Force is a push or pull which tries to change or
successfully changes the state of rest or of uniform
motion of a body, i.e., force is the cause of translatory
motion.
It arises due to interaction of the bodies either due to
contact (e.g., normal reaction, friction, tension, spring
force etc.) or from a distance (e.g., gravitational or
electric force).

 
 
All forces observed in nature such as muscular force,
tension, reaction, friction, weight, electric, magnetic,
nuclear, etc., can be explained in terms of only following
four basic interactions.

of nuclear forces. It acts within the nucleus that too

upto a very small distance. It does not depends on
charge and acts equally between a proton and proton,
a neutron and neutron, and proton and neutron,
electrons does not experience this force. It acts for very
short distance order of 10 m.
# $  
It acts between any two elementary particles. Under its
action a neutron can change into a proton emitting an
electron and a particle called antineutrino. The range
of weak force is very small, in fact much smaller than
size of a proton or a neutron.
It has been found that for two protons at a distance of 1
fermi :
FN:FEM:FW:FG::1:10:10:10

   

The force of interaction which exists between two
particles of masses m1 and m2, due to their masses is
called gravitational force. The gravitational force acts
over long distances and does not need, any intervening
medium. Gravitational force is the weakest force of
nature.

On the basis of contact forces are classified into two

categories
(i)

Contact forces

(ii) Non contact or field forces

  !  

  % 

Force exerted by one particle on the other because of

the electric charge on the particles is called
electromagnetic force. Following are the main
characteristics of electromagnetic force

Forces which are transmitted between bodies by short

range atomic molecular interactions are called contact
forces. When two objects come in contact they exert
contact forces on each other. e.g. Normal, Tension etc.

(i)

   # % 

These can be attractive or repulsive.

(ii) These are long range forces.

(iii) These depend on the nature of medium between
the charged particles.
(iv) All macroscopic forces (except gravitational) which
we experience as push or pull or by contact are
electromagnetic, i.e., tension in a rope, the force
of friction, normal reaction, muscular force, and
force experienced by a deformed spring are
electromagnetic forces. These are manifestations
of the electromagnetic attractions and repulsions
between atoms/molecules.
 "  

Force which acts on an object at a distance by the

interaction of the object with the field produced by other
object is called field force. e.g. Gravitational force,
Electro magnetic force etc.

  
  
 
   %   
It is the component of contact force perpendicular to
the surface. It measures how strongly the surfaces in
contact are pressed against each other. It is the
electromagnetic force.
e.g.1 A table is placed on Earth as shown in figure

It is the strongest force. It keeps nucleons (neutrons

and protons) together inside the nucleus inspite of
large electric repulsion between protons. Radioactivity,
fission, and fusion, etc. results because of unbalancing

11

PAGE # 11

Here table presses the earth so normal force exerted

by four legs of table on earth are as shown in figure.

e.g.2 A boy pushes a block kept on a frictionless

surface.

Here, force exerted by boy on block is electromagnetic

interaction which arises due to similar charges
appearing on finger and contact surface of block, it is
normal force.

 & 
Tension is the magnitude of pulling force exerted by a
string, cable, chain, rope etc. W hen a string is
connected to a body and pulled out, the string said to
be under tension. It pulls the body with a force T, whose
direction is away from the body and along the length of
the string. Usually strings are regarded to be massless
and unstretchable, known as ideal string.

 Note : (i) Tension in a string is an electromagnetic

force and it arises only when string is pulled. If a
massless string is not pulled, tension in it is zero.
(ii) String can not push a body in direct contact.
  '# ( &)! 

A block is kept on inclined surface. Component of its

weight presses the surface perpendicularly due to
which contact force acts between surface and block.

A spring is made of a coiled metallic wire having a

definite length. When it is neither pushed nor pulled
then its length is called natural length.
At natural length the spring does not exert any force on
the objects attached to its ends.f the spring is pulled
at the ends, its length becomes larger than its natural
length, it is known as stretched or extended spring.
Extended spring pulls objects attached to its ends.
A

Normal force exerted by block on the surface of inclined

plane is shown in figure. Here normal force is a
component of weight of the body perpendicular to the
inclined surface i.e. N = mgsin

B
Normal spring

Spring force on A

Spring force on B

B
Stretched spring
Spring force on B

Spring force on A

Compressed spring

Force acts perpendicular to the surface

1.

Two blocks are kept in contact on a smooth surface as

shown in figure. Draw normal force exerted by
A on B.

If the spring is pushed at the ends, its length becomes

less than natural length. It is known as compressed
spring. A compressed spring pushes the objects
attached to its ends.

F = 0 spring in natural
length does not exerts
any force on its ends

x
F

Sol. In above problem, block A does not push block B, so

there is no molecular interaction between A and B.
Hence normal force exerted by A on B is zero.

 Note :


Normal is a dependent force it comes in role when

one surface presses the other.

F = 
    
constant or stiffness
constant (unit = N/m)
x = extension in spring

Fext

x
F

F
Fext

F = 

x = compression in spring

22

PAGE # 22

 Note : Spring force is also electromagnetic in nature :

#  % 
When a body is moving on a rough surface resistance
to the motion occurs because of the interaction
between the body and its surroundings. We call such
resistance as force of friction. Friction is also
considered as component of contact force which acts
parallel to the surfaces in contact.
(i) Origin of friction : The frictional force arises due to
molecular interactions between the surfaces at the
points of actual contact. When two bodies are placed
one over other, the actual area of contact is much
smaller then the total surface areas of bodies. The
molecular forces starts operating at the actual points
of contact of the surfaces. Molecular bonds are formed
at these contact points. When one body is pulled over

(C) Once the motion started, the smaller force is now

necessary to continue the motion (F3) and thus
frictional force decreases. The force of friction
when body is in state of motion over the surface is
called kinetic or dynamic friction fk (figure d).

the other, these bonds are broken, and the material

get deformed and new bonds are formed. The local
deformation sends vibrations into the bodies. These
Vibrations ultimately dumps out and energy of
vibrations appears as heat. Hence to start or carry on
the motion, there is a need of force.

Body 1
Body 2

(iii) More about frictional force :

(A) About static friction

Actual area of contact

1.

The limiting friction depends on the materials

of the surfaces in contact and their state of
polish.

2.

The magnitude of static friction is

independent of the apparent area of contact
so long as the normal reaction remains the
same.

3.

The limiting friction is directly proportional to

the magnitude of the normal reaction
between the two surfaces i.e. flim= SN. Here
s is coefficient of static friction.

