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State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijng 100081, PR China
National Key Laboratory of Shock Wave and Detonation Physics, Institute of Fluid Physics, CAEP, Mianyang 621900, PR China
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 31 July 2012
Received in revised form
27 April 2013
Accepted 8 June 2013
Available online 22 June 2013
In this paper, the dynamic response characteristics of ceramic targets impacted by a long tungsten
projectile at a high speed are investigated through an improved theoretical model. The model, based on
conventional quasi-static cavity expansion theory, takes the effect of the target damage caused by
penetration on the constitutive equation into account. A few useful relations of the target resistance and
the penetration velocity are derived from the model and the stationary incompressible hydrodynamic
theory. In order to examine the dynamic damage response of alumina ceramics to projectile impact and
the theoretical model, we set up the experimental system of a high-speed, long tungsten projectile with
its sabot separation device penetrating ceramic targets with/without cover plate, carried out a series of
penetration experiments, and compared the experimental results with theoretical calculation and numerical simulation results. Theoretical and experimental results show that 1) the anti-penetration ability
of AD90 ceramic is higher than that of 45# steel, especially, in the low-speed stage of the projectile; 2)
material parameters of AD90 ceramic obtained from the numerical simulation of projectile penetration
are reasonable; 3) the cover plate covered on the front of the ceramic target can improve the antipenetration ability, while the constraint sleeve enclosed the ceramic target has little effect on the
anti-penetration ability; 4) from the numerical simulations, the damage caused by penetration in the
target with the cover plate is initiated by the tensile wave reected from the back of ceramic, while the
damage in the non-plate target is initiated by direct impact, and then develops at the target back by
tensile wave; and 5) the theoretical model presented in this paper is proven to be reasonable, can be used
to further studying on dynamic response of target materials under penetration.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Anti-penetration ability
Long rod projectile
Ceramic target
Penetration damage
1. Introduction
In a war in the future, tank is still a major military strike force,
thus many countries have been and are studying novel armour
protection materials and structures to improve its anti-penetration
ability. Recent years, brittle ceramic materials, such as Al2O3 and
AlN, have been investigated as possible substitutes for steel as tank
armour materials against kinetic energy projectiles and shapedcharge jets. Their excellent ballistic performance against penetration comes from their unique dynamic mechanical properties, such
as low density and high compressive strength. The dynamic mechanical response, dynamic damage and fracture of ceramic composite armour are also the important factors for analyzing ballistic
performance against penetration [1].
by opening per unit volume of the cavity. Chadwick [8] solved the
spherical cavity expansion pressure of the Mohr-Coulomb materials. In 1989, Sternberg [9] applied the CEA to ceramic material
and discussed the application of cavity expansion pressure as a
strength item in the Tate equation. He also studied the inuence
of material properties on the anti-penetration resistance and
found that the constitutive relationship of ceramic above the
elastic limit could not well describe the material behaviour,
indicating that the cavity expansion model for ductile materials
can not be directly used for brittle materials. Forrestal [10]
considered the cracks of porous rock when performing CEA and
found that the theoretical results using the Mohr-Coulomb
strength criteria and the linear pressure relationship were
consistent with the experimental results. Satapathy and Bless [11]
and Forrestal and Longcope [12] extended and applied the
quasi-static cavity expansion theory to ceramic materials.
Satapathy [13] presented the dynamic cavity expansion solution
to determine the dynamic response of ceramic materials in the
cavity expansion at a constant velocity. However, CEA doesnt
take the penetration damage on target material into
consideration.
In dynamic studies, penetration into targets of ceramics,
ceramic/metal, ceramic/composite and layered ceramics generally means that the penetration of long rod of metal such as
tungsten, molybdenum, tungsten alloy, etc. into the ceramics and
the ceramic/composite target in the speed range of 1500e
5000 m/s. These experiments are generally conducted on the
one-stage or two-stage light gas gun. The most commonly conducted experiment is the direct ballistic experiment, also known
as the penetration depth method (the depth-of-penetration,
DOP) [14,15] because it can reect the anti-penetration ability
of the ceramic target by accurately measuring the residual depth
in the backup metal. The advantage of the DOP method is that
the size of the specimen is close to the actual size, while its
drawback is that the information obtained from it is too little.
