Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Role of the Circulatory System in the Bodys

Defense Mechanism
First Line of Defence

1. First line of defence mechanism is nonspecific and

immediate
2. The first line of defence consists of physical and chemical
barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Physical Barrier
The outer layer of skin is tough and it is a barrier that is
impermeable to bacterial and viruses. The continual
shedding of dead skin cells makes bacteria difficult
to grow on skin. When the skin is cut, blood clots to seal
the wound and prevent the entry of microorganisms.
Coughing and sneezing also help to expel
microorganisms and dirt from the respiratory tract.
Cilia in the trachea and bronchi, the rhythmic movement
of cilia carries the mucus towards the throat where
it is swallowed or spit out.
The mucous membranes - The layers of cells that line
the trachea respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts. It
secrete sticky fluid, mucus, that contains lysozymes
which trap and destroy microorganisms.

Chemical Barrier
Lysozyme is also present in the saliva from the salivary
glands and other nasal secretions
Hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills microorganisms
present in the food and water.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Perspiration excreted from the sweat glands contains

lysozyme and acids which destroy harmful bacteria and
inhibit the growth of fungi on the surface of the skin.
Tears secreted by the tear glands contain lysozyme and
acids to protect the surfaces of the eyes from infection of
bacteria and to prevent the entry of foreign substances.
Mucus is secreted by the cells of mucous membranes to
trap microorganism
Sebum secreted by the skin has a low pH value to
prevent the growth of some bacteria and fungi

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Second Line of Defense

1. The second line of defense comes into play when the
pathogens succeed in penetrating the skin or the mucous
membrane.
2. The nonspecific immune responses include:
a. Phagocytosis carried out by the white blood cells such
as neutrophils, macrophages and eosinophils.
b. natural

cell

killers

destroy

infected

cells

and

precancerous cells
c. inflammation which involves redness, heat, swelling
and pain.
d. Fever (high temperature) stimulates phagocytosis, kills
certain bacteria by denaturing their protein and helps
in the healing process.

Phagocytosis
1. Phagocytosis is a process of encirclement and
digestion of microorganisms or foregin particles by
the phagocytes.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

2. Two common types of phagocytes are the neutrophils and

macrophage
3. The following are some explanation about neutrophils
a) They circulate freely through the blood vessels to
engulf and destroy any pathogen.
b) The can squeeze between the cells of the walls of
the capillaries to reach the site of infection
c) They are the first phagocytes to arrive at the
injured tissue before the arrival of macrophages.
4. The information below are about macrophages
a) Two or more monocytes can develop into
macrophages
b) They engulf and digest any bacteria, viruses
and foreign particles
c) They remain in a body tissue, wait for pathogen or
move around seeking out pathogens.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Third Line of Defence

Immunity, Antigens and Antibodies
1. The third line of defence takes over if a pathogen gets
past the first and second lines of nonspecific defences.
2. The third line of defence:
a. depends on the ability of the body to resist a particular
disease by recognising and defending itself against
the specific pathogens or antigens
b. involves the immune response
3. Immunity is the ability of the human body to resist
infection.
4. An immune response refers to the bodys defence
reaction

whereby

an

antigen

(e.g.

bacterium)

is

recognised and specific antibodies are produced by

lymphocytes to defend against the pathogen.
5. In fighting against specific antigens, apart from the
production of antibodies, specialized lymphocytes are
also involved.
6. Antigen:
a. An antigen (antibody generator) is a foreign protein
molecule

that

when

introduced

into

the

body,

stimulates the production of antiobodies.

b. Antigens

include

molecules

belonging

to

viruses,

bacteria, fungi, protozoan parasitic worms, and nonpathogens like pollen and transplanted tissue.
c. Antigens from pathogens are toxic and can cause
harm to the human body.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