(ii) Statics and Kinetic Frictions :



Experiment :
(A) Consider a block placed on a table, and a small
force F1 is acted on it. The block does not move. It
indicates that the frictional force fs starts acting in
opposite direction of applied force and its magnitude
is equal of F1(figure b). That is for the equilibrium of
the block, we have
F1 s = 0 or F1 = fs
The force of friction when body is in state of rest over

 We can write, s =

the surface is called static friction (fs).

(B) As the applied force increases the frictional force
also increases. When the applied force is increased

(B) About kinetic friction :

1.

The kinetic friction depends on the materials

of the surface in contact.

2.

It is also independent of apparent area of

contact as long as the magnitude of normal
reaction remains the same.

3.

Kinetic friction is almost independent of the

velocity, provided the velocity is not too large
not too small.

up to a certain limit (F2) such that the block is on the

verge of motion. The value of frictional force at this

flim
N

stage is called limiting friction flim (figure c).

33

PAGE # 33

4.

The kinetic friction is directly proportional to

the magnitude of the normal reaction
between the surfaces.
fk = k N. Here k is coefficient of kinetic friction.

 We can write, k =


fk
N

There are two types of kinetic frictions:

(i)

Sliding friction : The force of friction when one

body slides over the surface of the another body is
called sliding friction.

(ii) Rolling friction : When a wheel rolls without

slipping over a horizontal surface, there is no
relative motion of the point of contact of the wheel
with respect to the plane. Theoretically for a rolling
wheel the frictional force is zero. This can only
possible when bodies in contact are perfectly rigid
and contact of wheel with the surface is made
only at a point. But in practice no material body is
perfectly rigid and therefore bodies get deformed
when they pressed each other. The actual area of
their contact no longer remains a point, and thus
a small amount of friction starts acting between
the body and the surface. Here frictional force is
called rolling friction. It is clear from above
discussion that rolling friction is very much smaller
than sliding friction.

A force is conservative if the total work done by the

force on an object in one complete round is zero,
i.e. when the object moves around any closed path
(returning to its initial position).
A force is conservative if there is no change in kinetic
energy in one complete round. KE = 0
This definition illuminates an important aspect of a
conservative force viz. Work done by a conservative
force is recoverable. Thus in figure, we shall have to
do mgh amount of work in taking the body from A to B.
However, when body is released from B, we recover
mgh of work.
Other examples of conservative forces are spring force,
electrostatic force etc.
 *&  
A force is non-conservative if the work done by that force
on a particle moving between two points depends on
the path taken between the points.
The force of friction is an example of non-conservative
force. Let us illustrate this with an instructive example.
Suppose we were to displace a book between two points
on a rough horizontal surface (such as a table). If the
book is displaced in a straight line between the two
points, the work done by friction is simply FS where :
F = force of friction ;
S = distance between the points.
However, if the book is moved along any other path
between the two points (such as a semicircular path),

flim > fkinetic > frolling.

 Note : s and k are dimensionless quantities and

independent of shape and area of contact . It is a
property of two contact surfaces. s will always be
greater than k .Theoretical value of  can be o to  but
practical value is 0 <   1.6

the work done by friction would be greater than FS.

Finally, if the book is moved through any closed path,
the work done by friction is never zero, it is always
negative. Thus the work done by a non-conservative
force is not recoverable, as it is for a conservative force.

 
Two or more than two objects which interact with each

 &  

A force is said to be conservative if the amount of work
done in moving an object against that force is
independent on the path. One important example of
conservative force is the gravitational force. It means
that amount of work done in moving a body against
gravity from location A to location B is the same
whichever path we may follow in going from A to B. This
is illustrated in figure.

other form a system.

Classification of forces on the basis of boundary of
system :
(a) Internal Forces : Forces acting with in a system
among its constituents.
(b) External Forces : Forces exerted on the
constituents of a system by the outside
surroundings are called as external forces.

44

PAGE # 44


 

A free body diagram consists of a diagrammatic

representations of single body or a subsystem of
bodies isolated from surroundings showing all the
forces acting on it.

Sol.F.B.D. of sphere $%

 Steps for F.B.D.

Step 1 : Identify the object or system and isolate it from
other objects, clearly specify its boundary.
Step 2 : First draw non-contact external force in the
diagram, generally it is weight.
Step 3 : Draw contact forces which acts at the boundary

F.B.D. of sphere &%

(exerted by A)

of the object of system. Contact forces are normal ,

friction, tension and applied force. In F.B.D, internal
forces are not drawn only external are drawn.
2.

A block of mass     

figure.

 Note : Here NAB and NBA are the action - reaction pair
(Newton   #'
(i)

4.

Draw F.B.D. of block.

Draw F.B.D. for systems shown in figure below.

(ii) Are forces acting on block forms action- reaction

pair.
(iii) If answer is no, draw action reaction pair.
Sol.(i)

F.B.D. of block

Sol.

(ii)  !

act on different bodies, and they are of same
nature.
(iii) Pair of   "#        
direction.

earth

mg

and pair of     

N

 

When several forces acts on a body simultaneously in
such a way that resultant force on the body is zero, i.e.,



F = 0 with F =

3.

Two sphere A and B are placed between two vertical

walls as shown in figure. Draw the free body diagrams
of both the spheres.

 F the body is said to be in translatory

i

equilibrium. Here it is worthy to note that :

(i)

As if a vector is zero all its components must vanish

i.e. in equilibrium as -

55

PAGE # 55



F = 0 with F =

F

=0;

 Note : The absolute unit of force remains the same

F = 0

F

everywhere, but the gravitational unit of force varies

from place to place because it depends on the value of g.

=0;

F

   ))& % ,& - #  ,

=0

(i)

So in equilibrium forces along x axes must balance

each other and the same is true for other directions.
If a body is in translatory equilibrium it will be either at
rest or in uniform motion. If it is at rest, equilibrium is
called static, otherwise dynamic.

When objects are in equilibrium :

Steps to solve problem involving objects in
equilibrium :

Step 1 : Make a sketch of the problem.

Step 2 : Isolate a single object and then draw the freebody diagram for the object. Label all external forces

Static equilibrium can be divided into following three

types :

acting on it.
Step 3 : Choose a convenient coordinate system and

  +""  

resolve all forces into rectangular components along x

and Y direction.

If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a

body has a tendency to regain its original position it is
said to be in stable equilibrium. In case of stable
equilibrium potential energy is minimum and so center
of gravity is lowest.

Step 4 : Apply the equations

F

0 and

F

0.

Step 5 : Step 4 will give you two equations with several

unknown quantities. If you have only two unknown
quantities at this point, you can solve the two equations
for those unknown quantities.
Step 6 : If step 5 produces two equations with more
than two unknowns, go back to step 2 and select

O
(b) Unstable equilibrium : If on slight displacement
from equilibrium position a body moves in the direction
of displacement, the equilibrium is said to be unstable.
In this situation potential energy of body is maximum
and so center of gravity is highest.

another object and repeat these steps. Eventually at

step 5 you will have enough equations to solve for all
unknown quantities.

