. The system operates at steady state
6. Kinetic and potential changes across the components are negligible

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Qin

Air
3

Qout
Ideal Brayton cycle

Applying steady flow energy balance across each component:

1 Compressor (Process 1-2: reversible and adiabatic compression)
1.

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Qin

Air
3

Qout
Ideal Brayton cycle

2.Hightemperatureheatexchanger,CC(Process23:Isobaricheataddition):

3 Low temperature heat exchanger (Process 4-1:

3.
4 1: Isobaric heat rejection):

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Qin

Air
2

Qout
Ideal Brayton cycle

4. Turbine (Process 3-4: reversible and adiabatic expansion):

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Qin

Air
2

Qout
Ideal Brayton cycle

From overall energy balance:

Since there is no pressure drop during heat addition (2-3) and heat rejection (4-1);

Therefore, the net power output is given by:

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Qin

Air
2

Qout
Ideal Brayton cycle

The thermal efficiency th is given by:

From the above equations it is clear that for a given working fluid (fixed ) the thermal
efficiency of a simple, ideal Brayton cycle is independent of the minimum and
p
((T1 and T3) and depends
p
onlyy on the p
pressure ratio rp, and
maximum temperatures
increases continuously with rp.

Variation of thermal efficiency of a simple Brayton cycle with pressure ratio

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

However, it can be shown that the net specific power output (kJ/kg) depends on T1 and
T3 as well as and rp.

The above equation shows that:

For a given minimum and maximum temperatures (T1 and T3) the net specific work
output increases as:
1. cp increases, and/or,
2. increases and/or,
3. Pressure ratio rp increases
For a given gas (fixed values of cp and ) and fixed pressure ratio rp, the net specific work
output increases as:
1.maximum temperature T3 increases and/or
2.minimum temperature T1 decreases

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Higher the net specific work output, more compact

T3

will be the system as the mass flow rate of the gas for
the same net power output will be lower
The maximum temperature T3 is limited by the

1
2

metallurgical considerations, while the minimum

T1

temperature is limited by the available heat sink

wnet,2 > wnet,1, wnet,3

From the expression for net specific power output it can be shown that for a given gas the
net specific power output reaches a maximum when:

Analysis of an Ideal Brayton cycle

Effect of working fluid and pressure ratio on wnet and th

The above figure shows that:

1. Compared
p
to other ggases,, Helium offers veryy high
g specific
p
power output
p
p as well as
thermal efficiency due to high values of cp and
2. The pressure ratio at which the net specific power output reaches a maximum is
much lower for helium compared to other gases

Actual Brayton cycles

In actual systems based on Brayton cycle:

1. Compression and expansion processes are non-isentropic

2 Heat
2.
H t addition
dditi and
d heat
h t rejection
j ti are non-isobaric
i b i
3. Mechanical losses in bearings etc. reduce the useful net power output
4. Properties of the working fluid vary along the cycle due to variation in
gas composition and operating conditions
As a result of the above, the performance characteristics of the actual
Bratyon cycles differ from that of an ideal cycle

Actual Brayton cycles

Non-isentropic compression and expansion:

The compressor power input is given by:

Actual Brayton cycles

Non-isentropic compression and expansion:

The turbine power output is given by:

Non-isentropic compression and expansion:

The net power output is given by:

Intermsofthemaximumandminimumtemperaturesandpressureratios,thenetpower
outputisgivenby:

Non-isentropic compression and expansion:

The heat input

p is ggiven by:
y

Non-isentropic compression and expansion:

The thermal efficiency is given by:

Non-isentropic compression and expansion

Evaluation of an actual Brayton cycle

Given:

a) Mass flow rate of air = 1 kg/s

b) Max. temperature of heat addition = 1200 K
c) Min.
Min temperature of heat rejection = 323 K
d) Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 90 %
e) Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 87 %
f) Pressure ratio = 12

Find:

a) Temperature at the exit of compressor and turbine (706.9 K, 651 K)

b) Turbine power output and compressor power input (606.7 kW and 424.2 kW)
c) Thermal efficiency of the cycle (33.49
(33 49 %)
d) Total entropy generation (0.668 kW/K)
e) Lost work (215.8 kW)

Evaluation of an actual Brayton cycle

The above results show that:

a)) Maximum entropy
py ggeneration is in low temperature
p
heat exchanger
g ((LT HX))
followed by the high temperature heat exchanger (HT HX)
This is due to the large temperature difference over which heat transfer takes
place in the heat exchangers
b) To improve efficiency entropy generation in HXs should be minimized

