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1 Functions
21
1.1
Definition of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.2
Examples of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.2.1
Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.2.2
Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.2.3
Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.2.4
23
1.2.5
23
1.2.6
Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.2.7
23
1.2.8
25
1.2.9
25
25
25
32
1.3
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Functions
1.1
Definition of a Function
A function, f , with domain D, is a rule which assigns to each element x D a single real number, f (x).
The domain is usually a set of real numbers.
The range of f consists of all numbers of the form f (x), with x D.
The rule, f , can be thought of as a machine designed to take a specified set of real numbers (the domain)
and produce, for each acceptable x of the input, a single real number f (x).
f :DB
x
x1 x2 x3
A A
A
A
Domain
f (x)
B
Range
22
Functions
1.2
Examples of Functions
1.2.1
Polynomial Functions
(i) Constant Functions: All functions of the form f : R {a} where R is the set of real numbers and
{a} is the set containing the fixed real number a.
Examples:
(1) f (x) = 2.
(2) Z(x) = 0. To every real number Z assigns the real number zero.
This function is called the zero function, or zero polynomial.
(ii) Linear Functions: All functions L : R R defined by the rule L(x) = ax + b, where a and b are any
fixed real numbers.
Examples:
(1) I(x) = x. I assigns every real number to itself. This function is called the identity function.
(2) L(x) = 2x and
L(x) = 6x 5.
(iii) Polynomial Functions: Any function of the form f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a0 where n is a
positive integer or zero and the ai s are fixed real numbers. Note if n = 1 then f (x) = a1 x + a0 is a
linear function and if n = 0 then f (x) = a0 x0 = a0 is a constant function. For any value, n, this is
called a polynomial function of degree at most n. The degree equals n iff an 6= 0.
Examples:
(1) f (x) = x2 + 3x + 1.
(2) f (x) = x5 .
(3) f (x) = x3 + x + 1.
(4) f (x) = x.
1.2.2
Rational Functions
A rational function is any function of the type h(x) = f (x)/g(x) where f and g are polynomial functions
and g is not the zero polynomial. The domain of h(x) is the set of all x such that g(x) 6= 0.
Examples:
(1) h(x) = x2 .
(3) h(x) =
1.2.3
x2
x .
(2) h(x) =
x
1x2 .
(4) h(x) = x1 .
Trigonometric Functions
These functions are described on page 16 of Chapter 0 in terms of radian measure. Since angles in radian
measure are real numbers the domain of sine and cosine is R. The domains of the other trigonometric
functions can be found by expressing them in terms of sine and cosine.
Example:
tan x =
sin x
cos x .
1.2.4
1.2.5
23
x, if x 0
x, if x < 0.
f (x) = x, where the symbol x means the positive square root of x and where the domain of this function
is x 0. The range of this function is R 0.
1.2.6
Exponential Functions
f (x) = ax , where a is any fixed positive number and x is any real number.
( 21 )x
( 31 )x
3x
2x
1x
x
1.2.7
Let y = f (x) then f (x) = loga x iff x = ay where x > 0, a > 0 and a 6= 1. The number a is fixed. It is called
the base of the logarithm.
The rule for defining loga x in words is:
The logarithm, base a (a > 0, a 6= 1), of the number x (x > 0) is the number y such that ay = x.
Domain of loga x is x > 0.
Range of loga x is R.
24
Functions
GRAPHS
f (x)
f (x)
(2, 1)
( 12 , 1)
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
f (x) = log 12 x
f (x) = log x
f (x)
f (x)
(3, 1)
( 13 , 1)
x
(1, 0)
f (x) = log3 x
(1, 0)
f (x) = log 13 x
(6) loga x =
25
logb x
.
logb a
1.2.8
Definition:
For every real number x, the value of bxc is the greatest integer which is less than or equal to x.
1.2.9
Definition:
For every real number x the value of dxe is the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to x.
1.2.10
Notation.
1-1 or injective.