5.

(c) Neutral equilibrium : If on slight displacement from

equilibrium position a body has no tendency to come
back to its original position or to move in the direction
of displacement, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
In this situation potential energy of body is constant
and so center of gravity remains at constant height.

A "#     (  

suspended with string as
shown in figure.
Find tension in the string.
(g = 10 m/s2).

Sol.F.B.D. of block
For equilibrium of block along Y axis

F

T ((
T = 100 N
6.

The system shown in figure is in equilibrium. Find the

magnitude of tension in each string ; T1 , T2, T3 and T4.
(g = 10 m/s2).

.
 ,& - #  , %

 

The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is

directly proportional to the applied force and the change
takes place in the direction of the applied force.

In relation F = ma the force F stands for the net

Sol.F.B.D. of 10 kg block

external force. Any internal force in the system is not to

For equilibrium of block along Y axis.

be included in F .

F

In S.I. the absolute unit of force is newton (N) and

gravitational unit of force is kilogram weight or kilogram
force (kgf.)

T0

T0 = 10 g
T0 = 100 N

10g

66

PAGE # 66

F.B.D. of point $

F

T2
30)

T2 cos 30)*0 = 100 N

 T2 =

T1

8.

200
3

F

T0

200
3

Find magnitude of force exerted by string on pulley.

T1 = T2 . sin 30)
=

N2 = 50 sin 30)+3
N3 = 100 
& N4 = 50 cos 30)+(
N4 = 243.30 N

Sol B.

F.B.D. of 10 kg block :

1 100
=
N.
3
2

F.B.D. of point of &

y
60)
T3

T = 10 g = 100 N
F.B.D. of pulley :

T4
x

30)
T2

F

= 0 T4 cos 60)*2 cos 30)

 T4 = 200 N

Since string is massless, so tension in both sides

F

of string is same.
So magnitude of force exerted by string on pulley

and

T3 =
7.

= 0 T3 + T2 sin30)*4 sin 60)

200
3

Two blocks are kept in contact as shown in figure. Find :-

100 2  100 2

= 100 2 N

 Note : Since pulley is in equilibrium position, so net

(a) forces exerted by surfaces (floor and wall) on

blocks.

forces on it is zero.

(b) contact force between two blocks.

Steps to solve problems involving objects that are in

accelerated motion :

 ! .& 

Step 1 : Make a sketch of the problem.

Step 2 : Isolate a single object and then draw the free
- body diagram for that object. Label all external forces
SolA : F.B.D. of 10 kg block

acting on it. Be sure to include all the forces acting on

the chosen body, but be equally careful not to include
any force exerted by the body on some other body.
Some of the forces may be unknown , label them with
algebraic symbols.
Step 3 : Choose a convenient coordinate system, show

N1 = 10 g = 100 N .......(1)
N2 = 100 N .........(2)
F.B.D. of 20 kg block

location of coordinate axis explicitly in the free - body

diagram, and then determine components of forces
with reference to these axis and resolve all forces into
x and y components.
Step 4 : Apply the equations

F

= max &

F

= may.

Step 5 : Step 4 will give two equations with several

unknown quantities. If you have only two unknown
quantities at this point, you can solve the two equations
for those unknown quantities.

77

PAGE # 77

Step 6 : If step 5 produces two equations with more

than two unknowns, go back to step 2 and select
another object and repeat these steps. Eventually at

Sol.For calculating the value of F0.

F.B.D of whole system
F0

step 5 you will have enough equations to solve for all

unknown quantities.
2
(a) 2m/s

9.

A force F is applied horizontally on mass m1 as shown

in figure. Find the contact force between m1 and m2.

Sol.Considering both blocks as a system to find the

common acceleration.
Common acceleration

F
a=
m1  m2  .......(1)

m1

m2

10 g = 100 N

F0 (((,
F0 = 120 N

........(1)

(b) According to Newton   #-   

rope.
F = ma = 2 ,
= 4N
............(2)
(c) For calculating tension at the middle point we draw
F.B.D. of 3 kg block with half of the rope (mass 1
kg) as shown.

T .. 
To find the contact force between $&
F.B.D. of mass m2.
F.B.D. of mass m2

T = 48 N
11. A block of mass 50 kg is kept on another block of mass
1 kg as shown in figure. A horizontal force of 10 N is
applied on the 1Kg block. (All surface are smooth).
Find : (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) Acceleration of blocks A and B.

(b) Force exerted by B on A.

Fx = max

B
A

N = m2 . a
N=

m2F

m1  m2 



F
sin ce a



m
m
1
2


Sol.(a)

50 kg
1 kg

F.B.D. of 50 kg

10. A 5 kg block has a rope of mass 2 kg attached to its

underside and a 3 kg block is suspended from the other
end of the rope. The whole system is accelerated
upward at 2 m/s2 by an external force F0.
(a) What is F0 ?
(b) What is the net force on rope ?

N2 = 50 g = 500 N
along horizontal direction, there is no force aB = 0
(b) F.B.D. of 1 kg block :
N1 N2

(c) What is the tension at middle point of the rope ?

10 N

(g = 10 m/s2)
1g

along horizontal direction

10 = 1 aA.
aA = 10 m/s2
along vertical direction

N1 = N2 + 1g
= 500 + 10 = 510 N

88

PAGE # 88

12. One end of string which passes through pulley and

N = Mg

connected to 10 kg mass at other end is pulled by 100

= 60 ,(

N force. Find out the acceleration of 10 kg mass. (g

N = 600 N.



=9.8 m/s2)

Sol.Since string is pulled by 100 N force. So tension in the

It does not measure the weight. It measures the force

exerted by the object at the hook. Symbolically, it is
represented as shown in figure.
A block of mass     0 
balance is in equilibrium, we draw the F.B.D. of mass
m for calculating the reading of balance.

string is 100 N
F.B.D. of 10 kg block
spring balance
hook

F.B.D. of 

100 ((

100 (,/ (

mg *(
T = mg
Magnitude of T gives the reading of spring balance.

a = 0.2 m/s2.

   
A weighing machine does not measure the weight but

14. A block of mass 20 kg is suspended through two light

spring balances as shown in figure . Calculate the :

measures the force exerted by object on its upper

surface.
13. A man of mass 60 Kg is
standing on a weighing
machine placed on ground.
Calculate the reading of

weighing machine

machine (g = 10 m/s2).

Sol.For calculating the reading of weighing machine, we

draw F.B.D. of man and machine separately.
F.B.D of man

(1) reading of spring balance (1).