Only a residual depth can be got from an experiment. In addition,
since in most cases the size of the target is big, the real-time
observation of the X-ray radiography is difcult. DOP was rst
tested by Yariv in 1986 for investigation of the ballistic performance of ceramic tiles [16] and further improved by Rosenberg
[17], Anderson [15,18], and Wooward [19]. Since then, it was
applied widely in U. S. Army and Materials Research Laboratory
and considered as a standard experiment to evaluate the antipenetration ability of the ceramic/composite target. Anderson
et al. [15] used DOP test to examine the ballistic performance of
conned Al2O3 ceramic tiles by changing the type and the
thickness of the cover plates. Kim [20] studied the relationship
between the mechanical properties (Youngs modulus, density,
hardness, exural strength, and toughness) and the ballistic
properties of AD95, AD90, AD99, hot-pressed SiC, hot-pressed
TiB2, and hot-pressed B4C, etc. U. Hornemann and A. Holzwarth
[21] conducted a series of experiments to investigate the inuences of the thickness, distance and structure of the target on
the anti-penetration ability of the ceramic/steel target against
shaped charge jet.
In this paper, based on the stationary incompressible hydrodynamic theory and spherical cavity expansion analytic method, we
present our improved CEA theoretical model. In order to examine
the dynamic damage response of alumina ceramics to projectile
impact and the theoretical model, we set up the experimental
system of a high-speed, long tungsten projectile with its sabot
separation device penetrating ceramic targets with/without cover
plate, carried out a series of penetration experiments, and
compared the experimental results with theoretical calculation and
numerical simulation results.
61
1
1
r vp u 2 Yp rt u2 Rt ;
2 p
2
(1)
v
p
1 rt =rp
1
s
!
2R Y
t
p
rt =rp 1 rt =rp
:
rp v2p
(2)
sr sq
dsr
2
0;
dr
r
r
dur
ur
; q 4
;
dr
r
(3)
(4)
62
8
< r
1
E0
sr 2nsq
:
4
q
1
E0
1 nsq nsr ;
(5)
sr E0 1 D
ur
sf
b3
b3
21 2nr 1 n 2
1 3 ;
2E0
r
2c
b3
b3
sr sf 1 3
1 3 ;
r
2c
sq sf 1
b3
2r 3
1
b3
:
2c3
(8)
ur
sr
dsr
2
0:
dr
r
(9)
sr
Ya2
:
r2
(10)
a2
c
sf
b3
b3
1 3
1 3 :
Y
c
2c
(11)
Cavity expansion theory was initially used to study metal materials that are ductile and on which no crack area occurs easily,
while for brittle materials like ceramics, damage exists in their
radially cracked region. From the previous studies [1,19], we know
that the micro-cracks nucleation and the initial crack size are two
important parameters to describe the currant damage state of the
material. Further details are given in Appendix A. In order to
describe the weakening effect of micro-crack damage on the
strength and stiffness of the material, we dene the damage factor
D as follows:
D 1
r3
:
c3
(12)
It is clear that D is related to the crack size (r) to the third power,
and complies with the following relations
0 < D < 1; r a
D 0; r c
(13)
sf
2E0
21 2nc 1 n
Ya2 c3 1
1
:
4E0 r 4 c4
b3
c2
b3
1 3
2c
(15)
s lp;
2.2.2. Radially cracked region (a < r < c)
It can be seen from Eq. (8) that the hoop stress in the elastic
region is tensile stress, thus the material will radially crack when
the hoop stress exceeds the tensile strength. Assuming that the
hoop stress in the radially cracked region equals zero, the stress
state in the region is uniaxial. The equilibrium equation can be
written as
(14)
By using its boundary condition, we solve Eqs. (6), (10) and (14)
simultaneously, and nd the displacement
(6)
(7)
dur
E r 3 dur
03
:
dr
c dr
sr sq
2
sr 2sq
;
3
(16)
sr Ya=r2a ;
(17)
(18)
r
d
r ur 3 3r 2 :
r0
dr
(19)
1 h 3
ur a
:
3 a
a
(20)
2
6
Rt Y 4
32a=3
E0 =3Y
7
r
3
q2 5
q
1 n sf =2Y 14
14
Y= 2sf
2sf =Y
(21)
63
predetermined orbit direction. For the latter, the sabot after separation still remains a part attached on the projectile, with which the
projectile continues ying and impact the target. It is clear that the
remnant of sabot adds its weight onto the projectile to the disadvantage of ying. In order to overcome both the disadvantages, we
present a new aerodynamic separation method of the sabot to meet
the request of the penetration experiment.