Definition. Given a function f, f : A B, then f is 1-1 or injective [if f (x) = f (z) then x = z for
every x, z A].
Examples
1. f (x) = ax + b for a 6= 0.
2. f (x) = x3
3. sin : 2 , 2 [1, 1]
4. `(x) = loga x
5. E(x) = ax
6. f (x) =
1
x
1.2.11
Definitions:
1. Even. A function f is said to be an even function if f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f . It is
assumed that for every x in the domain of f , (x) is also in the domain.
26
Functions
Examples
(a) cos : R R
(b) f (x) = x2
2
(c) f (x) = ex
(d) f (x) = |x|
2. Odd. f is an odd function if f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f . It is assumed that for every
x in the domain of f , (x) is also in the domain.
Examples
(a) sin : R R
(b) f (x) = x3
(c) f (x) =
1
x
2
Most functions are neither even nor odd. For example, f (x) = x2 x is neither even nor odd.
A polynomial p(x) = an xn + + a0 is even iff all a2i+1 = 0, i.e. only even powers of x actually appear
in p(x).
A polynomial p(x) = an xn + + a0 is odd iff all a2i = 0, i.e. only odd powers of x actually appear
in p(x).
Contrary to the rules of arithmetic:
(i) the sum of (two or more) odd functions is odd.
(ii) the product of an even and an odd function is odd.
f (x) = x3
f (x) = x3 , 1 x < 2
(b)
(d)
f (x) = x2 , x 0
f (x) = x2 x, 0 x 1
g(x) = x
g(x) = x + 2
2. (a)
(c)
g(x) = x 3
g(x) = x 3
3. (a)
f (x) =
x2
x
(b)
f (x) =
(c)
f (x) =
x
|x|
(d)
f (x) =
(b)
(d)
|x|
x
x,
if x 0
x, if x < 0
27
4. (a)
(c)
f (x) = x + |x|
f (x) = 1 |x + 1|
(b)
(d)
f (x) = x2 + |x|
f (x) = |x2 x|
5. (a)
(c)
f (x) = x2 2x + 1
f (x) = x2 + x 1
(b)
(d)
f (x) = x2 + x + 1
f (x) = 2x2 4
6. (a)
f (x) = x1 , x < 0
(b)
f (x) =
1
x2
x2 1
x+1
(c)
f (x) =
1
|x|
(d)
f (x) =
7. (a)
f (x) =
(b)
f (x) =
(c)
f (x) =
1
x+1
3
x2 1
(d)
f (x) =
8. (a)
f (x) =
x1
x+1
(b)
f (x) = 1
(c)
f (x) =
x2 +2
x1
(d)
f (x) =
(b)
f (x) =
(d)
f (x) =
9. (a)
(c)
10. (a)
(c)
11. (a)
(c)
f (x) = x2 + x1
f (x) = 1 x2
f (x) = 1/ 1 x2
f (x) =
f (x) =
2
1x
1x2
1
x,
0,
if x 6= 0
if x = 0
1
x2 +1
2
|x|+1
1
x2 +1
3x1
2x+1
x2
x2 + 1
1x2
1x2
(b)
f (x) =
(d)
p
(x + 1)2
if x < 0
x,
1,
if 0 < x 2
f (x) =
x 1, if 2 < x
2
x , if x < 0
1,
if x = 0
f (x) =
x, if 0 < x < 2
(b)
f (x) =
f (x) = x|x|
(d)
12. (a)
(c)
f (x) = sin 2x