(2) reading of spring balance (2).
Sol.For calculating the reading, first we draw F.B.D.of 20 kg
block.

F.B.D of man taking

mass of man as M

F.B.D. of weighing machine

N
weighing machine

F.B.D. 20 kg

T
N = Mg

N1

Mg

Mg

20 g

Here force exerted by object on upper surface is N

Reading of weighing machine
mg *(
T = 20 g = 200 N

99

PAGE # 99

Since both the balances are light so, both the scales
will read 200 N.

As the block is in equilibrium along y-axis, so we have

F

15. (i)

A 10 kg block is supported by a cord that runs to a

spring scale, which is supported by another cord
from the ceiling figure (a). What is the reading on
the scale ?

(ii) In figure (b) the block is supported by a cord that

runs around a pulley and to a scale. The opposite
end of the scale is attached by cord to a wall. What
is the reading of the scale.
(iii) In figure (c) the wall has been replaced with a
second 10 kg block on the left, and the assembly is
stationary. What is the reading on the scale now ?

0;

or N = mg + F sin 
To just move the block along x-axis, we have
F cos = N = (mg + F sin )

or

F=

mg
.......(i)
cos    sin 

 Pull : Along y-axis we have ;

spring balance

F

0;

 N = mg 1 

hook

10 kg

To just move the block along x-axis, we have

F cos = N =  (mg 1 )

(a)
T

T
10kg

17. Discuss the direction of friction in the following cases :

T

T
10kg

It is clear from above discussion that pull force is

smaller than push force.

(b)
T


mg
 . .......(ii)
 cos    sin  

or F = 

10kg

(c)
Sol. In all the three cases the spring balance reads 10 kg.
To understand this let us cut a section inside the spring
as shown;

(i)

A man walks slowly, without change in speed.

(ii) A man is going with increasing speed.

(iii) When cycle is gaining speed.
(iv) When cycle is slowing down .
Sol. (i)

Consider a man walks slowly without acceleration,

and both the legs are touching the ground as
shown in figure (a). The frictional force on rear leg
is in forward direction and on front leg will be on

As each part of the spring is at rest, so F= T. As the

block is stationary, so T= 10g = 100N.
16. Pull is easier than push

 Push : Consider a block of mass m placed on

rough horizontal surface. The coefficient of static
friction between the block and surface is . Let a
push force F is applied at an angle  with the
horizontal.

backward direction of motion.

As a = 0,

 Fnet = 0 or

f1 2 = 0

 f1 = f2

N1 = N2.

&

N1

f1

N2

f1

f2

f2

Ground
N1

N2

(b)

10
10

PAGE # 1010

(ii) When man is gaining the speed : The frictional

force on rear leg f1 will be greater than frictional
force on front leg f2 (fig. b).

f f
 acceleration of the man, a = 1 2 .
m

Block is to be raised without acceleration, so

T = 25 g.

 N1 = 25 g + 50 g
=

75 g = 75 ,/ 

In IInd case, let the force exerted by the man on the floor

(iii) When cycle is gaining speed : In this case torque

in N2 . Consider the forces inside the dotted box, we

is applied on the rear wheel of the cycle by the

have

chain-gear system. Because of this the slipping

N2 = 50 g *

tendency of the point of contact of the rear wheel is

and T = 25 g

backward and so friction acts in forward direction.

N2 = 50 g 

The slipping tendency of point of contact of front

= 25 g = 25 ,/ .

wheel is forward and so friction acts in backward

As the floor yields to a downward force of 700 N, so the

direction. If f1 and f2 are the frictional forces on rear

man should adopt mode .

and front wheel, then acceleration of the cycle a =

f1  f2
, where M is the mass of the cycle together
M
with rider (fig. a).

N1

N2

f1

f2
(a)

N1

N2

f1

19. Figure shows a weighing machine kept in a lift is

moving upwards with acceleration of 5 m/s2. A block is
kept on the weighing machine. Upper surface of block
is attached with a spring balance. Reading shown by
weighing machine and spring balance is 15 kg and 45
kg respectively.

f2
(b)

(iv) When cycle is slowing down : When torque is not

applied (cycle stops pedaling), the slipping
tendency of points of contact of both the wheels
are forward, and so friction acts in backward
direction (fig. b). If f1 and f2 are the frictional forces
on rear and front wheel, then retardation

f1  f2
a=
M
18. A block of mass 25 kg is raised by a 50 kg man in two
different ways as shown in fig.. What is the action on
the floor by the man in the two cases ? If the floor yields
to a normal force of 700 N, which mode should the
man adopt to lift the block without the floor yielding.

Answer the following questions. Assume that the

weighing machine can measure weight by having
negligible deformation due to block, while the spring
balance requires larger expansion. (take g = 10 m/s2)
(i) Find the mass of the object in kg and the normal
force acting on the block due to weighing machine?
(ii) Find the acceleration of the lift such that weighing
machine shows its true weight ?

Sol. (i)

50g
50g

Sol. The FBD for the two cases are shown in figure.
InIst case, let the force exerted by the man on the floor is
N1. Consider the forces inside the dotted box, we have
N1 = T + 50 g.

T + N 22
45 g + 15 g = M(g + a)
450 + 150 = M(10 + 5)
M = 40 kg
Normal force is the reaction applied by weighing
machine i.e. 15 ,((

11
11

PAGE # 1111

4.

A dish of mass 10 g is kept horizontally in air by firing

bullets of mass 5 g each at the rate of 100 per second.
If the bullets rebound with the same speed, what is the
velocity with which the bullets are fired :

(ii)

T + N 22
45 g + 40 g = 40(g + a)
450 + 400 = 400 +40 a
a=

5.

(A) 0.49 m/s

(B) 0.098 m/s

(C) 1.47 m/s

(D) 1.96 m/s

A block of metal weighing 2 kg is resting on a

frictionless plank. If struck by a jet releasing water at a

450 45
=
m/s2
40
4

rate of 1 kg/s and at a speed of 5 m/s. The initial

acceleration of the block will be :
(A) 2.5 m/s2
(C) 10 m /s

/ 

1.

6.

  

(B) 5.0 m/s2

(D) none of the above

A constant force F is applied in horizontal direction as

shown. Contact force between M and m is N and
between m and M 

Two blocks are in contact on a frictionless table. One

has mass m and the other 2m.A force F is applied on
2m as shown in the figure. Now the same force F is
applied from the right on m. In the two cases
respectively, the ratio of force of contact between the
two blocks will be :
(A) N= N
(C) N4

(B) N > N

(D) cannot be determined

(A) Same
(C) 2 : 1
2.

(B) 1 : 2
(D) 1 : 3

Two forces of 6N and 3N are acting on the two blocks of

2kg and 1kg kept on frictionless floor. What is the force
exerted on 2kg block by 1kg block ?:

7.