Table 1
Parameters and the effect of the sabot separation experiments.
No. Projectile
typesa
0.2
300
1.113
F (85e46)
0.2
340
F (80e38)
0.2
380
1.852
F (80e38)
0.2
340
0.2
340
F (60e35)
0.2
340
1.109
F (85e42)
0.3
380
1.595
F (76e40)
0.5
380
1.447
F (115e50)
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
300
300
350
400
1.850
1.500
1.840
2.012
F (64e45)
F (90e48)
F (150e78)
F (120e75)
0.35
420
1.715
F (200e30)
0.35
520
2.305
F (190e40)
0.4
520
2.298
F (195e35)
0.35
350
1.690
F (200e47)
0.35
470
1.910
F (190e35)
0.35
470
1.950
F (195e34)
0.35
420
1.720
F (187e38)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 8)
Fe ball
Fe ball
Fe ball
W rod
(L/D 8)
W rod
(L/D 10)
W rod
(L/D 10)
W rod
(L/D 10)
W rod
(L/D 10)
W rod
(L/D 10)
W rod
(L/D 10)
W rod
(L/D 10)
Projectile Separation
velocity/ rangec/mm
km s1
a
W rod represents tungsten rod projectile; Fe ball represents steel ball
projectile.
b
The length of container is 100 cm, and the length of container is 50 cm.
c
The separation range is the outer and inner diameter of the impact trace on the
witness target.
64
Fig. 5. Photos of the witness target after impact. (a) The impact trace of the left sabot
in the rod projectile (L/D 8) penetration (No.6). (b) The impact trace of the left sabot
in the ball projectile penetration (No.9). (c) The impact trace of the left sabot in the rod
projectile (L/D 10) penetration (No.13).
65
Table 2
Results of the penetration of at-nosed rod into semi-innite 45# steel target.
No.
wf/km s1
P0/mm
H/D
P0/L
613a
618a
705a
706p
1.715
2.305
1.950
2.313
61.0
73.2
64.5
73.6
2.30
2.67
2.56
2.70
1.356
1.627
1.433
1.636
66
Table 3
Results of the penetration of long rod into AD90 ceramic-composite target.
No.
PCOVER/ tc/mm
wf /
km s1 mm
619
620
2.310
2.298
10.2
10.3
41.7
41.0
16e20
16e18
621
622
627
703
704a
704p
706a
2.312
2.300
2.319
1.720
1.690
1.910
2.315
10.2
10.2
0.0
10.2
10.2
10.3
10.2
39.0
50.0
55.0
26.8
31
42.1
29.2
20e22
15e16
e
13e14
11e12.5
15e17
24e26
12.1
18.2
(6 12.2)a
24.2
5.75
12
12.15
12.1
12.1
29.9
(5.8 24.1)a
80 (50 30)a
80 (30 20 30)a
80
100
110
110
100
80
80
(50
(50
(50
(50
(30
(20
(30
30)a
20
30
30
20
30
20
30)a
30)a
30)a
20 30)a
30)a
30)a
The values of the thickness of each ceramic tile are in the bracket.
Table 4
Results of the anti-penetration test of AD90.
