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Postb u c k l i nTh
g eory
J. W . HUT CHI NS O N
HARVA R D U N IVE R S ITY , C A M B R I D G E , MA S S A C H U S E TTS

W. T . K O I T E R
T ECHNISCHE HOGE S C H OOL, D E LFT. TH E N E TH E R LA N D S

Introduction
A division of elastic stability theory and its applications
into separatecategoriesof buckling and postbuckling is
not entirely rational, but the creation of such an artificial distinction is almost essential to bring either into
manageableproportions. This point is brought home by
more than 1600 references on cylindrical shell buckling
alone in the surveyby Grigol'uk and Kabanov IRef. 1] .
Postbuckling aspects of stability theory for flat plates
received prominence in the early 1930's, after Wagner
IRef. 2] had establisheda sound theoretical foundation
for the load-carrying capacity of deeply wrinkled flat
shear panels. The approximate discussion by Cox for
plates in uniaxial compression IRef. 3] was followed by
a rigorous analysis by Marguerre and Trefftz [Ref. 4] .
This work was continued first in Gernrany IRefs. 5, 6],
and somewhat later in the United States [Refs. 7-15],
Britain [Refs. 16-18] and The Netherlands IRefs.
1.9-281. Reviews of this work and subsequent dcvelopments are to be found in [Ref. 29] . The entirely
different postbuckling behavior of thin shell structures came to light in the early 1940's when Karman
and Tsien IRefs. 30-331 showed that the large discrepancies bctween test and theory for the buckling
of certain typcs of thin shell structures was due to
the highly unstable postbuckling behavior of these
structures. At roughly the same time in war-time
Holland, Koiter IRef. 34] developed a generaltheory of
stability for elastic systems subject to conservativeloading which was published as his doctoral thesis in 1945.
Karman's and Tsien's papers spawned many more in
the following 30 years, and most of them have been
directed to obtaining more accurate results for the
cylindrical shell under axial compression or to studying
this structure under other loadings.Koiter's work, on the
other hand, attracted relatively little attention until the
early 1960's when interest in the general theory sprang
up almost simultaneously in England and in the United
States.

Our review will be centered mainly on the theory and

applications that have emerged from these two approaches to postbuckiing theory. A major stimulus to
development in this subject continues to be generated
by the quest for predictive methods for the buckling of
shell structures, and a sizable portion of this review will
concern applications of the theory to this area, A
state-of-the-art discussion of shell buckling as of 1958
is given in the excellent survey by Fung and Sechler
[Ref. 35], and that article provides a background for
assessingthe progresswhich has taken place in this subject in just over a decade. Our lack of command of the
Russian language prevents us from doing justice to the
contributions of Soviet scientistsin this field. Reference
may be made, however, to Volmir's outstanding treatise
on the stability of deformable systems [Ref. 36], and
to the survey on cylindrical shell buckling [Ref. 1].
Our discussionwill not touch on researchinto stability of elastic systemssubject to nonconservativeloadings,
but fortunately we can cite a recent survey in Applied
Mechanics Reuiews by Herrmann [Ref. 37] on this
aspect of stability theory, as well as a similar survey by
Nemat-NasserIRef. 38] on thermoelastic stability under
general loads. We also would call attention to another
recent review article by Thompson [Ref. 39] which
does cover some of the same ground as the present
survey, but the emphasis there is on elastic systems
characterizedby a finite number of degreesof freedom,
whereas most of the applications we will discuss will be
within the realm of continuum theory, We also omit a
detailed discussion of secondary branching IRefs. 29,
40, 4ll of the initially stable postbuckling behavior of
flat plates, even if this phenomenon is of some importance for these and similar "completely symmetric"
structures IRef. 42] .
Theory and Appl ications
The energy criterion of stability for elastic systems
subject to conservative loading is almost universally