ASSERTION / REASON
STATEMENT-1 : Block A is moving on horizontal surface
towards right under action of force. All surface are
smooth. At the instant shown the force exerted by block
A on block B is equal to net force on block B.

6N
2kg 1kg
(A)1N
(C) 4N

3N

STATEMENT-2 : From Newtons #-

(B) 2N
(D) 5N

exerted by block A on B is equal in magnitude to force

exerted block B on A

3.

There are two forces on the 2.0 kg box in the overhead

view of figure but only one is shown. The second force
is nearly :

(A) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-2

is correct explanation for statement-1.

(B) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-2

is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is false
(D) statement-1 is False, Statement 2 is True

F1 = 20 N
x

8.
30)
a = 12 m/s

A certain force applied to a body A gives it an acceleration

of 10 ms. The same force applied to body B gives it
an acceleration of 15 ms. If the two bodies are joined

(A) ( j N

(B) ( i + 20 j N

(C)  i  3 j N

(D)  i 3 j N

together and same force is applied to the combination,

the acceleration will be :
(A) 6 ms

(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(B) 25 ms

(C) 12.5 ms

(D) 9 ms

12
12

PAGE # 1212

 9. Four blocks are kept in a row on a smooth horizontal

table with their centres of mass collinear as shown in

the figure. An external force of 60 N is applied from left
on the 7 kg block to push all of them along the table.
The forces exerted by them are :(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
60N

7 kg

5 kg

2 kg

1 kg

(A) 32 N by P on Q
(C) 12 N by Q on R

13. Two masses M1 and M2 are attached to the ends of a

light string which passes over a massless pulley
attached to the top of a double inclined smooth plane
of angles of inclination  and . If M2 > M1 then the
acceleration of block M2 down the inclined will be :

(B) 28 N by Q on P
(D) 4 N by S on R

Tension :

(A)

10. A mass M is suspended by a rope from a rigid support

at A as shown in figure. Another rope is tied at the end
B, and it is pulled horizontally with a force F. If the rope
AB makes an angle  with the vertical in
equilibrium,then the tension in the string AB is :

M2 (sin )
g
M1  M2

(B)

 M2 sin   M1 sin  
 g
M1  M2



(D) Zero

(C) 

M1g(sin  )
M1  M2

14. Three masses of 1 kg, 6 kg and 3 kg are connected to

each other by threads and are placed on table as
shown in figure. What is the acceleration with which
the system is moving ? Take g = 10 m s:

(A) F sin 
(C) F cos 

(B) F /sin 
(D) F / cos 

11. In the system shown in the figure, the acceleration of

the 1kg mass and the tension in the string connecting
between A and B is :

(B) 1 ms

(A) Zero
(C) 2 m s



(D) 3 m s

15. The pulley arrangements shown in figure are identical

the mass of the rope being negligible. In case I, the
mass m is lifted by attaching a mass 2m to the other
end of the rope. In case II, the mass m is lifted by
pulling the other end of the rope with a constant

g
8g
(A)
downward,
4
7
(C)

g
6
downward,
g
7
7

g
g
(B)
upward,
4
7
(D)

downward force F= 2 mg, where g is acceleration due

to gravity. The acceleration of mass in case I is :

g
upward, g
2

12. A body of mass 8 kg is hanging from another body of

mass 12 kg. The combination is being pulled by a
string with an acceleration of 2.2 m s. The tension T1
and T2 will be respectively :(Use g =9.8 m/s2)

(A) Zero
(B) More than that in case II
(A) 200 N, 80 N
(C) 240 N, 96 N

(B) 220 N, 90 N
(D) 260 N, 96 N

(C) Less than that in case II

(D) Equal to that in case II

13
13

PAGE # 1313

16. A 50 kg person stands on a 25 kg platform. He pulls

massless rope which is attached to the platform via
the frictionless, massless pulleys as shown in the
figure. The platform moves upwards at a steady velocity
if the force with which the person pulls the rope is :

20. Two blocks of mass m each is connected with the

string which passes over fixed pulley, as shown in figure.
The force exerted by the string on the pulley P is :

(A) mg

(B) 2 mg

(C) 2 mg

(D) 4 mg

21. One end of a massless rope, which passes over a

(A) 500 N
(C) 25 N

(B) 250 N
(D) 50 N

17. Figure shows four blocks that are being pulled along a
smooth horizontal surface. The mssses of the blocks
and tension in one cord are given. The pulling force F is :

massless and frictionless pulley P is tied to a hook C

while the other end is free. Maximum tension that rope
can bear is 360 N, with what minimum safe
acceleration (in m/s2) can a monkey of 60 kg move
down on the rope :

F
30N
60)

4kg

3kg

(A) 50 N
(C) 125 N

2kg

1kg

(B) 100 N
(D) 200 N
C

18. A10 kg monkey climbs up a massless rope that runs

over a frictionless tree limb and back down to a 15 kg
package on the ground. The magnitude of the least
acceleration the monkey must have if it is to lift the
package off the ground is :

(A) 16

(B) 6

(C) 4

(D) 8

22. Which figure represents the correct F.B.D. of rod of

mass m as shown in figure :

(A) 4.9 m/s2

(C) 9.8 m/s2

(B) 5.5 m/s2

(D) none of these

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D) None of these

19. Two blocks, each of mass M, are connected by a

massless string, which passes over a smooth

massless pulley. Forces F act on the blocks as shown.

The tension in the string is :

23. Two persons are holding a rope of negligible weight

tightly at its ends so that it is horizontal. A 15 kg weight
is attached to the rope at the mid point which now no
longer remains horizontal. The minimum tension
required to completely straighten the rope is :
(A) 15 kg
(A) Mg

(B) 2 Mg

(C) Mg + F

(D) none of these

(B)

15
kg
2

(C) 5 kg
(D) Infinitely large (or not possible)

14
14

PAGE # 1414

24. In the figure, the blocks A, B and C of mass each have

29. Two bodies of masses M1 and M2 are connected to

acceleration a1 , a2 and a3 respectively . F1 and F2 are

each other through a light spring as shown in figure. If

external forces of magnitudes 2 mg and mg

we push mass M1 with force F and cause acceleration

respectively then which of the following relations is

a1 in mass M1 what will be the acceleration in M2 ?

correct :

(A) F/M2

(B) F/(M1 + M2)

(C) a1

(D) (F21a1)/M2

30. A spring balance is attached to 2 kg trolley and is used

to pull the trolly along a flat surface as shown in the fig.
(A) a1 = a2 = a3

(B) a1 > a2 > a3

The reading on the spring balance remains at 10 kg

(C) a1 = a2 , a2 > a3

(D) a1 > a2 , a2= a3

during the motion. The acceleration of the trolly is (Use

25. A weight is supported by two strings 1.3 and 2.0 m

g= 9.8 m) :

long fastened to two points on a horizontal beam 2.0

m apart. The depth of this weight below the beam is :
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) 1.0 m