No.
wf/km s1
Pr/mm
PT/L
P0/La
DP/tc
619
620
621
622
627
703
704a
704p
706a
2.310
2.298
2.312
2.300
2.319
1.720
1.690
1.910
2.315
64.0
69.5
73.4
65.95
67.0
49.15
53.3
65.56
69.26
1.422
1.544
1.631
1.465
1.489
1.092
1.184
1.457
1.539
1.631
1.626
1.632
1.627
1.635
1.354
1.340
1.443
1.539
1.778
1.202
1.002
2.264
1.552
1.969
1.579
0.951
0.998
The value of P0/L is calculated by the relationship between P0/L and wf.
67
Table 5
JH-2 parameter of AD90 ceramic.
Parameters
AD-90
r0, density(g/cm3)
3.625
0.88
0.28
0.007
0.60
0.64
0.262
5.3
109.7
228.6
191.4
111.5
1.0
0.02
0.83
68
Table 6
Parameter of 45# steel and tungsten.
Parameters
45# steel
Tungsten
7.85
5.06
1.73
1.67
77
1.40
0.51
0.26
0.014
1.0
273
477
1793
19.2
5.22
1.268
1.54
160.4
0.92
0.177
0.12
0.016
1.0
273
134
1723
Table 7
Comparison between simulated and experimental results.
No.
wf/(km/s)
dcover/(mm)
tc/(mm)
PTE/(mm)
PTS/(mm)
1
2
3
4
2.310
2.298
2.312
2.315
10.2
10.3
10.2
10.2
12.1
18.2
24.2
29.9
64
69.5
73.4
69.3
57.6
62.7
71.7
64.9
Fig. 12. Damage status of the single-layer ceramic-composite target with cover plate.
69
Fig. 13. Damage status of the three-layer ceramic-composite target with cover plate.
70
Fig. 14. Damage status of the ceramic-composite target without cover plate.
happens due to reection of the tensile wave from the back (Fig. 12(a)). When the ceramic tile has no the cover plate, the shock wave
has not enough time to reach the back of the ceramic tile to reect a
tensile wave before the impact, thus damage occurs from the front
caused by direct impact, as seen in Fig. 14-(a). When the shock wave
reaches the back and reects as a tensile wave, damage develops
from the target back by the tensile wave, as seen in Fig. 14-(b).
Because the speed of shock wave is higher than the projectile velocity, the damage happens from the back is quicker than that from
the front. That is why the damage in the back of the target at the
earlier stage of impact is more severe, as seen in Fig. 14-(b) and (c).
Fig. 15. Damage status of the ceramic target without constraint sleeve.
71
The ceramic tile without the cover plate bulges in the reverse direction of impacting, while the ceramic tile with the cover plate
does not behave so.
The penetration depth of the ceramic-composite target without
the cover plate is 62 mm, which is a little bigger than that of the
ceramic-composite target with the cover plate. The reason is that
the cover plate can constrain the ceramic particles so that they can
only move in the radial direction, and erodes the projectile to
weaken its penetration ability. While the ceramic particles of the
composite target without the cover plate can move in any direction, the particles eroding the projectile are much less than those
of the target with the cover plate. Thus the cover plate can
improve the anti-penetration ability of the ceramic-composite
target.
4.2.3. Ceramic-composite target without constraint sleeve
The penetration of the at-nosed tungsten rod into the singlelayer ceramic-composite target without the constraint sleeve is
numerically simulated, as shown in Fig. 15. The thickness and the
diameter of the ceramic tile are 12 mm and 180 mm, and the
thicknesses of the cover plate and the witness plate are 10 mm and
100 mm, respectively. The materials used in simulations are the
same as the previous model in this context.
The penetration process is shown in Fig. 15. From the gure, it
is obvious that the damage status of the composite target without
the constraint sleeve is similar to that of the target with
constraint sleeve (Fig. 12). It proves that the damage occurs due to
reection of the tensile wave from the back of the ceramic again.
Fig. 17. Comparison between simulated results and theoretical results. a. Penetration velocity vs. projectile velocity. b. Difference between the theoretical results and the numerical
results.
72
we present a new quasi-static spherical cavity expansion theoretical model, which takes the effect of penetration damage on the
elastic module into consideration. Based on the model, we derive
the analytical expression of target resistance, and further calculate
the penetration velocity according to the stationary incompressible
hydrodynamic theory.