7. Antibody:
a. An antibody is protein substance produced by the
immune system in response to the recognition of a
specific antigen.
b. An antibody is a large Y-shaped protein molecule,
which is also known as an immunoglobulin.
c. An antibody is produced by the immune system to
destroy or to weaken a pathogen and neutralises its
toxin, which forms the basis of the immune response.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Ways Which Antibodies Help to Defend the Body

1. The antibodies produced defend the body through these
following ways:
(a)

Agglutination

(b)

Opsonisation
(c)

Neutralisation

(d)

Lysis

2. Agglutination of microorganisms:
(a)

Antibodies bind to the antigens and clump

microorganisms together in large numbers, making

the antigens harmless.
(b)

These incapacitated pathogens are then

ingested by the phagocytes.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

3. Opsonisation:
(a)

Some

pathogens

or

antigens

are

not

recognized by the phagocytes and do not resemble

the bodys protein.
(b) Antibodies bind to the antigens and cover them,
making it easier for the phagocytes to eat
them.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

4. Neutralisation:
(a)

Antibodies bind to the toxins (antigens),

thereby neutralising the poison simply by disabling

the chemical action of the toxins.
(b)

When an antibody binds to a toxin, it is called an

antitoxin (if the toxin comes from some form of

venom, it is called an antivenin).
(c)

The disabled toxin is then ingested by the

phagocytes (macrophage).

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

5. Lysis
Antibodies

bind

to

the

pathogen

and

membrane of the pathogen disintegrates.

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the

plasma

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Activation of Lymphocyte (not important but crucial

to understand active immunity later)

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Type of

Immunity
Type of
immunity
Active
immunity
a) Natural
acquired

Characteristics

When a person is exposed to a

pathogen, the antigens of the
pathogens stimulate an immune
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Examples
The person is immune to
the chickenpox virus after
he has been infected by it.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

active
immunity or
immunity that is
obtained after a
person recovers
from an
infection

b) Artificially
acquired
active
immunity or
immunity that is
obtained
through
immunization or
vaccination

response.
The immune system produces
antibodies in response to the
antigens
After the person recovers from
the infection, the person is
immune to the pathogen because
the lymphocytes remain in the
body.
Permanent immunity follows
the infection.
Some diseases such as measles
are highly contagious.
A serious illness or death may
result when a person is exposed
to the pathogens for the first
time.
Therefore, a person needs to be
immunized, that is, to activate
his immune response artificially
by injecting a vaccine before the
infection occurs.
A vaccine is a preparation of
weakened, dead or non-virulent
forms of a pathogen that is not
harmful to the person who
receives it.
The process of inducing immunity
by administering a vaccine is
called immunization.
The vaccine that contains
weakened live microorganisms
causes only very mild symptoms.
The vaccine containing killed
viruses or bacteria can stimulate
an immune response but cannot
induce the disease.
Therefore, the body has acquired
immunity through vaccination.
Subsequently, if a live pathogen
invades the body, it is able to
eliminate the pathogen
immediately because it already
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The person becomes

immune to the measles
virus after being
inoculated with the
measles vaccine.
Other examples are
vaccination against
hepatitis B,
diphtheria, pertussis,
tetanus, and
poliomyelitis.
Examples of vaccines
are the Salk
poliomyelitis vaccine
and the Sabin vaccine.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Passive
immunity
a) Naturally
acquired
passive
immunity or
immunity that is
obtained from
the mother
either through
the breast milk
or via the
placenta

b) Artificially

acquired
passive
immunity or
immunity that is
obtained

through the
injection of a
serum which
contains specific
antibodies

has the antibodies against the

pathogen.
A foetus can receive maternal

antibodies naturally from its

mother through the placenta.
These antibodies prevent the
baby from getting disease in the
first few months after birth.
Babies can also acquire passive
immunity through breastfeeding
as the antibodies are found in the
mothers milk or colostrums.
Passive immunity is temporary
because the antibodies are evenly
broken down in the spleen and
liver.
An immunity that is obtained

through the injection or

transfusion of a serum containing
a specific antibody against the
disease.
For example, a serum which
contains antibodies or an
antiserum from donors can be
injected into a person who needs
the antibodies, for example,
travelers visiting countries where
hepatitis is endemic.
These antibodies temporarily
protect the travelers in the event
they are exposed to the hepatitis
virus.
This type of immunity, although
effective, usually disappears after
several weeks or months.

