Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

MITOSIS
Chromosomes and chromosomal number
1. The cells in a sexually reproducing organism can be divided
into
(a) Somatic cells
(b) Reproductive cells or gametes
2. Somatic cells are all the cells in an organism, except for the
reproductive cells. They are formed through mitosis.
3. Reproductive cells are formed through meiosis
4. Every cell has thread-like structures in its nucleus called
chromosomes.
5. The number of chromosomes present in the cells of each
species of an individual organism is constant. This number
is referred to as the chromosomal number of the species.
6. Chromosomes in the nucleus exist in pairs, the chromosomal
number is said to be diploid and is designated as 2n.
7. The gametes contain only half the number of chromosomes
or only one of each pair of chromosomes, that is, a single
set. The chromosomal number is said to be haploid and is
designated as n.
8. In humans:
(a) All somatic cells in the human body have 46
chromosomes.
(b) Each gamete only has 23 chromosomes.

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

(c) Red blood cells do not have nuclei, and consequently no

chromosomes.
9. All somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes. Therefore,
one set of the chromosomes is of paternal origin, whereas
the other is of maternal origin.
10. The two chromosomes in each pair have the same structural
features and are referred to as homologous chromosomes.
Each member of the pair is called a homologue.
11. Both chromosomes of each pair carry genes for the same
trait (for example, eye colour) at the same location.
12. Cells with two sets of homologous chromosomes are called
diploid cells (somatic cells) while cells which contain only
one set of chromosomes are called haploid cells (sperm and
egg cells).
13. Chromosome pairs are 22 + XX (female) or 22 + XY (male).

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Mitosis maintains the chromosomal number of species and

ensures genetic material is passed on to the offspring
1. Genetic material (DNA) carried in the chromosome and
received by the daughter cells are inherited from the parent
cell.
2. DNA consists of hundreds or thousands of genes.
3. Each gene is a unit of inheritance that must be passed down
to its offspring.
4. Each daughter cell that is formed from mitosis contains the
same chromosomal number and genetic material as the
parent cell.

Human Karyotype

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

The Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle

Interphase
a) G1 Phase
Cell growth takes place during this phase. The cell increases in
size and synthesizes new protein and organelles. The cell is
very active, carrying out its metabolic activity.
b) S Phase
During this phase, DNA replication occurs. The chromosome
will consist of two sister chromatids which contain identical
genetic information.
c) G2 Phase
This phase is short relative to the S and G 1 phases. During this
phase, many of organelles and molecules required for cell
division are reproduced. The cell continues to grow until mitosis
begins. Energy stores are increased.
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Prophase
The duplicated chromosomes are visible under microscope.
The centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell. (This does
not occur in plant cells because plant cells do not have
centrioles)
Spindle fibres develop.
Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear and
disintegrates.

Metaphase
The chromosomes are lined up at the equator of the cell.
The chromosomes are attached, by spindle fibres at the
centromere, to opposite poles of the cells.
Anaphase
The centromere splits
The contraction of the spindle fibres causes the two
chromatids of each chromosome to separate and move to
opposite poles of the cell.
Each chromatid is now referred to as a daughter chromosome.
This phase ends when all the daughter chromosomes have
reached the poles.

Telophase
This begins when the two sets of chromosomes have reached
the two poles of the cell.
The chromosomes uncoil and lengthen, thus becoming less
visible under the microscope.
The spindle fibres disintegrate.
Nuclear envelope and nucleoli reform.

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Cytokinesis the division of the cytoplasm to produce two

daughter cells.