(B) 1.23 m

(C) 0.77 m

(D) 0.89 m

26. A fully loaded elevator has a mass of 6000 kg. The

tension in the cable as the elevator is accelerated
downward with an acceleration of 2ms is (Take g = I0
(KVPY/2007)
ms  )
4

(A) 75,( N
(C) 6 ,(4 N

(B) 4.8 ,( N

(D) 1.2 ,(4 N
4

(A) 4.9 ms

(B) 9.8 ms

(C) 49 ms

(D) 98 ms

31. A body of mass 32 kg is suspended by a spring balance

from the roof of a vertically operating lift and going
downward from rest. At the instants the lift has covered
20 m and 50 m, the spring balance showed 30 kg & 36
kg respectively. The velocity of the lift is :
(A) Decreasing at 20 m & increasing at 50 m

27. A light string goes over a frictionless pulley. At its one

end hangs a mass of 2 kg and at the other end hangs
a mass of 6 kg. Both the masses are supported by
hands to keep them at rest. When the masses are
released, they being to move and the string gets taut.
(Take g = 10 ms) The tension in the string during the
motion of the masses is :
(KVPY/2008)
(A) 60 N
(B) 30 N
(C) 20 N
(D) 40 N
Force Exerted by Spring :
28. In the given figure. What is the reading of the spring
balance:

(A) 10 N

(B) 20 N

(C) 5 N

(D) Zero

(B) Increasing at 20 m & decreasing at 50 m

(C) Continuously decreasing at a constant rate
throughout the journey
(D) Continuously increasing at constant rate throughout
the journey
Friction Force :
32. A ship of mass 3 ,(7 kg initially at rest is pulled by a
force of 5 ,(4 N through a distance of 3m. Assume
that the resistance due to water is negligible, the speed
of the ship is :
(A) 1.5 m/s
(B) 60 m/s
(C) 0.1 m/s
(D) 5 m/s
33. When a horse pulls a cart, the force needed to move
the horse in forward direction is the force exerted by :
(A) The cart on the horse
(B) The ground on the horse
(C) The ground on the cart
(D) The horse on the ground

15
15

PAGE # 1515

34. A 2.5 kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface.

A 6.0 N horizontal force and a vertical force P are applied

to the block as shown in figure. The coefficient of static
friction for the block and surface is 0.4. The magnitude
of friction force when P = 9N : (g = 10 m/s2)

40. A bock of mass 5 kg is held against wall by applying a

horizontal force of 100N. If the coefficient of friction
between the block and the wall is 0.5, the frictional
force acting on the block is : (g =9.8 m/s2)

100N

(A) 6.0 N
(C) 9.0 N

(B) 6.4 N
(D) zero

35. The upper half of an inclined plane with inclination  is

perfectly smooth while the lower half is rough. A body
starting from rest at the top will again come to rest at the
bottom, if the coefficient of friction for the lower half is :
(B) tan
(A) 2 tan
(C) 2 sin
(D) 2 cos
36. Minimum force required to pull the lower block is (take
g = 10 m/s2) :

(A) 1 N
(C) 7 N

(B) 5 N
(D) 10 N

37. N bullets each of mass m are fired with a velocity v m/

s at the rate of n bullets per sec., upon a wall. If the
bullets are completely stopped by the wall, the reaction
offered by the wall to the bullets is :
(A) N m v / n
(B) n m v
(C) n N v / m
(D) n v m / N
38. A vehicle of mass m is moving on a rough horizontal
road with momentum P. If the coefficient of friction
between the tyres and the road be , then the stopping
distance is :
(A)

P
2 mg

(B)

P2
(D)
2 m2g

P
(C)

P2
2 mg

2 m2g

39. What is the maximum value of the force F such that the
block shown in the arrangement, does not move :
F
60)

(A) 20 N
(C) 12N

5kg

(A)100 N
(C) 49 N

(B) 50 N
(D) 24.9 N

41. A heavy roller is being pulled along a rough road as

shown in the figure. The frictional force at the point of
contact is :
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)

(A) parallel to F
(C) perpendicular to F

(B) opposite to F
(D) zero

42. When a motor car of mass 1500 kg is pushed on a

road by two persons, it moves with a small uniform
velocity. On the other hand if this car is pushed on the
same road by three persons, it moves with an
acceleration of 0.2 m/s2. Assume that each person is
producing the same muscular force. Then, the force of
friction between the tyres of the car and the surface of
the road is :
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009)
(A) 300 N
(C) 900 N

(B) 600 N
(D) 100 N

43. A block of mass M is at rest on a plane surface inclined

at an angle  to the horizontal The magnitude of force
exerted by the plane on the block is :
(KVPY/2009)
(A) Mg cos
(B) Mg sin 
(C) Mg tan
(D) Mg
44. A block of mass M rests on a rough horizontal table. A
steadily increasing horizontal force is applied such that
the block starts to slide on the table without toppling.
The force is continued even after sliding has started.
Assume the coefficients of static and kinetic friction
between the table and the block to be equal. The correct representation of the variation of the frictional
forces, -
"6"#"# 
given by :
(KVPY/2010)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

1
2 3
m = 3kg

(B) 10 N
(D) 15 N

16
16

PAGE # 1616

45. A small child tries to move a large rubber toy placed on

the ground. The toy does not move but gets deformed

under her pushing force (F) which is obliquely upward
as shown . Then

(KVPY/2011)


(A) The resultant of the pushing force (F) , weight of

the toy, normal force by the ground on the toy and the
frictional force is zero.
(B) The normal force by the ground is equal and opposite to the weight of the toy.

(C) The pushing force (F) of the child is balanced by
the equal and opposite frictional force

(D) The pushing force (F) of the child is balanced by
the total internal force in the toy generated due to
deformation
46. On a horizontal frictional frozen lake, a girl (36 kg) and
a box (9kg) are connected to each other by means of a
rope. Initially they are 20 m apart. The girl exerts a
horizontal force on the box, pulling it towards her. How
far has the girl travelled when she meets the box ?
(KVPY/2011)

Weighing Machine :
49. The ratio of the weight of a man in a stationary lift and
when it is moving downward with uniform acceleration
 % * 7#    % 8 #-  
gravity)
(A) (3/2)g
(B) g
(C) (2/3) g
(D) g/3
50. A person standing on the floor of an elevator drops a
coin. The coin reaches the floor of the elevator in time
t1 when elevator is stationary and in time t2 if it is moving
uniformly. Then
(A) t1 = t2
(B) t1 > t2
(C) t1 < t2
(D) t1 < t2 or t1 > t2 depending

ASSERTION / REASON

51. STATEMENT-1 : A man standing in a lift which is moving

upward, will feel his weight to be greater than when
the lift was at rest.
STATEMENT-2 : If the acceleration of the lift is 
then the man of mass m shall feel his weight to be
equal to normal reaction (N) exerted by the lift given N
= m(g+a) (where g is acceleration due to gravity
(A) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement2 is correct explanation for statement 1.
(B) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-

(A) 10 m

2 is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1.

