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2. However, the muscle soon uses up all the available oxygen. In spite of
the increased breathing rate and heartbeat rate, the blood cannot supply
oxygen fast enough to meet their requirements.
3. The rate at which oxygen is used by the muscles exceeds the amount of
oxygen supplied by the blood.
4. The muscles are in a state of oxygen deficiency and an oxygen debt is
incurred.
5. The muscle obtains the extra energy from anaerobic respiration,
because oxygen is not available.
6. During anaerobic respiration, the glucose molecules break down
partially into an intermediate substance called lactic acid instead of
carbon dioxide and water.
7. Because glucose is not completely broken down, the energy released
during anaerobic respiration is much less than the energy released during
aerobic respiration.
8. In fact, for every molecule of glucose, anaerobic respiration releases
only two molecules of ATP.
9. Therefore, in terms of energy yield, anaerobic respiration is less efficient
than aerobic respiration.
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acid.
11.
12.
The oxygen debt is paid off when all the lactic acid is removed.
Anaerobic Respiration
Present
Availability of oxygen
Absent
Complete oxidation
of glucose
Oxidation of glucose
Incomplete oxidation of
glucose
Carbon dioxide,
water and energy
Products of respiration
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Number of ATP
molecules released per
molecule of glucose
A large amount of
energy is released per
mole of glucose
Amount of energy
released per mole of
glucose
Mitochondria
Cytoplasm
4. After the spiracles, air enters a longitudinal tracheal trunk, then diffuses
throughout a branched network of tracheoles which are very fine thinwalled tubules that reach into every part of the insects body.
5. The tracheoles are filled with liquid to facilitate gas exchange. The
thin and moist surface of tracheoles also aid in the exchange of
respiratory gases between atmospheric air and living cells.
6. The air in the trachea, full with carbon dioxide, eventually diffuses out
of the tracheal system, through the spiracles, and out into external
environment.
7. In larger insects, rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
abdominal muscles to control body volume facilitates better
ventilation of the tracheal system. Contraction of the abdominal
muscles increases the air pressure in the tracheal system, so that the air
is forced out through the spiracles. When the same muscles relax, the
tracheal air pressure drops and air flows in through the spiracles and into
the tracheae.
8. In the tracheal system there are collapsible air sacs. In dry and warm
environments, these air sacs provide a temporary air supply allowing
the insect to close its spiracles for short periods to reduce loss of water
through evaporation. These air sacs also provide air which help regulate
buoyancy in aquatic insects.
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1. Each fish has 4 pairs of gills, each with double rows of lamellaecovered filaments. The total surface area of the lamellae is 10-60 times
more than that of the external surface area of the whole fish.
2. The walls of the lamellae are only one-cell thick and the lamellae on the
filaments are located very close together so that most of the water
passing between them is involved in the gaseous exchange process.
This makes for very efficient gaseous exchange between the lamellae
and the water flowing past the gills.
3. The blood in the lamellae flows in the opposite direction
(countercurrent) to the flow of water. This allows the gills to absorb 80%
of the waters oxygen content. If the blood were to flow in the same
direction as the water, only a maximum of 50% of the waters oxygen
content can be absorbed.
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4. Air is drawn into the body through the nose. It then enters the nasal
passages. The nasal passages filter, warm and moisten the air. Foreign
particles such as dust are filtered by the nostril hairs and trapped by
mucus secretions.
5. The air then passes the pharynx (the region behind the oral cavity) and
enters the trachea. The opening of the trachea is protected by the
epiglottis that prevents the entry of food.
6. The air first flows through the larynx, and then the trachea which then
branches into two bronchi that enter the lungs.
7. The trachea and bronchi are reinforced with semi-circular cartilage
rings to prevent their collapse during inhalation, when the internal air
pressure drops.
8. The inside walls of the trachea and bronchi are lined with ciliated
epithelial cells and mucus-secreting goblet cells. The mucus traps
small particles present in the air and the cilia sweep the mucus and
trapped particle to the throat to be swallowed or coughed out.
9. The bronchi branch into smaller tubes known as bronchioles which end
in grape-like sacs known as alveoli. Gaseous exchange occurs at the
alveoli.
10.
The air that enters the lungs is free of small particles and microbes
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The alveoli are supplied with dense networks of blood capillaries. This
allows efficient diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide
out of the blood.