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

5.1.5: Comparing and Contrasting Mitosis and Cytokinesis

of Animal Cells with Plant Cells

Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

The Effects of Uncontrolled Mitosis in Living Things

Sometimes mitosis in cells run out of control, causing cells to
divide continuously, producing a mass of cells, called tumours.
Benign Tumours
1. Sometimes genes that control mitosis and the cell cycle
undergo mutation.
2. Mutation is the change in the DNA structure of the cell.
3. This change in the DNA corrupts the coded genetic
instructions for mitosis control.
4. This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non-stop
division of cells, producing a mass of new daughter cells,
called tumour.
5. Tumour cells have not function, but instead interfere with the
normal activity of surrounding healthy cells, like restricting
blood flow to them.
6. Some tumours remain inactive and are relatively harmless,
and we call these benign (not cancerous) tumours.
7. Benign tumour cells remain at its original site and do not
spread to other parts of the body.
8. Some benign tumours may progress to become a cancerous
growth if left untreated.
9. Tumours are usually treated by removing them surgically,
killing cancer cells using radiation, or by chemotherapy.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Malignant Tumours
1. A malignant tumour consists of cancer cells.
2. When it first develops. A malignant tumour is confined to its
original site.
3. Some cancerous cells break free from a tumour and can
spread locally or through the bloodstream and lymphatic
system to other parts of the body.
4. When this happens, secondary tumours develop in other
body tissues.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Causes of Cancer
1. Some of the factors that contribute to increased cancer risks:
(a) Genetic some forms of cancer like prostate, colon,
breast, skin, ovary are suspected to be inherited from
parents.
(b) Carcinogens chemicals which affect genetic activity
and cause cancer; e.g. diesel exhaust, cigarette smoke,
asbestos,

hair

dyes,

soot,

arsenic,

benzene

and

formaldehyde.
(c) Radiation excess exposure to X-rays, gamma rays and
ultraviolet rays lead to increased cancer risks.
(d) Age some cancers are found primarily in young people
(leukimia), while some cancers (colon cancers) are found
mostly in older adults.
(e) Viruses some viruses (such as the EB and the HIV-1)
cause cancer.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Application of Knowledge on Mitosis in Cloning

Cloning in Plants Tissue Culture
1. Plants can be cloned using tissue culture.
2. Tissue culture is the process of growing cells artificially in the
laboratory; it is a modern and efficient way of cloning plants.
3. Tissue culture produces genetically identical clones.
4. The principles of tissue culture:
(a) A piece of tissue, called explant, is taken from the parent plant
(e.g. carrot root or stem tissue, apical meristem of orchid, or
cauliflower bud) and cut into small pieces.
(b) The pieces of tissues are sterilised with dilute sodium
hypochlorite solution to prevent the growth of pathogens (such
as bacteria and fungus).
(c) Each sterile tissue piece is placed onto a growth medium (gel
containing nutrients and growth regulators).
(d) The tissue cells divided by mitosis to produce a mass of loosely
arranged and undifferentiated cells called callus.
(e) Callus is stimulated with shoot-stimulating hormones to form
multiple shoots.
(f) The shoots are separated and each is placed in nutrient medium
with root-stimulating hormones to encourage rooting.
(g) Once the roots grow, the plantlets (little plants) are planted in
sterile compost to grow.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Cloning of Animals
Somatic Cell Cloning (Nuclear Transfer)
1. By using somatic cell cloning, any desired traits are selected
since the traits of a mature animal are already known.
2. A cell was taken from a male animal.
3. Then, an egg was obtained from another female animal.
4. The nucleus of the egg was removed.
5. Then the cell from the male animal was inserted into the
nucleus-free egg cell.
6. They are given an electric shock to fuse them and to stimulate
division and development.
7. The diploid cell (egg) produced is then implanted into a third
female animal.
8. New organism born will have same genetic contents with
parental species.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Advantages of cloning
1. Cloning enable large numbers of new clones to be produced
from a single parent in a shorter time. For example, in medicine,
the E.coli strain can be cloned to produce insulin and growth
hormones.
2. Cloning ensures that the good qualities of the parent plants are
retained. Hence, transgenic crops such as wheat, soya bean and
cotton which are resistant to herbicides, pests and produce high,
better quality yields can be cloned using the tissue culture
technique. Genetically modified farm animals can be cloned to
produce high yields of milk and meat.
3. Cloning is very time effective, as there is no need for
pollination and seed production. Pollinating agents are also not
required.
4. Cloning ensures that flowers and fruits are produced within a
shorter period. As a result, less time and effort are needed to care
for plants in the early stages. It is extremely cost effective.
5. Therapeutic cloning of tissues and whole organs can be done to
replace damaged and diseased ones. This offers an alternative to
patients waiting for organ transplants from willing donors.
6. Cloning has enabled copies of animals to be made. This helps
save endangered species.
7. Cloning helps to eliminate plant disease as only healthy parent
plants are selected and sterile conditions are used.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

