GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
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Contents
Articles
SOIL

Soil

Clay

13

Silt

17

Sand

19

Gravel

25

Peat

27

Loam

34

SLOPE STABILITY

35

Slope stability

35

Hydraulic conductivity

38

Water content

44

Void ratio

48

Bulk density

49

Thixotropy

50

Reynolds' dilatancy

52

Angle of repose

52

Cohesion (geology)

56

Porosity

56

Permeability (earth sciences)

60

Specific storage

64

SOIL MECHANICS

67

Soil mechanics

67

Effective stress

85

Pore water pressure

87

Shear strength (soil)

88

Overburden pressure

92

Consolidation (soil)

93

Soil compaction

95

Soil classification

97

S-wave

101

Lateral earth pressure

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

103
107

Geotechnical investigation

107

Cone penetration test

112

Standard penetration test

114

Exploration geophysics

116

Water well

119

Borehole

128

LABORATERY TESTS

129

Atterberg limits

129

California bearing ratio

131

Direct shear test

132

Hydrometer

133

Proctor compaction test

137

R-value (soils)

138

Sieve analysis

139

Triaxial shear test

145

FIELD TESTS

147

Crosshole sonic logging

147

Nuclear Densometer Test

148

FOUNDATION

149

Foundation (engineering)

149

Bearing capacity

151

Shallow foundation

153

Deep foundation

157

Dynamic load testing

165

Wave equation analysis

166

Statnamic load test

167

RETAINING WALLS

169

Retaining wall

169

Mechanically stabilized earth

173

Soil nailing

174

Tieback (geotechnical)

175

Gabion

175

Slurry wall

177

Mass wasting

179

Landslide

182

Slope stability analysis

190

EARTHQUAKES

197

Earthquake

197

Soil liquefaction

211

Response spectrum

215

Seismic hazard

217

Ground-structure interaction

218

GEOSYNTHETICS

221

Geosynthetic

221

Geotextile

227

Geomembranes

229

Geosynthetic clay liner

233

Cellular confinement

234

Instrumentation for Stability Monitoring

238

Deformation monitoring

238

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

240

References
Article Sources and Contributors

245

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

251

Article Licenses
License

255

SOIL
Soil
[[|alt=This is a diagram and related photograph of soil layers from bedrock to soil.|thumb|right|A represents soil; B
represents laterite, a regolith; C represents saprolite, a less-weathered regolith; the bottommost layer represents
bedrock]]
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) of mineral
constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent
materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical
characteristics.[1] It is composed of particles of broken rock that have
been altered by chemical and environmental processes that include
weathering and erosion. Soil differs from its parent rock due to
interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the
biosphere.[2] It is a mixture of mineral and organic constituents that are
in solid, gaseous and aqueous states.[3] [4]
Loess field in Germany.

Soil particles pack loosely, forming a soil structure filled with pore
spaces. These pores contain soil solution (liquid) and air (gas).[5]
Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three state system.[6] Most
soils have a density between 1 and 2 g/cm.[7] Soil is also known as
earth: it is the substance from which our planet takes its name. Little
of the soil composition of planet Earth is older than the Tertiary and
most no older than the Pleistocene.[8] In engineering, soil is referred to
as regolith, or loose rock material.

Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till,

Northern Ireland

Soil

Soil forming factors

Soil formation, or pedogenesis, is the combined effect of physical,
chemical, biological, and anthropogenic processes on soil parent
material. Soil genesis involves processes that develop layers or
horizons in the soil profile. These processes involve additions, losses,
transformations and translocations of material that compose the soil.
Minerals derived from weathered rocks undergo changes that cause the
formation of secondary minerals and other compounds that are variably
soluble in water, these constituents are moved (translocated) from one
area of the soil to other areas by water and animal activity. The
alteration and movement of materials within soil causes the formation
of distinctive soil horizons.
The weathering of bedrock produces the parent material from which
Darkened topsoil and reddish subsoil layers are
soils form. An example of soil development from bare rock occurs on
typical in some regions.
recent lava flows in warm regions under heavy and very frequent
rainfall. In such climates, plants become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little
organic material. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrient-bearing water which carries,
for example, dissolved minerals and guano. The developing plant roots, themselves or associated with mycorrhizal
fungi,[9] gradually break up the porous lava and organic matter soon accumulates.
But even before it does, the predominantly porous broken lava in which the plant roots grow can be considered a
soil. How the soil "life" cycle proceeds is influenced by at least five classic soil forming factors that are dynamically
intertwined in shaping the way soil is developed, they include: parent material, regional climate, topography, biotic
potential and the passage of time.[10]

Parent material
The material from which soils form is called parent material. It includes: weathered primary bedrock; secondary
material transported from other locations, e.g. colluvium and alluvium; deposits that are already present but mixed or
altered in other ways - old soil formations, organic material including peat or alpine humus; and anthropogenic
materials, like landfill or mine waste.[11] Few soils form directly from the breakdown of the underlying rocks they
develop on. These soils are often called residual soils, and have the same general chemistry as their parent rocks.
Most soils derive from materials that have been transported from other locations by wind, water and gravity.[12]
Some of these materials may have moved many miles or only a few feet. Windblown material called loess is
common in the Midwest of North America and in Central Asia and other locations. Glacial till is a component of
many soils in the northern and southern latitudes and those formed near large mountains; till is the product of glacial
ice moving over the ground. The ice can break rock and larger stones into smaller pieces, it also can sort material
into different sizes. As glacial ice melts, the melt water also moves and sorts material, and deposits it varying
distances from its origin. The deeper sections of the soil profile may have materials that are relatively unchanged
from when they were deposited by water, ice or wind.
Weathering is the first stage in the transforming of parent material into soil material. In soils forming from bedrock,
a thick layer of weathered material called saprolite may form. Saprolite is the result of weathering processes that
include: hydrolysis (the replacement of a minerals cations with hydrogen ions), chelation from organic compounds,
hydration (the absorption of water by minerals), solution of minerals by water, and physical processes that include
freezing and thawing or wetting and drying.[11] The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock
material, plus physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, plus the rate and type of

Soil

3
weathering, transforms it into different soil materials.

Climate
Soil formation greatly depends on the climate, and soils from different climate zones show distinctive
characteristics.[13] Temperature and moisture affect weathering and leaching. Wind moves sand and other particles,
especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover. The type and amount of precipitation influence soil
formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil, aiding in the development of different
soil profiles. Seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations affect the effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock
material and affect soil dynamics. The cycle of freezing and thawing is an effective mechanism to break up rocks and
other consolidated materials. Temperature and precipitation rates affect biological activity, rates of chemical
reactions and types of vegetation cover.

Biological factors
Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil formation (see soil biomantle and stonelayer). Animals and
micro-organisms mix soils to form burrows and pores allowing moisture and gases to seep into deeper layers. In the
same way, plant roots open channels in the soils, especially plants with deep taproots which can penetrate many
meters through the different soil layers to bring up nutrients from deeper in the soil. Plants with fibrous roots that
spread out near the soil surface, have roots that are easily decomposed, adding organic matter. Micro-organisms,
including fungi and bacteria, affect chemical exchanges between roots and soil and act as a reserve of nutrients.
Humans can impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover; this removal promotes erosion. They can also mix
the different soil layers, restarting the soil formation process as less-weathered material is mixed with and diluting
the more developed upper layers. Some soils may contain up to one million species of microbes per gram, most of
those species being unknown, making soil the most abundant ecosystem on Earth.[14]
Vegetation impacts soils in numerous ways. It can prevent erosion caused by the impact of rain or surface runoff.
Plants shade soils, keeping them cooler and slowing evaporation of soil moisture, or plants by way of transpiration
can cause soils to lose moisture. Plants can form new chemicals which can break down or build up soil particles. The
type and amount of vegetation depends on climate, land form topography, soil characteristics, and biological factors.
Soil factors such as density, depth, chemistry, pH, temperature and moisture greatly affect the type of plants that can
grow in a given location. Dead plants and dropped leaves and stems fall to the surface of the soil and decompose.
There, organisms feed on them and mix the organic material with the upper soil layers; these added organic
compounds become part of the soil formation process.

Time
Time is a factor in the interactions of all the above factors as they develop soil. Over time, soils evolve features
dependent on the other forming factors, and soil formation is a time-responsive process dependent on how the other
factors interplay with each other. Soil is always changing. For example, recently-deposited material from a flood
exhibits no soil development because there has not been enough time for soil-forming activities. The soil surface is
buried, and the formation process begins again for this soil. The long periods over which change occurs and its
multiple influences mean that simple soils are rare, resulting in the formation of soil horizons. While soil can achieve
relative stability in properties for extended periods, the soil life cycle ultimately ends in soil conditions that leave it
vulnerable to erosion. Despite the inevitability of soil retrogression and degradation, most soil cycles are long and
productive.
Soil-forming factors continue to affect soils during their existence, even on stable landscapes that are
long-enduring, some for millions of years. Materials are deposited on top and materials are blown or washed away
from the surface. With additions, removals and alterations, soils are always subject to new conditions. Whether these
are slow or rapid changes depend on climate, landscape position and biological activity.

Soil

Characteristics
Soil color is often the first impression one
has when viewing soil. Striking colors and
contrasting
patterns
are
especially
memorable. The Red River (Mississippi
watershed) carries sediment eroded from
extensive reddish soils like Port Silt Loam
in Oklahoma. The Yellow River in China
carries yellow sediment from eroding
loessal soils. Mollisols in the Great Plains
are darkened and enriched by organic
matter. Podsols in boreal forests have highly
contrasting layers due to acidity and
leaching. Soil color is primarily influenced
by soil mineralogy. Many soil colors are due
to the extensive and various iron minerals.
The development and distribution of color in
a soil profile result from chemical and
Soil types by clay, silt and sand composition.
biological weathering, especially redox
reactions. As the primary minerals in soil
parent material weather, the elements
combine into new and colorful compounds.
Iron forms secondary minerals with a yellow
or red color, organic matter decomposes into
black and brown compounds, and
manganese, sulfur and nitrogen can form
black mineral deposits. These pigments
produce various color patterns due to effects
Iron rich soil near Paint Pots in Kootenay
by the environment during soil formation.
National Park of Canada.
Aerobic conditions produce uniform or
gradual color changes, while reducing environments result in disrupted color flow with complex, mottled patterns
and points of color concentration.[15]
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates. These may have various shapes, sizes and degrees
of development or expression.[16] Soil structure affects aeration, water movement, resistance to erosion and plant
root growth. Structure often gives clues to texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil evolution,
human use, and chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil formed.
Soil texture refers to sand, silt and clay composition. Soil content affects soil behavior, including the retention
capacity for nutrients and water.[17] Sand and silt are the products of physical weathering, while clay is the product
of chemical weathering. Clay content has retention capacity for nutrients and water. Clay soils resist wind and water
erosion better than silty and sandy soils, because the particles are more tightly joined to each other. In
medium-textured soils, clay is often translocated downward through the soil profile and accumulates in the subsoil.
Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil's ability to retard the conduction of an electric current. The electrical resistivity
of soil can affect the rate of galvanic corrosion of metallic structures in contact with the soil. Higher moisture content
or increased electrolyte concentration can lower the resistivity and increase the conductivity thereby increasing the
rate of corrosion.[18] [19] Soil resistivity values typically range from about 2 to 1000m, but more extreme values

Soil

5
are not unusual.[20]

Soil horizons
The naming of soil horizons is based on the type of material the horizons are composed of; these materials reflect the
duration of the specific processes used in soil formation. They are labeled using a short hand notation of letters and
numbers.[21] They are described and classified by their color, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH,
voids, boundary characteristics, and if they have nodules or concretions.[22] Any one soil profile does not have all the
major horizons covered below; soils may have few or many horizons.
The exposure of parent material to favorable conditions produces initial soils that are suitable for plant growth. Plant
growth often results in the accumulation of organic residues, the accumulated organic layer is called the O horizon.
Biological organisms colonize and break down organic materials, making available nutrients that other plants and
animals can live on. After sufficient time a distinctive organic surface layer forms with humus which is called the A
horizon.

Classification
Soil is classified into categories in order to understand relationships between different soils and to determine the
usefulness of a soil for a particular use. One of the first classification systems was developed by the Russian scientist
Dokuchaev around 1880. It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers, and developed
into the system commonly used until the 1960s. It was based on the idea that soils have a particular morphology
based on the materials and factors that form them. In the 1960s, a different classification system began to emerge,
that focused on soil morphology instead of parental materials and soil-forming factors. Since then it has undergone
further modifications. The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB)[23] aims to establish an international
reference base for soil classification.

Orders
Orders are the highest category of soil classification. Order types end in the letters sol. In the US classification
system, there are 10 orders:[24]
Entisol - recently formed soils that lack well-developed horizons. Commonly found on unconsolidated sediments
like sand, some have an A horizon on top of bedrock.
Vertisol - inverted soils. They tend to swell when wet and shrink upon drying, often forming deep cracks that
surface layers can fall into.
Inceptisol - young soils. They have subsurface horizon formation but show little eluviation and illuviation.
Aridisol - dry soils forming under desert conditions. They include nearly 20% of soils on Earth. Soil formation is
slow, and accumulated organic matter is scarce. They may have subsurface zones (calcic horizons) where calcium
carbonates have accumulated from percolating water. Many aridiso soils have well-developed Bt horizons
showing clay movement from past periods of greater moisture.
Mollisol - soft soils with very thick A horizons.
Spodosol - soils produced by podsolization. They are typical soils of coniferous and deciduous forests in cooler
climates.
Alfisol - soils with aluminium and iron. They have horizons of clay accumulation, and form where there is
enough moisture and warmth for at least three months of plant growth.
Ultisol - soils that are heavily leached.
Oxisol - soil with heavy oxide content.
Histosol - organic soils.
Other order schemes may include:

Soil

6
Andisols - volcanic soils, which tend to be high in glass content.
Gelisols - permafrost soils.

Organic matter
Most living things in soils, including plants, insects, bacteria and fungi, are dependent on organic matter for nutrients
and energy. Soils often have varying degrees of organic compounds in different states of decomposition. Many soils,
including desert and rocky-gravel soils, have no or little organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as peat
(histosols), are infertile.[25]

Humus
Humus refers to organic matter that has decomposed to a point where it is resistant to further breakdown or
alteration. Humic acids and fulvic acids are important constituents of humus and typically form from plant residues
like foliage, stems and roots. After death, these plant residues begin to decay, starting the formation of humus.
Humus formation involves changes within the soil and plant residue, there is a reduction of water soluble
constituents including cellulose and hemicellulose; as the residues are deposited and break down, humin, lignin and
lignin complexes accumulate within the soil; as microorganisms live and feed on the decaying plant matter, an
increase in proteins occurs.
Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil; it also chemically reacts with amino acids which
add to its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by microbes. Fats and waxes from plant
matter have some resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for a while. Clay soils often have higher organic
contents that persist longer than soils without clay. Proteins normally decompose readily, but when bound to clay
particles they become more resistant to decomposition. Clay particles also absorb enzymes that would break down
proteins. The addition of organic matter to clay soils, can render the organic matter and any added nutrients
inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years, since they can bind strongly to the clay. High soil tannin
(polyphenol) content from plants can cause nitrogen to be sequestered by proteins or cause nitrogen immobilization,
also making nitrogen unavailable to plants.[26] [27]
Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil;
both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but
have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen typically; humus, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting
soil fertility.[25] Humus also absorbs water, acting as a moisture reserve, that plants can utilize; it also expands and
shrinks between dry and wet states, providing pore spaces. Humus is less stable than other soil constituents, because
it is affected by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration decreases without the addition of new
organic matter. However, some forms of humus are highly stable and may persist over centuries if not millennia:
they are issued from the slow oxidation of charcoal, also called black carbon, like in Amazonian Terra preta or Black
Earths,[28] or from the sequestration of humic compounds within mineral horizons, like in podzols.[29]

Soil

Climate and organics

The production and accumulation or degradation of organic matter and humus is greatly dependent on climate
conditions. Temperature and soil moisture are the major factors in the formation or degradation of organic matter,
they along with topography, determine the formation of organic soils. Soils high in organic matter tend to form under
wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature[30] or excess moisture.[31]

Soil solutions
Soils retain water that can dissolve a range of molecules and ions. These solutions exchange gases with the soil
atmosphere, contain dissolved sugars, fulvic acids and other organic acids, plant nutrients such as nitrate,
ammonium, potassium, phosphate, sulfate and calcium, and micronutrients such as zinc, iron and copper. Some arid
soils have sodium solutions that greatly impact plant growth. Soil pH can affect the type and amount of anions and
cations that soil solutions contain and that exchange with the soil atmosphere and biological organisms.[32]

In nature
Biogeography is the study of special variations in biological communities. Soils are a restricting factor as to which
plants can grow in which environments. Soil scientists survey soils in the hope of understanding controls as to what
vegetation can and will grow in a particular location.
Geologists also have a particular interest in the patterns of soil on the surface of the earth. Soil texture, color and
chemistry often reflect the underlying geologic parent material, and soil types often change at geologic unit
boundaries. Buried paleosols mark previous land surfaces and record climatic conditions from previous eras.
Geologists use this paleopedological record to understand the ecological relationships in past ecosystems. According
to the theory of biorhexistasy, prolonged conditions conducive to forming deep, weathered soils result in increasing
ocean salinity and the formation of limestone.
Geologists use soil profile features to establish the duration of surface stability in the context of geologic faults or
slope stability. An offset subsoil horizon indicates rupture during soil formation and the degree of subsequent subsoil
formation is relied upon to establish time since rupture.
Soil examined in shovel test pits is used by archaeologists for relative
dating based on stratigraphy (as opposed to absolute dating). What is
considered most typical is to use soil profile features to determine the
maximum reasonable pit depth than needs to be examined for
archaeological evidence in the interest of cultural resources
management.
Soils altered or formed by man (anthropic and anthropogenic soils) are
also of interest to archaeologists, such as terra preta soils.

Uses
Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the primary nutrient base
for plants; however, as demonstrated by hydroponics, it is not essential
to plant growth if the soil-contained nutrients could be dissolved in a
solution. The types of soil used in agriculture (among other things,
such as the purported level of moisture in the soil) vary with respect to
the species of plants that are cultivated.

A homeowner tests soil to apply only the

nutrients needed.

Soil

8
Soil material is a critical component in the mining and construction
industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects.
Massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining, road
building and dam construction. Earth sheltering is the architectural
practice of using soil for external thermal mass against building walls.
Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and
fiber production. Soil provides minerals and water to plants. Soil
absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and
drought. Soil cleans the water as it percolates. Soil is the habitat for
many organisms: the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is
in the soil, in the form of invertebrates (earthworms, woodlice,
millipedes, centipedes, snails, slugs, mites, springtails, enchytraeids,
nematodes, protists), bacteria, archaea, fungi and algae; and most
organisms living above ground have part of them (plants) or spend part
of their life cycle (insects) belowground. Above-ground and
below-ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected,[33] [34] making
soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or
conservation plan.

Due to their thermal mass, rammed earth walls fit

in with environmental sustainability aspirations.

The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon

sink since about 57% of the biotic content is carbon. Even on desert
crusts, cyanobacteria lichens and mosses capture and sequester a
significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis. Poor farming and
grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this
sequestered carbon to the atmosphere. Restoring the world's soils could
offset some of the huge increase in greenhouse gases causing global
warming while improving crop yields and reducing water needs.[35] [36]
[37]

Waste management often has a soil component. Septic drain fields treat
septic tank effluent using aerobic soil processes. Landfills use soil for
daily cover. Land application of wastewater relies on soil biology to
aerobically treat BOD.
Organic soils, especially peat, serve as a significant fuel resource; but
wide areas of peat production, such as sphagnum bogs, are now
protected because of patrimonial interest.

A homeowner sifts soil made from his compost

bin in background. Composting is an excellent
way to recycle household and yard wastes.

Both animals and humans in many cultures occasionally consume soil.

It has been shown that some monkeys consume soil, together with their
preferred food (tree foliage and fruits), in order to alleviate tannin toxicity.[38] [39]

Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds, lakes and rivers
percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata; thus becoming groundwater. Pests (viruses) and
pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls), oils

Soil

9
(hydrocarbons), heavy metals (lead, zinc, cadmium), and excess
nutrients (nitrates, sulfates, phosphates) are filtered out by the soil.[40]
Soil organisms metabolize them or immobilize them in their biomass
and necromass,[41] thereby incorporating them into stable humus.[42]
The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding
landslides in rugged landscapes.[43]

Degradation
Sediment in the Yellow River.
Land degradation[44] is a human-induced or natural process which
impairs the capacity of land to function. Soils are the critical
component in land degradation when it involves acidification, contamination, desertification, erosion or salination.

While soil acidification of alkaline soils is beneficial, it degrades land when soil acidity lowers crop productivity and
increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Soils are often initially acid because their parent materials
were acid and initially low in the basic cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium). Acidification occurs
when these elements are removed from the soil profile by normal rainfall, or the harvesting of forest or agricultural
crops. Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid-forming nitrogenous fertilizers and by the effects of acid
precipitation.
Soil contamination at low levels is often within soil capacity to treat and assimilate. Many waste treatment processes
rely on this treatment capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict
soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the
land cannot be used safely or productively. Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics,
chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values.
Techniques include leaching, air sparging, chemical amendments, phytoremediation, bioremediation and natural
attenuation.
Desertification is an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, often caused by
human activity. It is a common misconception that droughts cause desertification. Droughts are common in arid and
semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include
maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced tillage and increased cover. These practices help to
control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available. Continued land abuse during
droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands
accelerates desertification.
Soil erosional loss is caused by wind, water, ice and movement in response to gravity. Although the processes may
be simultaneous, erosion is distinguished from weathering. Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places
it is increased by human land use. Poor land use practices including deforestation, overgrazing and improper
construction activity. Improved management can limit erosion by using techniques like limiting disturbance during
construction, avoiding construction during erosion prone periods, intercepting runoff, terrace-building, use of
erosion-suppressing cover materials, and planting trees or other soil binding plants.
A serious and long-running water erosion problem occurs in China, on the middle reaches of the Yellow River and
the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. From the Yellow River, over 1.6-billion tons of sediment flow each year into
the ocean. The sediment originates primarily from water erosion (gully erosion) in the Loess Plateau region of
northwest China.
Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface. It is associated with levee and dam
failure, as well as sink hole formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting from the mouth of the seep flow and
subsoil erosion advances upgradient.[45] The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end
of an active soil pipe.[46]

Soil

10
Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of soils and vegetation.
Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure,
and water quality problems due to sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human
caused processes. Arid conditions favor salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is
saline. Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic.[47] All irrigation water has some level of salinity. Irrigation,
especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field, often raises the underlying water
table. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the capillary fringe of saline groundwater. Soil salinity
control involves watertable control and flushing with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage
or another form of subsurface drainage.[48] [49]
Soil salinity models like SWAP,[50] DrainMod-S,[51] UnSatChem,[52] SaltMod [53] [54] and SahysMod [55] are used to
assess the cause of soil salination and to optimize the reclamation of irrigated saline soils.

See also

Acid sulfate soil

Nitrogen cycle

Agrophysics

Red Mediterranean soil

Alkaline soil

Saline soil

Geoponic

Shrink-swell capacity

Hydroponics

Soil management

Index of soil-related articles

Soil salinity control

Manure

Terra preta

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

Birkeland, Peter W. Soils and Geomorphology, 3rd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Chesworth, Edited by Ward (2008), Encyclopedia of soil science, Dordrecht, Netherland: Springer, xxiv, ISBN1402039948
Voroney, R. P., 2006. The Soil Habitat in Soil Microbiology, Ecology and Biochemistry, Eldor A. Paul ed. ISBN=0125468075
James A. Danoff-Burg, Columbia University The Terrestrial Influence: Geology and Soils (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ cerc/ seeu/
atlantic/ restrict/ modules/ module10_content. html)
[5] Taylor, S. A., and G. L. Ashcroft. 1972. Physical Edaphology
[6] McCarty, David. 1982. Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
[7] Pedosphere.com (http:/ / www. pedosphere. com/ resources/ bulkdensity/ triangle_us. cfm)
[8] Buol, S. W.; Hole, F. D. and McCracken, R. J. (1973), Soil Genesis and Classification (First ed.), Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press,
ISBN0-8138-1460-X.
[9] Van Schll, Laura; Smits, Mark M. & Hoffland, Ellis (2006), "Ectomycorrhizal weathering of the soil minerals muscovite and hornblende",
New Phytologist 171 (4): 805814, doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01790.x, PMID16918551
[10] University of WisconsinStevens Point (http:/ / www. uwsp. edu/ geo/ faculty/ ritter/ geog101/ textbook/ soil_systems/
soil__development_soil_forming_factors. html)
[11] NSW Government (http:/ / www. naturalresources. nsw. gov. au/ care/ soil/ soil_pubs/ parent_pdfs/ ch2. pdf)
[12] NASA (http:/ / soil. gsfc. nasa. gov/ soilform/ deposits. htm)
[13] Climate And Man, University Press of the Pacific, p.27, ISBN978-1-4102-1538-3
[14] Copley, Jon (August 25, 2005). "Millions of bacterial species revealed underfoot" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn7904). Reed
Business Information Ltd. New Scientist. . Retrieved 19 April 2010.
[15] "The Color of Soil" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080316163738/ http:/ / soils. usda. gov/ education/ resources/ k_12/ lessons/ color/ ).
United States Department of Agriculture - Natural Resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original (http:/ / soils. usda. gov/
education/ resources/ k_12/ lessons/ color/ ) on 2008-03-16. . Retrieved 2008-07-08.
[16] Soil Survey Division Staff (1993). "Soil Structure" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080316163814/ http:/ / soils. usda. gov/ technical/
manual/ contents/ chapter3g. html#60). Handbook 18. Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Archived from the original (http:/ / soils. usda. gov/ technical/ manual/ contents/ chapter3g. html#60) on 2008-03-16. . Retrieved 2008-07-08.
[17] R. B. Brown (September 2003). "Soil Texture" (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ SS169). Fact Sheet SL-29. University of Florida, Institute of Food
and Agricultural Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-07-08.
[18] "Electrical Design, Cathodic Protection" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080612094928/ http:/ / www. usace. army. mil/ publications/
armytm/ TM5-811-7/ ). United States Army Corps of Engineers. 1985-04-22. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. usace. army. mil/
publications/ armytm/ TM5-811-7/ ) on 2008-06-12. . Retrieved 2008-07-02.

Soil

11
[19] "The why and how to testing the Electrical Conductivity of Soils | Resources" (http:/ / www. agriculturesolutions. com/ Resources/
The-why-and-how-to-testing-the-Electrical-Conductivity-of-Soils. html). . Retrieved 2010-12-19.
[20] R. J. Edwards (1998-02-15). "Typical Soil Characteristics of Various Terrains" (http:/ / www. smeter. net/ grounds/ earthres-2. php). .
Retrieved 2008-07-02.
[21] Retallack, G. J. (1990), Soils of the past : an introduction to paleopedology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=YVkVAAAAIAAJ&
pg=PA32& dq=Soil+ horizons), Boston: Unwin Hyman, pp.32, ISBN9780044457572,
[22] Buol, S.W. (1990), Soil genesis and classification (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=QM0kfIGYMjcC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Soil),
Ames, Iowe: Iowa State University Press, pp.36, doi:10.1081/E-ESS, ISBN0813828732,
[23] IUSS Working Group WRB (2007). "World Reference Base for soil resources - A framework for international classification, correlation and
communication" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ ag/ agl/ agll/ wrb/ doc/ wrb2007_corr. pdf). FAO. .
[24] University of Virginia (http:/ / www. evsc. virginia. edu/ ~alm7d/ soils/ soilordr. html)
[25] Foth, Henry D. (1984), Fundamentals of soil science, New York: Wiley, pp.151, ISBN0471889261
[26] Verkaik, Eric; Jongkind, Anne G.; Berendse, Frank (2006), "Short-term and long-term effects of tannins on nitrogen mineralization and litter
decomposition in kauri (Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl.) forests", Plant and Soil 287: 337, doi:10.1007/s11104-006-9081-8
[27] Fierer, N. (2001), "Influence of balsam poplar tannin fractions on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in Alaskan taiga floodplain soils", Soil
Biology and Biochemistry 33: 1827, doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00111-0
[28] Solomon, Dawit; Lehmann Johannes, Thies Janice, Schfer Thorsten, Liang Biqing, Kinyangi James, Neves Eduardo, Petersen James,
Luizo Flavio & Skjemstad Jan (2007), "Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic C in Amazonian Dark
Earths", Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71: 22852298, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.014
[29] Nierop, Klaas G. J.; Verstraten Jacobus M. (2003), "Organic matter formation in sandy subsurface horizons of Dutch coastal dunes in
relation to soil acidification", Organic Geochemistry 34: 499513, doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(02)00249-8
[30] Wagai, Rota; Mayer Lawrence M., Kitayama Kanehiro & Knicker Heike (2008), "Climate and parent material controls on organic matter
storage in surface soils: A three-pool, density-separation approach", Geoderma 147: 2333, doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.07.010
[31] Minayeva, T. Yu.; Trofimov S. Ya., Chichagova O.A., Dorofeyeva E.I., Sirin A.A., Glushkov I.V., Mikhailov N.D. & Kromer B. (2008),
"Carbon accumulation in soils of forest and bog ecosystems of southern Valdai in the Holocene", Biology Bulletin 35: 524532,
doi:10.1134/S1062359008050142
[32] Dan (2000), Ecology and management of forest soils (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=SAbMIJ_O8dMC& pg=PA91& dq=soils+ and+
solutions), New York: John Wiley, pp.8892, ISBN0471194263,
[33] Ponge, Jean-Franois (2003), "Humus forms in terrestrial ecosystems: a framework to biodiversity", Soil Biology and Biochemistry 35:
935945, doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(03)00149-4
[34] De Deyn, Gerlinde B.; Van der Putten Wim H. (2005), "Linking aboveground and belowground diversity", Trends in Ecology & Evolution
20 (11): 625633, doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.08.009, PMID16701446
[35] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0804. 1126 Open Atmos. Sci. J. (2008), vol. 2, pp. 217-231, Target atmospheric CO2: Where should humanity aim?
[36] http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ short/ 304/ 5677/ 1623 r> Lal, 2004, Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate
Change and Food Security
[37] http:/ / www. renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ news/ article/ 2010/ 02/ greening-deserts-for-carbon-credits Blakeslee, Thomas 2010
Greening Deserts for Carbon Credits
[38] Setz, EZF; Enzweiler J, Solferini VN, Amendola MP, Berton RS (1999), "Geophagy in the golden-faced saki monkey (Pithecia pithecia
chrysocephala) in the Central Amazon", Journal of Zoology 247: 91103, doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb00196.x
[39] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ fulltext/ 119080234/ PDFSTART
[40] Kohne, John Maximilian; Koehne Sigrid, Simunek Jirka (2009), "A review of model applications for structured soils: a) Water flow and
tracer transport", Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 104 (1-4): 435, doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2008.10.002, PMID19012994
[41] Diplock, EE; Mardlin DP, Killham KS, Paton GI (2009), "Predicting bioremediation of hydrocarbons: laboratory to field scale",
Environmental Pollution 157 (6): 18311840, doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2009.01.022, PMID19232804
[42] Moeckel, Claudia; Nizzetto Luca, Di Guardo Antonio, Steinnes Eiliv, Freppaz Michele, Filippa Gianluca, Camporini Paolo, Benner Jessica,
Jones Kevin C. (2008), "Persistent organic pollutants in boreal and montane soil profiles: distribution, evidence of processes and implications
for global cycling", Environmental Science and Technology 42 (22): 83748380, doi:10.1021/es801703k, PMID19068820
[43] Rezaei, Khalil; Guest Bernard, Friedrich Anke, Fayazi Farajollah, Nakhaei Mohamad, Aghda Seyed Mahmoud Fatemi, Beitollahi Ali
(2009), "Soil and sediment quality and composition as factors in the distribution of damage at the December 26, 2003, Bam area earthquake in
SE Iran (M (s)=6.6)", Journal of Soils and Sediments 9: 2332, doi:10.1007/s11368-008-0046-9
[44] Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E.
Winter-Nelson. 1997. Meanings of environmental terms. Journal of Environmental Quality 26: 581-589.
[45] Jones, J. A. A. (1976), "Soil piping and stream channel initiation", Water Resources Research 7 (3): 602610,
doi:10.1029/WR007i003p00602.
[46] Dooley, Alan (June 2006). "Sandboils 101: Corps has experience dealing with common flood danger" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20080418185527/ http:/ / www. hq. usace. army. mil/ cepa/ pubs/ jun06/ story8. htm). Engineer Update. US Army Corps of Engineers.
Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hq. usace. army. mil/ cepa/ pubs/ jun06/ story8. htm) on 2008-04-18. . Retrieved 2008-05-14.
[47] ILRI (1989), Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ irreff. pdf),
In: Annual Report 1988 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands,

Soil

12
pp.1834,
[48] Drainage Manual: A Guide to Integrating Plant, Soil, and Water Relationships for Drainage of Irrigated Lands, Interior Dept., Bureau of
Reclamation, 1993, ISBN0-16-061623-9
[49] "Free articles and software on drainage of waterlogged land and soil salinity control" (http:/ / www. waterlog. info). . Retrieved 2010-07-28.
[50] SWAP model (http:/ / www. swap. alterra. nl/ )
[51] DrainMod-S model (http:/ / www. bae. ncsu. edu/ soil_water/ drainmod/ models. html)
[52] UnSatChem model (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ Services/ docs. htm?docid=8966)
[53] ILRI (1997), SaltMod: a tool for interweaving of irrigation and drainage for salinity control (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ toolsalt. pdf),
In: W.B.Snellen (ed.), Towards integration of irrigation, and drainage management. Special report of the International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp.4143,
[54] SaltMod, an agro-hydro-soil salinity model (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ saltmod. htm),
[55] SahysMod, a spatial agro-hydro-soil salinity cum groundwater model (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ sahysmod. htm),

Further reading
Adams, J.A. 1986. Dirt. College Station, Texas : Texas A&M University Press ISBN 0-89096-301-0
Soil Survey Staff. (1975) Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil
surveys. USDA-SCS Agric. Handb. 436. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Soil Survey Division Staff. (1999) Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of
Agriculture Handbook 18.

Logan, W. B., Dirt: The ecstatic skin of the earth. 1995 ISBN 1-57322-004-3
Faulkner, William. Plowman's Folly. New York, Grosset & Dunlap. 1943. ISBN 0-933280-51-3
Jenny, Hans, Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology 1941
Why Study Soils? (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html)
Soil notes (http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_06/chapter_12l_R.html)
"97 Flood" (http://www.mvm.usace.army.mil/Readiness/97flood/flood.htm). USGS. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
Photographs of sand boils.
Soils (http://forages.oregonstate.edu/is/ssis/main.cfm?PageID=3), Oregon State University
Soil-Net.com (http://www.soil-net.com/) A free schools-age educational site teaching about soil and its
importance.
LandIS Soils Data for England and Wales (http://www.landis.org.uk/) a pay source for GIS data on the soils
of England and Wales and soils data source; they charge a handling fee to researchers.
LandIS Free Soilscapes Viewer (http://www.landis.org.uk/soilscapes/) Free interactive viewer for the Soils of
England and Wales
Geo-technological Research Paper, IIT Kanpur, Dr P P Vitkar - Strip footing on weak clay stabilized with a
granular pile National Research Council Canada: From Discovery to Innovation / Conseil national de recherches
Canada : de la dcouverte l'innovation (http://www.rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/
AbstractTemplateServlet?journal=cgj&volume=15&year=1978&issue=4&msno=t78-066&calyLang=eng)
(English), (French)
Mann, Charles C.: " Our good earth" National Geographic Magazine September 2008

External links

Soil

13

World Reference Base for Soil Resources (http:/ / www. fao. org/ ag/ agl/ agll/
wrb/ )

Soil and Soil Testing (http:/ / www. denichsoiltest. com/ )

ISRIC - World Soil Information (ICSU World Data Centre for Soils) (http:/ /
www. isric. org/ )

Estimating Soil Texture By Feel (http:/ / www. oznet. ksu.

edu/ library/ crpsl2/ MF2852. pdf)

World Soil Library and Maps (http:/ / www. isric. org/ UK/ About+ Soils/
Library/ )

Percolation Test (http:/ / www. percolationtest. com/ )

Learn about Soil, Percolation, Perc and Perk Tests.

Wossac the world soil survey archive and catalogue (http:/ / www. wossac.
com/ )

Peak Soil (http:/ / www. energybulletin. net/ 52788)

Soil Science Society of America (https:/ / www. soils. org/ )

(http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ balances. pdf) Salt and

water balance of the soil

USDA-NRCS Web Soil Survey (http:/ / websoilsurvey. nrcs. usda. gov/ app/
WebSoilSurvey. aspx) Inventory of the soil resource across the U.S.

European Soil Portal EUSOILS (http:/ / eusoils. jrc. ec. europa. eu/ ) (wiki)

National Soil Resources Institute UK (http:/ / www. cranfield. ac. uk/ sas/ nsri)

Clay
Clay (pronounced /klei/) is a naturally occurring aluminium silicate
composed primarily of fine-grained minerals. Clay deposits are mostly
composed of clay minerals, a subtype of phyllosilicate minerals, which
impart plasticity and harden when fired or dried; they also may contain
variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure by polar
attraction. Organic materials which do not impart plasticity may also
be a part of clay deposits.[1]

The Gay Head cliffs in Martha's Vineyard consist

almost entirely of clay.

Formation
Clay minerals are typically formed over long periods of time by
the gradual chemical weathering of rocks, usually silicate-bearing,
by low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents.
These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the weathering
rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to
the weathering process, some clay minerals are formed by
hydrothermal activity. Clay deposits may be formed in place as
residual deposits in soil, but thick deposits usually are formed as
the result of a secondary sedimentary deposition process after they
have been eroded and transported from their original location of
formation. Clay deposits are typically associated with very low
energy depositional environments such as large lakes and marine
deposits.