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Antibodies that are

transferred through the
placenta or mothers
milk.

A serum containing
specific antibodies
against specific diseases
such as tetanus and
rabies or for venom of
snake bites.

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Difference between active immunity and passive

immunity
Artificially acquired active

Artificially acquired passive

immunity
Injection of vaccine
Body produces its own

immunity
Injection of serum
Antibodies are obtained from

antibodies
Does not result in an

outer source
Immunity is immediate

immediate immunity. It takes

time to develop
Vaccination is given before

Injection of serum is given when

infection

infection occur or has a high risk

Formation of memory cells

Immunity lasts very long
Booster does is given to

of getting the disease

No memory cells formed
Immunity lasts temporarily
Second injection is given to

stimulate more lymphocytes to boots immunity if antigens are

produce more antibodies

yet neutralized.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Question 1: Sketch the graph of concentration of

antibodies against time for Artificially Acquired Passive
Immunity and Artificially Acquired Active Immunity.

Question 2: Why sometime second injection of vaccine is

given?

Question 3: Why a person who is bitten by poisonous

snake cannot be given vaccine to cure the poison?

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Question 4: There is a mother who had recovered from

chickenpox breastfeeds her child. During this period, the
baby receives the immunity from his mother and there is
no chance for the baby gets infected by chickenpox virus.
However, after the baby grows up he is still infected by
chickenpox virus. Why?

Question 5: Explain the series of inflammation response.

Vasodilation: leads to greater blood flow to the area of
inflammation, resulting in redness and heat.
Vascular permeability: endothelial cells become "leaky"
from either direct endothelial cell injury or via chemical
mediators.
Exudation: fluid, proteins, red blood cells, and white blood
cells escape from the intravascular space as a result of
increased osmotic pressure extravascularly and increased
hydrostatic pressure intravascularly
Vascular stasis: slowing of the blood in the bloodstream
with vasodilation and fluid exudation to allow chemical
mediators and inflammatory cells to collect and respond to
the stimulus.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

1. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that
attacks the human immune system.
2. Infection caused by the HIV leads to acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
The effects of HIV on the bodys immune system
1. When a person has AIDS, the infected person is vulnerable
to various infections because his immune system cells are
being destroyed progressively.
2. AIDS is the end stage of infection by the virus.
3. The virus reproduces inside the lymphocytes and destroys
them in the process.
4. A person who is infected with HIV may be symptom-free
for many years, even when the virus is actively attacking
his immune system.
5. The disease may take 8 to 10 years to develop and for the
symptoms to manifest.
6. Since the immune system of a person is weakened, the
body is vulnerable to many types of infections.
7. Eventually, the immune system collapses and victim dies
of an infection that his immune system would have been
able to cope with under normal circumstances.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Transmission of HIV
1. HIV enters the body through the transfer of body fluids (for
example, blood or semen) or across the placenta.
2. Newborn babies can be infected with the virus from their
infected mother at birth or through breastfeeding.
However, HIV infection of fetuses and newborn babies can
be prevented if the infected mothers get proper medical
treatment during pregnancy and delivery.
3. Teenagers and adults can get the disease from
unprotected sex with an infected person and
contaminated needles used to inject drugs or for tattoos.

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 (c) Transport

Prevention of AIDS
1. Blood products used should be treated to destroy the virus
2. Education programs should inform everyone about the risk
of unprotected sex and the sharing of needles.
3. Use condoms to reduce the risk of infection.
4. Stay away from sex with many partners. Partners in a new
relationship should check their HIV status by having a
blood test.
5. To date, there is no vaccine yet for AIDS although certain
drugs may retard the progress of the disease.

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