8. It is easy to transport or store large numbers of plants as less

space is required for tissue culture.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Disadvantages of cloning
1. As clones are exact copies of their parent cells, there is no
genetic variation among all the clones produced. Hence, these
clones are more susceptible to changes in the environment
and to new diseases. The entire population of clones may be
eliminated if they are unable to adapt to the environmental
changes, or are not resistant to the new disease.
2. Clone may lead to reduction in plant and animal varieties. This
decreases biodiversity.
3. Cloned, transgenic plants with pest-resistant and herbicideresistant gene may transfer their new gens to undesirable
plants such as weeds. The transfer may be natural and
unpreventable such as through natural viruses, and this may
create super weeds.
4. A number of cloned animals tend to have a shorter lifespan.
Many suffer from a number of genetic defects and health
problems.
5. The long-tern side effects of consuming cloned, genetically
modified plants and animals are not yet known. They may not
be safe for consumption on the long run but it is too early to
tell at this stage.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

MEIOSIS
Maintaining

Diploid

Chromosomal

Number

from

Generation to Generation and the Necessity for Haploid

Gametes
The Diploid Somatic Cells
1. Every somatic cell has two sets of chromosomes one set
from the mother, and one from the father.
2. A cell that has two complete sets of chromosomes is said to
be diploid (2n).
3. To form a diploid cell, male and female gametes each must
contain only one set of chromosomes (n), otherwise the
zygote would receive too many chromosomes than it needs.
The Haploid Gametes
1. The number of chromosomes in a gamete is the haploid
number (n)
2. The haploid sperm carries one set of chromosomes from the
male parent.
3. The haploid egg carries one set of chromosomes from the
female parent.
4. During fertilisation, the two sets of parental chromosomes
combine (n + n = 2n) to restore the diploid number (2n) in
the zygote.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

5. Summary of how the diploid and haploid conditions are

maintained in sexual reproduction:
(a) Parents produce gametes, each with the haploid number
(n) of chromosomes.
(b) In fertilisation, two haploid gametes combine to produce
offspring with a diploid number of chromosomes.
(c) When male and female offspring mature and mate, they
repeat the same cycle from (a), (b) to (c).
(d) Thus, the diploid chromosomal number is maintained
from one generation to another.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Meiosis

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Significance of meiosis
1. The survival of species depends on its ability to adapt to a
constantly changing environment as well as its ability to
colonize new environments.
2. In order to achieve this, it is necessary for offspring to be
different from their parents and with one another.
3. This variety can be achieved by producing different
combinations of the genotype of the two parents, which is
the process of meiosis.
4. Sexual reproduction involves the production of gametes
which fuse together to produce a new organism. Each
gamete is haploid, allowing for the combined result to be a
diploid cell, thereby maintaining the number of
chromosomes in the offspring.
5. The homologous pairs of chromosomes arrange themselves
on the equator of the spindle during metaphase I
randomly. Then, the random distribution and
independent assortment of these chromosomes produce
new genetic combinations.
6. During prophase I, segments of the non-sister chromatid of
homologous chromosomes may be exchanged. New
genetic combinations are produced.
7. This variety is essential to the process of evolution.
8. By having a varied stock of individuals, it allows natural
selection of those most suited to existing conditions. It also
ensures that the species constantly changes and adapts
when these conditions change.
It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most
intelligent, but the one most responsive to change Charles
Darwin

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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