Deforestation for clay extraction in Rio de Janeiro city

- Brazil. The picture is of Morro da Covanca Jacarepagu.

Clay

14
Primary clays, also known as kaolins, are located at the site of formation. Secondary clay deposits have been moved
by erosion and water from their primary location.[2]

Definition
Clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in
size and mineralogy. Silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not
include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays, but
there is some overlap in both particle size and other physical
properties, and there are many naturally occurring deposits which
include both silts and clays. The distinction between silt and clay
varies by discipline. Geologists and soil scientists usually consider the
separation to occur at a particle size of 2 m (clays being finer than
silts), sedimentologists often use 4-5 m, and colloid chemists use 1
m.[1] Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays
based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils'
Atterberg Limits. ISO 14688 grades clay particles as being smaller
than 2 m and silts larger.

electron microscope photograph of smectite clay magnification 23,500

Grouping
Depending on the academic source, there are three or four main groups
of clays: kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite and chlorite.
Chlorites are not always considered a clay, sometimes being classified
as a separate group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately
30 different types of "pure" clays in these categories, but most
"natural" clays are mixtures of these different types, along with other
weathered minerals.
Quaternary clay in Estonia.

Varve (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, formed by
seasonal differences in erosion and organic content. This type of
deposit is common in former glacial lakes. When glacial lakes are formed there is very little movement of the water
that makes the lake, and these eroded soils settle on the lake bed. This allows such an even distribution on the
different layers of clay.[2]
Quick clay is a unique type of marine clay indigenous to the glaciated terrains of Norway, Canada, Northern Ireland
and Sweden. It is a highly sensitive clay, prone to liquefaction, which has been involved in several deadly landslides.

Clay

15

Historical and modern uses

Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water in certain proportions.
When dry, clay becomes firm and when fired in a kiln, permanent
physical and chemical reactions occur. These reactions, among other
changes, cause the clay to be converted into a ceramic material.
Because of these properties, clay is used for making pottery items, both
utilitarian and decorative. Different types of clay, when used with
different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce
earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. Prehistoric humans discovered
the useful properties of clay, and one of the earliest artifacts ever
uncovered is a drinking vessel made of sun-dried clay. Depending on
the content of the soil, clay can appear in various colors, from a dull
gray to a deep orange-red.

Clay layers in a construction site. Dry clay is

normally much more stable than sand with regard
to excavations.

Clay tablets were used as the first known writing medium, inscribed with cuneiform script through the use of a blunt
reed called a stylus.
Clays sintered in fire were the first form of ceramic. Bricks, cooking pots, art objects, dishware and even musical
instruments such as the ocarina can all be shaped from clay before being fired. Clay is also used in many industrial
processes, such as paper making, cement production and chemical filtering. Clay is also often used in the
manufacture of pipes for smoking tobacco. Until the late 20th century bentonite clay was widely used as a mold
binder in the manufacture of sand castings.
Clay, being relatively impermeable to water, is also used where natural seals are needed, such as in the cores of
dams, or as a barrier in landfills against toxic seepage ('lining' the landfill, preferably in combination with
geotextiles).[3]
Recent studies have investigated clay's absorption capacities in various applications, such as the removal of heavy
metals from waste water and air purification.

Medical and agricultural uses

A traditional use of clay as medicine goes back to prehistoric times. An example is Armenian bole, which is used to
soothe an upset stomach, similar to the way parrots (and later, humans) in South America originally used it.[4] Kaolin
clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal medicines.
A more recent, and more limited, use is as a specially formulated spray applied to fruits, vegetables and other
vegetation to repel or deter codling moth damage, and at least for apples, to prevent sun scald.
A recent article in The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy found that certain iron-rich clay was effective in
killing bacteria.[5]

Clay

16

Footnotes
[1] Guggenheim & Martin 1995, pp.255256
[2] Environmental Characteristics of Clays and Clay Mineral Deposits - USGS (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ info/ clays/ )
[3] Preliminary evaluation of a compacted bentonite / sand mixture as a landfill liner material (Abstract) (http:/ / www2. widener. edu/
~sxw0004/ abstract34. html) - Kokar, Mustafa K.; Akgn, Haluk; Aktrk, zgr; Department of Geological Engineering, Middle East
Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
[4] http:/ / cogweb. ucla. edu/ Abstracts/ Diamond_99. html Evolutionary biology: Dirty eating for healthy living by Jared M. Diamond
[5] http:/ / jac. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 61/ 2/ 353 Broad-spectrum in vitro antibacterial activities of clay minerals against
antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens

References
Guggenheim, Stephen; Martin, R. T. (1995), "Definition of clay and clay mineral: Journal report of the AIPEA
nomenclature and CMS nomenclature committees" (http://www.clays.org/journal/archive/volume 43/
43-2-255.pdf), Clays and Clay Minerals 43: 255256, doi:10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430213
Clay mineral nomenclature (http://www.minsocam.org/msa/collectors_corner/arc/nomenclaturecl1.htm)
American Mineralogist.
Ehlers, Ernest G. and Blatt, Harvey (1982). 'Petrology, Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic' San Francisco:
W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1279-2.
Hillier S. (2003) Clay Mineralogy. pp 139142 In: Middleton G.V., Church M.J., Coniglio M., Hardie L.A. and
Longstaffe F.J.(Editors) Encyclopedia of sediments and sedimentary rocks. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht.

External links
Building the Phyllosilicates (http://pubpages.unh.edu/~harter/crystal.htm) University of New Hampshire
The Clay Minerals Group of the Mineralogical Society (http://www.minersoc.org/pages/groups/cmg/cmg.
html)
Historical information about the clays of North Staffordshire, UK (http://www.stoke.gov.uk/ccm/museums/
museum/2006/gladstone-pottery-museum/information-sheets/clay-in-north-staffordshire.en)
Information about clays used in the UK pottery industry (http://www.stoke.gov.uk/ccm/museums/museum/
2006/gladstone-pottery-museum/information-sheets/clays-used-in-the-pottery-industry.en)
The Clay Minerals Society (http://www.clays.org/)
Plasticity of clay (http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/mse257/class_notes/plasticity.html)
Organic Matter in Clays (http://digitalfire.com/4sight/education/
organic_matter_in_clays_detailed_overview_325.html)

Silt

17

Silt
Silt is granular material of a grain size between sand and clay derived from soil or rock. Silt may occur as a soil or as
suspended sediment (also known as suspended load) in a surface water body. It may also exist as soil deposited at the
bottom of a water body.

Source
Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand-sized quartz crystals of
primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice.[1] These involve chemical weathering of rock[2] and regolith,
and a number of physical weathering processes such as frost shattering[3] and haloclasty.[4] The main process is
abrasion through transport, including fluvial comminution, aeolian attrition and glacial grinding.[5] It is in semi-arid
environments [6] that substantial quantities of silt are produced. Silt is sometimes known as 'rock flour' or 'stone dust',
especially when produced by glacial action. Mineralogically, silt is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar.
Sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt is known as siltstone.

Grain size criteria

In the Udden-Wentworth scale (due to Krumbein), silt particles range between 1256 and 116 mm (3.9 to 62.5 m),
larger than clay but smaller than a sand. ISO 14688 grades silts between 0.002 mm and 0.063 mm, with clay
particles being smaller and sands larger. In actuality, silt is chemically distinct from clay, and unlike clay, grains of
silt are approximately the same size in all dimensions; furthermore, their size ranges overlap. Clays are formed from
thin plate-shaped particles held together by electrostatic forces, so present a cohesion. According to the USDA Soil
Texture Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.05 mm particle size.[7] The USDA system has
been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
and the AASHTO Soil Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.075 mm particle size (i.e.
material passing the #200 sieve). Silts and clays are distinguished by their plasticity.

Environmental impacts
Silt is easily transported in water or other liquids and is
fine enough to be carried long distances by air in the
form of dust. Thick deposits of silty material resulting
from aeolian deposition are often called loess (a
German term) or limon (French). Silt and clay
contribute to turbidity in water. Silt is transported by
streams or by water currents in the ocean. When silt
appears as a pollutant in water the phenomenon is
known as siltation.
Silt, deposited by annual floods along the Nile River,
Silt deposits around house and car in New Orleans left by flooding
created the rich and fertile soil that sustained the
from a breach in the London Avenue Canal
Ancient Egyptian civilization. Silt deposited by the
Mississippi River throughout the 20th century has
decreased due to a system of levees, contributing to the disappearance of protective wetlands and barrier islands in
the delta region surrounding New Orleans.[8]
In south east Bangladesh, in the area of Noakhali, cross dams were built in the 1960s whereby silt gradually started
forming new land called "chars." The district of Noakhali has actually gained more than 28square miles (73 km2) of

Silt

18
land in the past 50 years.
With Dutch funding, the Bangladeshi government began to help develop older chars in the late 1970s, and the effort
has since become a multiagency operation building roads, culverts, embankments, cyclone shelters, toilets and
ponds, as well as distributing land to settlers. By fall 2010, the program will have allotted some 27,000acres ( km2)
to 21,000 families.[9]
A main source of silt in urban rivers is disturbance of soil by construction activity. A main source in rural rivers is
erosion from plowing of farm fields, clearcut logging or slash and burn treatment of forests. When the total ground
surface is stripped of vegetation, the upper soil is vulnerable to wind and water erosion. Entire regions of countries
have been rendered unproductive by erosion. On the Madagascar high central plateau, approximately 10% of the
country's land area, virtually the entire landscape, is sterile, with gully erosive furrows deeper than 50 meters and one
kilometer wide. Shifting cultivation is a farming system which incorporates the slash-and-burn method in some
regions of the world. The resulting sediment load can cause extensive fish kills.

References
[1] Moss, A J; Green, P (1975). "Sand and silt grains: Predetermination of their formation and properties by microfractures in quartz". Australian
Journal of Earth Sciences 22 (4): 485495. doi:10.1080/00167617508728913.
[2] Nahon, D; Trompette, R (1982). "Origin of siltstones:glacial grinding versus weathering". Sedimentology 29: 2535.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1982.tb01706.x.
[3] Lautridou, J P; Ozouf, J C (1982). "Experimental frost shattering: 15 years of research at the Centre de Geomorphologie du CNRS". Progress
in Physical Geography 6: 215232. doi:10.1177/030913338200600202.
[4] Goudie, A S; Viles, H A (1995). "The nature and pattern of debris liberated by salt weathering: a laboratory study". Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 9: 9598. doi:10.1002/esp.3290090112.
[5] Wright, J S; Smith, B J; Whalley W B (1998). "Mechanisms of loess-sized quartz silt production and their relative effectiveness: laboratory
simulations". Geomorphology 23: 1534. doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(97)00084-6.
[6] Haberlah, D (2007). "A call for Australian loess". AREA 39 (2): 224229. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2007.00730.x.
[7] "Particle Size (618.43)" (http:/ / soils. usda. gov/ technical/ handbook/ contents/ part618. html#43). National Soil Survey Handbook Part 618
(42-55) Soil Properties and Qualities. United States Department of Agriculture - Natural Resource Conservation Service. . Retrieved
2006-05-31.
[8] http:/ / biology. usgs. gov/ s+ t/ SNT/ noframe/ ms137. htm
[9] http:/ / pulitzercenter. org/ openitem. cfm?id=1973

Sand

19

Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely
divided rock and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly
variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the
most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and
non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually
in the form of quartz.
As the term is used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from
0.0625mm (or 116 mm, or 62.5 micrometers) to 2 millimeters. An
individual particle in this range size is termed a sand grain. The next
larger size class above sand is gravel, with particles ranging from
2mm up to 64mm (see particle size for standards in use). The next
smaller size class in geology is silt: particles smaller than 0.0625mm
down to 0.004mm in diameter. The size specification between sand
and gravel has remained constant for more than a century, but particle
diameters as small as 0.02mm were considered sand under the Albert
Atterberg standard in use during the early 20th century. A 1953
engineering standard published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at
0.074mm. A 1938 specification of the United States Department of
Agriculture was 0.05mm.[1] Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the
fingers (silt, by comparison, feels like flour).

Close-up of sand from a beach in Vancouver,

showing a surface area of (approximately)
between 1-2 square centimetres.

ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges
0.063mm to 0.2mm to 0.63mm to 2.0mm. In the United States, sand
Heavy minerals (dark) in a quartz beach sand
is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size: very fine
(Chennai, India).
sand (116 - mm diameter), fine sand (mm - mm), medium sand
(mm - mm), coarse sand (mm - 1mm), and very coarse sand (1mm - 2mm). These sizes are based on the
Krumbein phi scale, where size in = -log base 2 of size in mm. On this scale, for sand the value of varies from
-1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers.

Constituents
The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings
and non-tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2),
usually in the form of quartz, which, because of its chemical inertness
and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant to
weathering.

Sand from Pismo Beach, California. Components

are primarily quartz, chert, igneous rock and shell
fragments. Scale bar is 1.0 mm.

Sand

20

Close up of black volcanic sand from Perissa, in

Santorini, Greece

The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and
conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical coastal settings
are eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition to other
organic or organically derived fragmental material.[2] The gypsum sand dunes of the
White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, white
color. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived from
the weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby) granitic rock outcrop. Some sands
contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. Sands rich in magnetite are dark to
black in color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian.
Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived
from basaltic (lava) with a high olivine content. Many sands, especially those found
extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the
sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and
other resistant minerals, including some small gemstones.

Correlative analysis of
Icelandic volcanic beach sand
from Reynisfjara beach, using a
Stereo Microscope and an
Scanning Electron Microscope
with EDS detection system for
element analysis.

Sand

21

Environments
Sand is transported by wind and water and deposited in the form of
beaches, dunes, sand spits, sand bars and related features. In
environments such as gravel-bed rivers and glacial moraines it often
occurs as one of the many grain sizes that are represented. Sand-bed
rivers, such as the Platte River in Nebraska, USA, have sandy beds
largely because there is no larger source material that they can
transport. Dunes, on the other hand, are sandy because larger material
is generally immobile in wind, and are a distinctive geographical
feature of desert environments.
Sand from Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park,
Utah. These are grains of quartz with a hematite
coating providing the orange color. Scale bar is
1.0 mm.

Study
The study of individual grains can reveal much historical information
as to the origin and kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is
recently weathered from granite or gneiss quartz crystals will be
angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp sand in the building trade
where it is preferred for concrete, and in gardening where it is used as a
soil amendment to loosen clay soils. Sand that is transported long
distances by water or wind will be rounded, with characteristic
abrasion patterns on the grain surface. Desert sand is typically rounded.
An electron micrograph showing grains of sand

People who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles.

Organisms that thrive in sandy environments are psammophiles [3].

Sand

22

Photomicrograph of a volcanic sand grain; upper

picture is plane-polarized light, bottom picture is
cross-polarized light, scale box at left-center is
0.25 millimeter.

Uses
Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons,
peaches, and peanuts, and their excellent drainage characteristics
make them suitable for intensive dairy farming.
Aquaria: Sand makes a low cost aquarium base material which
some believe is better than gravel for home use.
Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation
for new reefs.
Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where
tides, storms or deliberate changes to the shoreline erode the
original sand.[4]

At 300km/h, an ICE3 (DB class 403) releases

sand from several bogies to the rails.

Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other materials for manufacturing bricks.
Cob: Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob.
Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction material.
Glass: Sand is the principal component in common glass.
Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (for example, in golf courses).
Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for walls and ceilings or non-slip floor surfaces.
Railroads: Train operators use sand to improve the traction of wheels on the rails.
Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy or snowy conditions.

Sand

23
Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand. Makers
of animated films use the same term to describe their use of sand on
frontlit or backlit glass.
Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as
foundry sand and then shape it into molds into which they pour
molten material. This type of sand must be able to withstand high
temperatures and pressure, allow gases to escape, have a uniform,
small grain size and be non-reactive with metals.

Sand sorting tower at a gravel extraction pit.

Sand castles: Shaping sand into castles or other miniature buildings is a popular beach activity.
Sandbags: These protect against floods and gun fire. The inexpensive bags are easy to transport when empty, and
unskilled volunteers can quickly fill them with local sand in emergencies.
Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing.
Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water.
Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians related to corals and sea anemones,
incorporate sand into their mesoglea for structural strength, which they need because they lack a true skeleton.

Hazards
While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as
sandblasting require precautions. Bags of silica sand used for
sandblasting now carry labels warning the user to wear respiratory
protection to avoid breathing the resulting fine silica dust. Material
safety data sheets (MSDS) for silica sand state that "excessive
inhalation of crystalline silica is a serious health concern".[5]
In areas of high pore water pressure sand and salt water can form
quicksand, which is a colloid hydrogel that behaves like a liquid.
Quicksand produces a considerable barrier to escape for creatures
caught within, who often die from exposure (not from submersion) as a result.

A stingray about to bury itself in sand

Sand

24

Environmental Issues
Sand's many uses require a significant dredging industry, raising environmental concerns over fish depletion,
landslides, and flooding. Countries such as China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Cambodia ban sand exports, citing these
issues as a major factor.[6]

See also

Beach
Dry quicksand
Sandstorm
Heavy mineral sands ore deposits
Oil sands
Particle size
Quicksand
Sand island
Sand Rat
Sandstone

Singing sand
Tar sands
White Sands National Monument

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

Urquhart, Leonard Church, "Civil Engineering Handbook" McGraw-Hill Book Company (1959) p.8-2
Seaweed also plays a role in the formation of sand (http:/ / www. susanscott. net/ Oceanwatch2002/ mar1-02. html)
http:/ / www. encyclo. co. uk/ define/ Psammophile
Importing Sand, Glass May Help Restore Beaches : NPR (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=12026379)
Simplot (http:/ / www. simplot. com/ industrial/ silica/ silica_msds. cfm)
"The hourglass effect" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ asia/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=14588255). The Economist. October 8, 2009. .
Retrieved October 14, 2009.

External links
Beach Sand: What It Is, Where It Comes From and How It Gets Here (http://www.beaufortcountylibrary.org/
htdocs-sirsi/beachsan.htm) Beaufort County, SC
ISO (http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=25260)
bjn:Karangan

Gravel

25

Gravel
Gravel (pronounced /gavl/) is a rock that is of a
specific particle size range. Specifically, it is any loose
rock that is larger than 2mm (0.079in) in its smallest
dimension (about 1/12 of an inch) and no more than
64mm (2.5in). The next smaller size class in geology
is sand, which is >0.0625 to 2 mm (0.0025 to 0.0787
in) in size. The next larger size is cobble, which is >64
to 256 mm (2.5 to 10.1 in). Gravel can be
sub-categorized into granule (>2 to 4 mm/0.079 to 0.16
in) and pebble (>4 to 64 mm/0.16 to 2.5 in). One cubic
yard of gravel typically weighs about 3000 pounds (or
a cubic meter is about 1,800 kilograms).
Gravel (largest fragment in this photo is about 4 cm).

Gravel is an important commercial product, with a

number of applications. Many roadways are surfaced
with gravel, especially in rural areas where there is
little traffic. Globally, far more roads are surfaced with
gravel than with concrete or tarmac; Russia alone has
over 400000 km ( mi) of gravel-surfaced roads. Both
sand and small gravel are also important for the
manufacture of concrete.

Geological formation
Large gravel deposits are a common geological feature,
being formed as a result of the weathering and erosion
of rocks. The action of rivers and waves tends to pile
up gravel in large accumulations. This can sometimes
result in gravel becoming compacted and concreted
into the sedimentary rock called conglomerate. Where
natural gravel deposits are insufficient for human
purposes, gravel is often produced by quarrying and
crushing hard-wearing rocks, such as sandstone,
limestone, or basalt. Quarries where gravel is extracted
are known as gravel pits. Southern England possesses
particularly large concentrations of them due to the
widespread deposition of gravel in the region during
the Ice Ages.

A gravel road in Terre Haute, Indiana.

Gravel being unloaded from a barge

Modern production
As of 2006, the United States is the world's leading producer and consumer of gravel.[1] [2]

Gravel

26

Etymology
The word comes from the French gravelle, meaning 'coarse sand'.

Types
Multiple types of gravel have been recognized,
including:
Bank gravel: gravel intermixed with sand or clay.
Bench gravel: a bed of gravel located on the side of
a valley above the present stream bottom, indicating
the former location of the stream bed when it was at
a higher level.
Creek rock: this is generally rounded,
semi-polished stones, potentially of a wide range of
types, that are dredged or scooped from river beds
and creek beds. It is also often used as concrete
aggregate and less often as a paving surface.

Gravel with stones sized roughly between 5 and 15 millimeter.

Crushed rock: rock that is mechanically broken

into small pieces then sorted by filtering through
different size mesh.
Crushed stone: this is generally limestone or
dolomite that has been crushed and graded by
screens to certain size classes. It is widely used in
concrete and as a surfacing for roads and driveways,
sometimes with tar applied over it. Crushed stone
may also be made from granite and other rocks. A
special type of limestone crushed stone is dense
grade aggregate, or DGA, also known as crusher
run. This is a mixed grade of mostly small crushed
stone in a matrix of crushed limestone powder.

Disused gravel pit in Lower Saxony, Germany

Fine gravel: gravel consisting of particles with a diameter of 2 to 4mm.

Lag gravel: a surface accumulation of coarse gravel produced by the removal of finer particles.
Pay gravel: also known as "pay dirt"; a nickname for gravel with a high concentration of gold and other precious
metals. The metals are recovered through gold panning.
Pea gravel: gravel that consists of small, rounded stones used in concrete surfaces. Also used for walkways,
driveways and as a substrate in home aquariums.
Piedmont gravel: a coarse gravel carried down from high places by mountain streams and deposited on relatively
flat ground, where the water runs more slowly.
Plateau gravel: a layer of gravel on a plateau or other region above the height at which stream-terrace gravel is
usually found.
River run gravel: naturally deposited gravel found in and next to rivers and streams.

Gravel

27

References
[1] Mineral Commodity Summaries 2006 (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ mcs/ 2006/ mcs2006. pdf) 2009
[2] Industrial Sand And Gravel (Silica): World Production, By Country (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ en/ commodities/ minerals/ silica/
silica_t11. html) 2009

Peat
Peat, or turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter
or histosol. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins,
mires, and peat swamp forests. Peat is harvested as an important source
of fuel in certain parts of the world. By volume there are about
4trillion m of peat in the world covering a total of around 2% of
global land mass (about 3million km), containing about 8billion
terajoules of energy.[1]

Peat in Lewis, Scotland

Geographic distribution
Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, notably in
Ireland, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia,
Scotland, Poland, northern Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia,
New Zealand and in North America, principally in Canada, Michigan,
Minnesota, the Florida Everglades, and California's Sacramento-San
Joaquin River Delta. The amount of peat is smaller in the southern
hemisphere, partly because there is less land, but peat can be found in
New Zealand, Kerguelen, Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego and the
Falkland Islands/Malvinas, Indonesia (Kalimantan (Sungai Putri,
Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak, Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), Sumatra).

Peat exploitation in East Frisia, Germany

Approximately 60% of the world's wetlands are peat. About 7% of total peatlands have been exploited for
agriculture and forestry. Under proper conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.

Formation
Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by acidic and anaerobic
conditions. It is composed mainly of marshland vegetation: trees, grasses, fungi, as well as other types of organic
remains, such as insects, and animal remains. Under certain conditions, the decomposition of the latter (in the
absence of oxygen) is inhibited, and archaeologists often take advantage of this.
Peat layer growth and the degree of decomposition (or humification, transformation to humus) depends principally
on its composition and on the degree of waterlogging. Peat formed in very wet conditions accumulates considerably
faster, and is less decomposed, than that in drier places. This allows climatologists to use peat as an indicator of
climatic change. The composition of peat can also be used to reconstruct ancient ecologies by examining the types
and quantities of its organic constituents.
Under the proper conditions, peat is the earliest stage in the formation of coal.

Peat

28
Most modern peat bogs formed in high latitudes after the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age some
9,000years ago. They usually grow slowly, at the rate of about a millimetre per year.
The peat in the world's peatlands has been forming for 360million years and contains 550 Gt of carbon.[2]

Types of peat material

Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed, and comprise intact fiber.
Hemic peats are somewhat decomposed, and sapric are the most decomposed. Phragmites peat is one composed of
reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat. Engineers may
describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it
exhibits poor consolidation properties.

Characteristics and uses

Peat is soft and easily compressed. Under pressure, water in the peat is
forced out. Upon drying, peat can be used as a fuel. It has industrial
importance as a fuel in some countries, such as Ireland and Finland,
where it is harvested on an industrial scale. In many countries,
including Ireland and Scotland, where trees are often scarce, peat is
traditionally used for cooking and domestic heating. Stacks of drying
peat dug from the bogs can still be seen in some rural areas.
Peat's insulating properties make it of use to industry.

A peat stack in Ness in the Isle of Lewis

(Scotland).

Peat fires are used to dry malted barley for use in Scotch whisky
distillation. This gives Scotch whisky its distinctive smoky flavour,
often called "peatiness".
Although peat has many uses for humans, it also presents severe
problems at times. When dry, it can be a major fire hazard, as peat fires
can burn almost indefinitely (or at least until the fuel is exhausted).
Peat fires can even burn underground, reigniting after the winter,
provided there is a source of oxygen. Peat deposits also pose major
difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways, as they are
highly compressible under even small loads. When the West Highland
Line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders
had to float the tracks on a mattress of tree roots, brushwood and
thousands of tons of earth and ashes.

Worked bank in blanket bog, near Ulsta, Yell,

Shetland Islands

Peat bogs had considerable ritual significance to Bronze Age and Iron Age peoples, who considered them to be home
to (or at least associated with) nature gods or spirits. The bodies of the victims of ritual sacrifices have been found in
a number of locations in England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark, almost perfectly
preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water. (See Tollund Man for one of the most famous examples of a
bog body).
Peat wetlands formerly had a degree of metallurgical importance as well. During the Dark Ages, peat bogs were the
primary source of bog iron, used to create the swords and armour of the Vikings.

Peat

29
Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural
means of flood mitigation. The peat swamps serve like a natural form
of water catchment whereby any overflow will be absorbed by the
peat. However, this is effective only if the forests are still present, since
they prevent peat fires.

Falkland Islanders shovelling peat in the 1950s

In Ireland

Industrial milled peat production in a section of

the Bog of Allen in the Irish Midlands. The turf
in the foreground is machine produced for
domestic use

In Ireland, large-scale domestic and industrial peat usage is

widespread. Specifically in the Republic of Ireland, a state-owned
company called Bord na Mna is responsible for managing peat
production. It produces milled peat which is used in power stations. It
sells processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes which are used
for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed,
dried and shredded peat. Briquettes are largely smokeless when burned
in domestic fireplaces and as such are widely used in Irish towns and
cities where burning non-smokeless coal is banned. Peat moss is a
manufactured product for use in garden cultivation. Turf (dried out
peat sods) is very commonly used in rural areas.

In Finland
The climate, geography and environment of Finland favour bog and
peat bog formation. Peat is available in considerable quantities: Some
estimates put the amount of peat in Finland alone to be twice the size
of the North Sea oil reserves.[3] This abundant resource (often mixed
with wood at an average of 2.6%) is burned to produce heat and
electricity. Peat provides approximately 6.2% of Finland's annual
energy production, second only to Ireland.[4] The contribution of peat
to greenhouse gas emissions of Finland can exceed a yearly amount of
10million tonnes carbon dioxide, equal to the total emissions of all
passenger car traffic in Finland.
Finland classifies peat as a slowly renewing biomass fuel[5] and that
position has also been taken by the European Union. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has taken the position that
peat is not a fossil fuel. Peat producers in Finland often claim that peat

The Toppila Power Station, a peat-fired facility in

Oulu, Finland.

Peat

30
is a special form of biofuel, because of the relatively fast retake rate of released CO2 if the bog is not forested for the
following 100years. Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is
released in peat energy production in Finland.[6] The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed
slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000years. Furthermore it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving
them a chance to renew, leading to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog.
At 106gCO2/MJ,[7] the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6gCO2/MJ) and
natural gas (at 56.1) (IPCC). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture
from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93gCO2/MJ, though little effort is made to
achieve this.[8]
Peat extraction is also seen by some conservationists as the main threat to mire biodiversity in Finland. The
International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to
protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat
extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect
these sites.

In Russia
In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural use and to generate
peat fields for mining.[9] Plans are underway to increase peat output and increase peat's contribution to Russian
energy generation.[10] However, there is concern about the environmental impact as peat fields are flammable,
drainage degrades eco-systems, and burning of peat releases carbon dioxide.[10] Significant peat fires were
encountered in 2002 and 2010.
Due to 2010 forest and peat fires the Russian government is under heavy pressure to finance re-flooding of the
previously drained bogs around Moscow. The initial costs for the programme are estimated to be about 20 to 25
billion rubles, which is close to 500 million euros.

Biological effects of peat

Use in agriculture
Peat is important for farmers and gardeners, who mix it into soil to improve its structure and to increase acidity. The
most important property of peat is retaining moisture in soil when it is dry and yet preventing the excess of water
from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself.
Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, and has been since 2003.
Peat is an important raw material in horticulture. However it is recommended to treat peat thermally, e.g. through
soil steaming, in order to kill inherent pest and reactivate nutrients.

Freshwater aquaria
Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria, most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems, such as
those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal
(bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions
in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial
for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. It can even prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat
often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.[11]

Peat

31

Water filtration
Peat is used in water filtration, such as for the treatment of septic tank effluent, as well as for urban runoff.

Balneotherapy
Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include
peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have a very long tradition in Europe, especially in the Czech Republic,
Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas go back to the 18th century, and they are still active today. The most
common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices, and suspension baths.[12]

Environmental and ecological issues

Because of the challenging ecological conditions of peat wetlands, they
are home to many rare and specialised organisms that are found
nowhere else. Some environmental organisations and scientists have
pointed out that the large-scale removal of peat from bogs in Britain,
Ireland and Finland is destroying wildlife habitats. It takes centuries for
a peat bog to regenerate.
Recent studies indicate that the world's largest peat bog, located in
Western Siberia and the size of France and Germany combined, is
thawing for the first time in 11,000years. As the permafrost melts, it
could release billions of tons of methane gas into the atmosphere.

Increase, and change relative to previous year, of

the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide.

The world's peatlands are thought to contain 180 to 455 petagrams of

sequestered carbon, and they release into the atmosphere 20 to 45 teragrams of methane annually. The peatlands'
contribution to long-term fluctuations in these atmospheric gases has been a matter of considerable debate.[13]

Peat drainage
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction. This
process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species, but heavily fuels
climate change. As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon that was built up over thousands of years and is
normally under water, is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is
released into the atmosphere.[14] . The global CO2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1058 Mton
in 1990 to 1298 Mton in 2008 (>20%). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries of which
Indonesia, China, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea are the fastest growing top emitters. This estimate excludes
emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4000 Mton/CO2-eq./yr for south-east Asia. With
174 Mton/CO2-eq./yr the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton) the World's 2nd largest
emitter of drainage related peatland CO2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO2 emissions from the worldwide
500 000 km2 of degraded peatland may exceed 2 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires) which is almost 6% of
all global carbon emissions. [15] .

Peat

32

Fires

Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian

fires, 1997.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture
conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g. a
wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smolders. These smoldering
fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years
and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the
underground peat layer. Peat fires are emerging as a global threat with
significant economic, social and ecological impacts. Recent burning of
peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing
more than 50billion tons of carbon, has contributed to increases in
world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be
destroyed by 2040.[16] [17]

In 1997, it is estimated that peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 Gt of carbon;
equivalent to 13-40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake
of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels
since 1998.[18] [19]
In North America peat fires have a returning cycle (70130 years) depending on the recolonization by Black Spruce
(Picea mariana). Once a fire has burnt through the area normally hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks
are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.[20]
More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra continue to burn since 1997. Each year the peat fires in
Kalimantan and East Sumatra ignite new forest fires above the ground.
In summer 2010 an unusually high heat wave of up to +40 C (+104 F) ignited large deposits of peat in Central
Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket. The situation
remained critical until end of August 2010.[21] [22]
Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs in nature are naturally subject to wildfires and
depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants.
Several families of plants including the carnivourous Sarracenia, Dionaea, Utricularia and even non-carnivorous
plants such as the Sandhills Lily, Toothache Grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases
endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire.[23] [24]
//www.dmr.state.ms.us/Coastal-Ecology/preserves/plants/grasses-sedges-rushes/toothache-grass/toothache-grass.htm
[25]

Tissue preservation
Some northern European acidic anaerobic peat bogs have proved to have the capability to preserve mammalian
tissue for millennia. Examples of this conservation are Tollund Man and Haraldskr Woman, both recovered from
peat bogs with remarkable intact skin, internal organs and skeletons. Also preserved were their clothes and personal
effects. Peat represents the initial stage of coal formation, so its carbon content is low.

Wise use and protection

In June 2002 the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat
Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5years until 2007 and brings together the
efforts of various non-government organisations.
In November 2002, the International Peat Society and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published
guidelines on the "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for

Peat

33
decision-making". The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on
the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.
In June 2008, the International Peat Society published the book "Peatlands and Climate Change", summarizing the
currently available knowledge on the topic.

References
[1] World Energy Council (2007). "Survey of Energy Resources 2007" (http:/ / www. worldenergy. org/ documents/
ser2007_executive_summary. pdf) (pdf). . Retrieved 2008-08-11.
[2] International Mire Conservation Group (2007-01-03). "Peat should not be treated as a renewable energy source" (http:/ / www. imcg. net/
docum/ peatrenewable. pdf) (pdf). . Retrieved 2007-02-12.
[3] VAPO (http:/ / www. vapo. fi/ eng/ search/ index_eng. php?id=694)
[4] Ty- ja elinkeinoministeri (http:/ / www. ktm. fi/ index. phtml?l=en& s=179)
[5] http:/ / www. motiva. fi/ fi/ kirjasto/ uusiutuvatenergialahteetsuomessa/ muutbiomassaenergianlahteet/ turve. html
[6] Boreal Env. Res (http:/ / www. borenv. net)
[7] http:/ / www. imcg. net/ imcgnl/ nl0702/ kap05. htm
[8] VTT 2004: Wood in peat fuel impact on the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions according to IPCC guidelines (http:/ / virtual. vtt. fi/ inf/
pdf/ workingpapers/ 2004/ W12. pdf)
[9] Serghey Stelmakovich. "Russia institutes peat fire prevention program" (http:/ / wildfiremag. com/ tactics/ russia_institutes_peat/ ). .
Retrieved August 9, 2010.
[10] MacDermott M (September 9, 2009). "Russia plans mining peat environmental disaster" (http:/ / www. treehugger. com/ files/ 2009/ 09/
russia-plans-mining-peat-environmental-disaster. php). . Retrieved August 9, 2010.
[11] Scheurmann, Ines (1985). Natural Aquarium Handbook, The. (trans. for Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, New York: 2000).
Munich, Germany: Grfe & Unzer GmbH.
[12] International Peat Society (http:/ / www. peatsociety. org/ index. php?id=90) Peat Balneology, Medicine and Therapeutics
[13] MacDonald, Glen M.; Beilman, David W.; Kremenetski, Konstantine V.; Sheng, Yongwei; Smith, Laurence C.; Velichko, Andrei A. (2006).
"Rapid early development of circumarctic peatlands and atmospheric CH4 and CO2 variations". Science 314 (5797): 285288.
doi:10.1126/science.1131722.
[14] (http:/ / www. wetlands. org/ peatclimate) Wetlands International | Peatlands and CO2 Emissions
[15] (http:/ / www. wetlands. org/ peatco2) The Global Peat CO2 Picture, Wetlands International and Greifswald University, 2010
[16] "Asian peat fires add to warming" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4208564. stm). BBC News. 2005-09-03. . Retrieved
2010-05-22.
[17] http:/ / asd-www. larc. nasa. gov/ biomass_burn/ wildland. html
[18] Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming (http:/ / www. ens-newswire. com/ ens/ nov2002/ 2002-11-08-06. asp)
[19] Massive peat burn is speeding climate change - 06 November 2004 - New Scientist (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn6613)
[20] Fenton, Nicole; Lecomte, Nicolas; Lgar, Sonia; Bergeron, Yves (2005). "Paludification in black spruce (Picea mariana) forests of eastern
Canada: Potential factors and management implications". Forest Ecology and Management 213 (1-3): 151159.
doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.017.
[21] "Fog from peat fires blankets Moscow amid heat wave" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-europe-10762921). BBC. .
[22] "Russia begins to localize fires, others rage" (http:/ / www. thestate. com/ 2010/ 07/ 30/ 1396324/ russian-forest-fires-spread-at. html). .
[23] http:/ / www. pitcherplant. org/
[24] http:/ / www. unc. edu/ news/ archives/ may03/ lilly050903. html
[25] http:/ / www. dmr. state. ms. us/ Coastal-Ecology/ preserves/ plants/ grasses-sedges-rushes/ toothache-grass/ toothache-grass. htm

External links
International Peat Society (http://www.peatsociety.org)
International Mire Conservation Group (http://www.imcg.net)
Gardening without peat (http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/ksheets/peat.html) information supplied by Kew gardens
in London
Peat-free gardens (http://www.rspb.org.uk/advice/gardening/planting/peatfree.asp) from the RSPB
Massive peat burn is speeding climate change (http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6613) From The New
Scientist
Cutover and Cutaway bogs (http://www.ipcc.ie/infocutbogtypesfs.html) from IPCC
King Class Torf (http://www.kingclasstorf.com) in Turkey

Peat

34
Meadowview Biological Research Station (http://www.pitcherplant.org)

Loam
Loam is soil composed of sand, silt, and clay in relatively even
concentration (about 40-40-20% concentration respectively).[1] Loam
soils generally contain more nutrients and humus than sandy soils,
have better infiltration and drainage than silty soils, and are easier to
till than clay soils. Loams are gritty, moist, and retain water easily.
The uneducated person would ask for topsoil when in fact loam would
be the more desirable medium for growing crops and grasses. Loam is
considered ideal for gardening and agricultural uses because it retains
Loam field
nutrients well and retains water while still allowing the water to flow
freely. This soil is found in a majority of successful farms in regions
around the world known for their fertile land. Loam soil feels soft and rich and is easy to work over a wide range of
moisture conditions.There are many different types of loam soils, each with slightly different characteristics, and
with some draining liquids more efficiently than others.
Different proportions of sand, silt, and clay give rise to types of loam soils: sandy loam, silty loam, clay loam, sandy
clay loam, silty clay loam, and loam.[1] A soil dominated by one or two of the three particle size groups can behave
like loam if it has a strong granular structure, promoted by a high content of organic matter. However, a soil that
meets the textural definition of loam can lose its characteristic desirable qualities when it is compacted, depleted of
organic matter, or has clay dispersed throughout its fine-earth fraction.