Modified Brayton cycle

Performance
f
off Brayton cycle can be improved significantly
f
by:

1. Regeneration
2. Intercooling between compression processes
3. Reheating between expansion processes
4. Water injection after compression
Out of the above,

Regeneration is useful for low to medium pressure ratios

Intercooling and reheating are useful for high pressure ratios

Water injection (after compression and before regeneration) improves

power output but has a marginal effect on efficiency

Regeneration

Regeneration

Heat transfer rate in regenerator (R):

Effectiveness of regenerator (R):

Evaluation of Brayton cycle with regeneration

Given:

a) Mass flow rate of air = 1 kg/s

b) Max. temperature of heat addition = 1200 K
c) Min.
Min temperature of heat rejection = 323 K
d) Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 90 %
e) Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 87 %
f) Pressure ratio = 12
g) Effectiveness of regenerator = 0.90

Find:

a) Temperature at the exit of compressor and turbine

b) Turbine power output and compressor power input
c) Thermal efficiency of the cycle
d) Entropy generation and Lost work in each component

Comparison between simple and regenerative Brayton cycles

0.5

0.4

th

th,simple
0.3

0.2

th,regenerative

0.1
T1 = 323 K,
K T4 = 1200 K,
K C = 0.87,
0 87 T = 0.9,
0 9 R = 0.9
09

0
5

10

15

rp

20

25

30

Results show that for a given maximum heat addition and minimum heat rejection
temperatures and non-ideal compressor and turbine,
a) The efficiency of the regenerative Brayton cycle reaches a maximum at a particular
pressure ratio, which is much less than that of a simple cycle
b) Beyond a certain high pressure ratio, the efficiency of simple Brayton cycle is better
than a regenerative Brayton cycle

System with water injection

In a simple Brayton cycle,

1. Liquid
q
water is injected
j
into the air stream after compression
p
2. The injection rate should be such that all the liquid water evaporates in the injector
and the moist air that leaves the injector (3) does not contain any liquid water
3. Due to evaporation
p
of water ((assumed to be adiabatic),
), the temperature
p
of moist air
decreases (T3 < T2)and its specific volume increases due to presence of water vapour
4. The heat input required in the combustion chamber increases. However, the net work
output also increases (main reason for injecting water!)
5. The thermal efficiency may increase or decrease depending upon the operating
conditions. However, the NOx formation decreases due to lower temperatures.

Analysis of a simple Brayton cycle with water injection

Typical results

Open Brayton cycle with regeneration and water injection

Given:

a) Mass flow rate of air = 1 kg/s

b) Max. temperature of heat addition = 1200 K
c)) Min. temperature
p
of heat rejection
j
((compressor
p
inlet)) = 323 K
d) Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 90 %
e) Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 87 %
f) Pressure ratio = 12 (Pressure at compressor inlet = 1 atm.)
g) Effectiveness of regenerator = 0.90
h)) Relative humidityy of air at compressor
p
inlet = 40%
i)

Relative humidity at the exit of water injector = 100 %

Find:

a) Rate of water injection (kg/s)

b) Temperatures at all the state points
c) Turbine power output and compressor power input (in kW)
d) Thermal efficiency of the cycle

Other modifications to gas turbine cycles

Evaporative cooling:
The air at the inlet to the compressor is cooled by making it pass through an
evaporative cooler
Since the compressor and turbine in gas turbine plants are typically,
constant volume flow components, the lower temperature air at the inlet to
the compressor increases the mass flow rate and hence the power output

Steam Injected Gas Turbine (STIG):

Injection of steam into the compressed air increases both the power output
and efficiency
Mainly
M i l used
d in
i cogeneration
i
plants,
l
wherein
h i the
h steam injection
i j i
rate is
i
increased when the requirement for process steam is low.

Combined gas-vapour cycles

The large amount of energy available at the exit of the turbine in a gas turbine
power plant can be used as heat input for a steam power plant
Such a system which combines a gas turbine cycle with a steam power plant
cycle is called as a combined cycle power plants
Combined cycle power plants offer very high overall efficiency of the order of
50% or more, in addition to other environmental benefits
These plants are simpler compared to steam power plants due to the absence
off coall handling
h dli g units,
it scrubbers
bb
etc.
t Their
Th i start-up
t t
i also
is
l very fast.
f t
Sometimes a Supplementary Firing (SF) equipment may be used to boost up the
output from the steam turbine

Comparison between steam, gas turbine and combined cycles

Studies
St
di show
h that
th t from
f
t t l costt off operation
total
ti point
i t off view:
i
1. Gas turbine plants are good for peak load operations, while
2. Steam turbine plants are good for base load operation
3. Combined power plants are good a compromise between gas turbine and steam
power plants

Combined cycle power plant concepts (Alex Lezuo, Siemens, Taylor & Francis, 2007)

Characteristics of different types of Combined Cycle (CC) plants

1. Natural gas fired CC power plant:

1.
1
2.
3.
4
4.