i 353

adopted by workers in the field of structural stability

[Refs. 43-45] . A positive definite second variation of
the potential energy about a static equilibrium state is
accepted as a sufficient condition for the stability of
that state. Numerous attempts to undermine these two
pillars of structural stability theory have been made, but
confidence in them remains undiminished. With a proper
shoring-up of certain aspects of these criteria, they will
undoubtedly continue to serve as the foundation of
elastic stability theory. An account of the present status
of the fundamentals of stability theory is given in
IRef. 46] .
In this review, we are concerned mainly with the
class of problems most frequently encountered in the
field of structural stability in which the loss of stability
of one set of equilibrium states of an idealized, or
"perfect," elastic structure is associatedwith bifurcation
into another set of equilibrium states. The first set is
referred to as the prebuckling state and the bifurcated
state as the buckled configuration. The bifurcation load
of the perfect structure is commonly called the classical
buckling load and is denoted here by P-. This is by no
means the only circumstance under which a structure
can become unstable. For example) a very shallow
clamped spherical cap subject to a uniform pressure
loading reaches a maximum, or limit, load at which point
it becomes unstable under prescribed pressure with no
occurrence of bifurcation. However, due to the symmetry of both the idealized structure and its loading,
bifurcations frequently do occur at load levels below the
limit load.
The classical analysis of the stability of the prebuckling state of the perfect structure takes the form of an
eigenvalue problem for the lowest load level for which
the second variation of the potential energy is semidefinite. The Euler equations associatedwith this variational principle are linear and the eigenmode(or modes)
associated with the critical eigenvalue P. is termed the
buckling mode (or modes). While the classicalanalysis
yields the load at which a perfect realization of a structure will at least start to undergo buckling deflections, it
gives no indication of the character of the postbuckling
behavior, nor does it give any insight into the way a nonperfect realization will behave.
Typical load-deflection curves characterizinq static
equilibrium configurations are shown in Fig. 1 for the
case of structures which have a unique buckling mode
associated with the classical buckling load. In each of
the three casesshown the prebuckling state ofthe perfect
structure is stable for P I P, and is unstable fot P) P,
where it is shown as a dotted curve. Case I illusrrares a
structure with a stable postbuckling behavior which can
support loads in excessof P, in the buckled state. The
behavior of a slightly imperfect version of the same
structure (or perhaps for a slightly misaligned application
of the load) is depicted by the dashed curve. Case II is
an example of a structure which goes into a stable or
unstable postbuckling behavior depending on whether
the load increasesor decreasesfollowine bifurcation. An

initial imperfection is all that is needed to prejudice the

deflection one way or the other. If an imperfection induces a positive buckling deflection, the load-deflection
curve of Case II has a limit load P., the buckling load of
the imperfect structure, which is-less than the bifurcation load of the perfect structure P.. Case II is an example of asymmetric branching behavior, while CaseIII
illustrates a structure whose buckling behavior is symmetric with respect to the buckling deflection and whose
initial postbrrckling behavior is always unstable under
prescribedloading conditions.
The classical buckling load is a reasonably good
measure of the load level at which an imoerfect realization of the structure begins to undergo significant buckling deflections if the structure has a fully stable initial
postbuckling behavior. In the early days, reliance on the
classical buckling load stemmed from the fact that all
confrontations between test and theory were for either
columns or plates, and both of these are stable in the
postbuckling regime. When tests were carried out on thin
shell structures in the early 1900's, the classicaltheory
became suspect becausethen actuai buckling loads were
frequently found to be as little as one-quarter of the
classicalload.
Except for a very few structures, such as the column
under axial compression [Ref. 47] and the circular ring
subject to inward pressure [Ref. 43] , ir is not possible
to obtain closedform solutions governingthe entire postbuckling behavior. Starting with Karman's and Tsien's
work on spherical and cylindrical shells,a large number
of numerical calculations in the large-deflection range
have been made. Each of these calculations reDresenrs
an attempt to obtain the load-deflection behavio-rof the
perfect structure, and in particular the minimum load
the structure can support in the buckled state (i.e., P*
in Fig. 1). This load was held to be significant as a possible design load on the grounds that the strucrure could
always support at least this much load and that even
imperfections would not reduce the buckling load below
this value. This concept could not be useful in any universalsensesincethere are well-known examplesof structures with negative minimum postbuckling loads. Another difficulty with this proposal is that the buckling
process of such a structure is a dynamic one and the
buckled structure may end up deformed quite differently from what is predicted on the basis of static
equilibrium considerationsalone. In any case,efforts to
validate the minimum load for design purposes for cylindrical shell structures have not paid off, as we will discuss in the next major section of this article; and this
idea perhaps should be abandoned.
Emphasis in the analysis of imperfection-sensitive
structures has shifted to the maximum load P, which
can be supported before buckling is triggered and to relating P, to the magnitude and forms imperfections
actually take. This was the point of view adopted in the
general nonlinear theory of stability [Ref. 34] and in
subsequent investigations based on the general theory
IRefs. 49-55] .