Use in house construction

Loam may be used for the construction of houses. Construction crews can build a layer of loam on the inside of
walls, which can help to control air humidity. Loam, combined with straw, can be used as a rough construction
material to build walls.

See also
Particle size (grain size)
Soil texture
Loess

References
[1] Kaufmann, Robert K.; Cutler J. Cleveland (2008). Environmental Science. McGraw-Hill. pp.318319. ISBN 978-0-07-298429-5.

External links
Residential houses in Austria built with loam and straw (http://www.lehmtonerde.at/english/w2.html)
A family house in Romania built with loam and straw (http://live.pege.org/2005-romania/loam-straw.htm)
Pizza oven built with loam (http://www.frankspizzaoven.com)

35

SLOPE STABILITY
Slope stability
The field of slope stability encompasses the analysis of
static and dynamic stability of slopes of earth and
rock-fill dams, slopes of other types of embankments,
excavated slopes, and natural slopes in soil and soft
rock.[1] Slope stability investigation, analysis
(including modeling), and design mitigation is typically
completed by geologists, engineering geologists, or
geotechnical engineers. Geologists and engineering
geologists can also use their knowledge of earth
process and their ability to interpret surficial
geomorphology to determine relative slope stability
based simply on site observations.
Figure 1: Simple slope slip section

As seen in Figure 1, earthen slopes can develop a

cut-spherical weakness area. The probability of this happening can be calculated in advance using a simple 2-D
circular analysis package.[2] A primary difficulty with analysis is locating the most-probable slip plane for any given
situation.[3] Many landslides have only been analyzed after the fact. More recently slope stability radar technology
has been employed, particularly in the mining industry, to gather real time data and assist in pro-actively determining
the likelyhood of slope failure.

Real life failures

Real life failures in naturally deposited mixed soils are
not necessarily circular, but prior to computers, it was
far easier to analyse such a simplified geometry.
Nevertheless, failures in 'pure' clay can be quite close to
circular. Such slips often occur after a period of heavy
rain, when the pore water pressure at the slip surface
increases, reducing the effective normal stress and thus
diminishing the restraining friction along the slip line.
This is combined with increased soil weight due to the
added groundwater. A 'shrinkage' crack (formed during
prior dry weather) at the top of the slip may also fill
with rain water, pushing the slip forward. At the other
Figure 2: Real life landslide on a slope
extreme, slab-shaped slips on hillsides can remove a
layer of soil from the top of the underlying bedrock.
Again, this is usually initiated by heavy rain, sometimes combined with increased loading from new buildings or
removal of support at the toe (resulting from road widening or other construction work). Stability can thus be
significantly improved by installing drainage paths to reduce the destabilising forces. Once the slip has occurred,
however, a weakness along the slip circle remains, which may then recur at the next monsoon.

Slope stability

36

Slope stability issues can be seen with almost any walk down a ravine in an urban setting. An example is shown in
Figure 3, where a river is eroding the toe of a slope, and there is a swimming pool near the top of the slope. If the toe
is eroded too far, or the swimming pool begins to leak, the forces driving a slope failure will exceed those resisting
failure, and a landslide will develop, possibly quite suddenly.

Analysis methods
If the forces available to resist movement are greater
than the forces driving movement, the slope is
considered stable. A factor of safety is calculated by
dividing the forces resisting movement by the forces
driving movement. In earthquake-prone areas, the
analysis is typically run for static conditions and
pseudo-static conditions, where the seismic forces from
an earthquake are assumed to add static loads to the
analysis.

Method of slices
The method of slices is a method for analyzing the
stability of a slope in two dimensions. The sliding mass
above the failure surface is divided into a number of
slices. The forces acting on each slice are obtained by
considering the mechanical equilibrium for the slices.

Figure 3: Slope with eroding river and swimming pool

Bishop's method
The Modified (or Simplified) Bishop's Method is a
method for calculating the stability of slopes. It is an
extension of the Method of Slices. By making some
simplifying assumptions, the problem becomes
statically determinate and suitable for hand
calculations:

Figure 4: Method of slices

forces on the sides of each slice are horizontal

The method has been shown to produce factor of safety values within a few percent of the "correct" values.

where

c' is the effective cohesion

is the effective internal angle of internal friction
b is the width of each slice, assuming that all slices have the same width
W is the weight of each slice
u is the water pressure at the base of each slice

Slope stability

Lorimer's method
Lorimer's Method is a technique for evaluating slope stability in cohesive soils. It differs from Bishop's Method in
that it uses a clothoid slip surface in place of a circle. This mode of failure was determined experimentally to account
for effects of particle cementation.
The method was developed in the 1930s by Gerhardt Lorimer (Dec 20, 1894-Oct 19, 1961), a student of geotechnical
pioneer Karl von Terzaghi.

See also

Slope stability radar

Slope stability analysis
Mass wasting
Mohr-Coulomb theory
Discontinuity layout optimization
Geotechnical Software [4] at the Open Directory Project

Notes
[1] US Army Corps of Engineers Manual on Slope Stability (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080528085404/ http:/ / www. usace. army. mil/
publications/ eng-manuals/ em1110-2-1902/ entire. pdf)
[2] "Slope Stability Calculator" (http:/ / www. wise-uranium. org/ cssth. html). . Retrieved 2006-12-14.
[3] Chugh, Ashok (2002), "A method for locating critical slip surfaces in slope stability analysis" (http:/ / article. pubs. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ ppv/
RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet& journal=cgj& volume=39& calyLang=eng& articleFile=t02-042. pdf), NRC Research Press,
[4] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Technology/ Civil_Engineering/ Geotechnical/ Software/

References
Coduto, Donald P. (1998). Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices. Prentice-Hall. ISBN
0-13-576380-0

37

Hydraulic conductivity

38

Hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as

, is a property of vascular plants, soil or rock, that

describes the ease with which water can move through pore spaces or fractures. It depends on the intrinsic
permeability of the material and on the degree of saturation. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ksat, describes water
movement through saturated media.

Methods of determination
There are two broad categories of
determining hydraulic conductivity:
Empirical approach by which the
hydraulic conductivity is correlated
to soil properties like pore size and
particle size (grain size)
distributions, and soil texture
Experimental approach by which
the hydraulic conductivity is
determined from hydraulic
experiments using Darcy's law
The experimental approach is broadly
classified into:

Overview of determination methods

Laboratory tests using soil samples subjected to hydraulic experiments

Field tests (on site, in situ) that are differentiated into:
small scale field tests, using observations of the water level in cavities in the soil
large scale field tests, like pump tests in wells or by observing the functioning of existing horizontal drainage
systems.
The small scale field tests are further subdivided into:
infiltration tests in cavities above the water table
slug tests in cavities below the water table

Estimation by empirical approach

Estimation from grain size
Shepherd[1] derived an empirical formula for approximating hydraulic conductivity from grain size analyses:

where
and

are empirically derived terms based on the soil type, and

is the diameter of the 10 percentile grain size of the material

Note: Shepherd's Figure 3 clearly shows the use of
be
others with

, not

, measured in mm. Therefore the equation should

. His figure shows different lines for materials of different types, based on analysis of data from
up to 10mm.

Hydraulic conductivity

39

Pedotransfer function
A pedotransfer function (PTF) is a specialized empirical estimation method, used primarily in the soil sciences,
however has increasing use in hydrogeology.[2] There are many different PTF methods, however, they all attempt to
determine soil properties, such as hydraulic conductivity, given several measured soil properties, such as soil particle
size, and bulk density.

Determination by experimental approach

There are relatively simple and inexpensive laboratory tests that may be run to determine the hydraulic conductivity
of a soil: constant-head method and falling-head method.

Laboratory methods
Constant-head method
The constant-head method is typically used on granular soil. This procedure allows water to move through the soil
under a steady state head condition while the quantity (volume) of water flowing through the soil specimen is
measured over a period of time. By knowing the quantity
of water measured, length
of specimen,
cross-sectional area

of the specimen, time

required for the quantity of water

to be discharged, and head

, the hydraulic conductivity can be calculated:

where

is the flow velocity. Using Darcy's Law:

and expressing the hydraulic gradient

where

as:

is the difference of hydraulic head over distance

Solving for

, yields:

gives:

Falling-head method
The falling-head method is very similar to the constant head methods in its initial setup; however, the advantage to
the falling-head method is that can be used for both fine-grained and coarse-grained soils. The soil sample is first
saturated under a specific head condition. The water is then allowed to flow through the soil without maintaining a
constant pressure head.[3]

Hydraulic conductivity

40

In-situ (field) methods

Augerhole method
There are also in-situ methods for measuring the hydraulic conductivity in the field.
When the water table is shallow, the augerhole method, a slug test, can be used for determining the hydraulic
conductivity below the water table.
The method was developed by Hooghoudt (1934) [4] in The Netherlands and introduced in the US by Van Bavel en
Kirkham (1948).[5]
The method uses the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.

an augerhole is perforated into the soil to below the water table

water is bailed out from the augerhole
the rate of rise of the water level in the hole is recorded
the K-value is calculated from the data as [6] :
Kh = C (Ho-Ht) / t

where: Kh = horizontal saturated hydraulic conductivity (m/day),

H = depth of the waterlevel in the hole relative to the water table
in the soil (cm), Ht = H at time t, Ho = H at time t = 0, t = time (in
seconds) since the first measurement of H as Ho, and F is a factor
depending on the geometry of the hole:
F = 4000
where:

(20+D/

)(2

/D)

= radius of the cylindrical hole (cm),

is the average

depth of the water level in the hole relative to the water table in the
soil (cm) , found as
=(Ho+Ht)/2 , and D is the depth of the
Cumulative frequency distribution (lognormal) of
hydraulic conductivity (X-data)

bottom of the hole relative to the water table in the soil (cm).

The picture shows a large variation of K-values measured with the

augerhole method in an area of 100 ha.[7] The ratio between the
highest and lowest values is 25. The cumulative frequency distribution is lognormal and was made with the
CumFreq program.

Related magnitudes
Transmissivity
An aquifer may consist of
saturated thickness

soil layers. The transmissivity for horizontal flow (Ti) of the

soil layer with a

and horizontal hydraulic conductivity Khi is:

Ti = Khi
Transmissivity is directly proportional to horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Khi) and thickness (
Khi in m/day and

). Expressing

in m, the transmissivity (Ti) is found in units m /day.

The transmissivity is a measure of how much water can be transmitted horizontally, such as to a pumping well.
Transmissivity should not be confused with the similar word transmittance used in optics, meaning the fraction of incident light that passes
through a sample.

The total transmissivity (Tt) of the aquifer is [6] :

Tt = Ti = Khi
where signifies the summation over all layers:

= 1, 2, 3, . . .

The apparent horizontal hydraulic conductivity (KhA) of the aquifer is:

Hydraulic conductivity

41

KhA = Tt / Dt
where Dt is the total thickness of the aquifer: Dt=

, with

= 1, 2, 3, . . .

The transmissivity of an aquifer can be determined from pumping tests.[8]

Influence of the water table
When a soil layer is above the water table, it is not saturated and does not contribute to the transmissivity. When the
soil layer is entirely below the water table, its saturated thickness corresponds to the thickness of the soil layer itself.
When the water table is inside a soil layer, the saturated thickness corresponds to the distance of the water table to
the bottom of the layer. As the water table may behave dynamically, this thickness may change from place to place
or from time to time, so that the transmissivity may vary accordingly.
In a semi-confined aquifer, the water table is found within a soil layer with a negligibly small transmissivity, so that
changes of the total transmissivity (Dt) resulting from changes in the level of the water table are negligibly small.
When pumping water from an unconfined aquifer, where the water table is inside a soil layer with a significant
transmissivity, the water table may be drawn down whereby the transmissivity reduces and the flow of water to the
well diminishes.

Resistance
The resistance to vertical flow (Ri) of the

soil layer with a saturated thickness

and vertical hydraulic

conductivity Kvi is:

Ri =

/ Kvi

Expressing Kvi in m/day and

in m, the resistance (Ri) is expressed in days.

The total resistance (Rt) of the aquifer is [6] :

Rt = Ri =

/ Kvi

where signifies the summation over all layers:

= 1, 2, 3, . . .

The apparent vertical hydraulic conductivity (KvA) of the aquifer is:

KvA = Dt / Rt
where Dt is the total thickness of the aquifer: Dt =

, with

= 1, 2, 3, . . .

The resistance plays a role in aquifers where a sequence of layers occurs with varying horizontal permeability so that
horizontal flow is found mainly in the layers with high horizontal permeability while the layers with low horizontal
permeability transmit the water mainly in a vertical sense.

Anisotropy
When the horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity (Khi and Kvi) of the

soil layer differ considerably,

the layer is said to be anisotropic with respect to hydraulic conductivity.

When the apparent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity (KhA and KvA) differ considerably, the aquifer is
said to be anisotropic with respect to hydraulic conductivity.
An aquifer is called semi-confined when a saturated layer with a relatively small horizontal hydraulic conductivity
(the semi-confining layer or aquitard) overlies a layer with a relatively high horizontal hydraulic conductivity so that
the flow of groundwater in the first layer is mainly vertical and in the second layer mainly horizontal.
The resistance of a semi-confining toplayer of an aquifer can be determined from pumping tests.[8]
When calculating flow to drains [9] or to a well field [10] in an aquifer with the aim to control the water table, the
anisotropy is to be taken into account, otherwise the result may be erroneous.

Hydraulic conductivity

42

Relative properties
Because of their high porosity and permeability, sand and gravel aquifers have higher hydraulic conductivity than
clay or unfractured granite aquifers. Sand or gravel aquifers would thus be easier to extract water from (e.g., using a
pumping well) because of their high transmissivity, compared to clay or unfractured bedrock aquifers.
Hydraulic conductivity has units with dimensions of length per time (e.g., m/s, ft/day and (gal/day)/ft );
transmissivity then has units with dimensions of length squared per time. The following table gives some typical
ranges (illustrating the many orders of magnitude which are likely) for K values.
Hydraulic conductivity (K) is one of the most complex and important of the properties of aquifers in hydrogeology as
the values found in nature:
range over many orders of magnitude (the distribution is often considered to be lognormal),
vary a large amount through space (sometimes considered to be randomly spatially distributed, or stochastic in
nature),
are directional (in general K is a symmetric second-rank tensor; e.g., vertical K values can be several orders of
magnitude smaller than horizontal K values),
are scale dependent (testing a m of aquifer will generally produce different results than a similar test on only a
cm sample of the same aquifer),
must be determined indirectly through field pumping tests, laboratory column flow tests or inverse computer
simulation, (sometimes also from grain size analyses), and
are very dependent (in a non-linear way) on the water content, which makes solving the unsaturated flow equation
difficult. In fact, the variably saturated K for a single material varies over a wider range than the saturated K
values for all types of materials (see chart below for an illustrative range of the latter).

Ranges of values for natural materials

Table of saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) values found in nature
Values are for typical fresh groundwater conditions using standard values of viscosity and specific gravity for
water at 20C and 1 atm. See the similar table derived from the same source for intrinsic permeability values.[11]
K (cm/s)

10

101

100=1

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

1010

K (ft/day)

105

10,000

1,000

100

10

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

105

106

107

Relative Permeability

Pervious

Aquifer
Unconsolidated Sand &
Gravel

Good
Well Sorted
Gravel

Source: modified from Bear, 1972

None

Very Fine Sand, Silt, Loess,

Loam

Peat

Highly Fractured Rocks

Impervious

Poor

Well Sorted Sand or Sand &

Gravel

Unconsolidated Clay &

Organic
Consolidated Rocks

Semi-Pervious

Oil Reservoir Rocks

Layered Clay

Fresh
Sandstone

Fat / Unweathered Clay

Fresh Limestone,
Dolomite

Fresh
Granite

Hydraulic conductivity

References
[1] Shepherd, Russell G. (1989). "Correlations of permeability and grain-size". Ground Water 27 (5): 633638.
doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.1989.tb00476.x.
[2] Wsten, J.H.M., Pachepsky, Y.A., and Rawls, W.J. (2001). "Pedotransfer functions: bridging the gap between available basic soil data and
missing soil hydraulic characteristics". Journal of Hydrology 251: 123150. doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(01)00464-4.
[3] Liu, Cheng "Soils and Foundations." Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001 ISBN 0-13-025517-3
[4] S.B.Hooghoudt, 1934, in Dutch. Bijdrage tot de kennis van enige natuurkundige grootheden van de grond. Verslagen Landbouwkundig
Onderzoek No. 40 B, p. 215-345.
[5] C.H.M. van Bavel and D. Kirkham, 1948. Field measurement of soil permeability using auger holes. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. Proc 13:90-96.
[6] Determination of the Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity. Chapter 12 in: H.P.Ritzema (ed., 1994) Drainage Principles and Applications, ILRI
Publication 16, p.435-476. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen (ILRI), The Netherlands. ISBN 90
70754 3 39. Free download from: (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ articles. htm) , under nr. 6, or directly as PDF : (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/
pdf/ chap12. pdf)
[7] Drainage research in farmers' fields: analysis of data. Contribution to the project Liquid Gold of the International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. Free download from : (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ articles. htm) ,
under nr. 2, or directly as PDF : (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ analysis. pdf)
[8] J.Boonstra and R.A.L.Kselik, SATEM 2002: Software for aquifer test evaluation, 2001. Publ. 57, International Institute for Land reclamation
and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. ISBN 90 70754 54 1 On line : (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ satem. pdf)
[9] The energy balance of groundwater flow applied to subsurface drainage in anisotropic soils by pipes or ditches with entrance resistance.
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line : (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/
enerart. pdf) . Paper based on: R.J. Oosterbaan, J. Boonstra and K.V.G.K. Rao, 1996, The energy balance of groundwater flow. Published in
V.P.Singh and B.Kumar (eds.), Subsurface-Water Hydrology, p. 153-160, Vol.2 of Proceedings of the International Conference on Hydrology
and Water Resources, New Delhi, India, 1993. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. ISBN 978-0-7923-3651-8 . On line
: (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ enerbal. pdf). The corresponding free EnDrain program can be downloaded from: (http:/ / www. waterlog.
info/ endrain. htm)
[10] Subsurface drainage by (tube)wells, 9 pp. Explanation of equations used in the WellDrain model. International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ wellspac. pdf) . The
corresponding free WellDrain program can be downloaded from : (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ weldrain. htm)
[11] Bear, J. (1972). Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-65675-6.

43

Water content

44

Water content
Water content or moisture content is the
quantity of water contained in a material,
such as soil (called soil moisture), rock,
ceramics, fruit, or wood. Water content is
used in a wide range of scientific and
technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio,
which can range from 0 (completely dry) to
the value of the materials' porosity at
saturation. It can be given on a volumetric
or mass (gravimetric) basis.
Volumetric water content, , is defined
mathematically as:

where

Soil composition by phase: s-soil (dry), v-void (pores filled with water or air),
w-water, a-air. V is volume, M is mass.

is the volume of water and

is the total volume (that is soil volume +

water volume + air space).

Gravimetric water content[1] is expressed by mass (weight) as follows:

where
is the mass of water and
is the bulk mass. The bulk mass is taken as the total mass, except for
geotechnical and soil science applications where oven-dried soil (
, see the diagram) is conventionally used as
.
To convert gravimetric water content to volumetric water, multiply the gravimetric water content by the bulk specific
gravity of the material.

Other definitions
Degree of saturation
In soil mechanics and petroleum engineering, the term water saturation or degree of saturation,

is used,

defined as

where

is the porosity and

is the volume of void or pore space.

Values of Sw can range from 0 (dry) to 1 (saturated). In reality, Sw never reaches 0 or 1 - these are idealizations for
engineering use.

Water content

45

Normalized volumetric water content

The normalized water content,
[2]

van Genuchten

where

, (also called effective saturation or

as:

is the volumetric water content;

gradient

) is a dimensionless value defined by

becomes zero; and,

is the residual water content, defined as the water content for which the

is the saturated water content, which is equivalent to porosity,

Measurement
Direct methods
Water content can be directly measured using a known volume of the material, and a drying oven. Volumetric water
content, , is calculated[3] using:

where
and

are the masses of the sample before and after drying in the oven;

is the density of water; and

is the volume of the sample before drying the sample.
For materials that change in volume with water content, such as coal, the water content, u, is expressed in terms of
the mass of water per unit mass of the moist specimen:

However, geotechnics requires the moisture content to be expressed as a percentage of the sample's dry weight i.e. %
moisture content =
Where

For wood, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set
at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours). In wood drying, this is an important concept.

Laboratory methods
Other methods that determine water content of a sample include chemical titrations (for example the Karl Fischer
titration), determining mass loss on heating (perhaps in the presence of an inert gas), or after freeze drying. In the
food industry the Dean-Stark method is also commonly used.
From the Annual Book of ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards, the total evaporable
moisture content in Aggregate (C 566) can be calculated with the formula:

where

is the fraction of total evaporable moisture content of sample,

is mass of dried sample.

is the mass of the original sample, and

Water content

46

Geophysical methods
There are several geophysical methods available that can approximate in situ soil water content. These methods
include: time-domain reflectometry (TDR), neutron probe, frequency domain sensor, capacitance probe, electrical
resistivity tomography, ground penetrating radar (GPR), and others that are sensitive to the physical properties of
water [4] . Geophysical sensors are often used to monitor soil moisture continuously in agricultural and scientific
applications.

Satellite remote sensing method

Satellite microwave remote sensing is used to estimate soil moisture based on the large contrast between the
dielectric properties of wet and dry soil. The microwave radiation is not sensitive to atmospheric variables, and can
penetrate through clouds. Also, microwave signal can penetrate, to a certain extent, the vegetation canopy and
retrieve information from ground surface [5]. The data from microwave remote sensing satellite such as: WindSat,
AMSR-E, RADARSAT, ERS-1-2, Metop/ASCAT are used to estimate surface soil moisture [6].

Classification and uses

Moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water in small pores.
At low relative humidities, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. At higher relative humidities, liquid water
becomes more and more important, depending on the pore size. In wood-based materials, however, almost all water
is adsorbed at humidities below 98% RH.
In biological applications there can also be a distinction between physisorbed water and "free" water the
physisorbed water being that closely associated with and relatively difficult to remove from a biological material.
The method used to determine water content may affect whether water present in this form is accounted for. For a
better indication of "free" and "bound" water, the water activity of a material should be considered.
Water molecules may also be present in materials closely associated with individual molecules, as "water of
crystallization", or as water molecules which are static components of protein structure.

Earth and agricultural sciences

In soil science, hydrology and agricultural sciences, water content has an important role for groundwater recharge,
agriculture, and soil chemistry. Many recent scientific research efforts have aimed toward a predictive-understanding
of water content over space and time. Observations have revealed generally that spatial variance in water content
tends to increase as overall wetness increases in semiarid regions, to decrease as overall wetness increases in humid
regions, and to peak under intermediate wetness conditions in temperature regions [7] .
There are four standard water contents that are routinely measured and used, which are described in the following
table:
Name

Notation

Saturated water content

Suction
pressure
(J/kg or kPa)

Typical water
content
(vol/vol)

Description

0.20.5

Fully saturated water, equivalent to effective porosity

And lastly the available water content, a, which is equivalent to:

a fc pwp
which can range between 0.1 in gravel and 0.3 in peat.

Water content
Agriculture
When a soil gets too dry, plant transpiration drops because the water is becoming increasingly bound to the soil
particles by suction. Below the wilting point plants are no longer able to extract water. At this point they wilt and
cease transpiring altogether. Conditions where soil is too dry to maintain reliable plant growth is referred to as
agricultural drought, and is a particular focus of irrigation management. Such conditions are common in arid and
semi-arid environments.
Some agriculture professionals are beginning to use environmental measurements such as soil moisture to schedule
irrigation. This method is referred to as smart irrigation or soil cultivation.
Groundwater
In saturated groundwater aquifers, all available pore spaces are filled with water (volumetric water content =
porosity). Above a capillary fringe, pore spaces have air in them too.
Most soils have a water content less than porosity, which is the definition of unsaturated conditions, and they make
up the subject of vadose zone hydrogeology. The capillary fringe of the water table is the dividing line between
saturated and unsaturated conditions. Water content in the capillary fringe decreases with increasing distance above
the phreatic surface.
One of the main complications which arises in studying the vadose zone, is the fact that the unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity is a function of the water content of the material. As a material dries out, the connected wet pathways
through the media become smaller, the hydraulic conductivity decreasing with lower water content in a very
non-linear fashion.
A water retention curve is the relationship between volumetric water content and the water potential of the porous
medium. It is characteristic for different types of porous medium. Due to hysteresis, different wetting

References
[1] T. William Lambe & Robert V. Whitman (1969). "Chapter 3: Description of an Assemblage of Particles". Soil Mechanics (First ed.). John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.. p.553. ISBN471-51192-7.
[2] van Genuchten, M.Th. (1980). "A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils" (http:/ / hydro. nevada.
edu/ courses/ gey719/ vg. pdf). Soil Science Society of America Journal 44 (5): 892898. doi:10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x. .
[3] Dingman, S.L. (2002). "Chapter 6, Water in soils: infiltration and redistribution". Physical Hydrology (Second ed.). Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.. p.646. ISBN0-13-099695-5.
[4] F. Ozcep, M. Asci, O. Tezel, T. Yas, N. Alpaslan, D. Gundogdu (2005). "Relationships Between Electrical Properties (in Situ) and Water
Content (in the Laboratory) of Some Soils in Turkey" (http:/ / www. cosis. net/ abstracts/ EGU05/ 08470/ EGU05-J-08470. pdf). Geophysical
Research Abstracts 7. .
[5] http:/ / www. mdpi. com/ 2072-4292/ 1/ 1/ 3/
[6] http:/ / hydrolab. arsusda. gov/ rsbarc/ RSofSM. htm
[7] Lawrence, J. E., and G. M. Hornberger (2007). "Soil moisture variability across climate zones". Geophys. Res. Lett. 34 (L20402): L20402.
doi:10.1029/2007GL031382.

47

Void ratio

48

Void ratio
Void ratio, in materials science, is related to porosity and defined as the ratio:

and

where

is void ratio,

is porosity, VV is the volume of void-space (such as fluids), VS is the volume of solids, and

VT is the total or bulk volume. This figure is relevant in composites, in mining (particular with regard to the
properties of tailings), and in soil science. In geotechnical engineering, it is considered as one of the state variables
of soils and represented by the symbol e.[1] [2]

Engineering applications
Volume change tendency control. If void ratio is high (loose soils) voids in a soil skeleton tend to minimize under
loading - adjacent particles contract. The opposite situation, i.e. when void ratio is relatively small (dense soils),
indicates that the volume of the soil is vulnerable to increase under loading - particles dilate.
Fluid conductivity control (ability of water movement through the soil). Loose soils show high conductivity,
while dense soils are not so permeable.
Particles movement. In a loose soil particles can move quite easily, whereas in a dense one finer particles cannot
pass through the voids, which leads to clogging.

References
[1] Lambe, T. William & Robert V. Whitman. Soil Mechanics. Wiley, 1991; p. 29. ISBN 978-0-471-51192-2
[2] Santamarina, J. Carlos, Katherine A. Klein, & Moheb A. Fam. Soils and Waves: Particulate Materials Behavior, Characterization and
Process Monitoring. Wiley, 2001; pp. 35-36 & 51-53. ISBN 978-0-471-49058-6

Bulk density

Bulk density
Bulk density is a property of powders, granules and other "divided" solids, especially used in reference to mineral
components (soil, gravel), chemical substances, (pharmaceutical) ingredients, foddstuff or any other masses of
corpuscular or particulate matter. It is defined as the mass of many particles of the material divided by the total
volume they occupy. The total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void volume and internal pore
volume.[1]
Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a material; it can change depending on how the material is handled. For
example, a powder poured in to a cylinder will have a particular bulk density; if the cylinder is disturbed, the powder
particles will move and usually settle closer together, resulting in a higher bulk density. For this reason, the bulk
density of powders is usually reported both as "freely settled" (or "poured" density) and "tapped" density (where the
tapped density refers to the bulk density of the powder after a specified compaction process, usually involving
vibration of the container.)

Soil
The bulk density of soil depends greatly on the mineral make up of soil and the degree of compaction. The density of
quartz is around 2.65g/cm but the bulk density of a mineral soil is normally about half that density, between 1.0 and
1.6g/cm. Soils high in organics and some friable clay may have a bulk density well below 1g/cm
Bulk density of soil is usually determined on Core samples which are taken by driving a metal corer into the soil at
the desired depth and horizon. The samples are then oven dried and weighed.
Bulk density = mass of oven dry soil/core volume

The bulk density of soil is inversely related to the porosity of the same soil: the more pore space in a soil the lower
the value for bulk density. Bulk density of a region in the interior of the earth is also related to the seismic velocity of
waves travelling through it: for P-waves, this has been quantified with Gardner's relation. The higher the density, the
faster the velocity.

Notes
[1] Page 50 in Buckman, Harry O.; Brady, Nyle C. (1960), The Nature and Property of Soils - A College Text of Edaphology (6th ed.), New
York: MacMillan Publishers, New York, NY

External links
University of Leicester podcast 'How to measure dry bulk density' (http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/splint/geopods/
Podcast_library/Field techniques_Soil properties/How to measure dry bulk density/How to measure dry bulk
density.wmv)

49

Thixotropy

Thixotropy
Thixotropy is the property of certain gels or fluids that are thick (viscous) under normal conditions, but flow
(become thin, less viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed. In more technical language: some
non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes shear
stress, the lower its viscosity. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which takes a finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity
when introduced to a step change in shear rate. However, this is not a universal definition; the term is sometimes
applied to pseudoplastic fluids without a viscosity/time component. Many gels and colloids are thixotropic materials,
exhibiting a stable form at rest but becoming fluid when agitated.
The distinction between a thixotropic fluid and a shear thinning fluid:
A thixotropic fluid displays a decrease in viscosity over time at a constant shear rate.
A shear thinning fluid displays decreasing viscosity with increasing shear rate.
Some fluids are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an increase in viscosity or even
solidification. Constant shear stress can be applied by shaking or mixing. Fluids which exhibit this property are
usually called rheopectic. They are much less common.

Natural examples
Some clays are thixotropic, with their behavior of great importance in structural and geotechnical engineering. In
earthquake zones, clay-like ground can exhibit characteristics of liquefaction under the shaking of a tremor, greatly
affecting earth structures and buildings. Landslides, such as those common in the cliffs around Lyme Regis, Dorset
and in the Aberfan slag heap disaster in Wales are evidence of this phenomenon. Similarly, a lahar is a mass of earth
liquefied by a volcanic event, which rapidly solidifies once coming to a rest.
Drilling muds used in geotechnical applications can be thixotropic. Honey from honey bees may also exhibit this
property under certain conditions.
Another example of a thixotropic fluid is the synovial fluid found in joints between some bones. The ground
substance in the human body is thixotropic, as is semen. [1]
Some clay deposits found in the process of exploring caves exhibit thixotropism: an initially solid-seeming mudbank
will turn soupy and yield up moisture when dug into or otherwise disturbed. These clays were deposited in the past
by low-velocity streams which tend to deposit fine-grained sediment.

Applications
Thread-locking fluid is a thixotropic adhesive that cures anaerobically.
Thixotropy has been proposed as a scientific explanation of blood liquification miracles such as that of Saint
Januarius in Naples.[2]
Semi-solid casting processes such as thixomoulding use the thixotropic property of some alloys (mostly light metals)
(bismuth). Within certain temperature ranges, with appropriate preparation, an alloy can be put into a semi-solid
state, which can be injected with less shrinkage and better overall properties than by normal injection molding.
Solder pastes used in electronics manufacturing printing processes are thixotropic materials.
Many kinds of inksused in silkscreen textile printingmade from plastisol, exhibit thixotropic qualities. Some,
such as those used in CMYK-type process printing, are designed to quickly regain viscosity once they are applied to
protect the structure of the dots for accurate color reproduction. This is a sort of reverse thixotropy.
The ink developed for the Fisher space pen is a visco-elastic, thixotropic ink, with a consistency similar to that of
very thick rubber cement, flows as a result of the shearing action of the rolling ball in its socket. This shearing action

50

Thixotropy
liquefies the solid gel thixotropic ink, allowing the pen to write smoothly and dependably on most surfaces and even
underwater.[3]

Misconceptions
Toothpaste, and paint are frequently mis-labeled as being thixotropic materials. In reality, these are often
pseudoplastic or "shear thinning". The viscosity of these materials decrease under increasing shear rate, not
increasing time. When squeezed out of a tube, toothpaste flows easily but will set-up on the toothbrush. When
modern paints are applied the shear created by the brush or roller will allow them to thin and wet out the surface
evenly. Once applied the paints regain their higher viscosity which avoids drips and runs.
Clutch-type automatic transmissions do not use fluids with thixotropic properties. The oil in automatic transmissions
is used solely for hydraulic actuation and there are no thixotropic properties used in the process of gear change or
actuation of clutch packs.

Etymology
The word comes from Greek thixis, touch (from thinganein, to touch) + -tropy, -tropous, from Greek -tropos, of
turning, from tropos, changeable, from trepein, to turn.

References
[1] Hendrickson, T: "Massage for Orthopedic Conditions", page 9. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.
[2] Garlaschelli, Ramaccini, Della Sala, "The Blood of St. Januarius", Chemistry in Britain 30.2, (1994:123) (http:/ / www. cicap. org/ new/
articolo. php?id=101014)
[3] (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061105205131/ http:/ / www. spacepen. com/ Public/ Technology/ index. cfm)

Reiner, M., and Scott Blair, Rheology terminology, in Rheology, Vol. 4 pp. 461, (New York: Achedemic Press,
1967)
Dam break wave of thixotropic fluid (http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:78856) in Journal Hydraulic
Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 3, pp. 280-293

51

Reynolds' dilatancy

52

Reynolds' dilatancy
Reynolds' dilatancy is the observed tendency of a compacted granular material to dilate (expand in volume) as it is
sheared. This occurs because the grains in a compacted state are interlocking and therefore do not have the freedom
to move around one another. When stressed, a lever motion occurs between neighboring grains, which produces a
bulk expansion of the material. On the other hand, when a granular material starts in a very loose state it may
initially compact instead of dilating under shear. Reynolds' dilatancy is a common feature of the soils and sands
studied by geotechnical engineers, and is a part of the broader topic of soil mechanics. It was first described
scientifically by Osborne Reynolds (18421912) in 1885 and 1886.

References
Reynolds, O., "On the dilatancy of media composed of rigid particles in contact, with experimental illustrations,"
Phil. Mag., Series 5, 20 (1885), pp. 469481.
Reynolds, O., "Experiments showing dilatancy, a property of granular material, possibly connected with
gravitation," Proc. Royal Institution of Great Britain, Read February 12, 1886.
R. M. Nedderman, Statics and Kinematics of Granular Materials, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN
0-521-01907-9.

Angle of repose
The Angle of Repose /agl.v.ipos/, or more precisely the Critical
Angle of Repose /ktkl.agl.v.ipos/ [1] , is the steepest angle of
descent or dip of the slope relative to the horizontal plane when
material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding. This angle is given
by the number (0-90)
When bulk granular materials are poured onto a horizontal surface, a
conical pile will form. The internal angle between the surface of the
Angle of repose
pile and the horizontal surface is known as the angle of repose and is
related to the density, surface area and shapes of the particles, and the coefficient of friction of the material. Material
with a low angle of repose forms flatter piles than material with a high angle of repose. In other words, the angle of
repose is the angle between the surface of a pile and the ground.

Applications of theory
The angle of repose is sometimes used in the design of equipment for
the processing of particulate solids. For example, it may be used to
design an appropriate hopper or silo to store the material. It can also be
used to size a conveyor belt for transporting the material. It can also be
used in determining whether or not a slope (of a stockpile, or
uncompacted gravel bank, for example) will likely collapse; the talus
slope is derived from angle of repose and represents the steepest slope
a pile of granular material will take. This angle of repose is also crucial
in correctly calculating stability in vessels.

Talus cones on north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard,

Norway, showing angle of repose for coarse
sediment.

It is also commonly used by mountaineers as a factor in analyzing avalanche danger in mountainous areas.

Angle of repose

53

Measurement
There are numerous methods for measuring angle of repose and each produces slightly different results. Results are
also sensitive to the exact methodology of the experimenter. As a result, data from different labs is not always
comparable. One method is the triaxial shear test, another is the direct shear test.
If the coefficient of static friction is known of a material, then a good approximation of the angle of repose can be
made with the following function. This function is somewhat accurate for piles where individual objects in the pile
are miniscule and piled in random order [2] .

Where:
s is the coefficient of static friction
is the angle of repose

Exploitation by antlion and wormlion (Vermileonidae) larvae

The larvae of the antlions and the unrelated wormlions Vermileonidae
trap small insects such as ants by digging conical pits in loose sand,
such that the slope of the walls is effectively at the critical angle of
repose for the sand.[3] They achieve this by flinging the loose sand out
of the pit and permitting the sand to settle at its critical angle of repose
as it falls back. Thus, when a small insect, commonly an ant, blunders
into the pit, its weight causes the sand to collapse below it, drawing the
victim toward the center where the predator that dug the pit lies in wait
under a thin layer of loose sand. The larva assists this process by
Sand pit trap of the antlion
vigorously flicking sand out from the center of the pit when it detects a
disturbance. This undermines the pit walls and causes them to collapse
toward the center. The sand that the larva flings also pelts the prey with so much loose, rolling material as to prevent
it from getting any foothold on the easier slopes that the initial collapse of the slope has presented. The combined
effect is to bring the prey down to within grasp of the larva, which then can inject venom and digestive fluids.