(c)Thin walls
The wall of each alveolus is a single layer of epithelial cells. Each
alveolus is surrounded by a network of one-cell thick capillaries. Only
0.2 m separate the air in the alveolus from the blood in the capillaries.
Diffusion of respiratory gases between the two surfaces is very rapid
(d)
Moist surface
The inside surfaces of the alveoli are lined with a layer of moisture
secreted by the epithelial cells. Respiratory gases dissolve in this
moisture and diffuse efficiently through the walls of the alveoli and
capillaries.
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Inhalation
Exhalation
Ribcage expands
Ribcage contracts
Higher external air pressure forces air High air pressure in lungs forces air
to flow into the lungs
to flow out to the exterior
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b) i) Name P (1 mark)
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ii) Explain the role of P to prevent dirt and bacteria from entering the
alveolus. (2 marks)
Blood flow
Oxygen diffusion
Carbon dioxide diffusion
(3 marks)
ii) Explain why the diffusion of oxygen occur at the alveolus. (2 marks)
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Hb8 (oxyhaemoglobin)
Hb + 4O2
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H2CO3
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H+ + HCO3-
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Inhaled Air
Exhaled
Air
Nitrogen
78%
78%
Oxygen
21%
16%
Carbon
dioxide
0.03%
4%
Saturated
Temperature
Explanation
External
Body
Exhaled air comes from the body
environmental temperature which has been warmed by body
temperature,
temperature.
usually lower
than body
temperature
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b) Peripheral chemoreceptors
These are located in the aortic bodies on the aorta, and the carotid
bodies on the carotid arteries.
They are connected by nerves to the respiratory centre and are sensitive
to changes in the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and
also to the pH of the blood leaving the heart.
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Fear
1. At the face of a threat, a person readies himself for a fight or for flight.
This is aptly named fight-or-flight response. It is mediated by hormone
adrenaline that is secreted by the adrenal glands.
2. The effects of adrenaline on the circulo-respiratory system include
An increase in the heartbeat rate, 5 times as much output as its
normal volume to pump more oxygen and glucose to tissues such as
the muscles.
Arteries constricting to maximize pressure around the bodys
systems and veins dilating to speed up the return of blood to the heart.
The breathing rate speeds up so that more oxygen can be absorbed
into the bloodstream and more carbon dioxide can be excreted.
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At high altitudes
1. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases as the air becomes
thinner. There is less oxygen in the atmosphere.
2. At high altitudes, with each normal breath, a person takes in relatively
less air, and thus, less oxygen into the lungs, compared to breathing at
sea level.
3. The result is lower blood oxygen levels (hypoxia) which can causes
altitude sickness. The symptoms include headaches, breathlessness,
fatigue, nausea, and swelling of the face, hands and feet.
4. For mountain climbers, acclimatization to high altitudes starts with an
increase in both the breathing rate and the heartbeat rate.
5. After a few weeks at high altitudes, the body further adapts by
increasing red blood cell production in the bone marrow to increase the
bloods oxygen-carrying capacity. Production of myoglobin, the
oxygen-carrying protein in cardiac muscles, also increases. The body
also develops more capillaries in response to altitude as this allows faster
diffusion of oxygen to the cells.
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d) Birth Defects
Cigarette smoking among expectant mothers causes an increased
risk of infertility, stillbirth, low birth weight and sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS).
Respiration in Plants
The intake of oxygen by plants
1. In green plant tissues that are capable of photosynthesis, the oxygen for
respiration comes from photosynthesis and the carbon dioxide from
respiration is used for photosynthesis.
2. However, in non-green parts of the plants, and in all parts of the plant
when light intensity is low, there is either insufficient or no oxygen from
photosynthesis.
3. Oxygen for respiration has to be obtained from the external
environment, and the carbon dioxide from respiration has to be expelled
to the external environment.
4. Gaseous exchange occurs between a plant and the external environment
through diffusion. Leaf surfaces have openings called stomata that
allow gaseous exchange to occur.
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5. All other plant surfaces such as the roots, stems, branches and twigs
have openings called lenticels which also allow gaseous exchange.
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a) In bright light,
The rate of photosynthesis is faster than the rate of respiration
Thus, plant produces more oxygen than it uses, and uses more carbon
dioxide than it produces.
Under very high light intensity, the photosynthesis rate does not
increase further due to limiting factors such as carbon dioxide
concentration.
b) As light intensity decreases,
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