1354

The initial postbuckling analysis in its simplest form

yields an asymptotically exact relation between the load
parameter P and the buckling deflection 6, valid in the
neighborhood of the bifurcation point of the perfect
structure. This expansion is in the form
P= P, ( l+ a6+ b62+ . . . )

(1)

where the coefficients d, b, ... determine the initial postbuckling behavior. A number of important problems

are characterized by multiple buckling modes associated

with the classical buckling load. Two of these problems
will be discussedin the next section. For such problems,
the initial postbuckling analysis may be considerably
more complicated,
Asymptotically exact estimates of the buckling load
of the imperfect structure are obtained by including the
first-order effects of small initial deflections. Only the
component of the initial deflection in the shape of the
classicalbuckling mode enters into the resultant formula.

,l

,l

7-i

CASE tr

Pl

CASE Itr

B uckl i ng dcfl ccl i on - 8

Gcn .r o lizcd d o fl6 ctio n

F IG. 1 . L OAD.DEF L ECT ION CU FV E S FOR S IN GLE M O D E B IFU R C A TION B E H A V IOR

1355

t.
If the amplitude of this imperfection component is denoted by 6-, then for Case II with 5 ) O, the general
theory yields

['+]"=
_ Po6"

(2)

PC

P
1__t

:
t'.
(ad)''-

'\

ment for the effect of an imperfection - a slightly offset

load - on the buckling load is remarkably good.
The first application of initial postbuckling theory
was to the monocoque cylindrical shell under axial compression [Refs. 34, 50] which will be discussedin the
next section. The second was a study of a narrow cylindrical panel under axial compression [Ref. 49] which
displays a transition, depending on its width, from a
stable postbuckling behavior typical of a flat plate to the
unstable behavior which characterizes the cylindrical
shell. Beaty [Ref. 94] and Thompson [Ref. 63] applied
the general theory to the axisymmetric buckling of a

w h e r e a is a co n sta n t wh ich d e p e n d s on properti es of the

s t r u c t ur e . F o r th e sym m e tr ic b r a n ch ing poi nt of C ase III
( a = o ,b ( 0 ) , th e a n a lo g o u s fo r m u la i s

[' ]J"=.rsrf,
1-

P'
Pc

(3)

(a l 6 -l )t u

In both instances,very small values of q6 have a sizable

effect on PrlP- and it is this feature which accounts for
the extreme imperfection-sensitivity of many structures
which have an unstable postbuckling behavior.
Interest in the initial postbuckling approach mushroomed in England in the early 1960's [Refs. 56-93] .
Some fine experimentation is included in this work, and
an extensive series of theoretical investigations have
centered around conservative systemscharacterizedby a
finite number of degreesof freedom. A great deal of this
work has been carried out at University College,London,
by Chilver, Thompson, Walker and their students.
Sewell, at the University of Reading, also has concentrated on the postbuckling behavior of discrete systems.
He has particularly emphasized the systematics of the
perturbation procedure and has used the terminology
"the static perturbation method" in referring to this
method of analysis. Both Thompson and Sewell have
explored a variety of bifurcation possibilities for such
systems. Recent studies have been made with an eye to
providing a framework for postbuckling calculations via
finite element methods. Some of this work is summarized
in [Ref . 39] .
Perhaps the best direct experimental validation of
the initial postbuckling approach was obtained in a
series of tests by Roorda [Refs. 67, 68]. The simple
two-bar frame shown in Fig. 2 was loaded in a testing
machine which, in effect, prescribed displacementrather
than dead load and in this way the postbuckling equilibrium states were recorded. Experimental points and
theoretical predictions IRefs. 53, 85] shown as a solid
line for the load, P, versus buckling rotation,0, for the
"perfect" structure are displayed in the upper half of
the figure. The agreement between theoty and experi-

t'

I ( deg rees )

E ffecl of l ood
eccenl ri ci l i es

to/'.
FIG. 2, C OMP A R IS ON OF TH E OR Y
ON A S IMP LE TWO-B A R FR A ME

1356

t /2

A N D E X P E R IME N TS

complete spherical shell. Their analysis yielded the expected result that the sphere has an unstable postbuckling behavior. However, it has been shown recently
IRef. 55] that the initial postbuckling analysis in its
simplest form leads to results that are of little practical
consequencefor the complete sphere problem. We defer
a discussion of this matter also to the next section.
The general theory IRef. 34] has been applied to a
variety of shell structures by Budiansky and Hutchinson
and their students at Harvard University IRefs. 95-110] .
Included among them are toroidal shell segmentsunder
various loadings, cylindrical shells subject to torsion and
spheroidal shellsloaded by external pressure.
Results shown in Fig. 3 due to Budiansky and
Amazigo IRef. 103] very nicely illustrate the outcome
of such an analysis and its interpretation. In the upper
half of the figure the classicalbuckling pressurep. in
nondimensional form is olotted as a function of the
length param etet Z appropriate for either a simplysupported cylinder of length L or a segment of length L
of an infinite cylinder reinforced by rings which permit
no lateral deflection but allow rotation. The initial post-

pcRLz
r2D-

,.2.