Angle of Repose of various materials

Here is a list of various materials and their respected angle of repose [4] . All measurements are approximated and not
exact.
Material (condition)

Angle of Repose

Alfalfa (ground)

45

Alum

30 - 45

Alumina

30 - 45

Aluminum oxide

30

Asbestos (shredded)

30

Ashes

40

Asphalt (crushed)

30 - 45

Bagasse

45

Baking powder

30 - 45

Bark (wood refuse)

45

Angle of repose

54
Bauxite (crushed)

30 - 45

Bentonite

45

Bicarbonate of soda

42

Borax (fine)

30 - 45

Bran

30 - 45

Brewers grain

45

Calcium carbide

30 - 45

Chalk (fine)

45

Chalk (lumpy)

45

Chromic acid (flake)

25

Chromium (ore)

30 - 45

Cinders

25 - 40

Clay (dry lump)

25 - 40

Clay (wet excavated)

15

Clover seed

28

Coconut (shredded)

45

Coffee bean (fresh)

35 - 45

Coke (fuel)

30

Copra (expeller cake chopped) 20

Copra (expeller cake ground)

30

Copra (meal ground)

39

Copra (medium size)

20

Cork (ground commercial)

45

Corn (grits)

30 - 45

Cottonseed (lumpy cake)

30 - 45

Cottonseed (dry de-linted)

30 - 45

Cryolite

30 - 45

Cullet

30 - 45

Dolomite (lumpy)

30 - 45

Earth

30 - 45

Feldspar (pulverized)

45

Fish (meal)

45

Flour (wheat)

45

Fluorspar

45

Fuller's earth

35

Gluten (meal)

30 - 45

Granite

35 - 40

Graphite (flake)

30 - 45

Gravel (loose dry)

30 - 45

Angle of repose

55
Gravel (natural w/ sand)

25 - 30

Hematite

35

Hops (moist)

45

Ilmenite

30 - 45

Iron oxide (pigment)

40

Kaolin (green crushed)

35

Kaolin (pulverized)

45

Limestone (broken)

35 - 45

Magnetite

35

Malt

30 - 45

Manganese

35

Sand (dry)

34

Sand (water filled)

15 - 30

Sand (wet)

45

Shale (broken)

30 - 45

Shale (solid)

30 - 35

Wheat

28

See also
The angle of repose plays a part in several topics of technology and science, including:

Avalanche
Barchan
Bulk cargo
Aeolian processes
Mass wasting
Oceanic trench
Sand volcano
Scree
Concrete slump test

References
[1] A Mehta and G C Barker 1994 Rep. Prog. Phys. 57 383 "The dynamics of sand"
[2] Nichols, Edward Leamington; Franklin, William Suddards (1898). The Elements of Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=8IlCAAAAIAAJ). 1. Macmillan. p.101. .
[3] Effects of slope and particle size on ant locomotion: Implications for choice of substrate by antlions, Botz, Jason T.; Loudon, Catherine;
Barger, J. Bradley; Olafsen, Jeffrey S.; Steeples, Don W.; (J. Kans. Entomol. Soc.), ISSN 0022-8567, 2003, vol. 76, no3, pp. 426-435 abstract
(http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=14973602)
[4] Clover, Thomas J. Pocket Ref. Littleton, Colorado: Sequoia Publishing, Inc., 1998.

Cohesion (geology)

56

Cohesion (geology)
Cohesion is the component of shear strength of a rock or soil that is independent of interparticle friction.
In soils, true cohesion is caused by one of three things:
1. Electrostatic forces in stiff overconsolidated clays (which may be lost through weathering)
2. Cementing by Fe2O3, CaCO3, NaCl, etc
3. Root cohesion (which may be lost through logging or fire of the contributing plants, or through solution)
There can also be apparent cohesion. This is caused by:
1. Negative capillary pressure (which is lost upon wetting)
2. Pore pressure response during undrained loading (which is lost through time)

References
Collins internet-linked dictionary of Geology [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. collins. co. uk/ books. aspx?book=36184

Porosity
Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume,
between 01, or as a percentage between 0100%. The term is used in multiple fields including pharmaceutics,
ceramics, metallurgy, materials, manufacturing, earth sciences and construction.

Porosity in earth sciences and construction

Used in geology, hydrogeology, soil science, and building science, the porosity of a porous medium (such as rock or
sediment) describes the fraction of void space in the material, where the void may contain, for example, air or water.
It is defined by the ratio:

where VV is the volume of void-space (such as fluids) and VT is the total or bulk volume of material, including the
solid and void components. Both the mathematical symbols and are used to denote porosity.
Porosity is a fraction between 0 and 1, typically ranging from less than 0.01 for solid granite to more than 0.5 for
peat and clay. It may also be represented in percent terms by multiplying the fraction by 100.
The porosity of a rock, or sedimentary layer, is an important consideration when attempting to evaluate the potential
volume of water or hydrocarbons it may contain. Sedimentary porosity is a complex function of many factors,
including but not limited to: rate of burial, depth of burial, the nature of the connate fluids, the nature of overlying
sediments (which may impede fluid expulsion). One commonly used relationship between porosity and depth is
given by the Athy (1930) equation:[1]

where

is the surface porosity,

is the compaction coefficient (m1) and

A value for porosity can alternatively be calculated from the bulk density

is depth (m).
and particle density

Porosity

57

Normal particle density is assumed to be approximately 2.65 g/cm3, although a better estimation can be obtained by
examining the lithology of the particles.

Porosity and hydraulic conductivity

Porosity is indirectly related to hydraulic conductivity; for two similar sandy aquifers, the one with a higher porosity
will typically have a higher hydraulic conductivity (more open area for the flow of water), but there are many
complications to this relationship. Clays, which typically have very low hydraulic conductivity also have very high
porosities (due to the structured nature of clay minerals), which means clays can hold a large volume of water per
volume of bulk material, but they do not release water rapidly.

Sorting and porosity

Well sorted (grains of approximately all one size) materials have
higher porosity than similarly sized poorly sorted materials (where
smaller particles fill the gaps between larger particles). The
graphic illustrates how some smaller grains can effectively fill the
pores (where all water flow takes place), drastically reducing
porosity and hydraulic conductivity, while only being a small
fraction of the total volume of the material. For tables of common
porosity values for earth materials, see the "further reading"
section in the Hydrogeology article.

Effects of sorting on alluvial porosity

Porosity of rocks
Consolidated rocks (e.g. sandstone, shale, granite or limestone) potentially have more complex "dual" porosities, as
compared with alluvial sediment. This can be split into connected and unconnected porosity. Connected porosity is
more easily measured through the volume of gas or liquid that can flow into the rock, whereas fluids cannot access
unconnected pores.

Porosity of soil
Porosity of surface soil typically decreases as particle size increases. This is due to soil aggregate formation in finer
textured surface soils when subject to soil biological processes. Aggregation involves particulate adhesion and higher
resistance to compaction. Typical bulk density of sandy soil is between 1.5 and 1.7 g/cm. This calculates to a
porosity between 0.43 and 0.36. Typical bulk density of clay soil is between 1.1 and 1.3 g/cm. This calculates to a
porosity between 0.58 and 0.51. This seems counterintuitive because clay soils are termed heavy, implying lower
porosity. Heavy apparently refers to a gravitational moisture content effect in combination with terminology that
harkens back to the relative force required to pull a tillage implement through the clayey soil at field moisture
content as compared to sand.
Porosity of subsurface soil is lower than in surface soil due to compaction by gravity. Porosity of 0.20 is considered
normal for unsorted gravel size material at depths below the biomantle. Porosity in finer material below the
aggregating influence of pedogenesis can be expected to approximate this value.
Soil porosity is complex. Traditional models regard porosity as continuous. This fails to account for anomalous
features and produces only approximate results. Furthermore it cannot help model the influence of environmental
factors which affect pore geometry. A number of more complex models have been proposed, including fractals,
bubble theory, cracking theory, Boolean grain process, packed sphere, and numerous other models. See also

Porosity

58

Characterisation of pore space in soil.

Types of geologic porosities

Primary porosity
The main or original porosity system in a rock or unconfined alluvial deposit.
Secondary porosity
A subsequent or separate porosity system in a rock, often enhancing overall porosity of a rock. This can be a
result of chemical leeching of minerals or the generation of a fracture system. This can replace the primary
porosity or coexist with it (see dual porosity below).
Fracture porosity
This is porosity associated with a fracture system or faulting. This can create secondary porosity in rocks that
otherwise would not be reservoirs for hydrocarbons due to their primary porosity being destroyed (for example
due to depth of burial) or of a rock type not normally considered a reservoir (for example igneous intrusions or
metasediments).
Vuggy porosity
This is secondary porosity generated by dissolution of large features (such as macrofossils) in carbonate rocks
leaving large holes, vugs, or even caves.
Effective porosity (also called open porosity)
Refers to the fraction of the total volume in which fluid flow is effectively taking place (this excludes
dead-end pores or non-connected cavities). This is very important for groundwater and petroleum flow, as well
as for solute transport.
Dual porosity
Refers to the conceptual idea that there are two overlapping reservoirs which interact. In fractured rock
aquifers, the rock mass and fractures are often simulated as being two overlapping but distinct bodies. Delayed
yield, and leaky aquifer flow solutions are both mathematically similar solutions to that obtained for dual
porosity; in all three cases water comes from two mathematically different reservoirs (whether or not they are
physically different).
Macro porosity
Refers to pores greater than 50 nm in diameter. Flow through macropores is described by bulk diffusion.
Meso porosity
Refers to pores greater than 2 nm and less than 50 nm in diameter. Flow through mesopores is described by
Knudsen diffusion.
Micro porosity
Refers to pores smaller than 2 nm in diameter. Movement in micropores is by activated diffusion.

Porosity

59

Measuring porosity
Several methods can be employed to measure porosity:
Direct methods (determining the bulk volume of the porous sample,
and then determining the volume of the skeletal material with no
pores (pore volume= total volume material volume).
Optical methods (e.g., determining the area of the material versus
the area of the pores visible under the microscope). The "areal" and
"volumetric" porosities are equal for porous media with random
structure.[2]
Computed Tomography method (using Industrial CT Scanning to
create a 3D rendering of external and internal geometry, including
voids. Then implementing a defect analysis utilizing computer
software)

Optical method of measuring porosity: thin

section under gypsum plate shows porosity as
purple color, contrasted with carbonate grains of
other colors. Pleistocene eolianite from San
Salvador Island, Bahamas. Scale bar 500
microns.

Imbibition methods[2] , i.e., immersion of the porous sample, under

vacuum, in a fluid that preferentially wets the pores.
Water saturation method (pore volume= total volume of water volume of water left after soaking).
Water evaporation method (pore volume in cubic centimeters= weight of saturated sample in grams weight of
dried sample in grams)
Mercury intrusion porosimetry (several non-mercury intrusion techniques have been developed due to
toxicological concerns, and the fact that mercury tends to form amalgams with several metals/alloys).
Gas expansion method.[2] A sample of known bulk volume is enclosed in a container of known volume. It is
connected to another container with a known volume which is evacuated (i.e., near vacuum pressure). When a
valve connecting the two containers is opened, gas passes from the first container to the second until a uniform
pressure distribution is attained. Using ideal gas law, the volume of the pores is calculated as
,
where
VV is the effective volume of the pores,
VT is the bulk volume of the sample,
Va is the volume of the container containing the sample,
Vb is the volume of the evacuated container,
P1 is the initial pressure in the initial pressure in volume Va and VV, and
P2 is final pressure present in the entire system.
The porosity follows straightforwardly by its proper definition
.
Note that this method assumes that gas communicates between the pores and the surrounding volume. In
practice, this means that the pores must not be closed cavities.

Porosity

References
Glasbey, C. A.; G. W. Horgan and J. F. Darbyshire (September 1991). "Image analysis and three-dimensional
modelling of pores in soil aggregates". Journal of Soil Science 42 (3): 479486.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1991.tb00424.x.
Horgan, G. W.; B. C. Ball (1994). "Simulating diffusion in a Boolean model of soil pores". European Journal of
Soil Science 45 (4): 483491. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1994.tb00534.x.
Horgan, Graham W. (1996-10-01). A review of soil pore models [3]. Retrieved 2006-04-16.
Horgan, G. W. (June 1998). "Mathematical morphology for soil image analysis". European Journal of Soil
Science 49 (2): 161173. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.1998.00160.x.
Horgan, G. W. (February 1999). "An investigation of the geometric influences on pore space diffusion".
Geoderma 88 (1-2): 5571. doi:10.1016/S0016-7061(98)00075-5.
Nelson, J. Roy (January 2000). "Physics of impregnation" [4]. Microscopy Today 8 (1).

Footnotes
[1] ATHY L.F., 1930. Density, porosity and compactation of sedimentary rocks, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. v. 14, pp. 1-24.
[2] F.A.L. Dullien, "Porous Media. Fluid Transport and Pore Structure", Academic Press, 1992.
[3] http:/ / www. bioss. sari. ac. uk/ ~graham/ sprev. pdf
[4] http:/ / microscopy-today. com/ PDFFiles/ MT-2000-01-small. pdf

Permeability (earth sciences)

Permeability in fluid mechanics and the earth sciences (commonly symbolized as , or k) is a measure of the ability
of a porous material (often, a rock or unconsolidated material) to transmit fluids.

Units
The SI unit for permeability is m2. A traditional unit for permeability is the darcy (D), or more commonly the
millidarcy (mD) (1darcy 1012m2). The unit of cm2 is also sometimes used (1m2 = 104 cm2).

Applications
The concept of permeability is of importance in determining the flow characteristics of hydrocarbons in oil and gas
reservoirs, and of groundwater in aquifers.
For a rock to be considered as an exploitable hydrocarbon reservoir without stimulation, its permeability must be
greater than approximately 100 mD (depending on the nature of the hydrocarbon - gas reservoirs with lower
permeabilities are still exploitable because of the lower viscosity of gas with respect to oil). Rocks with
permeabilities significantly lower than 100 mD can form efficient seals (see petroleum geology). Unconsolidated
sands may have permeabilities of over 5000 mD.
The concept has also many practical applications outside of geology, for example in chemical engineering (e.g.,
filtration).

60

Permeability (earth sciences)

Description
Permeability is part of the proportionality constant in Darcy's law which relates discharge (flow rate) and fluid
physical properties (e.g. viscosity), to a pressure gradient applied to the porous media:

Therefore:

where:
is the superficial fluid flow velocity through the medium (i.e., the average velocity calculated as if the fluid
were the only phase present in the porous medium) (m/s)
is the permeability of a medium (m2)
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa s)
is the applied pressure difference (Pa)
is the thickness of the bed of the porous medium (m)
In naturally occurring materials, permeability values range over many orders of magnitude (see table below for an
example of this range).

Relation to hydraulic conductivity

The proportionality constant specifically for the flow of water through a porous media is called the hydraulic
conductivity; permeability is a portion of this, and is a property of the porous media only, not the fluid. Given the
value of hydraulic conductivity for a subsurface system, k, the permeability can be calculated as:

where

is the permeability, m2
k is the hydraulic conductivity, m/s
is the dynamic viscosity, kg/(m-s)
is the density of the fluid, kg/m3
g is the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2.

Determination
Permeability is typically determined in the lab by application of Darcy's law under steady state conditions or, more
generally, by application of various solutions to the diffusion equation for unsteady flow conditions.[1]
Permeability needs to be measured, either directly (using Darcy's law) or through estimation using empirically
derived formulas. However, for some simple models of porous media, permeability can be calculated (e.g., random
close packing of identical spheres).

61

Permeability (earth sciences)

Permeability model based on conduit flow

Based on HagenPoiseuille equation for viscous flow in a pipe, permeability can be expressed as:

where:
is the intrinsic permeability [length2]
is a dimensionless constant that is related to the configuration of the flow-paths
is the average, or effective pore diameter [length].

Intrinsic and absolute permeability

The terms intrinsic permeability and absolute permeability stress that the permeability value in question is an
intensive property (not a spatial average of a heterogeneous block of material), that it is a function of the material
structure only (and not of the fluid), and explicitly distinguishes the value from that of relative permeability.

Permeability to gases
Sometimes permeability to gases can be somewhat different that those for liquids in the same media. One difference
is attributable to "slippage" of gas at the interface with the solid[2] when the gas mean free path is comparable to the
pore size (about 0.01 to 0.1 m at standard temperature and pressure). See also Knudsen diffusion and constrictivity.
For example, measurement of permeability through sandstones and shales yielded values from 9.0x10-19 m2 to
2.4x10-12m2 for water and between 1.7x10-17m2 to 2.6x10-12m2 for nitrogen gas[3] .

Tensor permeability
To model permeability in anisotropic media, a permeability tensor is needed. Pressure can be applied in three
directions, and for each direction, permeability can be measured (via Darcy's law in 3D) in three directions, thus
leading to a 3 by 3 tensor. The tensor is realized using a 3 by 3 matrix being both symmetric and positive definite
(SPD matrix):
The tensor is symmetric by the Onsager reciprocal relations.
The tensor is positive definite as the component of the flow parallel to the pressure drop is always in the same
direction as the pressure drop.
The permeability tensor is always diagonalizable (being both symmetric and positive definite). The eigenvectors will
yield the principal directions of flow, meaning the directions where flow is parallel to the pressure drop, and the
eigenvalues representing the principal permeabilities.

Ranges of common intrinsic permeabilities

These values do not depend on the fluid properties; see the table derived from the same source for values of
hydraulic conductivity, which are specific to the material through which the fluid is flowing.

62

Permeability (earth sciences)

63

Permeability
Unconsolidated Sand &
Gravel

Pervious
Well Sorted
Gravel

Semi-Pervious

Well Sorted Sand or Sand &

Gravel

Unconsolidated Clay &

Organic

Very Fine Sand, Silt, Loess,

Loam

Peat

Consolidated Rocks

Highly Fractured Rocks

Impervious

Layered Clay

Oil Reservoir Rocks

Fresh
Sandstone

Unweathered Clay

Fresh Limestone,
Dolomite

Fresh Granite

(cm2)

0.001

0.0001

105

106

107

108

109

1010

1011

1012

1013

1014 1015

(millidarcy)

10+8

10+7

10+6

10+5

10,000

1,000

100

10

0.1

0.01

0.001 0.0001

Source: modified from Bear, 1972

Footnotes
[1] "CalcTool: Porosity and permeability calculator" (http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ eng/ fluid/ darcy). www.calctool.org. . Retrieved
2008-05-30.
[2] L. J. Klinkenberg, "The Permeability Of Porous Media To Liquids And Gases", Drilling and Production Practice, 41-200, 1941 (abstract)
(http:/ / www. onepetro. org/ mslib/ servlet/ onepetropreview?id=API-41-200& soc=API& speAppNameCookie=ONEPETRO).
[3] J. P. Bloomfield and A. T. Williams, "An empirical liquid permeability-gas permeability correlation for use in aquifer properties studies".
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology; November 1995; v. 28; no. Supplement_2; p.S143-S150. (abstract) (http:/ /
qjegh. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 28/ Supplement_2/ S143)

References
Bear, Jacob, 1972. Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Dover. ISBN 0-486-65675-6
Wang, H. F., 2000. Theory of Linear Poroelasticity with Applications to Geomechanics and Hydrogeology,
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691037469

External links
Graphical depiction of different flow rates through materials of differing permeability (http://techalive.mtu.edu/
meec/module06/Permeability.htm)
Web-based porosity and permeability calculator given flow characteristics (http://www.calctool.org/CALC/
eng/fluid/darcy)
Florida Method of Test For Concrete Resistivity as an Electrical Indicator of its Permeability (http://www.dot.
state.fl.us/statematerialsoffice/administration/resources/library/publications/fstm/methods/fm5-578.pdf)

Specific storage

64

Specific storage
Specific storage (Ss), storativity (S), specific yield (Sy) and specific capacity are material physical properties that
characterize the capacity of an aquifer to release groundwater from storage in response to a decline in hydraulic
head. For that reason they are sometimes referred to as "storage properties". In the field of hydrogeology, these
properties are often determined using some combination of field hydraulic tests (e.g., aquifer tests) and laboratory
tests on aquifer material samples.

Specific storage
The specific storage is the amount of water that a portion of an aquifer releases from storage, per unit mass or
volume of aquifer, per unit change in hydraulic head, while remaining fully saturated.
Mass specific storage is the mass of water than an aquifer releases from storage, per mass of aquifer, per unit
decline in hydraulic head:

where
is the mass specific storage ([L-1]);
is the mass of that portion of the aquifer from which the water is released ([M]);
is the mass of water released from storage ([M]); and
is the decline in hydraulic head ([L]).
Volumetric specific storage (or volume specific storage) is the volume of water that an aquifer releases from
storage, per volume of aquifer, per unit decline in hydraulic head (Freeze and Cherry, 1979):

where
is the volumetric specific storage ([L-1]);
is the bulk volume of that portion of the aquifer from which the water is released ([L3]);
is the volume of water released from storage ([L3]);
is the decline in pressure(Nm-2 or [ML-1T-2]) ;
is the decline in hydraulic head ([L]) and
is the specific weight of water (Nm-3 or [ML-2T-2]).
In hydrogeology, volumetric specific storage is much more commonly encountered than mass specific storage.
Consequently, the term specific storage generally refers to volumetric specific storage.
In terms of measurable physical properties, specific storage can be expressed as
)
where
is the specific weight of water (Nm-3 or [ML-2T-2])
is the porosity of the material (dimensionless ratio between 0 and 1)
is the compressibility of the bulk aquifer material (m2N-1 or [LM-1T2]), and
is the compressibility of water (m2N-1 or [LM-1T2])

Specific storage

65

The compressibility terms relate a given change in stress to a change in volume (a strain). These two terms can be
defined as:

where
is the effective stress (N or [MLT-2])
These equations relate a change in total or water volume (

or pore pressure

or

) per change in applied stress (effective stress

) per unit volume. The compressibilities (and therefore also Ss) can be estimated from

laboratory consolidation tests (in an apparatus called a consolidometer), using the consolidation theory of soil
mechanics (developed by Karl Terzaghi).

Storativity
Storativity is the volume of water released from storage per unit decline in hydraulic head in the aquifer, per unit
area of the aquifer, or:

Storativity is the vertically integrated specific storage value for a confined aquifer or aquitard. For a confined
homogeneous aquifer or aquitard they are simply related by:

where

is the thickness of aquifer. Storativity is a dimensionless quantity, and ranges between 0 and the effective

porosity of the aquifer; although for confined aquifers, this number is usually much less than 0.01.
The storage coefficient of an unconfined aquifer is approximately equal to the specific yield,
from specific storage,

is typically orders of magnitude less.

Specific yield
Values of specific yield, from Johnson (1967)
Material

Specific Yield (%)

min

avg

max

Unconsolidated deposits
Clay

Sandy clay (mud)

12

Silt

18

19

Fine sand

10

21

28

Medium sand

15

26

32

Coarse sand

20

27

35

Gravelly sand

20

25

35

Fine gravel

21

25

35

Medium gravel

13

23

26

Coarse gravel

12

22

26

, since the release

Specific storage

66
Consolidated deposits
Fine-grained sandstone

21

Medium-grained sandstone

27

Limestone

14

Schist

26

Siltstone

12

Tuff

21
Other deposits

Dune sand

38

Loess

18

Peat

44

Till, predominantly silt

Till, predominantly sand

16

Till, predominantly gravel

16

Specific yield, also known as the drainable porosity, is a ratio, less than or equal to the effective porosity, indicating
the volumetric fraction of the bulk aquifer volume that a given aquifer will yield when all the water is allowed to
drain out of it under the forces of gravity:

where
is the volume of water drained, and
is the total rock or material volume
It is primarily used for unconfined aquifers, since the elastic storage component,

, is relatively small and usually

has an insignificant contribution. Specific yield can be close to effective porosity, but there are several subtle things
which make this value more complicated than it seems. Some water always remains in the formation, even after
drainage; it clings to the grains of sand and clay in the formation. Also, the value of specific yield may not be fully
realized for a very long time, due to complications caused by unsaturated flow.

References
Freeze, R.A. and J.A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 604 p.
Johnson, A.I. 1967. Specific yield compilation of specific yields for various materials. U.S. Geological Survey
Water Supply Paper 1662-D. 74 p.
Morris, D.A. and A.I. Johnson. 1967. Summary of hydrologic and physical properties of rock and soil materials
as analyzed by the Hydrologic Laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey 1948-1960. U.S. Geological Survey
Water Supply Paper 1839-D. 42 p.

67

SOIL MECHANICS
Soil mechanics
Soil mechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics that describes the behavior of soils. It differs from fluid
mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and
water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand, and gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids, liquids, and gasses
and other matter.[1] [2] [3] [4] Along with rock mechanics, soil mechanics provides the theoretical basis for analysis in
geotechnical engineering [5] , a subdiscipline of Civil engineering. Soil mechanics is used to analyze the
deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are supported on or made of soil, or
structures that are buried in soils [6] . Examples applications are building and bridge foundations, retaining walls,
dams, and buried pipeline systems. Principles of soil mechanics are also used in related disciplines such as
geophysical engineering, engineering geology, coastal engineering, agricultural engineering, hydrology and soil
physics.
This article describes the genesis and composition of
soil, the distinction between pore water pressure and
inter-granular effective stress, capillary action of fluids
in the pore spaces, soil classification, seepage and
permeability, time dependent change of volume due to
squeezing water out of tiny pore spaces, also known as
consolidation, shear strength and stiffness of soils. The
shear strength of soils is primarily derived from friction
between the particles and interlocking, which are very
sensitive to the effective stress [6] . The article concludes
with some examples of geotechnical engineering
applications of the principles of soil mechanics such as
slope stability, lateral earth pressure on retaining walls,
and bearing capacity of foundations.

The Tower of Pisa -- an example of a problem due to deformation

of soil.

Soil mechanics

68

Genesis and composition of soils

Genesis
The primary mechanism of soil creation is the
weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous rock,
metamorphic rock and sedimentary rock) may be
broken down into small particles to create soil.
Weathering
mechanisms
are
physical
weathering, chemical weathering, and biological
weathering [1] [2] [3] Human activities such as
excavation, blasting, and waste disposal, may
also create soil. Over geologic time, deeply
buried soils may be altered by pressure and
temperature to become metamorphic or
sedimentary rock, and if melted and solidified
again, they would complete the geologic cycle
by becoming igneous rock.[3]

Slope instability issues for a temporary flood control levee in North Dakota,
2009

Physical weathering includes temperature

effects, freeze and thaw of water in cracks, rain,
wind, impact and other mechanisms. Chemical
weathering includes dissolution of matter
composing a rock and precipitation in the form
of another mineral. Clay minerals, for example
can be formed by weathering of feldspar, which
is the most common mineral present in igneous
rock.
The most common mineral constituent of silt and
sand is quartz, also called silica, which has the
Earthwork in Germany
chemical name silicon dioxide. The reason that
feldspar is most common in rocks but silicon is
more prevalent in soils is that feldspar is much more soluble than silica.
Silt, Sand, and Gravel are basically little pieces of broken rocks.
According to the Unified Soil Classification System, silt particle sizes are in the range of 0.002mm to 0.075mm and
sand particles have sizes in the range of 0.075mm to 4.75mm.
Gravel particles are broken pieces of rock in the size range 4.75mm to 100mm.
Particles larger than gravel are called cobbles and boulders.[1] [2]

Soil mechanics

69

Fox Glacier, New Zealand: Soil produced and transported by

intense weathering and erosion.

Transport
Soil deposits are affected by the mechanism of transport and
deposition to their location. Soils that are not transported are called
residual soils -- they exist at the same location as the rock from
which they were generated. Decomposed granite is a common
example of a residual soil. The common mechanisms of transport
are the actions of gravity, ice, water, and wind. Wind blown soils
include dune sands and loess. Water carries particles of different
size depending on the speed of the water, thus soils transported by
water are graded according to their size. Silt and clay may settle
out in a lake, and gravel and sand collect at the bottom of a river
bed. Wind blown soil deposits (aeolian soils) also tend to be sorted
according to their grain size. Erosion at the base of glaciers is
powerful enough to pick up large rocks and boulders as well as
soil; soils dropped by melting ice can be a well graded mixture of
widely varying particle sizes. Gravity on its own may also carry
particles down from the top of a mountain to make a pile of soil
and boulders at the base; soil deposits transported by gravity are
called colluvium.[1] [2] .

Example soil horizons. a) top soil and colluvium b)

mature residual soil c) young residual soil d) weathered
rock.

Soil mechanics

70

The mechanism of transport also has a major effect on the particle shape. For example, low velocity grinding in a
river bed will produce rounded particles. Freshly fractured colluvium particles often have a very angular shape.

Soil composition
Soil mineralogy
Silts, sands and gravels are classified by their size, and hence they may consist of a variety of minerals. Owing to the
stability of quartz compared to other rock minerals, quartz is the most common constituent of sand and silt . Mica,
and feldspar are other common minerals present in sands and silts [1] . The mineral constituents of gravel may be
more similar to that of the parent rock.
The common clay minerals are montmorillonite or smectite, illite, and kaolinite or kaolin. These minerals tend to
form in sheet or plate like structures, with length typically ranging between
and
and thickness
typically ranging between

and

, and they have a relatively large specific surface area. The

specific surface area (SSA) is defined as the ratio of the surface area of particles to the mass of the particles. Clay
minerals typically have specific surface areas in the range of 10 to 1,000 square meters per gram of solid [3] . Due to
the large surface area available for chemical, electrostatic, and van der Waals interaction, the mechanical behavior of
clay minerals is very sensitive to the amount of pore fluid available and the type and amount of dissolved ions in the
pore fluid.[1]
The minerals of soils are predominantly formed by atoms of oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, and aluminum, organized in
various crystalline forms. These elements along with calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and carbon constitute
over 99 per cent of the solid mass of soils.[1]
Grain size distribution
Soils consist of a mixture of particles of different size, shape and mineralogy. Because the size of the particles
obviously has a significant effect on the soil behavior, the grain size and grain size distribution are used to classify
soils. The grain size distribution describes the relative proportions of particles of various sizes. The grain size is
often visualized in a cumulative distribution graph which, for example, plots the percentage of particles finer than a
given size as a function of size. The median grain size,
, is the size for which 50% of the particle mass consists
of finer particles. Soil behavior, especially the hydraulic conductivity, tends to be dominated by the smaller particles,
hence, the term "effective size", denoted by
, is defined as the size for which 10% of the particle mass consists
of finer particles.
Sands and gravels that possess a wide range of particle sizes with a smooth distribution of particle sizes are called
well graded soils. If the soil particles in a sample are predominantly in a relatively narrow range of sizes, the soil are
called uniformly graded soils. If there are distinct gaps in the gradation curve, e.g., a mixture of gravel and fine sand,
with no coarse sand, the soils may be called gap graded. Uniformly graded and gap graded soils are both considered
to be poorly graded. There are many methods for measuring particle size distribution. The two traditional methods
used in geotechnical engineering are sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis.

Soil mechanics

71

Sieve analysis
The size distribution of gravel and sand particles are typically
measured using sieve analysis. The formal procedure is described by
ASTM (number needed). A stack of sieves with accurately
dimensioned holes between a mesh of wires is used to separate the
particles into size bins. A known volume of dried soil, with clods
broken down to individual particles, is put into the top of a stack of
sieves arranged from coarse to fine. The stack of sieves is shaken for a
standard period of time so that the particles are sorted into size bins.
This method works reasonably well for particles in the sand and gravel
Sieve
size range. Fine particles tend to stick to each other, and hence the
sieving process is not an effective method. If there are a lot of fines
(silt and clay) present in the soil it may be necessary to run water through the sieves to wash the coarse particles and
clods through.
A variety of sieve sizes are available. The boundary between sand and silt is arbitrary. According to the Unified Soil
Classification System, a #4 sieve (4 openings per inch) having 4.75mm opening size separates sand from gravel and
a #200 sieve with an 0.075mm opening separates sand from silt and clay. According to the British standard,
0.063mm is the boundary between sand and silt, and 2mm is the boundary between sand and gravel.[3]
Hydrometer analysis
The classification of fine-grained soils, i.e., soils that are finer than sand, is determined primarily by their Atterberg
limits, not by their grain size. If it is important to determine the grain size distribution of fine-grained soils, the
hydrometer test may be performed. In the hydrometer tests, the soil particles are mixed with water and shaken to
produce a dilute suspension in a glass cylinder, and then the cylinder is left to sit. A hydrometer is used to measure
the density of the suspension as a function of time. Clay particles may take several hours to settle past the depth of
measurement of the hydrometer. Sand particles may take less than a second. Stoke's law provides the theoretical
basis to calculate the relationship between sedimentation velocity and particle size. ASTM provides the detailed
procedures for performing the Hydrometer test.
Clay particles can be sufficiently small that they never settle because they are kept in suspension by Brownian
motion, in which case they may be classified as colloids.
Mass-volume relations
There are a variety of parameters used to describe the relative
proportions of air, water and solid in a soil. This section defines these
parameters and some of their interrelationships [2] [6] . The basic
notation is as follows:
,

, and

represent the volumes of air, water and solids in a

soil mixture;
,

, and

represent the weights of air, water and solids in

a soil mixture;
,

, and

A phase diagram of soil indicating the masses and

volumes of air, solid, water, and voids.

represent the masses of air, water and solids in

a soil mixture;
,

, and

represent the densities of the constituents (air, water and solids) in a soil mixture;

Note that the weights, W, can be obtained by multiplying the mass, M, by the acceleration due to gravity, g; e.g.,

Soil mechanics

72

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of one material compared to the density of pure water (
).
Specific gravity of solids,
Note that unit weights, conventionally denoted by the symbol
of

by the acceleration due to gravity,

Density, Bulk Density, or Wet Density,

may be obtained by multiplying the density instead

.
, are different names for the density of the mixture, i.e., the total mass of

air, water, solids divided by the total volume of air water and solids (the mass of air is assumed to be zero for
practical purposes):

Dry Density,

, is the mass of solids divided by the total volume of air water and solids:

Buoyant Density,

, defined as the density of the mixture minus the density of water is useful if the soil is

suberged under water:

where

is the density of water

Water Content, is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solid. It is easily measured by weighing a sample of the
soil, drying it out in an oven and re-weighing. Standard procedures are described by ASTM.

Void ratio,

Porosity,

, is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids:

, is the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume, and is related to the void ratio:

Degree of saturation,

, is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids:

From the above definitions, some useful relationships can be derived by use of basic algebra.

Soil mechanics

73

Effective stress and capillarity: hydrostatic conditions

To understand the mechanics of soils it is necessary to understand how
normal stresses and shear stresses are shared by the different phases.
Neither gas nor liquid provide significant resistance to shear stress. The
shear resistance of soil is provided by friction and interlocking of the
particles. The friction depends on the intergranular contact stresses
between solid particles. The normal stresses, on the other hand, are
shared by the fluid and the particles. Although the pore air is relatively
compressible, and hence takes little normal stress in most geotechnical
engineering problems, liquid water is relatively incompressible and if
the voids are saturated with water, the pore water must be squeezed out
in order to pack the particles closer together.

Spheres immersed in water, reducing effective

stress.

The principle of effective stress, introduced by Karl Terzaghi, states that the effective stress ' (i.e., the average
intergranular stress between solid particles) may be calculated by a simple subtraction of the pore pressure from the
total stress:

where is the total stress and u is the pore pressure. It is not practical to measure ' directly, so in practice the
vertical effective stress is calculated from the pore pressure and vertical total stress. The distinction between the
terms pressure and stress is also important. By definition, pressure at a point is equal in all directions but stresses at a
point can be different in different directions. In soil mechanics, compressive stresses and pressures are considered to
be positive and tensile stresses are considered to be negative, which is different from the solid mechanics sign
convention for stress.

Total stress
For level ground conditions, the total vertical stress at a point,
, on average, is the weight of everything above
that point per unit area. The vertical stress beneath a uniform surface layer with density , and thickness
is for
example:

where

is the acceleration due to gravity, and

is the unit weight of the overlying layer. If there are multiple

layers of soil or water above the point of interest, the vertical stress may be calculated by summing the product of the
unit weight and thickness of all of the overlying layers. Total stress increases with increasing depth in proportion to
the density of the overlying soil.
It is not possible to calculate the horizontal total stress in this way. Lateral earth pressures are addressed elsewhere.

Soil mechanics

74

Pore water pressure

Hydrostatic conditions
If there is no pore water flow occurring in the soil, the
pore water pressures will be hydrostatic. The water table
is located at the depth where the water pressure is equal to
the atmospheric pressure. For hydrostatic conditions, the
water pressure increases linearly with depth below the
water table:

Water is drawn into a small tube by surface tension. Water

pressure, u, is negative above and positive below the free water
surface

where

is the density of water, and

is the depth below the water table.

Capillary action

Water at particle contacts

Due to surface tension water will rise up in a small capillary tube above a free surface of water. Likewise, water will
rise up above the water table into the small pore spaces around the soil particles. In fact the soil may be completely
saturated for some distance above the water table. Above the height of capillary saturation, the soil may be wet but
the water content will decrease with elevation. If the water in the capillary zone is not moving, the water pressure
obeys the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium,
, but note that
, is negative above the water table.
Hence, hydrostatic water pressures are negative above the water table. The thickness of the zone of capillary
saturation depends on the pore size, but typically, the heights vary between a centimeter or so for coarse sand to 10's
of meters for a silt or clay [3] .

Soil mechanics

intergranular contact force due to

surface tension.