f (x) = sin x 3
(b)
(d)
13. (a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
f (x) = | sin x|
f (x) = sec x
14. (a)
(c)
f (x) = tan(x + )
f (x) = sin x
(b)
(d)
15. (a)
(c)
f (x) = x sin x
f (x) = sinx x
(b)
(d)
f (x) = x2 sin x
f (x) = cos x + x
16. (a)
(c)
f (x) = 10x
x
f (x) = 28x
(b)
(d)
f (x) = 10x
f (x) = 10x+1
(b)
f (x) = x2x +
f (x) = 3 sin x
f (x) = cos x + 2
f (x) = (x + 1)2x
1
2x
(d)
f (x) =
+2x+1
(b)
f (x) = 2x
(d)
(b)
(d)
f (x) = 1
2
f (x) = ax
3
2x
x+1
f (x) = 10x
x2
f (x) = log2 (x + 1)
f (x) = log10 (x2 x 2)
e
x+1
2
28
Functions
20. (a)
(c)
f (x) = log10 x
(b)
(d)
f (x) = log(sin x)
f (x) = x2 log10 x
(b)
f (x) =
x
log10 x
(c)
f (x) =
log10 (x+1)
x
(d)
f (x) = log10
x+1
x1
22. (a)
f (x) =
log10 x
log10 (x+10)
(b)
f (x) = log10
x
x+10
L(0)
(b)
2
L(x)
2
(c)
L()
(d)
(L(x))
(e)
L(x )
(f)
L(L(x))
(g)
L(x + h)
(h)
L(L(x) 4)
(i)
L(2x )
(b)
(c)
f (cos x)
(e)
1/f (x)
(f)
(a) f ( 2)
(d)
(g)
f (3x + 4)
f (x + h)
x
x+1 ,
25. If f (x) =
1
x
, x 6= 0
(h)
f (10 )
(i)
f (f (x))
f ( x 2)
find:
(a)
f (0)
(b)
f ( 2)
(c)
(d)
f (2 + h)
(e)
f (sin x)
(f)
f (log2 x)
(g)
f (f (x))
(h)
1/f (x)
(i)
3f (x) + f (x 1)
(b)
f (1)
(c)
f (x + 1)
f sin 3
1
x1 ,
26. If f (x) =
(a)
f (0)
(d)
1
x
1
x
(g)
f
f
+1
(L + G)(x)
2
(d)
(L + G)(x)
(g)
L x
G (2 )
28. If f (x) =
x
1x
find:
x + 1 and g(x) =
(e)
f tan
(h)
f (f (x))
x+5
2 ,
(i)
f (f (f (x)))
find:
(b)
3L(1)
(e)
L(G(x))
(h)
1
x+1 ,
(f)
(c)
(L 2G)(x2 )
(f)
G(L(x))
(i)
(L + G)(1 + x)
L(G(2 ))
find:
(a)
(f + g)(x)
(b)
f (g(x))
(c)
g(f (x))
(d)
f
2
g (x )
(e)
f (f (x))
(f)
g(g(x))
(g)
(f g)(0)
(h)
(f + g)(x + h)
(i)
(f g)(x)
(b)
(c)
x1
x+1 , find:
cos 2
29. If f (x) =
(a)
1
x
(d)
f (f (x))
(e)
f (2 )
(f)
f (3x + 1)
x+1
f x1
(g)
f 2 (x)
(h)
f (x + 1)
(i)
f (x 1)
29
g(g(0))
(b)
g(g(g(0)))
(c)
f (g(0))
(d)
f (g(2))
(e)
f (g(sin x))
(f)
(c)
f (x2 + 1)
(S(H(x)))2 = H(x)
(b)
f (sin )
f (0)
(b)
(d)
f (x2 )f (1)
f ( x)
(e)
f (x + 3)/f (x)
(f)
f (f (3))
(h)
(f (x))2
(i)
f (f (x))
(b)
f (x)f (2 + x)
(c)
f (x)/f (2 + x)
(g)
f (x) + f (2 + x)
(d)
f (f (2 + x))
(e)
(f (2 + x))
(f)
f ((2 + x)2 )
(g)
1
f (x)
(h)
(i)
f (cos2 x)
f (sin2 y)
35. If P (t) = et where and are constants and e > 1 is a constant find and simplify:
(a)
P (0)
(b)
P (1)
(c)
(f)