t =(+) Jt-vz
F I G . 3 . C O M P A R I SON BET WEEN T EST AND CL AS S IC A L
T H E O R Y W I T H INIT IAL POST BUCKL ING PREDIC TION S
F O R A C Y L I N D R ICAL SHEL L UNDER EXT ERNAL P R E S SU RE

buckling behavior is symmetric with respect to the

buckling amplitude 6, and therefore the pressuredeflection relation takes the form

f,,=,-r(+l.

( 4)

where b is plotted in the lower half of Fig. 3. In the

figure, D is the bending stiffness, z is the Poisson ratio
and t is the shell thickness. In this case,the asymptotic
relationship between the buckling pressureand the imperfection is

f, -\f"
Lo,J2

12
- 3\/t ( - b) ll;5
It

n
p

where 6- is the amplitude of the component of the imperfection in the shape of the classicalbuckling mode.
A w i d e r a n g e o f t e s t d a t a , c o l l e c t e d b y D o w I R e f . 11 1 ],
is also included in the figure. Measurements of initial deflections were not made in any of these tests,so it is not
possible to make a direct comparison of test and theory.
On the other hand, the coincidence of the large discrepancy between test and classicalpredictions within
the Z-range in which b is most negative bears out the imperfection-sensitivitypredicted.
The complementary character of an initial postbuckling analysis and a large deflection analysis is brought out
by studies of long oval cylindrical shellsunder axial comp r e s s i o n . K e m p n e r 's a n d C h e n 's I R e f s . 1 1 2 - 1 1 4 ] n um e r ical results for the advanced postbuckling behavior of
shells with sufficiently eccentric oval cross section
showed that loads above the classical bucklins load
could be supported. Complete collapseoccurs onlli when
the buckling deflections engulf the high curvature ends
of the shell. According to an initial postbuckling analysis
IRef. 105] , initial buckling will be just about as sensitive
to imperfections as for the circular cylindrical shell as
would indeed be expected becauseof the shallow buckling behavior i.r .ach case.The composite picture is that
initial buckiing will be imperfection-sensitive but not
catastrophic, and loads above the classicalvalues should
be possible. Recent tests [Ref. 115] have confirmed
both these features.
One aspect of shell buckling which has attracted a
great deal of theoretical and experimental attention in
the last few years is the role which stiffening plays in
strengthening shell structures. Some rather unexpected
effects have turned up. One of the most interesting was
the observation by van der Neut [Ref. 1 16] over 20 years
ago that the axial buci<ling load of a longitudinally
stiffened cylindrical shell can be increased significantly
by attaching the stiffeners to the outer surface of the
shell rather than the inner surface. This advantage has
b e e n c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e db y t e s t s I R e f . 1 1 7 ] .
Initial postbuckling results IRefs. 102, 109, 118] indicate that stiffened cylindrical shells tend to be less

1357

imperfection-sensitive than their unstiffened counterparts, but the level of sensitivity can vary widely. For
example, while the classical buckling load of an outsidestiffened cylinder may be much higher (a factor of two
is not untypical) than an inside-stiffened one, rhe imperfection-sensitivity of the outside-stiffened shell may
be much higher as well. Only a few experiments are
available to put these predictions to a test but those
which have been reported [Refs. 119, I20l show precisely this trend.
An extensive series of bucklins tests on stiffened
shell structures has been underwiy fot a number of
years under the direction of Singer at the Technion in
Israel [Refs. 1.21., L22l. This program has produced
ample evidence that the classical buckling load is a more
reliable measure of actual buckline loads for stiffened
shells than it is for unstiffened ,h"ll.. N"u"rtheless, the
experimental scatter and the discrepancies from the
classical predictions in these tests are indicative of the
fact thai stiffening does not eliminate the problem of
imperfection-sensitivity. An up-to,date discussionof this
matter is given in IRef. 123] .
Other recent work in the area of postbuckling theory
includes an investigation of the interaction of local
buckling and column failure for thin-walled compression
memb er s [ Ref s . 124, 125] . This w o r k m a y h e l p t o
eradicate the naive approach to optimal design of structures liable to buckling by an attempt to equalize the
local and overall buckling stresses.
There have been important advancesin both theoretical and calculational aspects of shell buckling in the
last decade. Buckling equations have been proposed
[Refs. 52, 126] which are exact within the context of
first-order shell theory. Computer programs are now
available for accurate computation of classical buckling
loads for a wide class of shells of revolution subiect to
axially symmetric loads [Refs. 1,27, 1281. These programs incorporate effects of nonlinear prebuckling behavior and discrete rings. When the prebuckling deformation of the perfect shell is a purely membrane one with
no bending, the initial postbuckling analysis is generally
simpler than when bending, and nonlinear prebuckling
effects must be taken into account. Most applications of
postbuckling theory to date have been in casesin which
the prebuckiing response is exactly a purely membrane
state or could be reasonably approximated by one.
Within the last three years there have been severalapplications of the general theory to problems in which it
is essential to include nonlinear prebuckling effects
IRefs. 104, 109, 110, 1291, and a generalpurpose computer program for shellsof revolution subject to axisymmetric loads has been put together IRef. 130] .
Status of the Postbuckling Theory of the Cylindrical
Shell under Axial Compressionand the Spherical Shell
under Uniform Pressure
The cylindrical shell under axial compression has
served as the prototype in studies of shell buckling