The surface tension of water explains why the water does not drain out of a wet sand castle or a moist ball of clay.
Negative water pressures make the water stick to the particles and pull the particles to each other, friction at the
particle contacts make a sand castle stable. But as soon as a wet sand castle is submerged below a free water surface,
the negative pressures are lost and the castle collapses. Considering the effective stress equation,
, if
the water pressure is negative, the effective stress may be positive, even on a free surface (a surface where the total
normal stress is zero). The negative pore pressure pulls the particles together and causes compressive particle to
particle contact forces. Negative pore pressures in clayey soil can be much more powerful than those in sand.
Negative pore pressures explain why clay soils shrink when they dry and swell as they are wetted. The swelling and
shrinkage can cause major distress, especially to light structures and roads.[7]
Later sections of this article address the pore water pressures for #steady state
seepage and #consolidation problems.

Soil Classification
Geotechnical engineers classify the soil particle types by performing tests on
disturbed (dried, passed through sieves, and remolded) samples of the soil. This
Shrinkage caused by drying
provides information about the characteristics of the soil grains themselves. It should
be noted that classification of the types of grains present in a soil does not account for important effects of the
structure or fabric of the soil, terms that describe compactness of the particles and patterns in the arrangement of
particles in a load carrying framework as well as the pore size and pore fluid distributions.

Classification of soil grains

In the US and other countries, the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)is often used for soil classification.
Other classification systems include the British Standard BS5390 and the AASHTO soil classification system [3] .
Classification of sands and gravels
In the USCS, gravels (given the symbol G) and sands (given the symbol S) are classified according to their grain size
distribution. For the USCS, gravels may be given the classification symbol GW (well-graded gravel), GP (poorly
graded gravel), GM (gravel with a large amount of silt), or GC (gravel with a large amount of clay). Likewise sands
may be classified as being SW, SP, SM or SC. Sands and gravels with a small but non-negligible amount of fines may
be given a dual classification such as SW-SC.

75

Soil mechanics

76

Atterberg Limits
Clays and Silts, often called 'fine-grained soils', are classified according to their Atterberg limits; the most commonly
used Atterberg limits are the Liquid limit (denoted by LL or
), Plastic Limit (denoted by PL or
), and
Shrinkage limit (denoted by SL). The shrinkage limit corresponds to a water content below which the soil will not
shrink as it dries.
The liquid limit and plastic limit are arbitrary limits determined by tradition and convention. The liquid limit is
determined by measuring the water content for which a groove closes after 25 blows in a standard test [8] .
Alternatively, a fall cone test apparatus may be use to measure the liquid Limit. The undrained shear strength of
remolded soil at the liquid limit is approximately 2 kPa [4] [9] . The plastic limit is the water content below which it is
not possible to roll by hand the soil into 3mm diameter cylinders. The soil cracks or breaks up as it is rolled down to
this diameter. Remolded soil at the plastic limit is quite stiff, having an undrained shear strength of the order of about
200 kPa [4] [9] .
The Plasticity index of a particular soil specimen is defined as the difference between the Liquid limit and the Plastic
limit of the specimen; it is an indicator of how much water the soil particles in the specimen can absorb. The
plasticity index is the difference in water contents between states when the soil is relatively soft and the soil is
relatively brittle when molded by hand.
Classification of silts and clays
According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), silts and clays are classified by plotting the values of
their plasticity index and liquid limit on a plasticity chart. The A-Line on the chart separates clays (given the USCS
symbol C) from silts (given the symbol M. LL=50% separates high plasticity soils (given the modifier symbol H)
from low plasticity soils (given the modifier symbol L). A soil that plots above the A-line and has LL>50% would,
for example, be classified as CH. Other possible classifications of silts and clays are ML, CL and MH. If the
Atterberg limits plot in the"hatched" region on the graph near the origin, the soils are given the dual classification
'CL-ML'.

Indices related to soil strength

Liquidity Index
The effects of the water content on the strength of saturated remolded soils can be quantified by the use of the
liquidity index, LI:

When the LI is 1, remolded soil is at the liquid limit and it has an undrained shear strength of about 2 kPa. When the
soil is at the plastic limit, the LI is 0 and the undrained shear strength is about 200 kPa.[4] [10] .
Relative density
The density of sands is often characterized by the relative density,

is the "maximum void ratio" corresponding to a very loose state as defined by ASTM (give test number)
is the "minimum void ratio" corresponding to a very dense state as defined by ASTM (give test number)
Thus if

the sand or gravel is very dense, and if

the soil is extremely loose and unstable.

Soil mechanics

77

Seepage: steady state flow of water

A cross section showing the water table varying with surface topography as well as
a perched water table.

If fluid pressures in a soil deposit are uniformly increasing with depth according to

then hydrostatic

conditions will prevail and the fluids will not be flowing through the soil.
is the depth below the water table.
However, if the water table is sloping or there is a perched water table as indicated in the accompanying sketch, then
seepage will occur. For steady state seepage, the seepage velocities are not varying with time. If the water tables are
changing levels with time, or if the soil is in the process of consolidation, then steady state conditions do not apply.

Darcy's law
Darcy's law states that the volume of flow of the pore fluid through a porous medium per unit time is proportional to
the rate of change of excess fluid pressure with distance. The constant of proportionality includes the viscosity of the
fluid and the intrinsic permeability of the soil. For the simple case of a horizontal tube filled with soil

Diagram showing definitions and directions for Darcy's law.

The total discharge,

(units of volume per time, e.g., ft/s or m/s) is proportional to the intrinsic permeability,

, the cross sectional area,

, and rate of pore pressure change with distance,

to the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,

, and inversely proportional

. The negative sign is needed because fluids flow from high pressure to low

pressure. So if the change in pressure is negative (in the -direction) then the flow will be positive (in the
-direction). The above equation works well for a horizontal tube, but if the tube was inclined so that point b was a
different elevation than point a, the equation would not work. The effect of elevation is accounted for by replacing
the pore pressure by excess pore pressure,
defined as:

Soil mechanics

78

where is the depth measured from an arbitrary elevation reference (datum). Replacing
general equation for flow:

Dividing both sides of the equation by

by

we obtain a more

, and expressing the rate of change of excess pore pressure as a derivative,

we obtain a more general equation for the apparent velocity in the x-direction:

where
has units of velocity and is called the Darcy velocity, or discharge velocity. The seepage velocity
(average velocity of fluid molecules in the pores) is related to the Darcy velocity, and the porosity,

Civil Engineers predominantly work on problems that involve water and predominantly work on problems on earth
(in earths gravity). For this class of problems, civil engineers will often write Darcy's law in a much simpler form [4]
[6] [7]
:

where

is called permeability, and is defined as

, and i is called the hydraulic gradient. The

hydraulic gradient is the rate of change of total head with distance. The total head,

at a point is defined as the

height (measured relative to the datum) to which water would raise in a piezometer at that point. The total head is
related to the excess water pressure by:
and the

is zero if the datum for head measurement is chosen at the same elevation as the origin for the

depth, z used to calculate

Typical values of permeability

Values of the permeability,

, can vary by many orders of magnitude depending on the soil type. Clays may have

permeability as small as about

, gravels may have permeability up to about

. Layering and

heterogeneity and disturbance during the sampling and testing process make the accurate measurement of soil
permeability a very difficult problem.[4]

Flow nets
Darcy's Law applies in one, two or three dimensions [3] . In two or three dimensions, steady state seepage is
described by Laplace's equation. Computer programs are available to solve this equation. But traditionally
two-dimensional seepage problems were solved using and a graphical procedure known called flow nets [3] [7] [11] .
One set of lines in the flow net are in the direction of the water flow (flow lines), and the other set of lines are in the
direction of constant total head (equipotential lines). Flow nets may be used for example to estimate the quantity of
seepage under dams and sheet piling.

Soil mechanics

79

Seepage forces and erosion

When the seepage velocity is great enough, erosion can occur
because of the frictional drag exerted on the soil particles.
Vertically upwards seepage is a source of danger on the
downstream side of sheet piling and beneath the toe of a dam or
levee. Erosion of the soil, known as "piping", can lead to failure of
the structure and to sinkhole formation. Seeping water removes
soil, starting from the exit point of the seepage, and erosion
advances upgradient.[12] The term sand boil is used to describe the
appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe.[13]

A plan flow net to estimate flow of water from a stream

to a discharging well

Seepage pressures
Seepage in an upward direction reduces the effective stress within the soil. When the water pressure at a point in the
soil is equal to the total vertical stress at that point, the effective stress is zero and the soil has no frictional resistance
to deformation. For a surface layer, the vertical effective stress becomes zero within the layer when the upward
hydraulic gradient is equal to the critical gradient.[7] At zero effective stress soil has very little strength and layers of
relatively impermeable soil may heave up due to the underlying water pressures. The loss in strength due to upward
seepage is a common contributor to levee failures. The condition of zero effective stress associated with upward
seepage is also called liquefaction, Quicksand, or a boiling condition. Quicksand was so named because the soil
particles move around and appear to be 'alive' (the biblical meaning of 'quick' - as opposed to 'dead'). (Note that it is
not possible to be 'sucked down' into quicksand. On the contrary, you would float with about half your body out of
the water.)[14]

Consolidation: transient flow of water

Consolidation analogy. The piston is supported by water underneath and a spring. When a load is applied to the piston, water pressure increases to
support the load. As the water slowly leaks through the small hole, the load is transferred from the water pressure to the spring force.

Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the
soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing volume. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated
with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The time required to squeeze the water out of a thick deposit of
clayey soil layer might be years. For a layer of sand, the water may be squeezed out in a matter of seconds. A
building foundation or construction of a new embankment will cause the soil below to consolidate and this will cause
settlement which in turn may cause distress to the building or embankment. Karl Terzaghi developed the theory of

Soil mechanics
consolidation which enables prediction of the amount of settlement and the time required for the settlement to occur
[15]
. Soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their compression index and coefficient of consolidation.
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, drawing water back into the pores and
regaining some of the volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will
re-consolidate again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. Soil that has been
consolidated to a large pressure and has been subsequently unloaded is considered to be overconsolidated. The
maximum past vertical effective stress is termed the preconsolidation stress. A soil which is currently experiencing
the maximum past vertical effective stress is said to be normally consolidated. The overconsolidation ratio, (OCR) is
the ratio of the maximum past vertical effective stress to the current vertical effective stress. The OCR is significant
for two reasons: firstly, because the compressibility of normally consolidated soil is significantly larger than that for
overconsolidated soil, and secondly, the shear behavior and dilatancy of clayey soil are related to the OCR through
critical state soil mechanics; highly overconsolidated clayey soils are dilatant, while normally consolidated soils tend
to be contractive.[2] [3] [4]

Shear behavior: stiffness and strength

The shear strength and stiffness of soil determines whether or not
soil will be stable or how much it will deform. Knowledge of the
strength is necessary to determine if a slope will be stable, if a
building or bridge might settle too far into the ground, and the
limiting pressures on a retaining wall. It is important to distinguish
between failure of a soil element and the failure of a geotechnical
structure (e.g., a building foundation, slope or retaining wall);
some soil elements may reach their peak strength prior to failure of
the structure. Different criteria can be used to define the "shear
strength" and the "yield point" for a soil element from a
Typical stress strain curve for a drained dilatant soil
stress-strain curve. One may define the peak shear strength as the
peak of a stress strain curve, or the shear strength at critical state
as the value after large strains when the shear resistance levels off. If the stress-strain curve does not stabilize before
the end of shear strength test, the "strength" is sometimes considered to be the shear resistance at 15% to 20% strain
[7]
. The shear strength of soil depends on many factors including the effective stress and the void ratio.
The shear stiffness is important, for example, for evaluation of the magnitude of deformations of foundations and
slopes prior to failure and because it is related to the shear wave velocity. The slope of the initial, nearly linear,
portion of a plot of shear stress as a function of shear strain is called the shear modulus

Friction, interlocking and dilation

Soil is an assemblage of particles that have little to no cementation while rock (such as sandstone) may consist of an
assembly of particles that are strongly cemented together by chemical bonds. The shear strength of soil is primarily
due to interparticle friction and therefore, the shear resistance on a plane is approximately proportional to the
effective normal stress on that plane [3] . But soil also derives significant shear resistance from interlocking of grains.
If the grains are densely packed, the grains tend to spread apart from each other as they are subject to shear strain.
The expansion of the particle matrix due to shearing was called dilatancy by Osborne Reynolds [10] . If one considers
the energy required to shear an assembly of particles there is energy input by the shear force, T, moving a distance, x
and there is also energy input by the normal force, N, as the sample expands a distance, y [10] . Due to the extra
energy required for the particles to dilate against the confining pressures, dilatant soils have a greater peak strength
than contractive soils. Furthermore, as dilative soil grains dilate, they become looser (their void ratio increases), and

80

Soil mechanics

81

their rate of dilation decreases until they reach a critical void ratio. Contractive soils become denser as they shear,
and their rate of contraction decreases until they reach a critical void ratio.
The tendency for a soil to dilate or contract depends primarily on
the confining pressure and the void ratio of the soil. The rate of
dilation is high if the confining pressure is small and the void ratio
is small. The rate of contraction is high if the confining pressure is
large and the void ratio is large. As a first approximation, the
regions of contraction and dilation are separated by the critical
state line.

A critical state line separates the dilatant and

contractive states for soil

Failure criteria
After a soil reaches the critical state, it is no longer contracting or dilating and the shear stress on the failure plane
is determined by the effective normal stress on the failure plane
and critical state friction angle
:

The peak strength of the soil may be greater, however, due to the interlocking (dilatancy) contribution. This may be
stated:

Where

. However, use of a friction angle greater than the critical state value for design requires care.

The peak strength will not be mobilized everywhere at the same time in a practical problem such as a foundation,
slope or retaining wall. The critical state friction angle is not nearly as variable as the peak friction angle and hence it
can be relied upon with confidence [3] [4] [10] .
Not recognizing the significance of dilatancy, Coulomb proposed that the shear strength of soil may be expressed as
a combination of adhesion and friction components [10] :

It is now known that the

In particular,
(2006)

[10]

and

and

parameters in the last equation are not fundamental soil properties [3] [6] [10] [16] .

are different depending on the magnitude of effective stress [6] [16] . According to Schofield

, the longstanding use of

in practice has led many engineers to wrongly believe that

fundamental parameter. This assumption that

[16]

and

is a

are constant can lead to overestimation of peak strengths [3]

Soil mechanics

82

Structure, fabric, and chemistry

In addition to the friction and interlocking (dilatancy) components of strength, the structure and fabric also play a
significant role in the soil behavior. The structure and fabric include factors such as the spacing and arrangement of
the solid particles or the amount and spatial distribution of pore water; in some cases cementitious material
accumulates at particle-particle contacts. Mechanical behavior of soil is affected by the density of the particles and
their structure or arrangement of the particles as well as the amount and spatial distribution of fluids present (e.g.,
water and air voids). Other factors include the electrical charge of the particles, chemistry of pore water, chemical
bonds (i.e. cementation -particles connected through a solid substance such as recrystallized calcium carbonate) [1]
[16]

Drained and undrained shear

The presence of nearly incompressible fluids such as water in the pore spaces affects the ability for the pores to
dilate or contract.
If the pores are saturated with water, water must be sucked into the dilating pore spaces to fill the expanding pores
(this phenomena is visible at the beach when apparently dry spots form around feet that press into the wet sand.
Similarly, for contractive soil, water must be squeezed out of the
pore spaces to allow contraction to take place.
Dilation of the voids causes negative water pressures that draw
fluid into the pores, and contraction of the voids causes positive
pore pressures to push the water out of the pores. If the rate of
shearing is very large compared to the rate that water can be
sucked into or squeezed out of the dilating or contracting pore
spaces, then the shearing is called undrained shear, if the shearing
is slow enough that the water pressures are negligible, the shearing
is called drained shear. During undrained shear, the water pressure
u changes depending on volume change tendencies. From the
effective stress equation, the change in u directly effects the
effective stress by the equation:

Foot pressing in soil causes soil to dilate, drawing

water from the surface into the pores

and the strength is very sensitive to the effective stress. It follows then that the undrained shear strength of a soil may
be smaller or larger than the drained shear strength depending upon whether the soil is contractive or dilative.

Shear tests
Strength parameters can be measured in the laboratory using direct shear test, triaxial shear test, simple shear test,
fall cone test and vane shear test; there are numerous other devices and variations on these devices used in practice
today.

Other factors
The stress-strain relationship of soils, and therefore the shearing strength, is affected by [17] :
1. soil composition (basic soil material): mineralogy, grain size and grain size distribution, shape of particles, pore
fluid type and content, ions on grain and in pore fluid.
2. state (initial): Define by the initial void ratio, effective normal stress and shear stress (stress history). State can be
describe by terms such as: loose, dense, overconsolidated, normally consolidated, stiff, soft, contractive, dilative,
etc.

Soil mechanics

83

3. structure: Refers to the arrangement of particles within the soil mass; the manner in which the particles are
packed or distributed. Features such as layers, joints, fissures, slickensides, voids, pockets, cementation, etc., are
part of the structure. Structure of soils is described by terms such as: undisturbed, disturbed, remolded,
compacted, cemented; flocculent, honey-combed, single-grained; flocculated, deflocculated; stratified, layered,
laminated; isotropic and anisotropic.
4. Loading conditions: Effective stress path -drained, undrained, and type of loading -magnitude, rate (static,
dynamic), and time history (monotonic, cyclic).

Applications
Lateral earth pressure
Lateral earth stress theory is used to estimate the amount of stress soil can exert perpendicular to gravity. This is the
stress exerted on retaining walls. A lateral earth stress coefficient, K, is defined as the ratio of lateral (horizontal)
stress to vertical stress for cohesionless soils (K=h/v). There are three coefficients: at-rest, active, and passive.
At-rest stress is the lateral stress in the ground before any disturbance takes place. The active stress state is reached
when a wall moves away from the soil under the influence of lateral stress, and results from shear failure due to
reduction of lateral stress. The passive stress state is reached when a wall is pushed into the soil far enough to cause
shear failure within the mass due to increase of lateral stress. There are many theories for estimating lateral earth
stress; some are empirically based, and some are analytically derived.

Bearing capacity
The bearing capacity of soil is the average contact stress between a foundation and the soil which will cause shear
failure in the soil. Allowable bearing stress is the bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft
soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases,
the allowable bearing stress is determined with regard to the maximum allowable settlement.

Slope stability
The field of slope stability encompasses the analysis of static and
dynamic stability of slopes of earth and rock-fill dams, slopes of other
types of embankments, excavated slopes, and natural slopes in soil and
soft rock.[18]
As seen to the right, earthen slopes can develop a cut-spherical
weakness zone. The probability of this happening can be calculated in
advance using a simple 2-D circular analysis package...[19] A primary
difficulty with analysis is locating the most-probable slip plane for any
given situation.[20] Many landslides have been analyzed only after the
fact.

Simple slope slip section

Soil mechanics

References
[1] Mitchell, J.K., and Soga, K. (2005) Fundamentals of soil behavior, Third edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., ISBN-13:978-0-471-46302-7.
[2] Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., & Fam, M.A. (2001). Soils and Waves: Particulate Materials Behavior, Characterization and Process
Monitoring. Wiley. ISBN978-0-471-49058-6..
[3] Powrie, W., Spon Press, 2004, Soil Mechanics - 2nd ed ISBN 0-415-31156-X
[4] A Guide to Soil Mechanics, Bolton, Malcolm,Macmillan Press, 1979. ISBN 0-333-18932-0
[5] Fang, Y., Spon Press, 2006, Introductory Geotechnical Engineering (http:/ / www. tandfbuiltenvironment. com/ books/
Introductory-Geotechnical-Engineering-isbn9780415304023)
[6] Lambe, T. William & Robert V. Whitman. Soil Mechanics. Wiley, 1991; p. 29. ISBN 978-0-471-51192-2
[7] Holtz, R.D, and Kovacs, W.D., 1981. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc. page 448
[8] Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes: Annual Book of ASTM Standards (http:/ / www. astm. org/ Standards/ D2487. htm). D
2487-83. 04.08. American Society for Testing and Materials. 1985. pp. 395408.
[9] Wood, David Muir, Soil Behavior and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-521-33249-4
[10] Disturbed soil properties and geotechnical design, Schofield, Andrew N.,Thomas Telford, 2006. ISBN 0-7277-2982-9
[11] Cedergren, Harry R. (1977), Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8
[12] Jones, J. A. A. (1976). "Soil piping and stream channel initiation". Water Resources Research 7 (3): 602610.
doi:10.1029/WR007i003p00602.
[13] Dooley, Alan (June, 2006). "Sandboils 101: Corps has experience dealing with common flood danger" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20060727161844/ http:/ / www. hq. usace. army. mil/ cepa/ pubs/ jun06/ story8. htm). Engineer Update. US Army Corps of Engineers.
Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hq. usace. army. mil/ cepa/ pubs/ jun06/ story8. htm) on 2006-07-27. . Retrieved 2006-08-29.
[14] Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. 1996. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Article 18,
page 135.
[15] Terzaghi, K., 1943, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, New York
[16] Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., Mesri, G. (1996) Soil mechanics in Engineering Practice, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.,ISBN0-471-08658-4
[17] Poulos, S. J. 1989. Advance Dam Engineering for Design, Construction, and Rehabilitation: Liquefaction Related Phenomena. Ed. Jansen,
R.B, Van Nostrand Reinhold, pages 292-297.
[18] US Army Corps of Engineers Manual on Slope Stability (http:/ / www. usace. army. mil/ publications/ eng-manuals/ em1110-2-1902/ entire.
pdf)
[19] "Slope Stability Calculator" (http:/ / www. wise-uranium. org/ cssth. html). . Retrieved 2006-12-14.
[20] Chugh, Ashok (2002). "A method for locating critical slip surfaces in slope stability analysis" (http:/ / article. pubs. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ ppv/
RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet& journal=cgj& volume=39& calyLang=eng& articleFile=t02-042. pdf). NRC Research Press.

External links
Soil Mechanics notes and Lectures (http://www.aboutcivil.com/soil-mechanics.html)

84

Effective stress

85

Effective stress
Karl von Terzaghi first proposed the relationship for effective stress in 1936. [1] For him, the term effective meant
the calculated stress that was effective in moving soil, or causing displacements. It represents the average stress
carried by the soil skeleton.
Effective stress (') acting on a soil is calculated from two parameters, total stress () and pore water pressure (u)
according to:

Typically, for simple examples

Much like the concept of stress itself, the formula is a construct, for the easier visualization of forces acting on a soil
mass, especially simple analysis models for slope stability, involving a slip plane.[2] With these models, it is
important to know the total weight of the soil above (including water), and the pore water pressure within the slip
plane, assuming it is acting as a confined layer.
However, the formula becomes confusing when considering the true behaviour of the soil particles under different
measurable conditions, since none of the parameters are actually independent actors on the particles.
Consider a grouping of round quartz sand grains, piled loosely, in
a classic cannonball arrangement. As can be seen, there is a
contact stress where the spheres actually touch. Pile on more
spheres and the contact stresses increase, to the point of causing
frictional instability (dynamic friction), and perhaps failure. The
independent parameter affecting the contacts (both normal and
shear) is the force of the spheres above. This can be calculated by
using the overall average density of the spheres and the height of
spheres above.
Arrangement of Spheres showing contacts

Spheres immersed in water, reducing effective stress

If we then have these spheres in a beaker and add some water, they
will begin to float a little depending on their density (buoyancy).
With natural soil materials, the effect can be significant, as anyone
who has lifted a large rock out of a lake can attest. The contact
stress on the spheres decreases as the beaker is filled to the top of
the spheres, but then nothing changes if more water is added.
Although the water pressure between the spheres (pore water
pressure) is increasing, the effective stress remains the same,
because the concept of 'total stress' includes the weight of all the
water above. This is where the equation can become confusing,
and the effective stress can be calculated using the buoyant density
of the spheres (soil), and the height of the soil above.

Effective stress

The concept of effective stress truly becomes interesting when

dealing with non-hydrostatic pore water pressure. Under the
conditions of a pore pressure gradient, the ground water flows,
according to the permeability equation (Darcy's law). Using our
spheres as a model, this is the same as injecting (or withdrawing)
water between the spheres. If water is being injected, the seepage
force acts to separate the spheres and reduces the effective stress.
Thus, the soil mass becomes weaker. If water is being withdrawn,
the spheres are forced together and the effective stress increases.
[3]

86

Spheres being injected with water, reducing effective

stress
Two extremes of this effect are quicksand, where the groundwater
gradient and seepage force act against gravity; and the 'sandcastle
effect', [4] where the water drainage and capillary action act to strengthen the sand. As well, effective stress plays an
important role in slope stability, and other geotechnical engineering and engineering geology problems, such as
groundwater-related subsidence.

References
Das, Braja, 2005, Fundamental of Geotechnical Engineering - 2nd ed, ISBN 978-0-534-49294-6

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

http:/ / fbe. uwe. ac. uk/ public/ geocal/ SoilMech/ stresses/ stresses. htm
http:/ / www. dur. ac. uk/ ~des0www4/ cal/ slopes/ page4. htm
http:/ / fbe. uwe. ac. uk/ public/ geocal/ SoilMech/ water/ water. htm
http:/ / home. tu-clausthal. de/ ~pcdj/ publ/ PRL96_058301. pdf

Pore water pressure

Pore water pressure

Pore water pressure refers to the pressure of groundwater held within a soil or rock, in gaps between particles
(pores). Pore water pressures in below the phreatic level (see also groundwater) are measured in piezometers. The
vertical pore water pressure distribution in aquifers can generally be assumed to be close to hydrostatic.
In the unsaturated zone the pore pressure is determined by capillarity and is also referred to as tension, suction or
matric pressure. Pore water pressures under unsaturated conditions (vadose zone) are measured in with tensiometers.
Tensiometers operate by allowing the pore water to come into equlibrium with a reference pressure indicator through
a permeable ceramic cup placed in contact with the soil
Pore water pressure (sometimes abbreviated to pwp) is vital in calculating the stress state in the ground soil
mechanics, from Terzaghi's expression for the effective stress of a soil .

ISO 11276:1995
BS 7755-5.1: 1996 Soil quality Determination of pore water pressure Tensiometer method, which is identical
with ISO 11276:1995, defines pore water pressure as
the sum of matric and pneumatic pressures

Matric pressure
The amount of work that must be done in order to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of
water, identical in composition to the soil water, from a pool at the elevation and the external gas pressure of the
point under consideration, to the soil water at the point under consideration, divided by the volume of water
transported.[1]

Pneumatic pressure
The amount of work that must be done in order to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of
water, identical in composition to the soil water, from a pool at atmospheric pressure and at the elevation of the
point under consideration, to a similar pool at an external gas pressure of the point under consideration, divided by
the volume of water transported.[1]

References
[1] BS 7755 1996; Part 5.1

87

Shear strength (soil)

88

Shear strength (soil)

Shear strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the
magnitude of the shear stress that a soil can sustain. The shear
resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of particles,
and possibly cementation or bonding at particle contacts. Due to
interlocking, particulate material may expand or contract in
volume as it is subject to shear strains. If soil expands its volume,
the density of particles will decrease and the strength will
decrease; in this case, the peak strength would be followed by a
reduction of shear stress. The stress-strain relationship levels off
when the material stops expanding or contracting, and when
Typical stress strain curve for a drained dilatant soil
interparticle bonds are broken. The theoretical state at which the
shear stress and density remain constant while the shear strain
increases may be called the crtical state, steady state, or residual strength.
The volume change behavior and interparticle friction depend on
the density of the particles, the intergranular contact forces, and to
a somewhat lesser extent, other factors such as the rate of shearing
and the direction of the shear stress. The average normal
intergranular contact force per unit area is called the effective
stress.
If water is not allowed to flow in or out of the soil, the stress path
is called an undrained stress path. During undrained shear, if the
particles are surrounded by a nearly incompressible fluid such as
water, then the density of the particles cannot change without
drainage, but the water pressure and effective stress will change.
On the other hand, if the fluids are allowed to freely drain out of
the pores, then the pore pressures will remain constant and the test
path is called a drained stress path. The soil is free to dilate or
contract during shear if the soil is drained. In reality, soil is
partially drained, somewhere between the perfectly undrained and
drained idealized conditions.

A critical state line separates the dilatant and

contractive states for soil

The shear strength of soil depends on the effective stress, the drainage conditions, the density of the particles, the
rate of strain, and the direction of the strain.
For undrained, constant volume shearing, the Tresca theory may be used to predict the shear strength, but for drained
conditions, the MohrCoulomb theory may be used. critical state theory or the related steady state theory can
account for the predominant effects of drainage conditions, effective stress, and consolidation on the shear strength
at large strains (i.e., at the critical state or steady state). There are some key differences between the steady state and
critical state theories.

Shear strength (soil)

Factors Controlling Shear Strength of Soils

The stress-strain relationship of soils, and therefore the shearing strength, is affected (Poulos 1989) by:
1. soil composition (basic soil material): mineralogy, grain size and grain size distribution, shape of particles, pore
fluid type and content, ions on grain and in pore fluid.
2. state (initial): Defined by the initial void ratio, effective normal stress and shear stress (stress history). State can
be described by terms such as: loose, dense, overconsolidated, normally consolidated, stiff, soft, contractive,
dilative, etc.
3. structure: Refers to the arrangement of particles within the soil mass; the manner the particles are packed or
distributed. Features such as layers, joints, fissures, slickensides, voids, pockets, cementation, etc, are part of the
structure. Structure of soils is described by terms such as: undisturbed, disturbed, remolded, compacted,
cemented; flocculent, honey-combed, single-grained; flocculated, deflocculated; stratified, layered, laminated;
isotropic and anisotropic.
4. Loading conditions: Effective stress path, i.e., drained, and undrained; and type of loading, i.e., magnitude, rate
(static, dynamic), and time history (monotonic, cyclic)).

Undrained strength
This term describes a type of shear strength in soil mechanics as distinct from drained strength.
Conceptually, there is no such thing as the undrained strength of a soil. It depends on a number of factors, the main
ones being:

Orientation of stresses
Stress path
Rate of shearing
Volume of material (like for fissured clays or rock mass)

Undrained strength is typically defined by Tresca theory, based on Mohr's circle as:
1 - 3 = 2 Su
Where:
1 is the major principal stress
3 is the minor principal stress
is the shear strength (1 - 3)/2
hence,

= Su (or sometimes cu), the undrained strength.

It is commonly adopted in limit equilibrium analyses where the rate of loading is very much greater than the rate at
which pore water pressures, that are generated due to the action of shearing the soil, may dissipate. An example of
this is rapid loading of sands during an earthquake, or the failure of a clay slope during heavy rain, and applies to
most failures that occur during construction.
As an implication of undrained condition, no elastic volumetric strains occur, and thus Poisson's ratio is assumed to
remain 0.5 throughout shearing. The Tresca soil model also assumes no plastic volumetric strains occur. This is of
significance in more advanced analyses such as in finite element analysis. In these advanced analysis methods, soil
models other than Tresca may be used to model the undrained condition including Mohr-Coulomb and critical state
soil models such as the modified Cam-clay model, provided Poisson's ratio is maintained at 0.5.
One relationship used extensively by practicing engineers is the empirical observation that the ratio of the undrained
shear strength c to the effective confining stress p' is approximately a constant for a given Over Consolidation Ratio
(OCR), and varies linearly with the logarithm of the OCR. This idea was systematized in the empirical SHANSEP
(stress history and normalized soil engineering properties) method.(Ladd & Foott 1974). This relationship can also
be derived from both critical-state and steady-state soil mechanics .

89

Shear strength (soil)

90

Drained shear strength

The drained shear strength is the shear strength of the soil when pore fluid pressures, generated during the course of
shearing the soil, are able to dissipate during shearing. It also applies where no pore water exists in the soil (the soil
is dry) and hence pore fluid pressures are negligible. It is commonly approximated using the Mohr-Coulomb
equation. (It was called "Coulomb's equation" by Karl von Terzaghi in 1942.) (Terzaghi 1942) combined it with the
principle of effective stress.
In terms of effective stresses, the shear strength is often approximated by:
= ' tan(') + c'
Where ' =( - u), is defined as the effective stress. is the total stress applied normal to the shear plane, and u is the
pore water pressure acting on the same plane.
' = the effective stress friction angle, or the'angle of internal friction' after Coulomb friction. The coefficient of
friction is equal to tan('). Different values of friction angle can be defined, including the peak friction angle, 'p,
the critical state friction angle, 'cv, or residual friction angle, 'r.
c' = is called cohesion, however, it usually arises as a consequence of forcing a straight line to fit through measured
values of (,')even though the data actually falls on a curve. The intercept of the straight line on the shear stress axis
is called the cohesion. It is well known that the resulting intercept depends on the range of stresses considered: it is
not a fundamental soil property. The curvature (nonlinearity) of the failure envelope occurs because the dilatancy of
closely packed soil particles depends on confining pressure.

Critical state theory

A more advanced understanding of the behaviour of soil undergoing shearing lead to the development of the critical
state theory of soil mechanics (Roscoe, Schofield & Wroth 1958). In critical state soil mechanics, a distinct shear
strength is identified where the soil undergoing shear does so at a constant volume, also called the 'critical state'.
Thus there are three commonly identified shear strengths for a soil undergoing shear:
Peak strength p
Critical state or constant volume strength
Residual strength r

cv

The peak strength may occur before or at critical state, depending on the initial state of the soil particles being
sheared:
A loose soil will contract in volume on shearing, and may not develop any peak strength above critical state. In
this case 'peak' strength will coincide with the critical state shear strength, once the soil has ceased contracting in
volume. It may be stated that such soils do not exhibit a distinct 'peak strength'.
A dense soil may contract slightly before granular interlock prevents further contraction (granular interlock is
dependent on the shape of the grains and their initial packing arrangement). In order to continue shearing once
granular interlock has occurred, the soil must dilate (expand in volume). As additional shear force is required to
dilate the soil, a 'peak' strength occurs. Once this peak strength caused by dilation has been overcome through
continued shearing, the resistance provided by the soil to the applied shear stress reduces (termed "strain
softening"). Strain softening will continue until no further changes in volume of the soil occur on continued
shearing. Peak strengths are also observed in overconsolidated clays where the natural fabric of the soil must be
destroyed prior to reaching constant volume shearing. Other effects that result in peak strengths include
cementation and bonding of particles.
The constant volume (or critical state) shear strength is said to be intrinsic to the soil, and independent of the initial
density or packing arrangement of the soil grains. In this state the grains being sheared are said to be 'tumbling' over
one another, with no significant granular interlock or sliding plane development affecting the resistance to shearing.

Shear strength (soil)

At this point, no inherited fabric or bonding of the soil grains affects the soil strength.
The residual strength occurs for some soils where the shape of the particles that make up the soil become aligned
during shearing (forming a slickenside), resulting in reduced resistance to continued shearing (further strain
softening). This is particularly true for most clays that comprise plate-like minerals, but is also observed in some
granular soils with more elongate shaped grains. Clays that do not have plate-like minerals (like allophanic clays) do
not tend to exhibit residual strengths.
Use in practice: If one is to adopt critical state theory and take c' = 0; p may be used, provided the level of
anticipated strains are taken into account, and the effects of potential rupture or strain softening to critical state
strengths are considered. For large strain deformation, the potential to form slickensided surface with a 'r should be
considered (such as pile driving).
The Critical State occurs at the quasi-static strain rate. It does not allow for differences in shear strength based on
different strain rates. Also at the critical state, there is no particle alignment or specific soil structure.

Steady state theory

An alternate to the critical state concept is the steady state concept.
The steady state strength is defined as the shear strength of the soil when it is at the steady state condition. The
steady state condition is defined as "that state in which the mass is continuously deforming at constant volume,
constant normal effective stress, constant shear stress, and constant velocity." (Poulos 1981) Steve Poulos built off a
hypothesis that Arthur Casagrande was formulating towards the end of his career.(Poulos 1981) Steady state based
soil mechanics is sometimes called "Harvard soil mechanics". It is not the same as the "critical state" condition.
The steady state occurs only after all particle breakage if any is complete and all the particles are oriented in a
statistically steady state condition and so that the shear stress needed to continue deformation at a constant velocity
of deformation does not change. It applies to both the drained and the undrained case.
The steady state has a slightly different value depending on the strain rate at which it is measured. Thus the steady
state shear strength at the quasi-static strain rate (the strain rate at which the critical state is defined to occur at)
would seem to correspond to the critical state shear strength. However there is an additional difference between the
two states. This is that at the steady state condition the grains position themselves in the steady state structure,
whereas no such structure occurs for the critical state. In the case of shearing to large strains for soils with elongated
particles, this steady state structure is one where the grains are oriented (perhaps even aligned) in the direction of
shear. In the case where the particles are strongly aligned in the direction of shear, the steady state corresponds to the
"residual condition."
Two common misconceptions regarding the steady state are that a) it is the same as the critical state and b) that it
applies only to the undrained case. A primer on the Steady State theory can be found in a report by Poulos (Poulos
1971). Its use in earthquake engineering is described in detail in another publication by Poulos (Poulos 1989).
Steady states are associated with dynamical systems theory and indeed, a model describing soil shear as a dynamical
system has been proposed by Joseph (Joseph 2009).