Highest possible efficiency (+)

Simplest and lowest specific investment cost (+)
Only natural gas can be used with high efficiency ()
Most commonly used arrangement

2. Parallel powered CC power plant:

1.

Simple system for improving the heat rate of existing coal fired power
plants with minimum investment and minimum lead time (+)

2.

Offers excellent part-load performance ()

3.

In stead of generating steam, the gas turbine exhaust gases can also be
used for heating the feedwater,
feedwater thus eliminating the bleed stem from
steam turbine, thereby improving the output of the steam turbine ()

3. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) plant:

1.
2.
3.

Can be used with fuels other natural gas, e.g. coal ((+))
Permits use of lower cost fuels such as coal in an environment friendly
manner (+)
Very complex system and suitability depends upon relative costs of coal
and NG ()

Cogeneration

Cogeneration refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and

heat or steam (or hot water)

It has long been used in industries and by municipalities that need both
electricity and steam (say for house heating in winter)

Cogeneration is beneficial only if it results in saving of primary energy

when compared to separate production of electricity and steam by two
diff
t
differentt systems

The cogeneration plant efficiency is given by:

Where:
co = cogeneration plant efficiency
PE = Electrical power generated (MWh)
Qu = Useful heat supplied from the plant (MWh)
Qin = Heat added to the plant through the fuel (MWh)

Cogeneration (contd.)
If electricity and steam are generated individually, then the amount of heat to
be added per unit total energy (electrical + heat) output is given by:

Where:
E = Fraction of electrical energy of the total energy output;

E = Efficiency of electrical power generation of a standalone power plant

Q= Efficiency of heat generation of the heat/steam generator
Therefore,thecombinedefficiencyforindividualplantsforelectricity andheatis
givenby:

Hence,cogenerationisbeneficial,if:

A basic cogeneration plant with extraction-condensation turbine

Practical example of a large combined cycle CHP Plant

(Operating in The Hague, Netherlands)

Assignment on the large combined cycle CHP Plant

(Data from the plant operating in The Hague, Netherlands

Given Data:

Steam turbine:
Power output (net): 25 MW;
Steam supply to turbine: 30 bar
bar, 450oC,
C
pressure of bleed steam to SWH: 2 bar,
mass flow rate of bleed steam to SWH: 17 kg/s,
Isentropic eff.: Turbine: 80%, Condenser sat. temp: 25oC,
no subcooling in condenser
Electric generators: 95 % efficiency
District heating: Supply temp: 115oC, return temperature: 75oC

Gas Turbines (2 in number):

Power output (net): 25 MW each;
Pressure ratio: 12;;
Maximum cycle temperature: 1013oC
Exhaust gas temperature: 83oC;
Isentropic
p eff.: Turbine: 85%, Compressor:
p
83%, Combustion Eff.: 0.98
Cp of gas = 1.11 kJ/kg.K, = 1.333

Assignment on the large combined cycle CHP Plant

(Data from the plant operating in The Hague, Netherlands

To find:

1. Overall efficiency of the system: (ans. 68.9%)

2 Mass flow rate of water for district water heating: (ans.
2.
(ans 331.5
331 5 kg/s)
3. Air flow through each gas turbine: (ans. 131 kg/s)
4 Steam
4.
St
fl
flow rate
t (total):
(t t l) ((ans. 35.39
35 39 kg/
kg/s))
5. Heating output (water heating): (ans. 55.69 MW (total))

Tri-generation

Tri-generation is the production of electricity, heat and cooling in a

single power plant (steam or gas turbine)

Steam from the boiler or gas from a gas turbine is used for:
Production of electricity in the steam turbine-generator (PE)
Production
P d i off heat
h
or process steam/hot
/h water for
f heating
h i purposes (Qu)
Production of refrigeration/air conditioning using an absorption chiller (Qr)

The ratio of electricity (PE), heat (Qu) and refrigeration (Qr) can vary
d
depending
di g upon the
th requirements
i
t

(Qu)
(Qr)

(PE)
Concept of tri-generation

Tri-generation

A typical
typical, gas turbine based tri
tri-generation
generation plant (Dusan Medved,
Medved 2011)