IRefs. 131-161], but its geometric simplicity is deceptive, and in many respectsthis structure, together with
the sphere subject to pressure, has the most complicated postbuckling behavior of all. In large part, this
stems from the fact that a large number of buckling
modes are associatedwith the classicalbuckling load in
each of these problems, and consequently these shells
are susceptible to a wide spectrum of imperfection
shaoes.
it is quite possible that a paper by Hoff, Madsen and
Mayers [Ref. 152] has put an end to the quest for the
minimum load which the buckled shell can support. A
sequenceof large deflection calculationsof the minimum
postbuckiing load have been reported, each calculation
more accurate than those which precededit. Hoff, et al.,
give a convincing argument that a completely accurate
calculation, based on the procedure which had been employed in all the previous investigations,would lead to a
value for the minimum postbuckling load which would
tend to zero for a vanishing thickness to radius ratio. Of
course, a shell with a finite thickness to radius ratio
would actually have a nonzero minimum load, but there
now appears to be generalagreementthat this minimum
is not nearly as relevant as had been thought.
The roie of boundary conditions was extensively explored in the 1960's and is now fairly well settled. Accurate numerical calculations of classicalbucklins loads
which account for nonlincar prebuckling effects
uo.",'rd
i o u s b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e IR cf. 1 6 2 ].
The classical load for cylindrical shell of moderate
length which is clamped at both ends is about 93 per
cent of the load predicted by the well-known "classical"
formula based on a calculation which isnores end con,
ditions altogether. So-called *e^k bo,r,ldrry conditions
for which no tangential shearstressis exertcd on the ends
of the shell reduce the buckling load by a factor of about
t w o I R e f s . 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 ] . M o r e r e c c n t l y i t h a s b e e n sh o w n
that relaxed tangential restraint along a small fraction of
the edge has an almost equally detrimental effect
IRef. 165].
Near perfect cylindrical shell specimens have been
p r o d u c e d b y T e n n y s o n I R e f . 1 6 6 ] a n d Ba b co ck a n d
S e c h l e r I R e f . 1 4 4 ] , a n d t h e s e s h e l l sb u c kl e ve r y cl o ser o
the classicalbuckling load. High-speedphotography has
resolved the apparent discrepancy betwecn observed
buckling patterns and the classicalmode shapes IRefs.
167-1711. Buckle wavelengths associatedwith the coliapsed shell are much longer than the classicalbuckling
mode wavelengths, but the wavelengthsassociatedwith
deformation patterns photographed just after buckling
has been triggered are in good agreementwith the predictions of initial postbuckling theory.
The long cylindrical shell subject to axial compression is one of the examplesused in IRef. 34] to iliustratc
the general theory of elastic stability. Boundary conditions are neglected, and consideration is restricted to
mode shapes which are periodic in both the axial and
circumferential coordinates. Due to the iarse number of

1358

simultaneous buckling modes, there are many possible

static equilibrium branches which emanate from the bifurcation point of a perfect cylinder, and all of them are
unstable. Remarkably, the initial curvature of the curve
of load versus end shortening (Pversus e) is the same for
all of them and just after bifurcation

.#,- 1] '

(6)

Effects of certain imperfections were also studied.