91

Shear strength (soil)

References
Heyman, J. (1972), Coulomb's Memoir on Statics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1860940569
Joseph, P. (2009), "Constitutive Model of Soil Based on a Dynamical Systems Approach" (http://dx.doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000001), Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 135
(No. 8): 11551158
Ladd, C. C.; Foott, R. (1974), "New Design Procedure for Stability of Soft Clays", Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering 100 (GT7): 763786
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 1961-1970 (Roscoe, Kenneth Harry): 894896
Poulos, S. J. (1971), "The Stress-Strain Curve of Soils" (http://www.soilmechanics.us/StressStrain.pdf), GEI
Internal Report
Poulos, S. J. (1981), "The Steady State of Deformation", Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 107 (GT5):
553562
Poulos, S. J. (1989), Jansen, R. B., ed., "Liquefaction Related Phenomena" (http://www.soilmechanics.us/
LiquefactionRelated.pdf), Advance Dam Engineering for Design (Van Nostrand Reinhold): 292320
Roscoe, K. H.; Schofield, A. N.; Wroth, C. P. (1958), "On the Yielding of Soils", Geotechnique 8: 2253
Schofield, A. N. (1998), Luong, ed., "The Mohr-Coulomb Error", Mechanics and Geotechnique (LMS Ecole
Polytechnique): 1927
Terzaghi, K. (1942), Theoretical Soil Mechanics, New York: Wiley, ISBN 978-0471853053

External links
Critical state based soil shear (http://www2.eng.cam.ac.uk/~ans)
Steady state (dynamical systems) based soil shear (http://soilmechanics.us)

Overburden pressure
Overburden pressure, lithostatic pressure, and vertical stress are terms that denote the pressure or stress imposed
on a layer of soil or rock by the weight of overlying material.
The overburden pressure at a depth z is given by

where (z) is the density of the overlying rock at depth z and g is the acceleration due to gravity. p0 is the datum
pressure, like the pressure at the surface.
It may be noted that the above equation implies that gravitational acceleration is a constant over z since it is placed
outside of the integral. Strictly speaking, for almost all boundary conditions, g should appear inside the integrand
since g is a function of the distance from mass. However, since g varies little over depths which are a very small
fraction of the Earth's radius, it is placed outside of the integral in practice for most near-surface applications which
require an assessment of lithostatic pressure. In deep-earth geophysics/geodynamics, gravitational acceleration varies
significantly over depth, demanding that g be taken, at least, as a function of depth.

92

Consolidation (soil)

Consolidation (soil)
Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. According to Karl Terzaghi consolidation is any
process which involves decrease in water content of a saturated soil without replacement of water by air. In
general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under long term static loads.
It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore
reducing its bulk volume. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the
soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the Classical Method,
developed by Karl von Terzaghi, soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their compression index. This
can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the volume it had lost in
the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate again along a recompression curve,
defined by the recompression index. The soil which had its load removed is considered to be overconsolidated. This
is the case for soils which have previously had glaciers on them. The highest stress that it has been subjected to is
termed the preconsolidation stress. The over consolidation ratio or OCR is defined as the highest stress experienced
divided by the current stress. A soil which is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be normally
consolidated and to have an OCR of one. A soil could be considered underconsolidated immediately after a new
load is applied but before the excess pore water pressure has had time to dissipate.

Consolidation analysis
Spring analogy
The process of consolidation is often explained with an idealized system composed of a spring, a container with a
hole in its cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the compressibility or the structure itself of the soil,
and the water which fills the container represents the pore water in the soil.

1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)
2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water resists the applied
load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)
3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of
excess pore water pressure)
4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full
dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation)

93

Consolidation (soil)

Primary consolidation
This method assumes consolidation occurs in only one-dimension. Laboratory data is used to construct a plot of
strain or void ratio versus effective stress where the effective stress axis is on a logarithmic scale. The plot's slope is
the compression index or recompession index. The equation for consolidation settlement of a normally consolidated
soil can then be determined to be:

where
c is the settlement due to consolidation.
Cc is the compression index.
e0 is the initial void ratio.
H is the height of the soil.
zf is the final vertical stress.
z0 is the initial vertical stress.
Cc can be replaced by Cr (the recompression index) for use in overconsolidated soils where the final effective stress
is less than the preconsolidation stress. When the final effective stress is greater than the preconsolidation stress, the
two equations must be used in combination to model both the recompression portion and the virgin compression
portion of the consolidation process, as follows:

where zc is the preconsolidation stress of the soil.

Secondary consolidation
Secondary consolidation is the compression of soil that takes place after primary consolidation. Even after the
reduction of hydrostatic pressure some compression of soil takes place at slow rate.this is known as secondary
consolidation.Secondary consolidation is caused by creep, viscous behavior of the clay-water system, compression
of organic matter, and other processes. In sand, settlement caused by secondary compression is negligible, but in
peat, it is very significant. Due to secondary consolidation some of the highly viscous water between the points of
contact is forced out.
Secondary consolidation is given by the formula

Where H0 is the height of the consolidating medium

e0 is the initial void ratio
Ca is the secondary compression index

94

Consolidation (soil)

Time dependency
The time for consolidation to occur can be predicted. Sometimes consolidation can take years. This is especially true
in saturated clays because their hydraulic conductivity is extremely low, and this causes the water to take an
exceptionally long time to drain out of the soil. While drainage is occurring, the pore water pressure is greater than
normal because it is carrying part of the applied stress (as opposed to the soil particles).

See also
Compaction (geology)
Soil mechanics

External links
American Wick Drain [1]- Largest manufacturer of soil-consolidating sheet drain in the U.S.

References
Coduto, Donald (2001), Foundation Design, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-589706-8
(Korean) Kim, Myung-mo (2000), Soil Mechanics (4 ed.), Seoul: Munundang, ISBN89-7393-053-2

References
[1] http:/ / www. americanwick. com

Soil compaction
Soil compaction occurs when the weight of heavy machinery compresses the soil, causing it to lose pore space. Soil
compaction may also occur due to a lack of water in the soil. [1] Affected soils become less able to absorb rainfall,
thus increasing runoff and erosion. Plants have difficulty in compacted soil because the mineral grains are pressed
together, leaving little space for air and water, which are essential for root growth. Burrowing animals also find it a
hostile environment, because the denser soil is more difficult to penetrate.
The ability of a soil to recover from compaction depends on climate, mineralogy and fauna. Soils with high
shrink-swell capacity, such as Vertisols, recover quickly from compaction where moisture conditions are variable
(dry spells shrink the soil, causing it to crack). But clays which do not crack as they dry cannot recover from
compaction on their own unless they host ground-dwelling animals such as earthworms the Cecil soil series is an
example.

95

Soil compaction

96

In construction
Increasing the density of soils, along with its side effects of increased
strength and decreased permeability, is usually desirable in earthwork
construction and below building foundations. Compaction is
accomplished by use of heavy equipment. In sands and gravels, the
equipment usually vibrates, to cause re-orientation of the soil particles
into a denser configuration. In silts and clays, a sheepsfoot roller is
frequently used, to create small zones of intense shearing, which drives
air out of the soil.
The result of soil compaction is measured by determining the bulk
density and optimum moisture of the compacted soil and comparing it
to a maximum dry density, for example, obtained from a Proctor
compaction test, to determine the relative compaction.

A crawler-backhoe is here equipped with a

narrow sheepsfoot roller to compact the fill over
newly placed sewer pipe, forming a stable
support for a new road surface

In agriculture
Compaction of agricultural soils is a concern to many agricultural soil
scientists and farmers, since soil compaction due to heavy field traffic
may reduce plant growth. This may be observed clearly in wheel ruts.
However, it cannot be stated that all compaction reduces plant growth.
The topic is complicated, because it involves the response of the plant
to the soil structure and the availability of water. Thus, it requires
knowledge about the stress distribution in the soil below the applied
load, and knowledge about the resulting soil deformation and shearing.

A compactor/roller operated by U.S. Navy

Seabees

Eliminating compaction
In farming, soil compaction has very negative effects on the harvest. Solutions to overcome compaction include
tillage and the za-system. [2]

See also

Compactor
Consolidation (soil)
Earthwork
Soil structure
Aeration
Shear strength (soil)

Soil compaction

97

References
[1] Soil compaction due to lack of water in soil (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2008/ 09/ soil/ mann-text. html)
[2] Zai-system (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2008/ 09/ soil/ mann-text. html)

External links
Soil Compaction and Root Growth (http://www.keengrower.com/2007/06/28/
soil-compaction--not-conducive-to-root-growth/)
Soil Test and Soil Investigation (http://www.denichsoiltest.com/)

Soil classification
Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils
based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate
choices in use.

Overview
Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the
system itself, to the definitions of classes, and finally in the application
in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective
of soil as a material and soil as a resource.

Soil types

Engineering
Engineers, typically Geotechnical engineers, classify soils according to their engineering properties as they relate to
use for foundation support or building material. Modern engineering classification systems are designed to allow an
easy transition from field observations to basic predictions of soil engineering properties and behaviors.
The most common engineering classification system for soils in North America is the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS). The USCS has three major classification groups: (1) coarse-grained soils (e.g. sands and gravels);
(2) fine-grained soils (e.g. silts and clays); and (3) highly organic soils (referred to as "peat"). The USCS further
subdivides the three major soil classes for clarification.
Other engineering soil classification systems in the States include the AASHTO Soil Classification System and the
Modified Burmister (See biographical sketch of Prof. Donald Burmister [1]).
A full geotechnical engineering soil description will also include other properties of the soil including color, in-situ
moisture content, in-situ strength, and somewhat more detail about the material properties of the soil than is provided
by the USCS code.

Soil classification

Soil science
For soil resources, experience has
shown that a natural system approach to
classification, i.e. grouping soils by their
intrinsic property (soil morphology),
behaviour, or genesis, results in classes
that can be interpreted for many diverse
uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis,
and differences in the significance of
morphological features to various land
uses can affect the classification
approach. Despite these differences, in a
well-constructed system, classification
criteria group similar concepts so that
interpretations do not vary widely. This
is in contrast to a technical system
approach to soil classification, where
soils are grouped according to their
fitness for a specific use and their
edaphic characteristics.
Natural system approaches to soil
classification, such as the French Soil
Reference
System
(Rfrentiel
soil texture triangle showing the USDA classification system based on grain size
pdologique franais) are based on
presumed soil genesis. Systems have
developed, such as USDA soil taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, which use taxonomic
criteria involving soil morphology and laboratory tests to inform and refine hierarchical classes.
Another approach is numerical classification, also called ordination, where soil individuals are grouped by
multivariate statistical methods such as cluster analysis. This produces natural groupings without requiring any
inference about soil genesis.
In soil survey, as practiced in the United States, soil classification usually means criteria based on soil morphology in
addition to characteristics developed during soil formation. Criteria are designed to guide choices in land use and soil
management. As indicated, this is a hierarchical system that is a hybrid of both natural and objective criteria. USDA
soil taxonomy provides the core criteria for differentiating soil map units. This is a substantial revision of the 1938
USDA soil taxonomy which was a strictly natural system. Soil taxonomy based soil map units are additionally sorted
into classes based on technical classification systems. Land Capability Classes, hydric soil, and prime farmland are
some examples.
In addition to scientific soil classification systems, there are also vernacular soil classification systems. Folk
taxonomies have been used for millennia, while scientifically based systems are relatively recent developments. [2]

98

Soil classification

Notes and references

[1] http:/ / www. civil. columbia. edu/ ling/ burmister/ burmister. html
[2] Soil classification systems (http:/ / forages. oregonstate. edu/ is/ ssis/ main. cfm?PageID=162). Url last accessed 2006-04-18

Further reading
Eswaran, H., Rice, T., Ahrens, R., & Stewart, B. A. (Eds.). (2002). Soil classification : a global desk reference.
Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.

Current international system

Buol, S.W., Southard, R.J., Graham, R.C., and McDaniel, P.A. (2003). Soil Genesis and Classification, 5th
Edition. Iowa State Press - Blackwell, Ames, IA.
Driessen, P., Deckers, J., Spaargaren, O., & Nachtergaele, F. (Eds.). (2001). Lecture notes on the major soils of
the world. Rome: FAO.
FAO. (1998). World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.

Current natural systems

Agriculture Canada Expert Committee on Soil Survey. (1987). The Canadian system of soil classification (2nd
ed.). Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre.
Avery, B. W. (1980). Soil classification for England and Wales: higher categories. Cranfield, England: Cranfield
University, Soil Survey & Land Research Centre.
Baize, D., & Girard, M. C. (Eds.). (1995). Rfrentiel pdologique 1995. Paris: Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique.
Baize, D., & Girard, M. C. (Eds.). (1998). A sound reference base for soils: The "Rfrentiel Pdologique"
(English translation by Hodgson J.M., Eskenazi N.R., & Baize D. ed.). Paris: Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique.
Hewitt, A. E. (1992). Soil classification in New Zealand: legacy and lessons. Australian Journal of Soil Research,
30, 843-854.
Isbell, R. F. (1996). The Australian soil classification. Collingwood, Victoria, Australia: CSIRO.
Soil Classification Working Group. (1991). Soil classification: a taxonomic system for South Africa. Pretoria:
Department of Agricultural Development, RSA.
Soil Survey Staff. (1999). Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil
surveys (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service.

Current technical systems

Boorman, D. B., Hollis, J. M., & Lilly, A. (1995). Hydrology of soil types: a hydrologically-based classification
of the soils of the United Kingdom (No. 126): UK Institute of Hydrology.
Klingebiel, A. A., & Montgomery, P. H. (1961). Land capability classification. Washington, DC: US Government
Printing Office.
Sanchez, P. A., Palm, C. A., & Buol, S. W. (2003). Fertility capability soil classification: a tool to help assess soil
quality in the tropics. Geoderma, 114(3-4), 157-185.
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1985, D 2487-83, Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes:
Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 04.08, pp 395-408.

99

Soil classification

Earlier systems of historical interest

Baldwin, M., Kellogg, C. E., & Thorp, J. (1938). Soil classification. In Soils and men: Yearbook of agriculture
(pp. 979-1001). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Simonson, R. W. (1989). Historical aspects of soil survey and soil classification with emphasis on the United
States, 1899-1970. Wageningen, NL: International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC).

Principles

Butler, B. E. (1980). Soil classification for soil survey. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications.Science, 96,
Cline, M. G. (1949). Basic principles of soil classification. Soil Science, 67(2), 81-91.
Cline, M. G. (1963). Logic of the new system of soil classification. Soil 17-22.
Webster, R. (1968). Fundamental objections to the 7th approximation. Journal of Soil Science, 19, 354-366.
Terzaghi Karl (1924). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Wiley-Interscience; 3 Sub-edition (January 1996,
ISBN: 0471086584)

Numerical classification
McBratney, A. B., & de Gruijter, J. J. (1992). A continuum approach to soil classification by modified fuzzy
k-means with extragrades. Journal of Soil Science, 43(1), 159-175.

External links
A Compendium of On-Line Soil Survey Information - Soil Classification for Soil Survey by D. G. Rossiter (http:/
/www.itc.nl/personal/rossiter/research/rsrch_ss_class.html)
Engineering soil description and classification (http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/classification/)
OSHA Soil Classification (http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.
show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10931)

100

S-wave

101

S-wave
S-wave can also refer to the lowest
energy electronic wavefunction in
atomic physics; see atomic orbital.
A type of seismic wave, the S-wave,
secondary wave, or shear wave
(sometimes called an elastic S-wave) is
one of the two main types of elastic body
waves, so named because they move
through the body of an object, unlike
surface waves.
The S-wave moves as a shear or transverse
wave, so motion is perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation: S-waves are
like waves in a rope, as opposed to waves
moving through a slinky, the P-wave. The
wave moves through elastic media, and the
main restoring force comes from shear
effects. These waves are divergenceless
and obey the continuity equation for
incompressible media:

Plane shear wave

Propagation of a spherical S-wave in a 2d grid (empirical model)

S-wave

102

Its name, S for secondary, comes from the fact that it is the second direct
arrival on an earthquake seismogram, after the compressional primary wave,
or P-wave, because S-waves travel slower in rock. Unlike the P-wave, the
S-wave cannot travel through the molten outer core of the Earth, and this
causes a shadow zone for S-waves opposite to where they originate. They can
still appear in the solid inner core: when a P-wave strikes the boundary of
molten and solid cores, called the Lehmann discontinuity, S-waves will then
propagate in the solid medium. And when the S-waves hit the boundary again
they will in turn create P-waves. This property allows seismologists to
determine the nature of the inner core.[1]
As transverse waves, S-waves exhibit properties, such as polarization and
birefringence, much like other transverse waves. S-waves polarized in the
horizontal plane are classified as SH-waves. If polarized in the vertical plane,
The shadow zone of a P-wave. S-waves
don't penetrate the outer core, so they're
they are classified as SV-waves. When an S- or P-wave strikes an interface at
shadowed everywhere more than 104
an angle other than 90 degrees, a phenomenon known as mode conversion
away from the epicenter (from USGS)
occurs. As described above, if the interface is between a solid and liquid, S
becomes P or vice versa. However, even if the interface is between two solid
media, mode conversion results. If a P-wave strikes an interface, four propagation modes may result: reflected and
transmitted P and reflected and transmitted SV. Similarly, if an SV-wave strikes an interface, the same four modes
occur in different proportions. The exact amplitudes of all these waves are described by the Zoeppritz equations,
which in turn are solutions to the wave equation. S-waves are slower than P-waves.

Theory
The prediction of S-waves came out of theory in the 1800s. Starting with the stress-strain relationship for an
isotropic solid:

where

is the stress,

and

are the Lam parameters (with

as the shear modulus),

is the Kronecker

delta, and the strain tensor is defined

for strain displacement u. Plugging the latter into the former yields:

Newton's 2nd law in this situation gives the homogeneous equation of motion for seismic wave propagation:

where

is the mass density. Plugging in what the stress tensor is above gives:

Applying vector identities and making certain approximations gives the seismic wave equation in homogeneous
media:

where Newton's notation has been used for the time derivative. Taking the curl of this equation and applying vector
identities eventually gives:

S-wave

which is simply the wave equation applied to the curl of u with a velocity

103

satisfying

This describes S-wave propagation. Taking the divergence of seismic wave equation in homogeneous media instead
of the curl, yields an equation describing P-wave propgation.

References
[1] University of Illinois at Chicago (17 July 1997). "Lecture 16 Seismographs and the earth's interior" (http:/ / tigger. uic. edu/ ~rdemar/
geol107/ lect16. htm). . Retrieved 8 June 2010.

Further reading
Shearer, Peter (1999). Introduction to Seismology (1st ed. ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN0-521-66023-8.
Aki, Keiti; Richards, Paul G. (2002). Quantitative seismology (2nd ed. ed.). University Science Books.
ISBN0-935702-96-2.
Fowler, C. M. R. (1990). The solid earth. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-38590-3.

Lateral earth pressure

Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal
plane. The common applications of lateral earth pressure theory are for
the design of ground engineering structures such as retaining walls,
basements, tunnels, and to determine the friction on the sides of deep
foundations.
To describe the pressure a soil will exert, a lateral earth pressure
coefficient, K, is used. K is the ratio of lateral (horizontal) pressure to
vertical pressure (K = h'/v'). Thus horizontal earth pressure is
assumed to be directly proportional to the vertical pressure at any given
point in the soil profile. K can depend on the soil properties and the
stress history of the soil. Lateral earth pressure coefficients are broken
up into three categories: at-rest, active, and passive.

An example of lateral earth pressure overturning

a retaining wall

The pressure coefficient used in geotechnical engineering analyses depends on the characteristics of its application.
There are many theories for predicting lateral earth pressure; some are empirically based, and some are analytically
derived.

Lateral earth pressure

104

At rest pressure
At rest lateral earth pressure, represented as K0, is the in situ horizontal pressure. It can be measured directly by a
dilatometer test (DMT) or a borehole pressuremeter test (PMT). As these are rather expensive tests, empirical
relations have been created in order to predict at rest pressure with less involved soil testing, and relate to the angle
of shearing resistance. Two of the more commonly used are presented below.
Jaky (1948)[1] for normally consolidated soils:
Mayne & Kulhawy (1982)[2] for overconsolidated soils:

The latter requires the OCR profile with depth to be determined.

To estimate K0 due to compaction pressures, refer Ingold (1979)[3]

Active and passive pressure

The active state occurs when a soil mass is allowed to relax or move
outward to the point of reaching the limiting strength of the soil; that
is, the soil is at the failure condition in extension. Thus it is the
minimum lateral soil pressure that may be exerted. Conversely, the
passive state occurs when a soil mass is externally forced to the
limiting strength (that is, failure) of the soil in compression. It is the
maximum lateral soil pressure that may be exerted. Thus active and
passive pressures define the minimum and maximum possible
pressures respectively that may be exerted in a horizontal plane.

Different types of wall structures can be designed

to resist earth pressure.

Rankine theory
Rankine's theory, developed in 1857[4] , is a stress field solution that predicts active and passive earth pressure. It
assumes that the soil is cohesionless, the wall is frictionless, the soil-wall interface is vertical, the failure surface on
which the soil moves is planar, and the resultant force is angled parallel to the backfill surface. The equations for
active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficients are given below. Note that ' is the angle of shearing resistance
of the soil and the backfill is inclined at angle to the horizontal

For the case where is 0, the above equations simplify to

Lateral earth pressure

Coulomb theory
Coulomb (1776) [5] first studied the problem of lateral earth pressures on retaining structures. He used limit
equilibrium theory, which considers the failing soil block as a free body in order to determine the limiting horizontal
earth pressure. The limiting horizontal pressures at failure in extension or compression are used to determine the Ka
and Kp respectively. Since the problem is indeterminate[6] , a number of potential failure surfaces must be analysed to
identify the critical failure surface (i.e. the surface that produces the maximum or minimum thrust on the wall).
Mayniel (1908)[7] later extended Coulomb's equations to account for wall friction, symbolized by . Mller-Breslau
(1906)[8] further generalized Mayniel's equations for a non-horizontal backfill and a non-vertical soil-wall interface
(represented by angle from the vertical).

Caquot and Kerisel

In 1948, Albert Caquot (18811976) and Jean Kerisel (19082005) developed an advanced theory that modified
Muller-Breslau's equations to account for a non-planar rupture surface. They used a logarithmic spiral to represent
the rupture surface instead. This modification is extremely important for passive earth pressure where there is
soil-wall friction. Mayniel and Muller-Breslau's equations are unconservative in this situation and are dangerous to
apply. For the active pressure coefficient, the logarithmic spiral rupture surface provides a negligible difference
compared to Muller-Breslau. These equations are too complex to use, so tables or computers are used instead..

Equivalent fluid pressure

Terzaghi and Peck, in 1948, developed empirical charts for predicting lateral pressures. Only the soil's classification
and backfill slope angle are necessary to use the charts.

Bell's relation
For soils with cohesion, Bell developed an analytical solution that uses the square root of the pressure coefficient to
predict the cohesion's contribution to the overall resulting pressure. These equations represent the total lateral earth
pressure. The first term represents the non-cohesive contribution and the second term the cohesive contribution. The
first equation is for an active situation and the second for passive situations.

105

Lateral earth pressure

Coefficients of earth pressure

Coefficient of active earth pressure at rest
Coefficient of active earth pressure
Coefficient of passive earth pressure

See also
Mohr-Coulomb theory
Soil mechanics

References
Coduto, Donald (2001), Foundation Design, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-589706-8
California Department of Transportation Material on Lateral Earth Pressure [9]

Notes
[1] Jaky J. (1948) Pressure in soils, 2nd ICSMFE, London, Vol. 1, pp 103-107.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]

Mayne, P.W. and Kulhawy, F.H. (1982). K0-OCR relationships in soil. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 108 (GT6), 851-872.
Ingold, T.S., (1979) The effects of compaction on retaining walls, Gotechnique, 29, p265-283.
Rankine, W. (1857) On the stability of loose earth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 147.
Coulomb C.A., (1776). Essai sur une application des regles des maximis et minimis a quelques problemes de statique relatifs a l'architecture.
Memoires de l'Academie Royale pres Divers Savants, Vol. 7
Kramer S.L. (1996) Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey
Mayniel K., (1808), Trait exprimental, analytique et preatique de la pousse des terres et des murs de revtement, Paris.
Mller-Breslau H., (1906) Erddruck auf Stutzmauern, Alfred Kroner, Stuttgart.
http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ esc/ construction/ manuals/ OSCCompleteManuals/ TrenchingandShoringManualRev12. pdf

106

107

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
Geotechnical investigation
Geotechnical investigations are performed by
geotechnical engineers or engineering geologists to
obtain information on the physical properties of
soil and rock around a site to design earthworks
and foundations for proposed structures and for
repair of distress to earthworks and structures
caused by subsurface conditions. A geotechnical
investigation will include surface exploration and
subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes,
geophysical methods are used to obtain data about
sites. Subsurface exploration usually involves soil
sampling and laboratory tests of the soil samples
retrieved.

A USBR soil scientist advances a Giddings Probe direct push soil sampler.

Surface exploration can include geologic mapping,

geophysical methods, and photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as a geotechnical professional walking around on
the site to observe the physical conditions at the site.
To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form of subsurface exploration is required.
Methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining samples, and determining physical properties of the soils
and rocks include test pits, trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes), boring, and in situ tests.

Soil sampling
Borings come in two main varieties, large-diameter and small-diameter. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due
to safety concerns and expense, but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to visually and manually
examine the soil and rock stratigraphy in-situ. Small-diameter borings are frequently used to allow a geologist or
engineer examine soil or rock cuttings or to retrieve samples at depth using soil samplers, and to perform in-place
soil tests.
Soil samples are often categorized as being either "disturbed" or "undisturbed"; however, "undisturbed" samples are
not truly undisturbed. A disturbed sample is one in which the structure of the soil has been changed sufficiently that
tests of structural properties of the soil will not be representative of in-situ conditions, and only properties of the soil
grains (e.g., grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, and possibly the water content) can be accurately determined.
An undisturbed sample is one where the condition of the soil in the sample is close enough to the conditions of the
soil in-situ to allow tests of structural properties of the soil to be used to approximate the properties of the soil
in-situ.
Offshore soil collection introduces many difficult variables. In shallow water, work can be done off a barge. In
deeper water a ship will be required. Deepwater soil samplers are normally variants of Kullenberg-type samplers, a
modification on a basic gravity corer using a piston (Lunne and Long, 2006). Seabed samplers are also available,
which push the collection tube slowly into the soil.

Geotechnical investigation

Soil samplers
Soil samples are taken using a variety of samplers; some provide only disturbed samples, while others can provide
relatively undisturbed samples.
Shovel. Samples can be obtained by digging out soil from the site. Samples taken this way are disturbed samples.
Hand/Machine Driven Auger. This sampler typically consists of a short cylinder with a cutting edge attached to a
rod and handle. The sampler is advanced by a combination of rotataion and downward force. Samples taken this
way are disturbed samples.
Continuous Flight Auger. A method of sampling using an auger as a corkscrew. The auger is screwed into the
ground then lifted out. Soil is retained on the blades of the auger and kept for testing. The soil sampled this way is
considered disturbed.
Split-spoon / SPT Sampler. Utilized in the 'Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and
Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils' (ASTM D 1586[1] ). This sampler is typically a 18"-30" long, 2.0" outside
diameter (OD) hollow tube split in half lengthwise. A hardened metal drive shoe with a 1.375" opening is
attached to the bottom end, and a one-way valve and drill rod adapter at the sampler head. It is driven into the
ground with a 140 pound hammer falling 30". The blow counts (hammer strikes) required to advance the sampler
a total of 18" are counted and reported. Generally used for non-cohesive soils, samples taken this way are
considered disturbed.
Modified California Sampler. Similar in concept to the SPT sampler, the sampler barrel has a larger diameter and
is usually lined with metal tubes to contain samples. Samples from the Modified California Sampler are
considered disturbed due to the large area ratio of the sampler (sampler wall area/sample cross sectional area).
Shelby Tube Sampler. Utilized in the 'Standard Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils for Geotechnical
Purposes' (ASTM D 1587[2] ). This sampler consists of a thin-walled tube with a cutting edge at the toe. A
sampler head attaches the tube to the drill rod, and contains a check valve and pressure vents. Generally used in
cohesive soils, this sampler is advanced into the soil layer, generally 6" less than the length of the tube. The
vacuum created by the check valve and cohesion of the sample in the tube cause the sample to be retained when
the tube is withdrawn. Standard ASTM dimensions are; 2" OD, 36" long, 18 gauge thickness; 3" OD, 36" long, 16
gauge thickness; and 5" OD, 54" long, 11 gauge thickness. It should be noted that ASTM allows other diameters
as long as they are proportional to the standardized tube designs, and tube length is to be suited for field
conditions. Soil sampled in this manner is considered undisturbed.
Piston samplers. These samplers are thin-walled metal tubes which contain a piston at the tip. The samplers are
pushed into the bottom of a borehole, with the piston remaining at the surface of the soil while the tube slides past
it. These samplers will return undisturbed samples in soft soils, but are difficult to advance in sands and stiff
clays, and can be damaged (compromising the sample) if gravel is encountered. The Livingstone corer [3],
developed by D. A. Livingstone, is a commonly used piston sampler. A modification of the Livingstone corer
with a serrated coring head allows it to be rotated to cut through subsurface vegetable matter such as small roots
or buried twigs.
Pitcher Barrel sampler. This sampler is similar to piston samplers, except that there is no piston. There are
pressure-relief holes near the top of the sampler to prevent pressure buildup of water or air above the soil sample.

108

Geotechnical investigation

In-situ tests
A standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on the
properties of soil, while also collecting a disturbed soil sample for grain-size analysis and soil classification.
A cone penetration test (CPT) is performed using an instrumented probe with a conical tip, pushed into the soil
hydraulically at a constant rate. A basic CPT instrument reports tip resistance and shear resistance along the
cylindrical barrel. CPT data has been correlated to soil properties. Sometimes instruments other than the basic CPT
probe are used, including:
CPTu - Piezocone Penetrometer. This probe is advanced using the same equipment as a regular CPT probe, but
the probe has an additional instrument which measures the groundwater pressure as the probe is advanced.
SCPTu - Seismic Piezocone Penetrometer. This probe is advanced using the same equipment as a CPT or CPTu
probe, but the probe is also equipped with either geophones or accelerometers to detect shear waves and/or
pressure waves produced by a source at the surface.
Full Flow Penetrometers - T-bar, Ball, and Plate: These probes are used in extremely soft clay soils (such as
sea-floor deposits) and are advanced in the same manner as the CPT. As their names imply, the T-bar is a
cylindrical bar attached at right angles to the drill string forming what look likes a T, the ball is a large sphere, and
the plate is flat circular plate. In soft clays, soil flows around the probe similar to a viscous fluid. The pressure due
to overburden stress and pore water pressure is equal on all sides of the probes (unlike with CPT's), so no
correction is necessary, reducing a source of error and increasing accuracy. Especially desired in soft soils due to
the very low loads on the measuring sensors. Full flow probes can also be cycled up and down to measure
remolded soil resistance. Ultimately the geotechnical professional can use the measured penetration resistance to
estimate undrained and remolded shear strengths.
Flat Plate Dilatometer Test (DMT) is a flat plate probe often advanced using CPT rigs, but can also be advanced
from conventional drill rigs. A diaphragm on the plate applies a lateral force to the soil materials and measures the
strain induced for various levels of applied stress at the desired depth interval.

Laboratory tests
A wide variety of laboratory tests can be performed on soils to measure a wide variety of soil properties. Some soil
properties are intrinsic to the composition of the soil matrix and are not affected by sample disturbance, while other
properties depend on the structure of the soil as well as its composition, and can only be effectively tested on
relatively undisturbed samples. Some soil tests measure direct properties of the soil, while others measure "index
properties" which provide useful information about the soil without directly measuring the property desired.
Atterberg limits
The Atterberg limits define the boundaries of several states of consistency for plastic soils. The boundaries are
defined by the amount of water a soil needs to be at one of those boundaries. The boundaries are called the
plastic limit and the liquid limit, and the difference between them is called the plasticity index. The shrinkage
limit is also a part of the Atterberg limits. The results of this test can be used to help predict other engineering
properties.[4]
California bearing ratio
ASTM D 1883. A test to determine the aptitude of a soil or aggregate sample as a road subgrade. A plunger is
pushed into a compacted sample, and its resistance is measured. This test was developed by Caltrans, but it is
no longer used in the Caltrans pavement design method. It is still used as a cheap method to estimate the
resilient modulus.[5] [6]
Direct shear test

109

Geotechnical investigation
ASTM D3080. The direct shear test determines the consolidated, drained strength properties of a sample. A
constant strain rate is applied to a single shear plane under a normal load, and the load response is measured. If
this test is performed with different normal loads, the common shear strength parameters can be determined.[7]
Expansion Index test
This test uses a remolded soil sample to determine the Expansion Index (EI), an empirical value required by
building design codes, at a water content of 50% for expansive soils, like expansive clays.[8]
Hydraulic conductivity tests
There are several tests available to determine a soil's hydraulic conductivity. They include the constant head,
falling head, and constant flow methods. The soil samples tested can be any type include remolded,
undisturbed, and compacted samples.[9]
Oedometer test
This can be used to determine consolidation (ASTM D2435) and swelling (ASTM D4546) parameters.
Particle-size analysis
This is done to determine the soil gradation. Coarser particles are separated in the sieve analysis portion, and
the finer particles are analyzed with a hydrometer. The distinction between coarse and fine particles is usually
made at 75 m. The sieve analysis shakes the sample through progressively smaller meshes to determine its
gradation. The hydrometer analysis uses the rate of sedimentation to determine particle gradation.[10]
R-Value test
California Test 301 [11] This test measures the lateral response of a compacted sample of soil or aggregate to a
vertically applied pressure under specific conditions. This test is used by Caltrans for pavement design,
replacing the California bearing ratio test.
Soil compaction tests
Standard Proctor (ASTM D698), Modified Proctor (ASTM D1557), and California Test 216 [12]. These tests
are used to determine the maximum unit weight and optimal water content a soil can achieve for a given
compaction effort.
Soil suction tests
ASTM D5298.
Triaxial shear tests
This is a type of test that is used to determine the shear strength properties of a soil. It can simulate the
confining pressure a soil would see deep into the ground. It can also simulate drained and undrained
conditions.
Unconfined compression test
ASTM D2166. This test compresses a soil sample to measure its strength. The modifier "unconfined" contrasts
this test to the triaxial shear test.
Water content
This test provides the water content of the soil, normally expressed as a percentage of the weight of water to
the dry weight of the soil.

110

Geotechnical investigation

111

Geophysical exploration
Geophysical methods are used in geotechnical investigations to evaluate a site's behavior in a seismic event. By
measuring a soil's shear wave velocity, the dynamic response of that soil can be estimated.[13] There are a number of
methods used to determine a site's shear wave velocity:

Crosshole method
Downhole method (with a seismic CPT or a substitute device)
Surface wave reflection or refraction
Suspension logging (also known as P-S logging or Oyo logging)
Spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW)
Reflection microtremor (ReMi)

Notes and references

[1] ASTM D1586 -08 Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Split-Barrel (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart.
exe/ STORE/ filtrexx40. cgi?U+ mystore+ riuw3431+ -L+ D1586+ / usr6/ htdocs/ astm. org/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/
D1586. htm)
[2] ASTM D1587 -00(2007)e1 Standard Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils for Geotechnical (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/
SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D1587. htm?L+ mystore+ riuw3431+ 1206561888)

[3] http:/ / lrc. geo. umn. edu/ livingstone-bolivia. pdf

[4] "D4318-05 Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart.
exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D4318. htm?E+ mystore). ASTM International. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[5] "D1883-05 Standard Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/
SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D1883. htm?E+ mystore). ASTM International. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[6] "CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) AND ROAD PAVEMENT DESIGN" (http:/ / www. highwaysmaintenance. com/ cbrtext. htm).
The Idiots' Guide to Highways Maintenance. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[7] "D3080-04 Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/
SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D3080. htm?E+ mystore). ASTM International. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[8] "D4829-03 Standard Test Method for Expansion Index of Soils" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/
REDLINE_PAGES/ D4829. htm?E+ mystore). ASTM International. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[9] "D5084-03 Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a Flexible Wall
Permeameter" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D5084. htm?E+ mystore). ASTM
International. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[10] "D422-63(2002)e1 Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE.
CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D422. htm?E+ mystore). ASTM International. . Retrieved 2007-02-07.
[11] http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ esc/ ctms/ CT_301. pdf
[12] http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ esc/ ctms/ CT_216. pdf
[13] Kavand, A (2006-06-06). "Determination of Shear Wave Velocity Profile of Sedimentary Deposits in Bam City (Southeast of Iran) using
Microtremor Measurements" (http:/ / ascelibrary. aip. org/ vsearch/ servlet/ VerityServlet?KEY=JGGEFK& smode=strresults& sort=rel&
maxdisp=25& threshold=0&
pjournals=IJGNAI,JAEEEZ,JAEIED,JBENF2,JCRGEI,JCCOF2,JCCEE5,JCEMD4,JLEED9,JENMDT,JOEEDU,JGGEFK,JHEND8,JHYEFF,JITSE4,JIDEDH,JM
possible1=shear+ wave+ velocity& possible1zone=article& OUTLOG=NO& viewabs=ASCECP& key=DISPLAY& docID=9& page=0&
chapter=0). Site and Geomaterial Characterization. Shanghai, China: ASCE. . Retrieved 2007-02-06.

External links
UC Davis Video (http://cee.engr.ucdavis.edu/faculty/boulanger/Default.htm) on typical drilling and
sampling methods in geotechnical engineering.

Cone penetration test

Cone penetration test

The cone penetration test (CPT) is an in situ testing
method used to determine the geotechnical engineering
properties of soils and delineating soil stratigraphy. It
was initially developed in the 1950s at the Dutch
Laboratory for Soil Mechanics in Delft to investigate
soft soils. Based on this history it has also been called
the "Dutch cone test". Today, the CPT is one of the
most used and accepted in situ test methods for soil
investigation worldwide.
The test method consists of pushing an instrumented
A CPT truck operated by the USGS.
cone, with the tip facing down, into the ground at a
controlled rate (usually 2 centimeters/second). The
resolution of the CPT in delineating stratigraphic layers is related to the size of the cone tip, with typical cone tips
having a cross-sectional area of either 10 or 15cm, corresponding to diameters of 3.6 and 4.4cm.

