JOVITA, APRILLE JOY P.

CE134P / C33
HOMEWORK # 1

OCTOBER

8,

2015

1. What is structural steel?

Structural steel is a category of steel construction material that is
produced with a particular cross section or shape, and some
specified values of strength and chemical composition. Structural
steel composition, strength, size, shape, strength, and storage are
controlled in most advanced countries. The word structural steel
includes a broad variety of low carbon and manganese steels that
are used in great numbers for civil and marine engineering
applications.

Numerous

structural

steels

also

include

minor

quantities of significant additions of other elements like Nb, V, Ti

and Al. These are called High Strength Low Alloy or micro-alloyed
steels.
Structural steels are manufactured in section and plate shapes and
are normally used in bridges, buildings, ships, and pipelines.
2. What are the chemical, physical and mechanical properties of
steel?
3. What is the design philosophies used in designing structural
steel?
Working stress method (WSM)
This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced
concrete, but also for structural steel and timber design. The
method basically assumes that the structural material behaves as a
linear elastic manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by
suitably restricting the stresses in the material induced by the
expected working loads on the structure. As the specified

permissible stresses are kept well below the material strength, the
assumption of linear elastic
behaviour

is

considered

justifiable. The ratio of the

strength of the material to
the permissible stress is often
referred to as the factor of
safety.

However,

the

main

assumption linear elastic behaviour and the tacit assumption that

the stresses under working loads can be kept within the permissible
stresses are not found to be realistic. Many factors are responsible
for this such as a long term effort of creep and shrinkage, the
effects of stress concentrations, and other secondary effects. All
such effects resulting significant local increases in a redistribution of
the calculated stresses. The design usually results in relatively large
sections

of

structural

members,

thereby

resulting

in

better

serviceability performance under the usual working loads.

Ultimate load method (ULM):-

With the growing realization of the short comings of WSM in

reinforced concrete design, and with increased understanding of the
behaviour of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load
of design is evolved and became an alternative to WSM. This
method is sometimes also referred to as the load factor methods
are the ultimate strength. In this method, the stress condition at the
site of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed, and the non
linear stress-strain curves of concrete and steel are made use of.

The concept of modular ratio and its associated problems are

avoided entirely in this method. The safety measure design is
introduced by an appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as
the ratio of the ultimate load to the working load. The ultimate load
method males it possible for different types of loads to be assigned
different load factors under combined loading conditions, thereby
overcoming the related shortcoming of WSM.

This method generally results in more slender sections, and often

economical designs of beams and columns, particularly when high
strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used. However, the
satisfactory strength performance at ultimate loads does not
guarantee satisfactory serviceability performance at the normal
service loads.

The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crackwidths under service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting
from the use of high strength reinforcing steel and concrete. The
distribution of stress resultants at ultimate load is taken as the
distribution at the service loads, magnified by the load factor(s); in
other words, analysis is still based on linear elastic theory.

Limit state method (LSM)

The philosophy of the limit state method of design represents a
definite advancement over the traditional design philosophies.
Unlike WSM which based calculations on service load conditions
alone, and unlike ULM, which based calculations on ultimate load
conditions alone, LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational
solution to the design problem, by considering safety at ultimate
loads and serviceability at working loads.

The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which

attempts to provide adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as
adequate serviceability at service loads, by considering all possible
Limit State.

Limits States:
A limit state is a state of impending failure, beyond which a
structure ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in
terms of either safety of serviceability i.e. it either collapses or
becomes unserviceable. There are two types of limit states:
Ultimate limit states (limit states of collapse):- which deal
with strength, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture etc.
Serviceability limit states: which deals with discomfort to
occupancy and/ or malfunction, caused by excessive deflection,
crack width, vibration leakage etc., and also loss of durability etc.

4. What are the methods of designing structural steel?

SIMPLE DESIGN
Simple design is the most traditional approach and is still commonly
used. It is assumed that no moment is transferred from one
connected

member

another,

except

nominal

moments

arise

as

for

to
the

which

result

eccentricity at joints.
The resistance of

of
the

structure to lateral loads

and

sway

is

usually

ensured by the provision of

bracing or, in some multistorey

buildings,

by

concrete cores. It is important that the designer recognises the

assumptions regarding joint response and ensures that the detailing

of the connections is such that no moments develop that can

adversely affect the performance of the structure. Many years of
experience have demonstrated the types of details that satisfy this
criterion and the designer should refer to the standard connections
on joints in simple construction.
CONTINUOUS DESIGN
In continuous design, it is assumed that joints are rigid and transfer
moment between members. The stability of the frame against sway
is by frame action (i.e. by bending of beams and columns).
Continuous design is more complex than simple design therefore
software is commonly used to analyse the frame. Realistic
combinations of pattern loading must be considered when designing
continuous frames. The connections between members must have
different characteristics depending on whether the design method
for the frame is elastic or plastic.
In elastic design, the joints must possess sufficient rotational
stiffness to ensure that the distribution of forces and moments
around the frame are not significantly different to those calculated.
The joint must be able to carry the moments, forces and shears
arising from the frame analysis.
In plastic design, in determining the ultimate load capacity, the
strength (not stiffness) of the joint is of prime importance. The
strength of the joint will determine whether plastic hinges occur in
the joints or in the members, and will have a significant effect on
the collapse mechanism. If hinges are designed to occur in the
joints, the joint must be detailed with sufficient ductility to
accommodate the resulting rotations. The stiffness of the joints will
be important when calculating beam deflections, sway deflections
and sway stability.
SEMI-CONTINUOUS DESIGN
True semi-continuous design is more complex than either simple or
continuous design as the real joint response is more realistically
represented. Analytical routines to follow the true connection

behaviour closely are highly involved and unsuitable for routine

design, as they require the use of sophisticated computer programs.
However, two simplified procedures do exist for both braced and
unbraced frames; these are briefly referred to below. Braced frames
are those where the resistance to lateral loads is provided by a
bracing system or a core; in unbraced frames this resistance is
generated

by

bending

moments

in

the

columns and beams.

The simplified procedures are:
i. The wind moment method, for unbraced frames. In this
procedure, the beam/column joints are assumed to be pinned
when considering gravity loads. However, under wind loading
they are assumed to
be rigid, which means that lateral loads are carried by frame
action. A fuller description of the method can be found in
ii.

reference.
Semi-continuous design of braced frames. In this procedure,
account of the real joint behaviour is taken to reduce the bending
moments applied to the beams and to reduce the deflections.
Details of the method can be found in reference.

5. What are the shapes used in structural steel? Enumerate and

elaborate.
I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal
Beams (UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the
IPE, HE, HL, HD and other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange
(WF) and H sections)
Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural
hollow

section)

and

including square, rectangular, circular (pipe)

and elliptical cross sections)

 Angle (L-shaped cross-section)

Structural channel, or C-beam, or C cross-section
Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)

Railway rail

Vignoles rail

Flanged T rail

Grooved rail

Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long,

but not so wide so as to be called a sheet.
Rod,

a round or

square

and

long

piece

of

metal,

see

also rebar and dowel.

Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 14 in.
Open web steel joist
While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made
by welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest
circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and
seam-welded).