Among the shape possibilities represented by all the
classical buckling modes, a geometric imperfection in
the shape of the axisymmetric buckling mode results in
the largest relative reduction in the buckling load IRef.
51]. The ratio of the buckling load to the classicalload
is related to the amplitude of such an axisymmetric
imperfection 6 by

1,.12

lt--l=rl'l
P,J
L

3c l6-l p
2lrll, ;

e)

and z is Poisson ratio. When the

where c = l,6\-n
maximum load { is attained, the shell has undergone
lateral deflections which are only a fraction of the shell
thickness, and an imperfection amplitude of only onefifth a shell thickness causesalmost a 50 oer cent reduction in the b uckli ng load.
fq. (7) is an asymptotic formula; and like all initial
postbuckling predictions of this type, it is accurate only
for sufficiently small imperfection amplitudes.In general,

it is difficult to assessthe range of validity of asymptotic

results. For this particular imperfection shape, it is
possible to obtain an independent and more accurate
estimate of the P, uemns 5 relation which is based on a
finite deflection calculation IRef. 51]. The asymptoric
predictions ("q. 7) are plotted with the more accurate
results in Fig. 4, and two predictions compare well over
a substantial part of the range of interest. The calculation of IRef. 51] was repeatedby Almroth [Ref. 172]
with the aim of getting better accuracy. He found that
the buckling load prediction may be somewhat lower
than those shown in Fig. 4 if the parameter Z (Fig. 3)
is very large.
Some experimental verification of these buckling
load calculations has been obtained by Tennyson and
Muggeridge IRef. 173] with tests of cylindrical shell
specimens with axisymmetric sinusoidal imperfections
which were carefully machined into them. Points representing the experimental loads for five shellsare plotted
with two theoretical curves in Fig, 5. The solid curve is
the result of the finite deflection prediction of IRef. 51]
for the imperfection wavelength coincident with those
of the specimens.The dashed curve is a plot of the results of a numerical caiculation which takes into account
nonlinear prebuckling deformations associatedwith the
clamped end conditions and the thickness variations
present in the test cylinders IRef. 173] . At extremely
small imperfection levels, end conditions dominate.
Once the imperfection amplitude is just a few per cent
of the shell thickness,the end effect is negligibleand the
two predictions are virtually identical.
There have been some efforts to translate and adaot
the initial postbuckling predictions into a form directiy
useful for engincering design IRefs. t29, 1"30, 1611.

Gcn6rol fhcory
Eq. ( 7)

o.o2

o.o4

oo6

-a.
t

F I G . 4 . E F F E C T OF AXISYM M ET RIC IM PERF ECTION S IN

T H E S H A P E O F T HE AXISYM M ET RIC BUCKL ING MOD E
O F A P E R F E C T CYL INDRICAL SHEL L UNDER A X IA L
COM P R E S S I O N

FIG. 5. C OMP A R IS ON B E TWE E N TE S T A N D TH E OR Y FOR

B U C K LIN G OF C Y LIN D R IC A L S H E LLS WITH A X ISY MME TR IC IMP E B FE C TION S LOA D E D IN A X IA L C OMP R E S S ION