History and development

The early applications of CPT mainly determined the
soil geotechnical property of bearing capacity. The
original cone penetrometers involved simple
mechanical measurements of the total penetration
resistance to pushing a tool with a conical tip into the
soil. Different methods were employed to separate the
total measured resistance into components generated by
the conical tip (the "tip friction") and friction generated
by the rod string. A friction sleeve was added to
quantify this component of the friction and aid in
determining soil cohesive strength in the 1960s
(Begemann, 1965). Electronic measurements began in
1948 and improved further in the early 1970s (de
Reister, 1971). Most modern electronic CPT cones now
also employ a pressure transducer with a filter to gather
pore water pressure data. The filter is usually located
either on the cone tip (the so-called U1 position),
immediately behind the cone tip (the most common U2
position) or behind the friction sleeve (U3 position).
Pore water pressure data aids determining stratigraphy
and is primarily used to correct tip friction values for
those effects. CPT testing which also gathers this
piezometer data is called CPTU testing. CPT and CPTU
The result of a cone penetration test: resistance and friction on the
testing equipment generally advances the cone using
left, friction ratio (%) on the right.
hydraulic rams mounted on either a heavily ballasted
vehicle or using screwed-in anchors as a counter-force. One advantage of CPT over the Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) is a more continuous profile of soil parameters, with CPTU data recorded typically at 2cm intervals.

112

Cone penetration test

Additional in situ testing parameters

In addition to the mechanical and electronic cones, a variety of other CPT-deployed tools have been developed over
the years to provide additional subsurface information. One common tool advanced during CPT testing is a
geophone set to gather seismic shear wave and compression wave velocities. This data helps determine the shear
modulus and Poisson's ratio at intervals through the soil column for soil liquefaction analysis and low-strain soil
strength analysis. Engineers use the shear wave velocity and shear modulus to determine the soil's behavior under
low-strain and vibratory loads. Additional tools such as laser-induced fluorescence, X-ray fluorescence [1], soil
conductivity/resistivity, Membrane Interface Probe and cameras for capturing video imagery are also increasingly
advanced in conjunction with the CPT probe.
An additional CPT deployed tool used in Britain, Netherlands, Germany, Belgium and France is a piezocone
combined with a tri-axial magnetometer. This is used to attempt to ensure that tests, boreholes, and piles, do not
encounter unexploded ordnance (UXB). The magnetometer in the cone detects ferrous materials of 50kg or larger
within a radius of up to about 2m distance from the probe depending on the material, orientation and ground
conditions.

Standards and use

CPT for geotechnical applications was standardized in 1986 by ASTM Standard D 3441 (ASTM, 2004). ISSMGE
provides international standards on CPT and CPTU. Later ASTM Standards have addressed the use of CPT for
various environmental site characterization and groundwater monitoring activities. Particularly for geotechnical soil
investigations, CPT is gaining popularity compared to standard penetration testing as a method of geotechnical soil
investigation by its increased accuracy, speed of deployment, more continuous soil profile and reduced cost over
other soil testing methods. The ability to advance additional in situ testing tools using the CPT direct push drilling
rig, including the seismic tools described above, are accelerating this process.

References
"Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice"; T. Lunne, P.K. Robertson and J.J.M. Powell. Blackie
Academic & Professional. London.
De Reister, J., 1971, "Electric Penetrometer for Site Investigations"; Journal of SMFE Division, ASCE, Vol. 97,
SM-2, pp. 457-472.
Begemann, H. K. S, 1965, "The Friction Jacket Cone as an Aid in Determining the Soil Profile"; Proceedings, 6th
ICSMFE, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Vol I, pp.17-20.
Meigh, A.C., 1987 "Cone Penetration Testing - Methods and Interpretation", CIRIA, Butterworths.
ASTM, 2004, "Standard Method of Deep Quasi-Static Cone and Friction-Cone Penetration Tests of Soil"; ASTM
Standard D 3441, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 7 pp.
ASTM D-5778 "Standard Test Method for Performing Electronic Friction Cone and Piezocone Penetration
Testing of Soils".
International Reference Test Procedure for CPT and CPTU - International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE) (http://www.issmge.org)

113

Cone penetration test

114

External links

Lab. voor Grondmechanica Delft, currently GeoDelft [2]

U.S. National Report on CPT (1995), currently in Paul Mayne's Papers repository [3]
Soil Test and Soil Investigation Cone Penetration Test [4]
Information on the analysis of piles based on CPTs [5]
CPT equipment cordless & cable [6]

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

http:/ / chemistry. nrl. navy. mil/ 6170/ 6175/ researchareas. php

http:/ / www. geodelft. com/
http:/ / geosystems. ce. gatech. edu/ Faculty/ Mayne/ papers/ CPT%2095%20US%20Report. pdf
http:/ / www. denichsoiltest. com/
http:/ / www. finesoftware. eu/ geotechnical-software/ help/ piles-cpt/ analyses-in-program-pile-cpt/
http:/ / www. geotech. se/ index. php/ cpt-nova-system

Standard penetration test

The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic
penetration test designed to provide information on the
geotechnical engineering properties of soil. The test procedure is
described in the British Standard BS EN ISO 22476-3 and ASTM
D1586.

Procedure
The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter
of 50mm and an inside diameter of 35mm, and a length of around
650mm. This is driven into the ground at the bottom of a borehole
by blows from a slide hammer with a weight of 63.5kg (140 lb)
falling through a distance of 760mm (30 in). The sample tube is
driven 150mm into the ground and then the number of blows
needed for the tube to penetrate each 150mm (6in) up to a depth
of 450mm (18in) is recorded. The sum of the number of blows
required for the second and third 6 in. of penetration is termed the
"standard penetration resistance" or the "N-value". In cases where
50 blows are insufficient to advance it through a 150mm (6 in)
interval the penetration after 50 blows is recorded. The blow count
provides an indication of the density of the ground, and it is used
in many empirical geotechnical engineering formulae.

Standard penetration test N values from a surficial

aquifer in south Florida.

Standard penetration test

Purpose
The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of granular deposits, such as sands and
gravels from which it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed samples. The great merit of the test, and the main
reason for its widespread use is that it is simple and inexpensive. The soil strength parameters which can be inferred
are approximate, but may give a useful guide in ground conditions where it may not be possible to obtain borehole
samples of adequate quality like gravels, sands, silts, clay containing sand or gravel and weak rock. In conditions
where the quality of the undisturbed sample is suspect, e.g. very silty or very sandy clays, or hard clays, it is often
advantageous to alternate the sampling with standard penetration tests to check the strength. If the samples are found
to be unacceptably disturbed, it may be necessary to use a different method for measuring strength like the plate test.
When the test is carried out in granular soils below groundwater level, the soil may become loosened. In certain
circumstances, it can be useful to continue driving the sampler beyond the distance specified, adding further drilling
rods as necessary. Although this is not a standard penetration test, and should not be regarded as such, it may at least
give an indication as to whether the deposit is really as loose as the standard test may indicate.
The usefulness of SPT results depends on the soil type, with fine-grained sands giving the most useful results, with
coarser sands and silty sands giving reasonably useful results, and clays and gravelly soils yielding results which
may be very poorly representative of the true soil conditions. Soils in arid areas, such as the Western United States,
may exhibit natural cementation. This condition will often increase the standard penetration value.
The SPT is used to provide results for empirical determination of a sand layer's susceptibility to earthquake
liquefaction, based on research performed by Harry Seed, T. Leslie Youd, and others.

Correlation with Soil Mechanical Properties

Despite its many flaws, it is usual practice to correlate SPT results with soil properties relevant for geotechnical
engineering design. The reason being that SPT results are often the only test results available, therefore the use of
direct correlations has become common practice in many countries.
Different correlations are proposed for granular and cohesive soils.

References
University of Missouri - Rolla [1] Class notes on the SPT.

References
[1] http:/ / web. mst. edu/ ~rogersda/ umrcourses/ ge441/ NOTES%20for%20STANDARD%20PENETRATION%20TEST. pdf

115

Exploration geophysics

Exploration geophysics
Exploration geophysics is the applied branch of geophysics which uses surface methods to measure the physical
properties of the subsurface Earth, in order to detect or infer the presence and position of ore minerals, hydrocarbons,
geothermal reservoirs, groundwater reservoirs, and other geological structures.
Exploration geophysics is the practical application of physical methods (such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic,
electrical and electromagnetic) to measure the physical properties of rocks, and in particular, to detect the measurable
physical differences between rocks that contain ore deposits or hydrocarbons and those without.
Exploration geophysics can be used to directly detect the target style of mineralisation, via measuring its physical
properties directly. For example one may measure the density contrasts between iron ore and silicate wall rocks, or
may measure the electrical conductivity contrast between conductive sulfide minerals and barren silicate minerals.

Geophysical methods
The main techniques used are:
1. Seismic methods, such as reflection seismology, seismic refraction, and seismic tomography.
2. Geodesy and gravity techniques, including gravity gradiometry.
3. Magnetic techniques, including aeromagnetic surveys and magnetometers.
4. Electrical techniques, including electrical resistivity tomography and induced polarization.
5. Electromagnetic methods, such as magnetotellurics, ground penetrating radar and transient/time-domain
electromagnetics.
6. Borehole geophysics, also called well logging.
7. Remote sensing techniques, including hyperspectral.
Many other techniques, or methods of integration of the above techniques, have been developed and are currently
used. However these are not as common due to cost-effectiveness, wide applicability and/or uncertainty in the results
produced.

Uses
Exploration geophysics is also used to map the subsurface structure of a region, to elucidate the underlying
structures, spatial distribution of rock units, and to detect structures such as faults, folds and intrusive rocks. This is
an indirect method for assessing the likelihood of ore deposits or hydrocarbon accumulations.
Methods devised for finding mineral or hydrocarbon deposits can also be used in other areas such as monitoring
environmental impact, imaging subsurface archaeological sites, ground water investigations, subsurface salinity
mapping, civil engineering site investigations and interplanetary imaging.

Mineral exploration
Magnetometric surveys can be useful in defining magnetic anomalies which represent ore (direct detection), or in
some cases gangue minerals associated with ore deposits (indirect or inferential detection).
The most direct method of detection of ore via magnetism involves detecting iron ore mineralisation via mapping
magnetic anomalies associated with banded iron formations which usually contain magnetite in some proportion.
Skarn mineralisation, which often contains magnetite, can also be detected though the ore minerals themselves
would be non-magnetic. Similarly, magnetite, hematite and often pyrrhotite are common minerals associated with
hydrothermal alteration, and this alteration can be detected to provide an inference that some mineralising
hydrothermal event has affected the rocks.

116

Exploration geophysics
Gravity surveying can be used to detect dense bodies of rocks within host formations of less dense wall rocks. This
can be used to directly detect Mississippi Valley Type ore deposits, IOCG ore deposits, iron ore deposits, skarn
deposits and salt diapirs which can form oil and gas traps.
Electromagnetic (EM) surveys can be used to detect a wide variety of base metal sulphide deposits via detection of
conductivity anomalies which can be generated around sulphide bodies in the subsurface. EM surveys can also be
used to detect palaeochannel-hosted uranium deposits which are associated with shallow aquifers, which often
respond to EM surveys in conductive overburden. This is an indirect inferential method of detecting mineralisation.
Regional EM surveys are conducted via airborne methods, using either fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter-borne EM
rigs. Surface EM methods are based mostly on Transient EM methods using surface loops with a surface receiver, or
a downhole tool lowered into a borehole which transects a body of mineralisation. These methods can map out
sulphide bodies within the earth in 3 dimensions, and provide information to geologists to direct further exploratory
drilling on known mineralisation. Surface loop surveys are rarely used for regional exploration, however in some
cases such surveys can be used with success (e.g.; SQUID surveys for nickel ore bodies).
Electric-resistance methods such as induced polarization methods can be useful for directly detecting sulfide bodies,
coal and resistive rocks such as salt and carbonates.

Oil and gas

Seismic reflection techniques are the most widely used geophysical technique in hydrocarbon exploration. They are
used to map the subsurface distribution of stratigraphy and its structure which can be used to delineate potential
hydrocarbon accumulations. Well logging is another widely used technique as it provides necessary high resolution
information about rock and fluid properties in a vertical section, although they are limited in areal extent. This
limitation in areal extent is the reason why seismic reflection techniques are so popular; they provide a method for
interpolating and extrapolating well log information over a much larger area.
Gravity and magnetics are also used, with considerable frequency, in oil and gas exploration. These can be used to
determine the geometry and depth of covered geological structures including uplifts, subsiding basins, faults, folds,
igneous intrusions and salt diapirs due to their unique density and magnetic susceptibility signatures compared to the
surrounding rocks.
Remote sensing techniques, specifically hyperspectral imaging, have been used to detect hydrocarbon microseepages
using the spectral signature of geochemically altered soils.[1] [2]
Magnetotellurics and controlled-source electromagnetics can provide pseudo-direct detection of hydrocarbons by
detecting resistivity changes, complimenting seismic data.

Civil engineering
Ground penetrating radar is used within civil construction and engineering for a variety of uses, including detection
of utilities (buried water, gas, sewerage, electrical and telecommunication cables), mapping of soft soils and
overburden for geotechnical characterization, and other similar uses.
Civil engineering can also use remote sensing information for topographical mapping, planning and environmental
impact assessment. Airborne electromagnetic surveys are also used to characterize soft sediments in planning and
engineering roads, dams and other structures.
Magnetotellurics has proven useful for delineating groundwater reservoirs, mapping faults around areas where
hazardous substances are stored (e.g. nuclear power stations and nuclear waste storage facilities), and earthquake
precursor monitoring in areas with major structures such as hydro-electric dams subject to high levels of seismic
activity.

117

Exploration geophysics

Archaeology
See also: Geophysical survey (archaeology)
Ground penetrating radar can be used to map buried artifacts, such as graves, mortuaries, wreck sites, and other
shallowly buried archaeological sites.
Ground magnetometric surveys can be used for detecting buried ferrous metals, useful in surveying shipwrecks,
modern battlefields strewn with metal debris, and even subtle disturbances such as large-scale ancient ruins.
Sonar systems can be used to detect shipwrecks.

Forensics
Ground penetrating radar can be used to detect grave sites.

Unexploded ordnance detection

Magnetic and electromagnetic surveys can be used to locate unexploded ordnance.

References
[1] Khan, S.D.; Jacobson, S. (2008). "Remote Sensing and Geochemistry for Detecting Hydrocarbon Microseepages". Geological Society of
America Bulletin 120: 96-105.
[2] Petrovic, A.; Khan, S.D.; Chafetz, H. (2008). "Remote detection and geochemical studies for finding hydrocarbon-induced alterations in
Lisbon Valley, Utah". Marine and Petroleum Geology 25: 696-705.

External links

U. S. Society of Exploration Geophysicists SEG (http://www.seg.org)

European Society of Geophysicists and Engineers EAGE (http://www.eage.org)
Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists CSEG (http://www.cseg.ca)
Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists ASEG (http://www.aseg.org.au/)
International Association of Geophysical Contractors (http://www.iagc.org)

118

Water well

119

Water well
A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging,
driving, boring or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The
well water is drawn by an electric submersible pump, a vertical turbine pump, a
handpump or a mechanical pump (e.g. from a water-pumping windmill[1] ). It
can also be drawn up using containers, such as buckets, that are raised
mechanically or by hand.
Wells can vary greatly in depth, water volume and water quality. Well water
typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require
treatment to soften the water by removing minerals such as arsenic, iron and
manganese.
Water well at the German monastery
"Kloster Wald"

Types of water wells

Dug wells
Until recent centuries, all artificial wells were pumpless hand-dug wells of
varying degrees of formality, and they remain a very important source of potable
water in some rural, developing areas where they are routinely dug and used
today. Their indispensability has produced a number of literary references, literal
and figurative, to them, including the Christian Bible story of Jesus meeting a
woman at Jacob's well (John 4:6) and the "Ding Dong Bell" nursery rhyme about
a cat in a well.
A hand-drawn water well in Chennai,

Hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate

India.
one or more men with shovels digging down to below the water table. They can
be lined with laid stones or brick; extending this lining upwards above the ground surface into a wall around the well
serves to reduce both contamination and injuries by falling into the well. A more modern method called caissoning
uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs
under a cutting ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer, whilst protecting the team from collapse of
the well bore.
Hand dug wells provide a cheap and low-tech solution to accessing
groundwater in rural locations in developing countries, and may be
built with a high degree of community participation, or by local
entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. Hand dug wells have
been successfully excavated to 60m. Hand dug wells are inexpensive
and low tech (compared to drilling) as they use mostly hand labour for
construction. Hand dug wells have low operational and maintenance
costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand bailing, without a
pump. Hand dug wells can be easily deepened, which may be
necessary if the ground water level drops, by telescoping the lining
further down into the aquifer. The yield of existing hand dug wells may

View into a hand-dug well cased with concrete

rings; Ouelessebougou, Mali, Africa.

Water well

120
be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes.

A dug well in a village in Faryab

Province, Afghanistan

Drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous. It can be impractical to

hand dig wells in areas where hard rock is present, and they can be
time-consuming to dig and line even in favorable areas. Because they
exploit shallow aquifers, the well may be susceptible to yield
fluctuations and possible contamination from surface water, including
sewage. Hand dug well construction generally requires the use of a
trained well construction team, and the capital investment for
equipment such as concrete ring moulds, heavy lifting equipment, well
shaft formwork, motorized de-watering pumps, and fuel can be large
for people in developing countries. Construction of hand dug wells can
be dangerous due to collapse of the well bore, falling objects and
asphyxiation, including from dewatering pump exhaust fumes.

Uncased, hand-dug well in Ouelessebougou,

Mali, Africa

Woodingdean well, dug between 1858 and 1862, is claimed to be the world's deepest hand-dug well at 1,285 feet.[2]

Driven wells
Driven wells may be very simply created in unconsolidated material with a "well point", which consists of a
hardened drive point and a screen (perforated pipe). The point is simply hammered into the ground, usually with a
tripod and "driver", with pipe sections added as needed. A driver is a weighted pipe that slides over the pipe being
driven and is repeatedly dropped on it. When groundwater is encountered, the well is washed of sediment and a
pump installed.

Drilled wells

Water well

121

Drilled wells can be excavated by simple hand drilling methods (augering,

sludging, jetting, driving, hand percussion) or machine drilling (rotary,
percussion, down the hole hammer). Drilled wells can get water from a much
deeper level than by dug wells - often up to several hundred meters.
Drilled wells with electric pumps are currently used throughout the world,
typically in rural or sparsely populated areas, though many urban areas are
supplied partly by municipal wells.
Drilled wells are typically created using either top-head rotary style, table rotary,
or cable tool drilling machines, all of which use drilling stems that are turned to
create a cutting action in the formation, hence the term 'drilling'. Most shallow
well drilling machines are mounted on large trucks, trailers, or tracked vehicle
carriages. Water wells typically range from 20 to 600feet (180 m), but in some
areas can go deeper than 3000feet (910 m).
Rotary drilling machines use a segmented steel drilling string, typically made up
of 20-foot (6.1 m) sections of steel tubing that are threaded together, with a bit or
other drilling device at the bottom end. Some rotary drilling machines are
designed to install (by driving or drilling) a steel casing into the well in
conjunction with the drilling of the actual bore hole. Air and/or water is used as a
circulation fluid to displace cuttings and cool bits during the drilling. Another
form of rotary style drilling, termed 'mud rotary', makes use of a specially made
mud, or drilling fluid, which is constantly being altered during the drill so that it
can consistently create enough hydraulic pressure to hold the side walls of the
bore hole open, regardless of the presence of a casing in the well. Typically,
boreholes drilled into solid rock are not cased until after the drilling process is
completed, regardless of the machinery used.
The oldest form of drilling machinery is the Cable Tool, still used today.
Specifically designed to raise and lower a bit into the bore hole, the 'spudding' of
the drill causes the bit to be raised and dropped onto the bottom of the hole, and
the design of the cable causes the bit to twist at approximately 1/4 revolution per
drop, thereby creating a drilling action. Unlike rotary drilling, cable tool drilling
requires the drilling action to be stopped so that the bore hole can be bailed or
emptied of drilled cuttings.
Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe, typically steel (in air
rotary or cable tool drilling) or plastic/PVC (in mud rotary wells, also present in
wells drilled into solid rock). The casing is constructed by welding, either
chemically or thermodynamically, segments of casing together. If the casing is
installed during the drilling, most drills will drive the casing into the ground as
the bore hole advances, while some newer machines will actually allow for the
casing to be rotated and drilled into the formation in a similar manner as the bit
advancing just below. PVC or plastic is typically welded and then lowered into
the drilled well, vertically stacked with their ends nested and either glued or
splined together. The sections of casing are usually 20' (6m) or more in length,
and 6"12" (15 to 30cm) in diameter, depending on the intended use of the well
and local groundwater conditions.

Cable tool water well drilling rig in

Kimball, West Virginia.

Water well
Surface contamination of wells in the United States is typically controlled by the use of a 'surface seal'. A large hole
is drilled to a predetermined depth or to a confining formation (clay or bedrock, for example), and then a smaller
hole for the well is completed from that point forward. The well is typically cased from the surface down into the
smaller hole with a casing that is the same diameter as that hole. The annular space between the large bore hole and
the smaller casing is filled with bentonite clay, concrete, or other sealant material. This creates an impermeable seal
from the surface to the next confining layer that keeps contaminants from traveling down the outer sidewalls of the
casing or borehole and into the aquifer. In addition, wells are typically capped with either an engineered well cap or
seal that vents air through a screen into the well, but keeps insects, small animals, and unauthorized persons from
accessing the well.
At the bottom of wells, based on formation, a screening device, filter pack, slotted casing, or open bore hole is left to
allow the flow of water into the well. Constructed screens are typically used in unconsolidated formations (sands,
gravels, etc.), allowing water and a percentage of the formation to pass through the screen. Allowing some material
to pass through creates a large area filter out of the rest of the formation, as the amount of material present to pass
into the well slowly decreases and is removed from the well. Rock wells are typically cased with a PVC liner/casing
and screen or slotted casing at the bottom, this is mostly present just to keep rocks from entering the pump assembly.
Some wells utilize a 'filter pack' method, where an undersized screen or slotted casing is placed inside the well and a
filter medium is packed around the screen, between the screen and the borehole or casing. This allows the water to
be filtered of unwanted materials before entering the well and pumping zone.

Classification
There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of
aquifer the well is in:
Shallow or unconfined wells are completed in the uppermost
saturated aquifer at that location (the upper unconfined aquifer).
Deep or confined wells are sunk through an impermeable stratum
into an aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable strata
(aquitards or aquicludes). The majority of deep aquifers are
classified as artesian because the hydraulic head in a confined well
is higher than the level of the top of the aquifer. If the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the land
surface it is a "flowing" artesian well (named after Artois in France).
Two additional broad classes of well types may be distinguished, based on the use of the well:
production or pumping wells, are large diameter (> 15cm in diameter) cased (metal, plastic, or concrete) water
wells, constructed for extracting water from the aquifer by a pump (if the well is not artesian).
monitoring wells or piezometers, are often smaller diameter wells used to monitor the hydraulic head or sample
the groundwater for chemical constituents. Piezometers are monitoring wells completed over a very short section
of aquifer. Monitoring wells can also be completed at multiple levels, allowing discrete samples or measurements
to be made at different vertical elevations at the same map location.
Obviously, a well constructed for pumping groundwater can be used passively as a monitoring well and a small
diameter well can be pumped, but this distinction by use is common.

122

Water well

123

Well Siting
Before excavation, information about the geology, water table depth, seasonal fluctuations, recharge area and rate
must be found. This work is typically done by a hydrogeologist, using a variety of tools including any available
information from nearby wells, geologic maps sometimes geophysical imaging.

Well Contamination
Shallow pumping wells can often supply drinking water at a very low
cost, but because impurities from the surface easily reach shallow
sources, a greater risk of contamination occurs for these wells when
they are compared to deeper wells. Dug and driven wells are relatively
easy to contaminate, and dug wells are unreliable in most of the U.S.[3]
The quality of the well water can be significantly increased by lining
the well, sealing the well head, fitting a self-priming hand pump,
constructing an apron, ensuring the area is kept clean and free from
stagnant water and animals, moving sources of contamination (latrines,
Man cleaning a well in Yaound, Cameroon
garbage pits) and carrying out hygiene education. It is important that
the well is cleaned with 1% chlorine solution after construction and periodically every 6 months.

Microorganisms
Most of the bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that contaminate well water comes from fecal material from
humans and other animals. Common bacterial contaminants include E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and
Campylobacter jejuni. Common viral contaminants include norovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, enteroviruses, and
hepatitis A and E. Parasites include Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and
microsporidia.[3]

Chemicals

Hard water caused

calcification on this
tap.

Chemical contamination is a common problem with groundwater. Nitrates from sewage or

fertilizer are a particular problem for children. Pesticides and volatile organic compounds from
gasoline, dry-cleaning, and many other sources are the most commonly occurring pollutant
chemicals in the U.S., and may be identifiable in more than a third of all U.S. wells, although
this is mostly at levels below U.S. water standards. Other notable chemical contaminants
include the fuel additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and perchlorate from rocket fuel,
airbag inflators, and other artificial and natural sources.

Several minerals are also contaminants, including lead leached from brass fittings or old lead pipes, chromium VI
from electroplating and other sources, naturally occurring arsenic, radon, and uraniumall of which can cause
cancerand naturally occurring fluoride, which is desirable in low quantities to prevent tooth decay, but can cause
dental fluorosis in higher concentrations.[3]
Some chemicals are commonly present in water wells at levels that are not toxic, but can cause other problems.
Calcium and magnesium cause what is known as hard water, which can precipitate and clog pipes or burn out water
heaters. Iron and manganese can appear as dark flecks that stain clothing and plumbing, and can promote the growth
of iron and manganese bacteria that can form slimy black colonies that clog pipes.[3]

Water well

124

Mitigation
Cleanup of contaminated groundwater tends to be very costly. Effective remediation of groundwater is generally
very difficult.
Contamination of groundwater from surface and subsurface sources can usually be dramatically reduced by correctly
centering the casing during construction and filling the casing annulus with an appropriate sealing material. The
sealing material (grout) should be placed from immediately above the production zone back to surface, because, in
the absence of a correctly constructed casing seal, contaminated fluid can travel into the well through the casing
annulus. Centering devices are important (usually 1 per length of casing or at maximum intervals of 9m) to ensure
that the grouted annular space is of even thickness.
Upon the construction of a new test well, it is considered best practice
to invest in a complete battery of chemical and biological tests on the
well water in question. Point-of-use treatment is available for
individual properties and treatment plants are often constructed for
municipal water supplies that suffer from contamination. Most of these
treatment methods involve the filtration of the contaminants of
concern, and additional protection may be garnered by installing
well-casing screens only at depths where contamination is not present.
Well water for personal use is often filtered with reverse osmosis water
processors; this process can remove very small particles. A simple,
effective way of killing microorganisms is to bring the water to a full
boil for one to three minutes, depending on location. A household well
contaminated by microorganisms can initially be treated by shock
chlorination using bleach, generating concentrations hundreds of times
greater than found in community water systems; however, this will not
fix any structural problems that led to the contamination and generally
requires some expertise and testing for effective application.[3]

Water well and manual waterpump in Burdinne

(Belgium)

Environmental problems
A risk with the placement of water wells is soil salination. This problem occurs when the watertable of the soil
begins to drop and salt begins to accumulate as the soil begins to dry out.[4] Another environmental problem that is
very prevalent in water well drilling is the potential for methane to seep through.

Soil Salination
The potential for soil salination is a large risk when choosing the placement of water wells. Soil Salination is caused
when the water table of the soil drops over time and salt begins to accumulate. In turn, the increased amount of salt
begins to dry the soil out. This is a very detrimental problem because the increased level of salt in the soil can result
in the degradation of soil and can be very harmful to vegetation. [5]

Water well

125

Methane
Methane, an asphyxiate, is a chemical compound that is the main component of natural gas. When methane mixes
with oxygen, it has the ability to reduce oxygen to harmfully low levels in a small space or to form an explosion.
This explosive quality is what poses such a danger in regards to the drilling and placement of water wells. [6]
Low levels of methane in drinking water are not considered toxic. When methane seeps into a water supply, it is
commonly referred to as "methane migration." This can be caused by old natural gas wells near water well systems
becoming abandoned and no longer monitored.

Ancient well technologies

The earliest wells are known from the Neolithic. In the submerged
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B settlement of Atlit Yam in Israel, dated to
81007500 BC, a well has been found, which so far is the oldest
known. Other PPNB wells (78 m deep) are known from
Kissonerga-Mylouthkia on Cyprus and maybe shallower examples
from Shillourokambos as well.[7]
Wood-lined wells are known from the early Neolithic Linear Pottery
culture, for example in Kckhoven, dated 5090 BC and Eythra, dated
Chand Baori, a stepwell built in the 9th century.
5200 BC in Germany and Schletz in Austria. The early Mesolithic site
of Friesack in Germany has yielded a shallow pit with the remains of a birch-bark container that may have been a
shallow artificial well.
Australian Aborigines relied on wells to survive the harsh Australian desert. They would dig down, scooping out
sand and mud to reach clean water, then cover the source with spinifex to prevent spoilage. Non-aborigines call these
native wells, soaks or soakages.
Stepwells are common in the west of India. In these wells, the water may be reached by descending a set of steps.
They may be covered and are often of architectural significance. Many stepwells were also used for leisure,
providing relief from the daytime heat.
A qanat is an ancient water collection system made up of a series of wells and
linked underground water channels that collects flowing water from a source
usually a distance away, stores it, and then brings the water to the surface using
gravity. Much of the population of Iran and other arid countries in Asia and
North Africa historically depended upon the water from qanats; the areas of
population corresponded closely to the areas where qanats are possible.
A qanat

In Egypt, shadoofs and sakiehs are used.[8] [9] When compared to each other
however, the Sakkieh is much more efficient, as it can bring up water from a depth of 10 meters (versus the 3 meters
of the shadoof). The Sakieh is the Egyptian version of the Noria.
From the Iron Age onwards, wells are common archaeological features, both with wooden shafts and shaft linings
made from wickerwork.
Lately, however, the described wells/pumps are no longer very efficient and can be replaced by either handpumps or
treadle pumps. Another alternative is the use of self-dug wells, electrical deep-well pumps (for higher depths).
Appropriate technology organizations as Practical Action are now supplying information on how to build/set-up
(diy) handpumps and treadle pumps in practice.[10] [11]

Water well

126

Cultural references
Springs and wells have had cultural significance since prehistoric times, leading
to the foundation of towns such as Wells and Bath in Somerset. Interest in health
benefits led to the growth of spa towns including many with wells in their name,
examples being Llandrindod Wells and Royal Tunbridge Wells.
Empty wells are a prominent element in some of the work of Japanese author
Haruki Murakami, especially The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle.
In Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, chapter 7, The Dormouse tells the
history of a family who lived "at the bottom of a well", made of treacle (see
treacle mining).
Water use, tacuinum sanitatis
casanatensis (XIV century)

There is a belief that a wish can be made in a well; see wishing well. There is much folklore in
Wales surrounding wells, particularly in relation to their healing properties. In Scotland and
Ireland, there is a Celtic tradition of leaving cloth offerings for healing at Clootie wells. In the
Peak District of England, a tradition of Well dressing has persisted from Pagan to Christian
religion, possibly related to plague.
Eratosthenes first calculated the radius of the Earth in about 230 BC by comparing shadows in
wells during the summer solstice.[12]
Wishing well at the
castle of Zumelle,
Belluro, Veneto,
Italy

In Western Ukraine, water wells were traditionally centers of social life, and the community
came together to build them using a traditional process. Local stories often emphasize the
social and cultural values of wells. The wells were decorated and had a wooden wheel attached
to raise the bucket. Wells are still used in many Ukrainian towns and cities.

The same is true with the early Israelites, as depicted in the Hebrew Bible and in the Christian New Testament.
Many Bible stories take place around wells, such as the finding of a wife for Isaac in Genesis and Jesus's talk with
the Samaritan woman in the Gospels.
In the novel, and subsequent film adaptations of Ring by Koji Suzuki, the malevolent antagonist, Sadako Yamamura,
is revealed to have been killed and thrown into a well some thirty years before the events of the novel. Sadako's well
is a recurring theme in the story, especially in the 1998 film adaptation.

Notes
[1] DIY waterpumping windmill for the developing world (http:/ / www1. natgeochannel. co. uk/ explore/ green/ mechanics_prog.
aspx?mediaType=video& ep=4)
[2] "Woodingdean Well" (http:/ / www. mybrightonandhove. org. uk/ page_id__6948_path__0p115p1224p597p. aspx). 2005. . Retrieved 26 jan
2010.
[3] Committee on Environmental Health; Committee on Infectious Diseases (2009). "Drinking water from private wells and risks to children".
Pediatrics 123 (6): 15991605. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0751. PMID19482772.
[4] Soil salination by placement of water wells mentioned in India (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2009/ 06/ cheap-food/ bourne-text/ 1)
[5] http:/ / www. paralumun. com/ envsoil. htm
[6] http:/ / scifun. chem. wisc. edu/ chemweek/ METHANE/ Methane. html
[7] http:/ / www. straitstimes. com/ Breaking+ News/ Tech+ and+ Science/ Story/ STIStory_394409. html
[8] Sakieh explication/difference vs Sakia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-518730/ sakia)
[9] Sakia explication (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9001226/ sakia#271043. hook)
[10] Practical Answers Handpumps (http:/ / practicalaction. org/ practicalanswers/ product_info. php?products_id=198)
[11] Treadle pump (http:/ / dev. practicalaction. org/ ?id=appeal_nepalpump)
[12] http:/ / muweb. millersville. edu/ ~physics/ exp. of. the. month/ 58/

Water well

References
Driscoll, F. (1986). Groundwater and Wells. St. Paul, MN: Johnson Filtration Systems, second edition. ISBN
978-0961645601

External links
Wellowner.org (http://www.wellowner.org/)
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water - Water Wells (http://www.cdc.gov/
healthywater/drinking/private/wells/index.html) Site covering well basics, guidelines for proper siting and
location of wells to avoid contamination, well testing, diseases related to wells, emergency well treatment and
other topics.
US Geological Survey Ground water: Wells (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwwells.html)
US Geological Survey Water Science Pictures Flowing Artesian Well (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/
gwartesian.html)
American Ground Water Trust (http://agwt.org/)
National Ground Water Association (http://ngwa.org/)
Lifewater International Technical Library (http://www.lifewater.org/resources/ground_water.html#GW)
The Internet Sacred Texts Archive: The Folklore of Wells (Wales) (http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/cfwm/
cf200.htm)
Driving a well with a well point (http://weather.nmsu.edu/hydrology/wellpoint2.htm)
Well Construction Technical Resources for NGOs (http://www.watersanitationhygiene.org/References/
Technical Resources - Wells.htm)
The Techniques and Tools (http://ris-geo.jp/img/publication/06-037.pdf) of the Kazusabori ()
Well-boring
Restoring a Flooded Well to Service, G. Morgan Powell, Kansas State University, June 2006 (http://www.oznet.
ksu.edu/library/h20ql2/mf2733.pdf)
Equations for drainage by wells: (http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/wellspac.pdf)
Software for drainage by wells: (http://www.waterlog.info/weldrain.htm)

127

Borehole

128

Borehole
A borehole is the generalized term for any narrow shaft bored in the
ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be
constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of
water or other liquid (such as petroleum) or gases (such as natural gas),
as part of a geotechnical investigation, environmental site assessment,
mineral exploration, temperature measurement or as a pilot hole for
installing piers or underground utilities. Boreholes used as water wells
are described in more depth in that article.
A water borehole into the chalk aquifer under the

In the engineering and environmental consulting fields, the term is

North Downs, England at Albury
used to collectively describe all of the various types of holes drilled as
part of a geotechnical investigation or environmental site assessment (a so-called Phase II ESA). This includes holes
advanced to collect soil samples, water samples or rock cores, to advance in situ sampling equipment, or to install
monitoring wells or piezometers. Samples collected from boreholes are often tested in a laboratory to determine their
physical properties, or to assess levels of various chemical constituents or contaminants.
Typically, a borehole used as a well is completed by installing a vertical pipe (casing) and well screen to keep the
borehole from caving. This also helps prevent surface contaminants from entering the borehole and protects any
installed pump from drawing in sand and sediment. When completed in this manner the borehole is then more
commonly called a well: whether it is a water well, oil well or natural gas extraction well.
The worlds deepest borehole is the Kola Superdeep Borehole on the Kola Peninsula in Scandinavian Russia. Its
drilling lasted from 1970 to 1989 and reached a depth of 12,262 meters for geological studies.[1]
Borehole temperatures can be used as temperature proxies: measurements at a series of different depths can be
effectively "inverted" (a mathematical formula to solve a matrix equation) to become a series of temperature values
back in time.
Boreholes may be drilled using a drilling rig, or by a hand-operated rig. The machinery and technique to advance a
borehole varies considerably according to manufacturer, geological conditions, and the intended purpose.

References
[1] Objectives - Kola Superdeep Borehole (KSDB) - IGCP 408: Rocks and Minerals at Great Depths and on the Surface. (http:/ / www.
icdp-online. org/ contenido/ icdp/ front_content. php?client=29& lang=28& idcat=1089& idart=1554)

External links
Borehole Monitoring (http://www.rshydro.co.uk/water-quality-monitoring.shtml)

129

LABORATERY TESTS
Atterberg limits
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the water content of the
soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state the consistency and behavior of a
soil is different and thus so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined
based on a change in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it
can distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish
chemist.They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.

Laboratory tests
Shrinkage limit
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume
reduction.[1] The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much
less commonly used than the liquid limit and the plastic limit.

Plastic limit
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil starts to exhibit plastic behavior. A thread of soil is at its plastic
limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm and begins to crumble. To improve consistency, a 3 mm diameter rod is
often used to gauge the thickness of the thread when conducting the test. (AKA Soil Snake Test)

Liquid limit
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content where a soil changes from plastic to liquid behavior. The original liquid
limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a little round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter.
A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm
of one hand. Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the procedures to make the measurement more
repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a groove is made down its center with a
standardized tool. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10mm onto a hard rubber base during which the groove closes up
gradually as a result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close for 13 mm ( inch) is recorded. The
moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close is defined as the liquid limit.
Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the Cone Penetrometer test. It is based on the measurement of
penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass. Despite the universal prevalence of the Casagrande
method, the cone penetrometer is often considered to be a more consistent alternative because it minimizes the
possibility of human variations when carrying out the test.