(B) Since there is no friction, the girl will not move

(C) 16 m

(C) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is false

(D) 4m
47. Which of the following does NOT involve friction ?

(D) statement-1 is False, Statement 2 is True

52. A beaker containing water is placed on the platform of

(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) Writing on a paper using a pencil

a digital weighing machine. It reads 900 g. A wooden

(B) Turning a car to the left on a horizontal road.

(C) A car at rest parked on a sloping ground

the beaker (without touching walls of the beaker). Half

(D) Motion of a satellite around the earth.

the reading of weighing machine will be :

block of mass 300 g is now made to float in water in

the wooden block is submerged inside water. Now,
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009)

 48. In the two cases shown below, the coefficient of kinetic

friction between the block and the surface is the same,
and both the blocks are moving with the same uniform
speed. Then,
(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)

(A) 750 g

(B) 900 g

(C) 1050 g

(D) 1200 g

Miscellaneous :
F1

(A) F1 = F2
(B) F1 < F2
(C) F1 > F2
(D) F1 = 2F2 if sin = Mg/4F2

F2

53. An object will continue accelerating until :

(A) Resultant force on it begins to decreases
(B) Its velocity changes direction
(C) The resultant force on it is zero
(D) The resultant force is at right angles to its direction
of motion

17
17

PAGE # 1717

54. In which of the following cases the net force is not zero ?
(A) A kite skillfully held stationary in the sky
(B) A ball freely falling from a height
(C) An aeroplane rising upward at an angle of 459
the horizontal with a constant speed
(D) A cork floating on the surface of water.

 55. Figure shows the displacement of a particle going

along the X-axis as a function of time. The force acting
on the particle is zero in the region.

(A)AB
(C) CD

(B) BC
(D) DE

58. A force of magnitude F1 acts on a particle so as to

accelerate if from rest to velocity v. The force F1 is then
replaced by another force of magnitude F2 which
decelerates it to rest.
(A) F1 must be the equal to F2
(B) F1 may be equal to F2
(C) F1 must be unequal to F2
(D) None of these
59. In a imaginary atmosphere, the air exerts a small force
F on any particle in the direction of the particle 
A particle of mass m projected upward takes a time t1
in reaching the maximum height and t2 in the return
journey to the original point. Then
(A) t1 < t2
(B) t1 > t2
(C) t1 = t2
(D) The relation between t1 and t2 depends on the mass
of the particle

56. A 2 kg toy car can move along x axis. Graph shows force
Fx, acting on the car which begins to rest at time t = 0. The
velocity of the car at t = 10 s is :

60. A single force F of constant magnitude begins to act on

a stone that is moving along x axis. The stone continues
to move along that axis. W hich of the following
represents the stone    :
(A) x = 5t 
(B) x = 5t2 + 8t 
2
(D) x = 5t3 + 4t2 
(C) x =  + 5t 
61. Three forces act on a particle that moves with

unchanging velocity v = (3 i   . j ) m/s. Two of the



forces are F1 = (3 i + 2 j . k ) N and F2 = ( i + 8 j
+ 3 k ) N. The third force is :
(A) ( i + 10 j  k ) N
(B) (2 i ( j + k ) N
(C) (7 i  k + 10 j ) N
(D) none of these
(A)  i m/s

(B)   i m/s

(C) 6.5 i m/s

(D) 13 i m/s

 57. Figure shows the displacement of a particle going

62. An 80 kg person is parachuting and experiencing a

downward acceleration of 2.5 m/s2 . The mass of the
parachute is 5.0 kg. The upward force on the open
parachute from the air is :
(A) 620 N
(C) 800 N

(B) 740 N
(D) 920 N

along the x-axis as a function of time :

63. A block of mass m is pulled on the smooth horizontal
surface with the help of two ropes, each of mass m,
connected to the opposite faces of the block. The
forces on the ropes are F and 2F. The pulling force on
the block is :
(A) The force acting on the particle is zero in the region AB
(B) The force acting on the particle is zero in the region BC
(C) The force acting on the particle is zero in the region CD
(D) The force is zero no where

(A) F
(C) F/3

(B) 2F
(D) 3F/2

18
18

PAGE # 1818

64. A body of mass 5 kg starts from the origin with an initial


velocity u = 30 i + 40 j ms . If a constant force

F = 8 i + 5 j ) N acts on the body, the time in which the

68. A body of 0.5 kg moves along the positive x - axis under

the influence of a varying force F (in Newtons) as shown
below :
(KVPY/2011)

y-component of the velocity becomes zero is :

(B) 20 s

(C) 40 s

(D) 80 s

65. STATEMENT-1 :According to the newton #

motion, the magnitude of the action and reaction force
is an action reaction pair is same only in an inertial
frame of reference.
STATEMENT-2 : Newton  #    
applicable in every inertial reference frame.
(A) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement2 is correct explanation for statement 1.
(B) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement2 is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is false
(D) statement-1 is False, Statement 2 is True

F(N)

(A) 5 s

0,0

10

x(m)

If the speed of the object at x = 4m is 3.16 ms then its

66. A body of mass 10 g moves with constant speed 2 m/
s along a regular hexagon. The magnitude of change
in momentum when the body crosses a corner is :
(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) 0.04 kg-m/s

(B) zero

(C) 0.02 kg-m / s

(D) 0.4 kg-m/s

67. An object with uniform density ! is attached to a spring

that is known to stretch linearly with applied force as
shown below

speed at x = 8 m is :
(A) 3.16 ms
(C) 8 ms



(B) 9.3 ms

(D) 6.8 ms

69. A soldier with a machine gun, falling from an airplane

gets detached from his parachute. He is able to resist
the downward acceleration if he shoots 40 bullets a
second at the speed of 500 m/s. If the weight of a bullet
is 49 gm, what is the weight of the man with the gun ?
Ignore resistance due to air and assume the
acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2 . (KVPY/2010)
(A) 50 kg
(B) 75 kg
(C) 100 kg
(D) 125 kg

When the spring object system is immersed in a

liquid of density !1 as shown in the figure, the spring
stretches by an amount x1 (! > !1). When the experiment
is repeated in a liquid of density !2 < !1 . the spring is
stretched by an amount x2. Neglecting any buoyant force
on the spring, the density of the object is:
(KVPY/2011)
!1x1  !2 x 2
(A) !
x  x
1
2

!1x 2  !2 x1
(B) !
x  x
2
1

!1x 2  !2 x1
(C) !
x  x
1
2

!1x1  !2 x 2
(D) !
x  x
1
2

19
19

PAGE # 1919


 

 




The compounds like urea, sugars, fats, oils, dyes,

proteins, vitamins etc., which are isolated directly or
indirectly from living organisms such as animals and
plants are called organic compounds.The branch of
chemistry which deals with the study of these
compounds is called ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.