1359

Reinforcing this trend is recent work by Arbocz and

Babcock IRefs. 174, 17 5] in which imperfections
present in a number of test specimens were carefully
measured and mapped. Special techniques have been
used to calculate buckling loads for certain imperfection
shapeswhich are quite different from the classicalbuckling modes or for imperfection shapes which are only
characterized statistically. Some of these will be touched
on in the next section.
Since Karman's and Tsien's [Ref. 301 first large deflection calculation for the axisymmetric postbuckling
behavior of a complete sphericai shell under uniform
pressure,a fairly large number of papers on the buckling
of caps and sphereshaue been published. Many of these
are ref er enc edin a r ec ent papc r on t h e s u b j e c t I R e f . 5 5 ] .
Here, we will only mention some of the salient features
peculiar to the sphere problem which have recently
come to light.
Like the cylindrical shell under axial comprcssion, a
complete sphcrical shell under external pressure has
many buckling modes associatcdwith the classicalbuckling pressure, and onc of these is axisymmetric. Many
unstable equilibrium branchcs emanate from the bifurcation point of the perfect shell. A shallow shell analysisof
multi m ode buc k ling of t he s pher e I R e f . 1 0 1 ] i n d i c a t e s
that this shell is highly sensitive to both axisymmetric
and nonaxisymmctric imperfections, againjust as for the
cylinder. While this shallow shell analysis is not rigorously applicable to thc complete sphere, its relative
simplicity revealsthe mechanicsof the buckling phenomena of the spherc vcry clearly. In particular, the shallow
buckling modes are in striking similarity with expcrimen t al m odes . epor t ed in I Ref . 1 7 6 1 . A n a l t c r n a t i v e
approach to this problem by a straightforward pcrturbation tec lr nique is det c lopc d in I Ref s . 1 7 7 , 1 7 8 1 .
Initial postbuckling analyses for axisymmetric buckling hav e been giv en by Beat y [ R e f . 9 4 ] , T h o m p s o n
W alk er [ Ref . 80 1, an d m o s t r e c c n t l y b y
lRef.63l,
Koite r I Rc f . 55] . A m ult im ode a n a l y s i s i n w h i c h
the a x is y m m et r ic m ode c oLlpleswith n o n a x i s y m m e t r i c
modes, analogor.rsto cylindrical shell behavior, also was
given in I Ref . 55] . I m pc r f c c t ion- s en s i t i v i t yw a s f o u n d t o
be higher for multimode buckling than for axisymrnetric
bu ckling.
A m os t im por t ant dis c ov er y of 1 n e f . 5 5 ] w a s t h a t
the axisynlmetric rcsults just mentioned, which were
ob tai ned by a per t ur bat ion ex pans i o n a b o u t t h e b i f u r c a tion point, havc an cxtremely small range of validity
which :LctLrallyvanishes as the thickncss to radius ratio
of thc shell goes to zero. The principal reason for this
unusual limitation on the initial postbuckling results is
thc o c c ur r enc e of m odes , as s oc ia t c d w i t h e i g e n v a i u e s
which are only vcry slightly largcr than the critical
eigenvalr.res,whosc amplitudes become comparable in
magnitude to the amplitudes of the classical buckling
modes outside of a very small neighborhood of the bi,
furcation point. For all practical purposes, the initiai
postbuckling analysis in its standard form breaks down
under such cr'rcumstances.A more powerful form of

asymptotic expansion, also first detailed in [Ref. 34] ,

with an extended range of validity was applied to the
axisymmetric problem IRef. 55]. The outcome of this
special analysis is that the spherical shell is highly imperfection-sensitive,more or less to the same degreeas
the cylindrical shell under axial compression,even when
the deformations are constrained to be axisymmetric.
An approximate analysis IRef. 179] and severalnumeri c a l c a l c u l a t i o n sI R e f s . 1 8 0 - 1 8 3 1 b a c k u p th i s co n cl u si o n .
New ResearchDirections
It seemssafe to predict that much of the impetus to
postbuckling theory as a developing subject will continue
to come from questions which arise in the analysis of
sheil structures.Efforts are being directed to interpreting
postbuckling predictions and rendering them useful for
engineering purposes. If this is to be accomplished,
further calculations will be needed for more realistic
imperfections than those which are readily accommodated by the initial postbuckling analysis. Approaches
which incorporate statistical descriptions of imperfections are also likely to receive growing attention in the
coming years.
Very reccntly, Sewell IRef. 184] has explored various
ramifications of the more powerful expansion method
of [Ref. 34] (which was employed to get around rhe
difficulties in the sphere problem referred to above) as
it applies to conservativesystemswith a finite number of
d e g r e e so f f r e e d o m . T h o m p s o n I R c f . 1 8 5 ] h a s p r o p o se d
a somewhat different variation of the method, also for
discrete rather than continuous systems. The aim in
each case is to develop a uniformly valid asymptotic expansion which gives an extended range of validity for
those rathcr exceptional problems in which the standard
expansion breaks down outside the immediate vicinity
of the bifurcatiorrpoinc.
Effects of localized dimple imperfections on the
buckling of a bcam on a nonlinear elastic foundation
have been explored usirig a variety of techniques, and
asymptotic formulas analogous to eqs. (2) and (3) have
b e e n u n c o v e r e d I R e f . 1 8 6 ] . A p p l i c a t i o n o f th e se sp e ci a l
techniques has been made to study the effcct of local
nonaxisymmetric imperfections on buckling of cylindrical shcllsunder external pressureIRef. 187] . In addition,
both theoretical and exocrimentai studies have been
made of cyiindrical and conical shelis under axial compression in the presence of axisymmetric dimple imp c r f e c t i o n s I R e f s . 1 8 8 , 1 8 9 1 . Wi t h a co n ti n u i n g r a p i d
growth of numerical methods of shell analysis,it should
soon be possible to make reasonably accurate calculations of the buckling load of an arbitrary shell structure
in the presenceof almost any form of imperfection. The
potential of such methods has already been demonstrated
I R e f s . 1 9 0 - 1 9 3 1 f o r p r o b l e m s i n w h i c h i t i s n e ce ssa r yto
convert the governirrgnonlinear partial differential equations to an algcbraic system by spreading a twodinensior.ralfinite-diffcrcnce srid over the shell middle
surface. No doubt calculltionl of this sort will not be