P (t + 1)
P 1
P (t+1)
P (t)
(i)
(P (t))2
(c)
g(1)
(f)
g(x + 1)g(x)
(i)
g(x+1)
g(x)
(d)
P (t)P (1)
(e)
(P (t))
(g)
P (t+1)
P (1)
(h)
g(0)
(b)
g(1)
(d)
g(x + 1)
(e)
g(x)g(1)
(g)
g(g(x))
(h)
(g(x))
37. If C(x) = 1/2(ex + ex ) and S(x) = 1/2(ex ex ) where e > 1 is a constant, find the following:
(a)
C(0)
(b)
C(1)
(c)
S(0)
(d)
S(1)
(e)
C(loge x)
(f)
S(loge x)
(g)
S(x)
C(x)
(h)
C(x)
(i)
S(x)
f (1)
(b)
f (2)
(c)
f (x) f (x + 1)
(d)
f (x) + f (2)
(e)
f (g(x))
(f)
f (f (g(x)))
(g)
g(f (x))
(h)
f (x) + f (1 + x)
(i)
g(g(f (x)))
f (1)
(b)
f (5)
(c)
g(f (x))
(d)
f (x) + f (125)
(e)
f (x) f (x + 1)
(f)
f (g(g(x)))
(g)
f (g(x))
(h)
f (x) + f (x + 5)
(i)
g(g(f (x)))
30
Functions
(d) f (3) + f ( x)
(e)
(g) f (x) + f (10 + x)
(h)
and simplify:
f (10)
f (x2 1) f (x + 1)
f (g(x))
(c)
(f)
(i)
g(f (x))
f (f (g(x)))
g(g(f (x)))
f (3)
f (x2 9) f (x + 3)
g(f (x))
(c)
(f)
(i)
f (g(x))
f (f (g(x)))
g(g(f (x)))
find:
(b)
(e)
(h)
log3 81
(b)
1
32
log4 16
(c)
log2 16
(c)
log4
(b)
log3
1
27
log2 1
(b)
log7
1
49
(c)
log13 13
(b)
(c)
log 1/4
43. (a)
log2
44. (a)
45. (a)
1
64
1
16
bx
46. With the help of a table of logarithms and the relation loga x = log
logb a
construct a table of logarithms for the first ten integers for the following bases:
(a) base 2
(b) base 3
(c) base 5
In problems 47 to 50 the symbol log x will stand for loga x. Simplify the given expressions.
47. (a)
log ax
(b)
a log x
48. (a)
log(xa2x )
(b)
49. (a)
log(alog a )
50. (a)
log(ax
(c)
ax+log x
a log x
(c)
alog a
(b)
a2 log 3
(c)
log(x2 ax )
(b)
alog(a
(c)
a2 log x
(b)
(e)
log6 x = 3
log10 x = 1
(c)
(f)
log2 x = 10
log16 x = 1/4
(b)
(e)
loga 625 = 4
loga 2 = 1/4
(c)
(f)
loga a = 1/2
loga 125 = 3
(b)
(e)
6log6 y = 21
y log7 14 = 14
(c)
(f)
4log4 y = 9
y log3 2 = 2
(b)
(e)
3logx 5 = 5
7logx k = k
(c)
(f)
10logx 7 = 7
8log8 x = y
2x
x5 = 873
31
(b)
5x+1 = 9
(c)
62x+3 = 354
(e)
x4 = 687
(f)
(b)
(e)
7x = 42x1
y = 23x
(c)
(f)
2x1 = 52x+1
10y = 10x
7/2
= 51.4
log(3x 1) log(x + 2) = 2
log(x2 1) log(x + 1) = 1
(b)
(d)
log(x 6) + log(x + 6) = 1
log(x2 4) 2 log(x 2) = 2
(b)
(d)
3x < 47
52x > 8
In problems 59 to 69 find functions f and g such that the given function h can be expressed in the form
h = f g. Neither f nor g should be the identity function.