 



 


Organic compounds cannot be synthesized in the

laboratory because they require the presence of a
mysterious force (called vital force) which exists only
in living organisms.

 


About 3 million organic compounds are known today.

The main reasons for this huge number of organic
compounds are (i) Catenation : The property of self linking of carbon
atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight
or branched chains and rings of different sizes is
called catenation.Carbon shows maximum
catenation in the periodic table due to its small size,
electronic configuration and unique strength of carboncarbon bonds.
(ii) Electronegativity and strength of bonds : The
electronegativity of carbon (2.5) is close to a number
of other elements like H (2.1) , N(3.0) , P (2.1), Cl (3.0)
and O (3.5). So carbon forms strong covalent bonds
with these elements.

In 1828, Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea (a well

known organic compound) in the laboratory by heating
ammonium cyanate.

(iii) Tendency to form multiple bonds : Due to small

size of carbon it has a strong tendency to form multiple
bonds (double & triple bonds).

(NH 4)2 SO4 +

Ammonium
sulphate

(iv) Isomerism : It is a phenomenon by the virtue of

which two compounds have same molecular formula
but different physical and chemical properties.

2 KCNO
Potassium
cyanate

2NH 4CNO + K2SO 4

Ammonium Potassium
sulphate
cyanate

 




Note :
Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in
the laboratory.

The organic compounds are very large in number on

account of the self -linking property of carbon called
catenation. These compounds have been further
classified as open chain and cyclic compounds.







Organic compounds may be defined as hydrocarbons

and their derivatives and the branch of chemistry
which deals with the study of hydrocarbons and their
derivatives is called ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Organic chemistry is treated as a separate branch
because of following reasons(i) Organic compounds are large in number.
(ii) Organic compounds generally contain covalent
bond.
(iii) Organic compounds are soluble in non polar solvents.
(iv) Organic compounds have low melting and boiling
points.

Organic compounds

Open chain
compounds

Closed chain
compounds

Aromatic
compounds

Alicyclic
compounds


      
These compounds contain an open chain of carbon
atoms which may be either straight chain or branched
chain in nature. Apart from that, they may also be
saturated or unsaturated based upon the nature of
bonding in the carbon atoms. For example.

(v) Organic compounds show isomerism .

(vi) Organic compounds exhibit homology.

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PAGE # 20

e.g.
Benzene

Toluene

Phenol

n-Butane is a straight chain alkane while
2-Methylpropane is branched alkane.

        
Apart from the open chains, the organic compounds
can have cyclic or ring structures. A minimum of three
atoms are needed to form a ring. These compounds
have been further classified into following types.
(i) Alicyclic compounds : Those carbocyclic
compounds which resemble to aliphatic compounds
in their properties are called alicyclic compounds .

Ethyl benzene

Aniline

Note :
Benzene is the parent compound of majority of
aromatic organic compounds.

 

The organic compounds containing only carbon and

hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These are the
simplest organic compounds and are regarded as
parent organic compounds. All other compounds are
considered to be derived from them by the
replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by other
atoms or groups of atoms. The major source of
hydrocarbons is petroleum.
Types of Hydrocarbons :
The hydrocarbons can be classified as :

e.g.

or

or

Cyclopropane

Cyclobutane

(i) Saturated hydrocarbons :

(A) Alkanes : Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
containing only carbon - carbon and carbon - hydrogen
single covalent bonds.
General formula- CnH2n+ 2(n is the number of carbon atoms)
e.g.

or

Cyclopentane

CH4 ( Methane)
C2H6 (Ethane)

(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :

(A) Alkenes : These are unsaturated hydrocarbons
which contain carbon - carbon double bond. They
contain two hydrogen less than the corresponding
alkanes.
General formula e.g.

or

Cyclohexane

CnH2n
C2H 4
C3H 6

(Ethene)
(Propene)

(ii) Aromatic compounds : Organic compounds which

(B) Alkynes : They are also unsaturated hydrocarbons

which contain carbon-carbon triple bond. They contain
four hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding
alkanes.

contain one or more fused or isolated benzene rings

are called aromatic compounds.

General formula e.g.

CnH 2n
C2H 2
(Ethyne)
C3H 4

(Propyne)

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21

PAGE # 21

 




Examples :
a

Nomenclature means the assignment of names to

organic compounds . There are two main systems of
nomenclature of organic compounds (1) Trivial system
(2) IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry)

            
!   

Note :
The name of the compound, in general , is written in

For naming simple aliphatic compounds, the normal

saturated hydrocarbons have been considered as
the parent compounds and the other compounds as
their derivatives obtained by the replacement of one
or more hydrogen atoms with various functional
groups.

the following sequence(Position of substituents )-(prefixes ) (word root)-(p suffix).

(iii) Names of branched chain hydrocarbon : The
carbon atoms in branched chain hydrocarbons are

(i) Each systematic name has two or three of the

following parts-

present as side chain . These side chain carbon atoms

constitute the alkyl group or alkyl radicals. An alkyl group

(A) Word root : The basic unit of a series is word root

which indicate linear or continuous number of carbon
atoms.

is obtained from an alkane by removal of a hydrogen.

General formula of alkyl group = CnH2n+1

(B) Primary suffix : Primary suffixes are added to the

word root to show saturation or unsaturation in a
carbon chain.
(C) Secondary suffix : Suffixes added after the
primary suffix to indicate the presence of a particular
functional group in the carbon chain are known as
secondary suffixes.

M
E
P
B
E
Propene

Eth -

An alkyl group is represented by R.

e.g.
H

(A)



H
Methyl

(ii) Names of straight chain hydrocarbons : The

name of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided
into two parts(A) Word root

(B) Primary suffix

(A) Word roots for carbon chain lengths :

Chain
length

Word
root

Chain
length

Word
root

C1
C2
C3
C4
C5

MethEth Prop But Pent-

C6
C7
C8
C9
C10

HexHeptOctNonDec-

(B)



H
H
Ethyl

(B) Primary suffix :

(C)

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