I 360

inexpensive in terms of computation time for many

years to come; but if thcy are carefully selected,such
calculations should be most usefui for imperfectionse nsitivity a sscss m c nt .
Th e dcve lop m ent of num er ic al m et hods f or c a r r y i n g
out the initial postbuckling analysis seemslikely to progrcss along the lines of both the finite difference proccdu re IRef. 13 01 and t he f init e elem ent m e t h o d
IRefs. 80 , 19 4]. An int er es t ing s c hem e has be e n p u t
forward for approximately accounting for nonlinear prebuckling behavior in an initial postbuckiing analysisin a
way which exploits the computational advantagesof the
finite e leme nt pro c edur e I Ref s . 195, 196] . The i d e a b e hind the scheme is the treatment of the prebuckling
nonlincarity as a generalizedimperfection.
Preliminary attempts have been made to come to
grips with somc of the statistical aspectsof imperfectionse nsitivity IRefs. 197- 199] . A r at her c om plet e a n a l y s i s
IRcf. 200] of an infinite beam with random initial deflections resting on a nonlinear elastic foundation yields
a relationship between the buckling load of the beam and
the root mean square of the imperfection amplitudes
with an implicit dependence on the correlatjon function for the imperfection. Calculations for the buckling
load of an infinite cylindrical shell under axiai compression with random axisymmetric imperfections have been
made IRefs. 20I, 202]. Here again, there emerge
asymptotic formulas similar to eqs. (2) and (3) which
now relate the buckling load to a value of the imperfection power spectral density at a particular frequency
which corresponds to the frequcncy of the classical
axisymmetric mode IRef. 201] . Thcre is still a long way
to go before results such as thcsc will be useful to the
structural cngineer, but an encouraging first stcp in this
dire ctio n h as be en t ak en I Ref . 2031.
Important extensions of postbuckiing theory remain
to be made to include buckling under dynamicaily applied loads and buckling in the plastic range. Dynamic
buckling calculations are not new, but no unifying
theory is available which is at all as comprehcnsive as
that for static conservative loadings. The initial post,
buckling analysis has been broadened in an approximate
fas hio n to includ e dy nam ic ef f ec t s I Ref s . 95- 97 ] , a n d
some simple results with general implications have
been found.
Buckling in the plastic range is a phenomenon that is
not yet fully understood. Nonuniqueness of incremental
solutions in plastic branching problems starts at the
lowest bifurcation load, usually without loss of stability,
and a further load increase is required initially in the
postbuckling range [Rcfs. 204, 205). A detailed disclrssion of the famous column controversy among
Considerc, Engesser, von Karman and Shanley IRefs.
206 -27 11 is given in [ Ref . 2121. ln t he c as e ofp l a t e s
and shellsthe problem is evcn more complicated because
the physicaliy unacceptable deformation theory of
plasticity yields results in better agreement with experiments than thc simplest flow theory. Even if flow theory
is ccrtainly more acceptable from the physical point of

vi ew , i t i s somew hat doubtful , how ever, that the si mpl es t

J 2 theory w oul d be adequare i n bucki i ng probl ems. To
some extent thi s di screpancy al so has been expl ai ned by
Onat and D rucker IR ef. 213] , by proper al l ow ance for
i ni ti al i mperfecti ons

i n thei r si mpl e exampl e. E ven more

perhaps, are H utchi nson's recent resul ts on
the postbuckl i ng behavi or i n the pl asti c range of s truc tures w hi ch are hi ghl y i mperfecti on-sensi ti ve
i n the
el asti c domai n [R ef. 2141 . l t i s found i n hi s exam pl es
si gni fi cant,

(a si mpl e

structural model and a spheri cal shel l under

pressure) that the sensi ti vi ty to i mperfecti ons
i s equal l y marked i n the pl asti c range, i n spi re of the
external

initial

rise in the load at the lowest

the perfect

structure.

bifurcation point of
A si mi l ar phenomenon has been

observed by Lecki e IR ef. 215] i n the postcoi l apse behavi or of a ri gi d-pl asti c spheri cai shel l cap. H utchi nso n,s
anal ysi s al so confi rms the earl i er fi ndi ngs
IR ef. 213]
that the di screpancy betw eer.r the predi cti ons of defor matheory and fl ow theory l argel y di sappears i n the

ti on

presence of i mperfecti ons.

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