59. (a)
h(x) = (x + 1)2
(c)
h(x) = (x2 1)
1/2
(b)
h(x) = (x 3)2 + x 3
(d)
h(x) = x2 2x + 1
h(x) = x 3
h(x) = (x 1)2 + x 2
h(x) = 1/ x 2
h(x) = 1/(x2 + 1)
60. (a)
(c)
h(x) = (x + 1)3 + 3
h(x) = 3 x + 4
(b)
(d)
61. (a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
62. (a)
(c)
h(x) = (x + 1)2 + x + 2
h(x) = x3 + 1
h(x) = x2
h(x) = |2x + 1|
(b)
(d)
h(x) = |x2 + 1|
p
h(x) = |x|
63. (a)
(c)
h(x) = sin 2x
h(x) = sin2 x
(b)
(d)
h(x) = sin x2
h(x) = sin(cos x)
64. (a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
h(x) = | sin x|
h(x) = tan(x2 + 1)
65. (a)
(c)
h(x) = sin2 3x
h(x) = cos |x|
h(x) = sin x
h(x) = 3 sin2 x + sin x + 1
(b)
(d)
66. (a)
(c)
h(x) = 2x
h(x) = 10sin x
(b)
(d)
h(x) = 2x
h(x) = 10|x|
67. (a)
(c)
log10 (x2 + 1)
h(x) = log2 |x|
(b)
(c)
log10 (sin x)
h(x) = sin(log2 x)
68. (a)
(c)
h(x) = e2x + ex + 1
h(x) = 3 log10 x 2
(b)
(d)
h(x) = log2 4x
h(x) = (log10 x)2 1
69. (a)
(c)
h(x) = log10 x2
h(x) = x4 + x2 2
(b)
(d)
32
Functions
In problems 70 to 75 evaluate
a.
f (x+h)f (x)
h
(h 6= 0) and
f (x)f (a)
xa
70. (a)
f (x) = x2 + 1, a = 0 and a = 1
(b)
f (x) = x3 , a = 0 and a = 3
71. (a)
f (x) = x + 3, a = 1 and a = 2
(b)
f (x) = x1 , a = 1 and a = 3
72. (a)
f (x) = 2x + 3
f (x) = x, a = 1 and a = 4
(b)
f (x) = x2 + 1
(b)
(b)
73. (a)
74. (a)
f (x) = 2 , a = 0 and a = 1
75. (a)
1.3
Definitions:
The inverse sine function, denoted sin1 or arcsin, is defined by
sin1 x = y
where 1 x 1 and 0 y .
The inverse tangent or arctangent function, denoted by tan1 or arctan, is defined by
tan1 x = arctan x = y
if and only if
tan y = x
Example:
33
Compute cos(sin1 x)
Solution:
(a) Let = sin1 x with the restrictions:
2
2
and
1 x 1.
(b) Since sin = x by definition of sin1 , we can construct the given right angle triangle and compute the
third side by Pythagoras theorem.
1
x
1 x2
(c) Now cos(sin1 x) is cos , so we read the answer off the diagram:
p
cos(sin1 x) = 1 x2 .
Evaluate
79. (a)
sin1
80. (a)
sin1
81. (a)
82. (a)
(c)
tan1 1
(d)
tan1
(b)
p
cos1 3/2
(c)
tan1 0
(d)
sin1 1
sin1 0
(b)
(c)
cos1 0
(d)
cot1 (1)
tan1 (1)
(b)
cos1 1
cot1 3
(c)
sin1 ( 12 )
(d)
cos1
1
2
1
2
1
2
83. sin(sin1 x)
and
(b)
cos1
1
2
tan1 (tan )
84. cos(sin1 x)
and
sin(cos1 y)
86. tan(cos1 x)
and
sin(cos1 1)
85. cos(tan1 x)
and
cos(sec1 x)
87. cos(sin1 12 )
and
tan(cos1 0)
100. h(x) =
cot(3x)
1+x2
34
Functions
tan1 t
t
109. f (x) = ln tan1 x
1
111. h(x) = ln etan x
1
113. f (x) = ln esin x
115. f (x) = sin1 (ln x)
1
3
4