In order to examine the dynamic damage response of alumina
ceramics penetrated by a projectile at a high speed and our theoretical model concerning penetration damage, we set up the
experimental system of a high-speed, long tungsten projectile with
its sabot separation device penetrating alumina ceramic targets
with/without cover plate, carried out penetration experiments, and
compared experimental results with theoretical calculation and
numerical simulation results.
Theoretical and experimental results show that 1. as the target
material, the anti-penetration ability of AD90 ceramic is higher
than that of 45# steel, especially, in the low-speed stage of the
projectile; 2. Material parameters of AD90 ceramic obtained from
the numerical simulation of projectile penetration are reasonable;
3. The cover plate covered on the front of the ceramic target can
improve the anti-penetration ability, while the constraint sleeve
enclosed the ceramic target has little effect on the anti-penetration
ability; 4. From the numerical simulations, the damage caused by
penetration in the target with the cover plate is initiated by the
tensile wave reected from the back of ceramic, while the damage
in the non-plate target is initiated by direct impact, and then develops at the target back by tensile wave; 5. The theoretical model
presented in this paper is proven to be reasonable and can be used
to further study the dynamic response of target materials under
penetration.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (11032002, 11172045)
Appendix A
Under quasi-static or dynamic loading, micro-cracks in some
solids may nucleate either at in homogeneity such as inclusions and
reinforcements or at defect such as micro-cracks and pores within
the sintered ceramics. Many experimental researches indicated
that the nucleation, growth, and interaction of micro-cracks are the
predominant forms of damage induced in solids under dynamic
loading or shock loading during their failure.
The micro-mechanism of compressive damage is very complicated. Because the distribution of heterogeneous micro-cracks in
solid can be either random or in the preferred orientation, the
stress distribution within the microstructures can be extremely
complex. However, it has been observed that brittle materials
subject to axial compression fail in the axial splitting when the
conning pressure is zero or very small, or in the shear failure when
the conning pressure is moderate whereas still below the brittlee
ductile transition pressure [27]. To study the mechanism of
compressive damage, a row of suitably oriented model aws is
considered. It can be shown that tension wing cracks nucleate at
the tips of the previous model aw and grow with the compression
increasing and nally become parallel to the direction of the
maximum far-eld compression.
Denition of damage
The effect of damage is assumed to be a reduction in the
elastic modulus of the material. The constitutive relation of the
s 1 DE
(A.1)
_ D_
s_ E_ E D
(A.2)
D Na3
(A.3)
N km
(A.4)
_ Na
_ 3 3N aa
_ 2 kmm1 _ a3 3km aa
_ 2
D
(A.5)
Rewriting Eq. (A.2) and Eq. (A.5), the damage rate and strain rate
are represented by stress rate as follows
m1 a3 s
_ 2 1 D
_ =E 3km aa
_ km
D
1 D kmm a3
_ 2
s_ =E 3km1 aa
1 D kmm a3
(A.6)
(A.7)
sf s tf :
(A.8)
73
(A.9)
D is the dynamic
where KID is the dynamic stress intensity factor, KIC
fracture toughness that is assumed to be independent of the strain
rate.
The stress intensity factor KID that drives wing cracks of the
length to grow is a function of the current length of some crack a
_ that is,
and the velocity of its growth a,
_ kaK
_ 1 a; 0;
KID a; a
(A.10)
where
_
ka
1
a_
CR
1
a_
2CR
1
(A.11)
F sin q
K1 a; 0 q s2
*
p
w sin aa
w
r
pa
;
2w tan
2w
(A.12)
where
F 2cs* ;
s*
1
1
s s2 sin 2 q ms1 s2 s1 s2 cos 2 q;
2 1
2
(A.13)
a_ CR
D
KI a; 0 KIC
D =2
KI a; 0 KIC
(A.14)
_ the
For a given stress pulse s(t), the wing crack growth rate a,
_ and the strain rate _ can be obtained from
damage rate D,
Eqs. (A14), (A6) and (A7), respectively, their corresponding values,
the crack length a, the damage D and the strain can then be
calculated.
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