Atterberg limits

Derived limits
The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and
properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability, and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as
limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg
limits are not only used to identify the soil's classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some
other engineering properties.

Plasticity index
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water
contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0
tend to have little or no silt or clay.

Liquidity index
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be
calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit, and plasticity index:
LI=(W-PL)/(LL-PL) where W is the natural water content.

Activity
The activity (A) of a soil is the PI divided by the percent of clay-sized particles (less than 2 m) present. Different
types of clays have different specific surface areas which controls how much wetting is required to move a soil from
one phase to another such as across the liquid limit or the plastic limit. From the activity one can predict the
dominant clay type present in a soil sample. High activity signifies large volume change when wetted and large
shrinkage when dried. Soils with high activity are very reactive chemically. Normally the activity of clay is between
0.75 and 1.25, and in this range clay is called normal. It is assumed that the plasticity index is approximately equal to
the clay fraction (A = 1). When A is less than 0.75, it is considered inactive. When it is greater than 1.25, it is
considered active.

Notes
[1] "Shrinkage Limit Test" (http:/ / www. usace. army. mil/ publications/ / / / eng-manuals/ em1110-2-1906/ a-IIIB. pdf). United States Army
Corps of Engineers. .

References
University of Washington lecture notes (http://www.ce.washington.edu/~geotech/courses/cee366/arduino/
exercise3.PDF)
Soil Physical Properties--Mechanics (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec7/Lec7.html)

130

California bearing ratio

131

California bearing ratio

The California bearing ratio (CBR) is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of road
subgrades and basecourses. It was developed by the California Department of Transportation before World War II.
The test is performed by measuring the pressure required to penetrate a soil sample with a plunger of standard area.
The measured pressure is then divided by the pressure required to achieve an equal penetration on a standard crushed
rock material. The CBR test is described in ASTM Standards D1883-05 (for laboratory-prepared samples) and
D4429 (for soils in place in field), and AASHTO T193. The CBR test is fully described in BS 1377 : Soils for civil
engineering purposes : Part 4, Compaction related tests.
The CBR rating was developed for measuring the load-bearing capacity of soils used for building roads. The CBR
can also be used for measuring the load-bearing capacity of unimproved airstrips or for soils under paved airstrips.
The harder the surface, the higher the CBR rating. A CBR of 3 equates to tilled farmland, a CBR of 4.75 equates to
turf or moist clay, while moist sand may have a CBR of 10. High quality crushed rock has a CBR over 80. The
standard material for this test is crushed California limestone which has a value of 100.

= CBR [%]
= measured pressure for site soils [N/mm]
= pressure to achieve equal penetration on standard soil [N/mm]

External links
CBR [1]
Soil Test [4]

References
[1] http:/ / www. highwaysmaintenance. com/ cbrtext. htm

Direct shear test

Direct shear test

A direct shear test is a laboratory test used by geotechnical engineers to find the shear strength parameters of soil.
The U.S. and U.K. standards defining how the test should be performed are ASTM D 3080 and BS 1377-7:1990
respectively.
The test is performed on three or four specimens from a relatively undisturbed soil sample. A specimen is placed in a
shear box which has two stacked rings to hold the sample; the contact between the two rings is at approximately the
mid-height of the sample. A confining stress is applied vertically to the specimen, and the upper ring is pulled
laterally until the sample fails, or through a specified strain. The load applied and the strain induced is recorded at
frequent intervals to determine a stress-strain curve for the confining stress.
Direct Shear tests can be performed under several conditions. The sample is normally saturated before the test is run,
but can be run at the in-situ moisture content. The rate of strain can be varied to create a test of undrained or drained
conditions, depending whether the strain is applied slowly enough for water in the sample to prevent pore-water
pressure buildup.
Several specimens are tested at varying confining stresses to determine the shear strength parameters, the soil
cohesion (c) and the angle of internal friction (commonly friction angle) (
). The results of the tests on each
specimen are plotted on a graph with the peak (or residual) stress on the x-axis and the confining stress on the y-axis.
The y-intercept of the curve which fits the test results is the cohesion, and the slope of the line or curve is the friction
angle.

References
University of Texas Arlington [1] Information on the direct shear test from geotechnical lab notes.
Bardet, Jean-Pierre (1997). Experimental Soil Mechanics. Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0133749359.

References
[1] http:/ / geotech. uta. edu/ lab/ Main/ DIRECT%20SHEAR%20TEST. pdf

132

Hydrometer

133

Hydrometer
A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative
density) of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of
water.
A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a
bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. The liquid to be
tested is poured into a tall container, often a graduated cylinder, and the
hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at
which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted.
Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity
can be read directly. A variety of scales exist, and are used depending on the
context.
Hydrometers may be calibrated for different uses, such as a lactometer for
measuring the density (creaminess) of milk, a saccharometer for measuring the
density of sugar in a liquid, or an alcoholometer for measuring higher levels of
alcohol in spirits.

Principle
Archimedes' principle that a solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Thus, the lower the density of the
substance, the farther the hydrometer will sink. (See also Relative density and
hydrometers.)

Hydrometer from Practical Physics

History
An early description of a hydrometer appears in a letter from Synesius of Cyrene to the Greek scholar Hypatia of
Alexandria. In Synesius' fifteenth letter, he requests Hypatia to make a hydrometer for him. Hypatia is given credit
for inventing the hydrometer (or hydroscope) sometime in the late 4th century or early 5th century.[1]
The instrument in question is a cylindrical tube, which has the shape of a flute and is about the same
size. It has notches in a perpendicular line, by means of which we are able to test the weight of the
waters. A cone forms a lid at one of the extremities, closely fitted to the tube. The cone and the tube
have one base only. This is called the baryllium. Whenever you place the tube in water, it remains erect.
You can then count the notches at your ease, and in this way ascertain the weight of the water.[2]
It was used by Ab Rayhn al-Brn in the 11th century and described by Al-Khazini in the 12th century.[3] It later
appeared again in the work of Jacques Alexandre Csar Charles in the 18th century.

Hydrometer

134

Ranges
In low density liquids such as kerosene, gasoline, and alcohol, the hydrometer will
sink deeper, and in high density liquids such as brine, milk, and acids it will not
sink so far. In fact, it is usual to have two separate instruments, one for heavy
liquids, on which the mark 1.000 for water is near the top of the stem, and one for
light liquids, on which the mark 1.000 is near the bottom. In many industries a set
of hydrometers is used covering specific gravity ranges of 1.00.95, 0.950.9
etc. to provide more precise measurements.

Scheme of an Aerometer

Scales
Modern hydrometers usually measure specific gravity but different scales were (and sometimes still are) used in
certain industries. Examples include:

API gravity, universally used worldwide by the petroleum industry.

Baum scale, formerly used in industrial chemistry and pharmacology
Brix scale, primarily used in fruit juice, wine making and the sugar industry
Oechsle scale, used for measuring the density of grape must
Plato scale, primarily used in brewing
Twaddell scale, formerly used in the bleaching and dyeing industries [4]

Specialized hydrometers
Specialized hydrometers are frequently named for their use: a lactometer, for example, is a hydrometer designed
especially for use with dairy products.

Lactometer
A lactometer (or galactometer) is a hydrometer used to test milk. The specific gravity of milk does not give a
conclusive indication of its composition since milk contains a variety of substances that are either heavier or lighter
than water. Additional tests for fat content are necessary to determine overall composition. The instrument is
graduated into a hundred parts. Milk is poured in and allowed to stand until the cream has formed, then the depth of

Hydrometer
the cream deposit in degrees determines the quality of the milk. Another instrument, invented by Doeffel, is two
inches long, divided into 40 parts, beginning at the point to which it sinks when placed in water. Milk unadulterated
is shown at 14.[5]

Alcoholometer
An alcoholometer is a hydrometer which is used for determining the alcoholic strength of liquids. It is also known as
a proof and traille hydrometer. It only measures the density of the fluid. Certain assumptions are made to estimate
the amount of alcohol present in the fluid. Alcoholometers have scales marked with volume percents of "potential
alcohol", based on a pre-calculated specific gravity. A higher "potential alcohol" reading on this scale is caused by a
greater specific gravity, assumed to be caused by the introduction of dissolved sugars. A reading is taken before and
after fermentation and approximate alcohol content is determined by subtracting the post fermentation reading from
the pre-fermentation reading.[6]

Saccharometer
A saccharometer is a hydrometer used for determining the amount of sugar in a solution. It is used primarily by
winemakers and brewers,[7] and it can also be used in making sorbets and ice-creams.[8] The first brewers'
saccharometer was constructed by John Richardson in 1784.[9]
It consists of a large weighted glass bulb with a thin stem rising from the top with calibrated markings. The sugar
level can be determined by reading the value where the surface of the liquid crosses the scale. It works by the
principle of buoyancy. A solution with a higher sugar content is denser, causing the bulb to float higher. Less sugar
results in a lower density and a lower floating bulb.

Thermohydrometer
A thermohydrometer is a hydrometer that has a thermometer enclosed in the float section. For measuring the density
of petroleum products, like fuel oils, the specimen is usually heated in a temperature jacket with a thermometer
placed behind it since density is dependent on temperature. Light oils are placed in cooling jackets, typically at 15oC.
Very light oils with many volatile components are measured in a variable volume container using a floating piston
sampling device to minimize light end losses.
As a battery test it measures the temperature compensated specific gravity and electrolyte temperature.

Barkometer
A barkometer is calibrated to test the strength of tanning liquors used in tanning leather.[10]

Battery hydrometer
The state of charge of a lead-acid battery can be estimated from the density of the sulphuric acid solution used as
electrolyte. A hydrometer calibrated to read specific gravity relative to water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit is a standard
tool for servicing automobile batteries. Tables are used to correct the reading to the standard temperature.

Antifreeze tester
Another automotive use of hydrometers is testing the quality of the antifreeze solution used for engine cooling. The
degree of freeze protection can be related to the density (and so concentration) of the antifreeze; different types of
antifreeze have different relations between measured density and freezing point.

135

Hydrometer

Acidometer
Sometimes spelled acidimeter, an acidometer is a hydrometer used to measure the specific gravity of an acid. [11]

Use in soil analysis

A hydrometer analysis is the process by which fine-grained soils, silts and clays, are graded. Hydrometer analysis is
performed if the grain sizes are too small for sieve analysis. The basis for this test is Stoke's Law for falling spheres
in a viscous fluid in which the terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain diameter and the densities of the grain in
suspension and of the fluid. The grain diameter thus can be calculated from a knowledge of the distance and time of
fall. The hydrometer also determines the specific gravity (or density) of the suspension, and this enables the
percentage of particles of a certain equivalent particle diameter to be calculated.

References
[1] Female Inventors - Hypatia of Alexandria http:/ / www. inventions. org/ culture/ female/ hypatia. html
[2] Taken from the two-volume set of Letters, Essays and Hymns of Synesius translated by A. Fitzgerald, published by Oxford University Press
in 1926 and 1930. Available on-line at: http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ athens/ acropolis/ 5164/
synesius. html& date=2009-10-25+ 12:50:58
[3] Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 639, in Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Rgis (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of
Arabic Science, 1 & 3, Routledge, pp.614642, ISBN0415124107
[4] http:/ / chestofbooks. com/ reference/ Encyclopedia-Of-Practical-Receipts-And-Processes/ Degrees-of-Baum-e. html
[5] "The New Student's Reference Work/Lactometer - Wikisource" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ The_New_Student's_Reference_Work/
Lactometer). en.wikisource.org. . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[6] The dictionary of beer and brewing - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XRyxWu8rRnQC& pg=PA12&
dq=Alcoholometer& lr=& as_brr=3& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=Alcoholometer& f=false). books.google.com. . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[7] Country house brewing in England ... - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vDEwIR0ZHGYC& pg=PA64&
dq=Saccharometer& as_brr=3& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=Saccharometer& f=false). books.google.com. . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[8] Patisserie - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=D6YuI15dT74C& pg=PA250& dq=Saccharometer& as_brr=3&
client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=Saccharometer& f=false). books.google.com. . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[9] Instruments of science: an ... - Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1AsFdUxOwu8C& pg=RA1-PA312&
dq=Saccharometer+ John+ Richardson& as_brr=3& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=Saccharometer John Richardson& f=false).
books.google.com. . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[10] Charles Thomas Davis, The manufacture of leather: being a description of all of the processes for the tanning and tawing with bark,
extracts, chrome and all modern tannages in general use (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aS7QAAAAMAAJ& q=Barkometer&
dq=Barkometer). H. C. Baird & co., 1897. . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[11] "Acidometer" (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ acidometer). The Free Dictionary. Farlex. 2003. . Retrieved 18 September 2010.

Sources

Hypatia of Alexandria (http://www.inventions.org/culture/female/hypatia.html)

Hydrometer Information (http://www.pressedforwine.com/equipment/hydrometer.shtml)
Guide to Brewing Hydrometers (http://www.homebrewing.com/articles/hydrometers.php)
Hydrometers (http://www.ertco.com/hydrometers.html), Ertco Precision.
Jurjen Draaijer. Milk Testing (http://www.fao.org/ag/AGA/AGAP/LPS/dairy/DAP/mpo/chap4-2.htm).
Milk Producer Group Resource Book, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Using Your Hydrometer (http://winemaking.jackkeller.net/hydrom.asp), Winemaking Home Page.
How The Hydrometer Works (http://www.home-winemaking.com/winemaking-2b.html), Home Winemaking
Techniques
A New Hydrometer (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ScAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA321&lpg=PA321&
dq="a+new+hydrometer"+lendi&source=web&ots=mD1q9tJ7JP&sig=l2NuPzR1MIXHjFuxcqi05IIAa_U&
hl=en), The Every-day Book and Table Book, ed. William Hone.

136

Proctor compaction test

Proctor compaction test

The Proctor compaction test and the related modified Proctor compaction test, named for engineer Ralph R.
Proctor (1933), are tests to determine the maximum practically-achievable density of soils and aggregates, and are
frequently used in geotechnical engineering.
The test consists of compacting the soil or aggregate to be tested into a standard mould using a standardized
compactive energy at several different levels of moisture content. The maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content is determined from the results of the test.
Soil in place is tested for in-place dry bulk density, and the result is divided by the maximum dry density to obtain a
relative compaction for the soil in place.

History and its origin

Proctor's fascination with geotechnical engineering began when taking his undergraduate studies at University of
California, Berkeley. He was interested in the publications of Sir Alec Skempton and his ideas on in situ behavior of
natural clays. Skempton formulated concepts and porous water coefficients that are still widely used today. It was
Proctors idea to take this concept a step further and formulate his own experimental conclusions to determine a
solution for the in situ behaviors of clay and ground soils that cause it to be unsuitable for construction. His idea,
which was later adopted and expounded upon by Skempton, involved the compaction of the soil to establish the
maximum practically-achievable density of soils and aggregates (the "practically" stresses how the value is found
experimentally and not theoretically).
In the early 1930s, he finally created a solution for determining the maximum density of soils. He found that in a
controlled environment (or within a control volume), the soil could be compacted to the point where the air could be
completely removed, simulating the effects of a soil in situ conditions. From this, the dry density could be
determined by simply measuring the weight of the soil before and after compaction, calculating the moisture content,
and furthermore calculating the dry density. Ralph R. Proctor went on to teach at the University of Arkansas.

Soil compaction
Compaction is the process by which the bulk density of an aggregate of matter is increased by driving out air. For
any soil, for a given amount of compactive effort, the density obtained depends on the moisture content. At very high
moisture contents, the maximum dry density is achieved when the soil is compacted to nearly saturation, where
(almost) all the air is driven out. At low moisture contents, the soil particles interfere with each other; addition of
some moisture will allow greater bulk densities, with a peak density where this effect begins to be counteracted by
the saturation of the soil.

Different tests
The original Proctor test, ASTM D698 / AASHTO T99, uses a 4-inch-diameter (100 mm) mould which holds 1/30th
cubic foot of soil, and calls for compaction of three separate lifts of soil using 25 blows by a 5.5lb hammer falling
12inches, for a compactive effort of 12,400ft-lbf/ft. The "Modified Proctor" test, ASTM D1557 / AASHTO T180,
uses the same mould, but uses a 10lb. hammer falling through 18inches, with 25 blows on each of five lifts, for a
compactive effort of about 56,000ft-lbf/ft. Both tests allow the use of a larger mould, 6inches in diameter and
holding 1/13.333ft, if the soil or aggregate contains too large a proportion of gravel-sized particles to allow
repeatability with the 4-inch mould. To ensure the same compactive effort, the number of blows per lift is increased
to 56.

137

Proctor compaction test

The California Department of Transportation has developed a similar test, California Test 216, which measures the
maximum wet density, and controls the compactive effort based on the weight, not the volume, of the test sample.
The primary advantage of this test is that maximum density test results are available sooner, as evaporation of the
compacted sample is not necessary.

R-value (soils)
The R-Value test, California Test 301 [1], measures the response of a compacted sample of soil or aggregate to a
vertically applied pressure under specific conditions. This test is used by Caltrans for pavement design, replacing the
California bearing ratio test. Many other agencies have adopted the California pavement design method, and specify
R-Value testing for subgrade soils and road aggregates.
The test method states:
The R-value of a material is determined when the material is in a state of saturation such that water will be
exuded from the compacted test specimen when a 16.8 kN load (2.07 MPa) is applied. Since it is not always
possible to prepare a test specimen that will exude water at the specified load, it is necessary to test a series of
specimens prepared at different moisture contents.
R-Value is used in pavement design, with the thickness of each layer dependent on the R-value of the layer below
and the expected level of traffic loading, expressed as a Traffic Index. Details of the pavement design procedure are
given in Chapter 600 of the California Highway Design Manual [2].

References
[1] http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ esc/ ctms/ pdf/ CT_301. pdf
[2] http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ oppd/ hdm/ pdf/ chp0600. pdf

138

Sieve analysis

Sieve analysis
A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used (commonly used in civil engineering) to assess
the particle size distribution (also called gradation) of a granular material.
The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material performs in use. A sieve analysis can be
performed on any type of non-organic or organic granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite,
feldspars, coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds, down to a minimum size depending on
the exact method. Being such a simple technique of particle sizing, it is probably the most common.[1]

Procedure
A gradation test is performed on a sample of aggregate
in a laboratory. A typical sieve analysis involves a
nested column of sieves with wire mesh cloth (screen).
See the separate Mesh (scale) page for details of sieve
sizing.
A representative weighed sample is poured into the top
sieve which has the largest screen openings. Each lower
sieve in the column has smaller openings than the one
above. At the base is a round pan, called the receiver.
The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker.
The shaker shakes the column, usually for some fixed
amount of time. After the shaking is complete the
Sieves used for gradation test.
material on each sieve is weighed. The weight of the
sample of each sieve is then divided by the total weight to give a percentage retained on each sieve.
The size of the average particles on each sieve then being analysis to get the cut-point or specific size range captured
on screen.
The results of this test are used to describe the properties of the aggregate and to see if it is appropriate for various
civil engineering purposes such as selecting the appropriate aggregate for concrete mixes and asphalt mixes as well
as sizing of water production well screens.
The results of this test are provided in graphical form to identify the type of gradation of the aggregate. The complete
procedure for this test is outlined in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C 136[2] and the
American Association and State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) T 27[3]

139

Sieve analysis

140

A suitable sieve size for the aggregate should be selected and

placed in order of decreasing size, from top to bottom, in a
mechanical sieve shaker. A pan should be placed underneath the
nest of sieves to collect the aggregate that passes through the
smallest. The entire nest is then agitated, and the material whose
diameter is smaller than the mesh opening pass through the sieves.
After the aggregate reaches the pan, the amount of material
retained in each sieve is then weighed.[4]

A mechanical shaker used for sieve analysis.

Preparation
In order to perform the test, a sample of the aggregate must be obtained from the source. To prepare the sample, the
aggregate should be mixed thoroughly and be reduced to a suitable size for testing. The total weight of the sample is
also required.[4]

Results
The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size. On the graph the sieve size scale is
logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate passing through each sieve, first find the percent retained in each sieve.
To do so, the following equation is used,
%Retained =

100%

where WSieve is the weight of aggregate in the sieve and WTotal is the total weight of the aggregate. The next step is
to find the cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each sieve. To do so, add up the total amount of aggregate
that is retained in each sieve and the amount in the previous sieves. The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate
is found by subtracting the percent retained from 100%.
%Cumulative Passing = 100% - %Cumulative Retained.
The values are then plotted on a graph with cumulative percent passing on the y axis and logarithmic sieve size on
the x axis.[4]

Sieve analysis

141

Methods
There are different methods for carrying out sieve analyses, depending on the material to be measured.

Throw-action sieving
Here a throwing motion acts on the sample. The vertical throwing motion is overlaid
with a slight circular motion which results in distribution of the sample amount over the
whole sieving surface. The particles are accelerated in the vertical direction (are thrown
upwards). In the air they carry out free rotations and interact with the openings in the
mesh of the sieve when they fall back. If the particles are smaller than the openings, they
pass through the sieve. If they are larger, they are thrown upwards again. The rotating
motion while suspended increases the probability that the particles present a different
orientation to the mesh when they fall back again, and thus might eventually pass
through the mesh.
Modern sieve shakers work with an electro-magnetic drive which moves a spring-mass
system and transfers the resulting oscillation to the sieve stack. Amplitude and sieving
Throw-Action Sieving
time are set digitally and are continuously observed by an integrated control-unit.
Therefore sieving results are reproducible and precise (an important precondition for a
significant analysis). Adjustment of parameters like amplitude and sieving time serves to optimize the sieving for
different types of material. This method is the most common in the laboratory sector.

Horizontal sieving
In a horizontal sieve shaker the sieve stack moves in horizontal circles in a plane.
Horizontal sieve shakers are preferably used for needle-shaped, flat, long or fibrous
samples, as their horizontal orientation means that only a few disoriented particles enter
the mesh and the sieve is not blocked so quickly. The large sieving area enables the
sieving of large amounts of sample, for example as encountered in the particle-size
analysis of construction materials and aggregates.

Horizontal Sieving

Tapping sieving
A horizontal circular motion overlies a vertical motion which is created by a tapping
impulse. These motional processes are characteristic of hand sieving and produce a
higher degree of sieving for denser particles (e.g. abrasives) than throw-action sieve
shakers.

Sonic sieving

Tapping Sieving

The particles are lifted and forcibly dropped in a column of oscillating air at a frequency of thousands of cycles per
minute. Sonic sievers are able to handle much finer dry powders than woven mesh screens.

Sieve analysis

142

Wet sieving
Most sieve analyses are carried out dry. But there are some applications which can only be carried out by wet
sieving. This is the case when the sample which has to be analysed is e.g. a suspension which must not be dried; or
when the sample is a very fine powder which tends to agglomerate (mostly < 45 m) in a dry sieving process this
tendency would lead to a clogging of the sieve meshes and this would make a further sieving process impossible. A
wet sieving process is set up like a dry process: the sieve stack is clamped onto the sieve shaker and the sample is
placed on the top sieve. Above the top sieve a water-spray nozzle is placed which supports the sieving process
additionally to the sieving motion. The rinsing is carried out until the liquid which is discharged through the receiver
is clear. Sample residues on the sieves have to be dried and weighed. When it comes to wet sieving it is very
important not to change to sample in its volume (no swelling, dissolving or reaction with the liquid).

Air Jet Sieving

Air jet sieving machines are ideally suited for very fine powders which tend to agglomerate and cannot be separated
by vibrational sieving. The reason for the effectiveness of this sieving method is based on two components: A
rotating slotted nozzle inside the sieving chamber and a powerful industrial vacuum cleaner which is connected to
the chamber. The vacuum cleaner generates a vacuum inside the sieving chamber and sucks in fresh air through the
slotted nozzle. When passing the narrow slit of the nozzle the air stream is accelerated and blown against the sieve
mesh, dispersing the particles. Above the mesh, the air jet is distributed over the complete sieve surface and is
sucked in with low speed through the sieve mesh. Thus the finer particles are transported through the mesh openings
into the vacuum cleaner.

Types of gradation relatively to the

aggregate nature
Dense gradation
A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately
of equal amounts of various sizes of aggregate. By having a
dense gradation, most of the air voids between the material
are filled with particles. A dense gradation will result in an
even curve on the gradation graph.[5]
Narrow gradation
Also known as uniform gradation, a narrow gradation is a
sample that has aggregate of approximately the same size.
The curve on the gradation graph is very steep, and occupies
a small range of the aggregate.[4]
Gap gradation
A gap gradation refers to a sample with very little aggregate
in the medium size range. This results in only coarse and
fine aggregate. The curve is horizontal in the medium size
range on the gradation graph.[4]

Air jet sieving machine

Open gradation
An open gradation refers an aggregate sample with very little fine aggregate particles. This results in many air
voids, because there are no fine particles to fill them. On the gradation graph, it appears as a curve that is
horizontal in the small size range.[4]
Rich gradation

Sieve analysis
A rich gradation refers to a sample of aggregate with a high proportion of particles of small sizes.[5]

Limitations of sieve analysis

Sieve analysis has, in general, been used for decades to monitor material quality based on particle size. For coarse
material, sizes that range down to #100 mesh (150m), a sieve analysis and particle size distribution is accurate and
consistent.
However, for material that is finer than 100 mesh, dry sieving can be significantly less accurate. This is because the
mechanical energy required to make particles pass through an opening and the surface attraction effects between the
particles themselves and between particles and the screen increase as the particle size decreases. Wet sieve analysis
can be utilized where the material analyzed is not affected by the liquid - except to disperse it. Suspending the
particles in a suitable liquid transports fine material through the sieve much more efficiently than shaking the dry
material.
Sieve analysis assumes that all particle will be round (spherical) or nearly so and will pass through the square
openings when the particle diameter is less than the size of the square opening in the screen. For elongated and flat
particles a sieve analysis will not yield reliable mass-based results, as the particle size reported will assume that the
particles are spherical, where in fact an elongated particle might pass through the screen end-on, but would be
prevented from doing so if it presented itself side-on.

Properties
Gradation affects many properties of an aggregate. It affects bulk density, physical stability and permeability. With
careful selection of the gradation, it is possible to achieve high bulk density, high physical stability, and low
permeability. This is important because in pavement design, a workable, stable mix with resistance to water is
important. With an open gradation, the bulk density is relatively low, due to the lack of fine particles, the physical
stability is moderate, and the permeability is quite high. With a rich gradation, the bulk density will also be low, the
physical stability is low, and the permeability is also low. The gradation can be affected to achieve the desired
properties for the particular engineering application.[5]

Engineering applications
Gradation is usually specified for each engineering application it is used for. For example, foundations might only
call for coarse aggregates, and therefore an open gradation is needed. Gradation is a primary concern in pavement
mix design. Concrete could call for both coarse and fine particles and a dense graded aggregate would be needed.
Asphalt design also calls for a dense graded aggregate. Gradation also applies to subgrades in paving, which is the
material that a road is paved on. Gradation, in this case, depends on the type of road (i.e. highway, rural, suburban)
that is being paved.

143

Sieve analysis

Forecast
Within the last years some methods for particle size distribution measurement were developed which work by means
of laser diffraction or digital image processing.

"Sieving" with Digital Image Processing

The scope of information conveyed by sieve analysis is
relatively small. It does not allow for a clear statement
concerning the exact size of a single particle it is
just classified within a size range which is determined
by two sieve sizes ("a particle is < than sieve size x and
> than sieve size y"). And there is no additional
information concerning other relevant properties like
opacity or shape available. Devices which work with
digital image processing enable to recall even this
information and a lot more (surface analysis, etc.). The
results can be fitted to sieve analysis so that a
comparison between measurement results obtained
with different methods is possible. Digital image
processing is being used to sieve materials in mining, agriculture, and forestry industries on a regular basis.

See also
Soil gradation
Automated Sieving using Photoanalysis
Optical Granulometry

References
[1] p231 in "Characterisation of bulk solids" by Donald Mcglinchey, CRC Press, 2005.
[2] ASTM International - Standards Worldwide. (2006). ASTM C136-06. http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/
REDLINE_PAGES/ C136. htm?E+ mystore
[3] AASHTO The Voice of Transportation. T0 27. (2006). http:/ / bookstore. transportation. org/ item_details. aspx?ID=659
[4] Pavement Interactive. Gradation Test. (2007). http:/ / pavementinteractive. org/ index. php?title=Gradation_Test
[5] M.S. Mamlouk and J.P. Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park CA, 1999

External links

Equipment for tests- shakers (http://www.rhewum.com)

The Basic Principles of Sieve Analysis (http://www.retsch.com/products/sieving/dlDetails/1/file/5930/?L=)
Soil test Sieve Analysis (http://www.denichsoiltest.com/)
Example for Digital Image Processing (http://www.retsch-technology.com/rt/products/
digital-image-processing/)
Automated Sieve Analysis Software and Systems (http://www.wipware.com)

144

Triaxial shear test

Triaxial shear test

A triaxial shear test is a common method to measure the mechanical properties of many deformable solids,
especially soil, sand, clay, and other granular materials or powders. There are several variations on the test, discussed
below.

Basic Concept
For loose granular materials like sand or gravel, the material is contained in a cylindrical latex sleeve with a flat,
circular metal plate or platen closing off the top and bottom ends. This cylinder is placed into a bath of water to
provide pressure along the sides of the cylinder. The top platen can then be mechanically driven up or down along
the axis of the cylinder to squeeze the material. The distance that the upper platen travels is measured as a function
of the force required to move it, as the pressure of the surrounding water is carefully controlled. The net change in
volume of the material is also measured by how much water moves in or out of the surrounding bath.
The principle behind a triaxial shear test is that the stress applied in the vertical direction (along the axis of the
cylinder) can be different than the stress applied in the horizontal directions (along the sides of the cylinder). This
produces a non-hydrostatic stress state, which contains shear stress.
A solid is defined as a material that can support shear stress without moving. However, every solid has an upper
limit to how much shear stress it can support. The triaxial tester is designed to measure that limit. The stress on the
platens is increased until the material in the cylinder fails and forms sliding regions within itself, known as shear
bands. A motion where a material is deformed under shear stress is known as shearing. The geometry of the
shearing in a triaxial tester typically causes the sample to become shorter while bulging out along the sides. The
stress on the platen is then reduced and the water pressure pushes the sides back in, causing the sample to grow taller
again. This cycle is usually repeated several times while collecting stress and strain data about the sample.
During the shearing, a granular material will typically have a net gain or loss of volume. If it had originally been in a
dense state, then it typically gains volume, a characteristic known as Reynolds' dilatancy. If it had originally been in
a very loose state, then contraction may occur before the shearing begins or in conjunction with the shearing.
From the triaxial test data, it is possible to extract fundamental material parameters about the sample, including its
angle of shearing resistance, apparent cohesion, and dilatancy angle. These parameters are then used in computer
models to predict how the material will behave in a larger-scale engineering application. An example would be to
predict the stability of the soil on a slope, whether the slope will collapse or whether the soil will support the shear
stresses of the slope and remain in place. Triaxial tests are used along with other tests to make such engineering
predictions.

Types of Triaxial Tests

There are several variations on the basic concept of triaxial testing. These are given the following labels
(corresponding test standard in parentheses):
CD Consolidated drained
CU Consolidated undrained (ASTM D4767)[1]
UU Unconsolidated undrained (ASTM D2850)[2]
BS 1377-1:1990 Triaxial Compresion Test

145

Triaxial shear test

References
Holtz, R.D.; Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
ISBN0-13-484394-0.
Head, K.H. (1998). Effective Stress Tests, Volume 3, Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, (2nd ed.). John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN978-0471977957.
Bardet, Jean-Pierre (1997). Experimental Soil Mechanics. Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0133749359.
[1] ASTM D4767 - 04 Standard Test Method for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test for Cohesive Soils, doi:10.1520/D4767-04
[2] ASTM D2850 - 03a(2007) Standard Test Method for Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on Cohesive Soils,
doi:10.1520/D2850-03AR07

146

147

FIELD TESTS
Crosshole sonic logging
Crosshole sonic logging (CSL) is a method to verify the integrity of drilled shafts and other concrete piles. This
method is considered to be more accurate than sonic echo testing in the determination of soundness of concrete
within the drilled shaft inside of the rebar cage. This method provides little indication of concrete soundness outside
the cage.
Also known as Crosshole Acoustical Testing, CSL normally requires steel (preferred) or plastic tubes installed in the
drilled shaft and tied to the rebar cage. After the shaft is drilled, and before the rebar cage is placed in the hole,
plastic or, ideally, steel tubes are attached to the interior of the rebar cage and then the cage is lowered into the hole
and the concrete is placed.
The tubes are filled with water as an intermediate medium. After curing for 3-7 days, a sound source and receiver are
lowered, maintaining a consistent elevation between source and sensor. A signal generator generates a sonic pulse
from the emitter which is recorded by the sensor. Relative energy, waveform and differential time are recorded, and
logged. This procedure is repeated at regular intervals throughout the pile and then mapped. By comparing the
graphs from the various combinations of access tubes, a qualitative idea of the soundness of the concrete throughout
the pile can be gleaned.
A more advanced, higher-end analysis that creates a mock 3-dimensional graphical display of the concrete soundness
throughout the pile is known as Crosshole Sonic Tomography.

References
Farouz, E., Landers, P., Webster, S., November, 2005. Case History: Foundation Evacuation for the Virginia
Highway 288 Project. GEO3 Construction Quality Assurance/Quality Control Technical Conference: Dallas/Ft.
Worth, TX; 49-60.
Beim, J.W., Debas, L.F., Kormann, A.C.M., Martinati, L.R., Neto, L.A., November, 2005. Tomography: A New
Technology for Quality Control of Deep Foundations. GEO3 Construction Quality Assurance/Quality Control
Technical Conference: Dallas/Ft. Worth, TX; 323-328.
ASTM D6760 - 08 Standard Test Method for Integrity Testing of Concrete Deep Foundations by Ultrasonic
Crosshole Testing, doi:10.1520/D6760-08
ASTM D4428 / D4428M - 07 Standard Test Methods for Crosshole Seismic Testing,
doi:10.1520/D4428_D4428M-07

Nuclear Densometer Test

Nuclear Densometer Test

A Nuclear Densometer Test is a field test used in geotechnical engineering. The test is performed on a compacted
base to establish its percentage of compaction. With the use of a 3/4" diameter rod a hole is created in the compacted
base by hammering the rod into the base to produce a hole that the densometer's probe can be inserted into. The
densometer is placed on top of the hole, and then the probe is inserted into the hole by unlocking the handle at the
top of the probe. The densometer measures the amount of radiation that returns to it through the compacted soil and
determines the percentage of compaction based on the amount of radiation received.

References
ASTM D2922-05 Standard Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in Place by Nuclear Methods
(Shallow Depth), doi:10.1520/D2922-05 (Standard withdrawn 2007)
ASTM D6938 - 08a Standard Test Method for In-Place Density and Water Content of Soil and Soil-Aggregate by
Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth), doi:10.1520/D6938-08A

See also
Nuclear densometer

148

149

FOUNDATION
Foundation (engineering)
A foundation (also called a groundsill) is a structure that transfers
loads to the earth. Foundations are generally broken into two
categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations.[1]

Footing types
Shallow footings
Shallow footings are, usually, embedded a meter or so into soil. One
Shallow foundations of a house versus the deep
foundations of a Skyscraper.
common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of
concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and
transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Another common type is the slab-on-grade footing
where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface.Ref [2]

Deep footings
A deep footing is used to transfer a load from a structure through an upper weak layer of soil to a stronger deeper
layer of soil. There are different types of deep footings including helical piles, impact driven piles, drilled shafts,
caissons, piers, and earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions for different types of footings vary between
different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.
Monopile footings
A monopile footing utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, footing structural element to support all the loads
(weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.
A large number of monopile footings[3] have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing
fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.[4] For example, a single wind farm off the coast
of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-meter-diameter monopile footing in
ocean depths up to 18 meters of water.[5] An earlier (2002) wind farm in the North Sea west of Denmark utilizes 80
large monopiles of 4 meter diameter sunk 25 meters deep into the seabed.[6]

Foundation (engineering)

150

Base-isolating footings
Base-isolating footings, also known as seismic or base isolation
system, is a collection of structural elements which is intended to
substantially decouple a superstructure from its substructure resting on
a shaking ground thus protecting a building or non-building structure's
integrity during a potentially devastating earthquake. The
base-isolating system may be constructed on either a shallow footing
or a deep footing substructure.

Base isolator being tested at the UCSD

Caltrans-SRMD facility

The base-isolating footing design is believed to be a powerful tool of

contemporary earthquake engineering pertaining to the passive
structural vibration control technologies.[7]

Design
Footings are designed to have an adequate load capacity with limited settlement by a geotechnical engineer, and the
footing itself is designed structurally by a structural engineer.
The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing
capacity. When considering settlement, total settlement
and differential settlement is normally considered.
Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation
settles more than another part. This can cause problems
to the structure the foundation is supporting. It is
necessary that a foundation not be loaded beyond its
bearing capacity or the foundation will "fail".
Other design considerations include scour and frost
heave. Scour is when flowing water removes
supporting soil from around a footing (like a pier
supporting a bridge over a river). Frost heave occurs
when water in the ground freezes to form ice lenses.

Inadequate foundations in muddy soils below sea level caused these

houses in the Netherlands to subside.

Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due
to seasonal changes or the effects of vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to
distort, cracking the structure over it. This is a particular problem for house footings in semi-arid climates such as
South Australia, Southwestern US, Turkey, Israel, Iran and South Africa where wet winters are followed by hot dry
summers. Raft slabs with inherent stiffness have been developed in Australia with capabilities to resist this
movement.
When structures are built in areas of permafrost, special consideration must be given to the thermal effect the
structure will have on the permafrost. Generally, the structure is designed in a way that tries to prevent the
permafrost from melting.

Foundation (engineering)

References
[1] Terzaghi, Karl; Peck, Ralph Brazelton; Mesri, Gholamreza (1996), Soil mechanics in engineering practice (http:/ / books. google. it/
books?id=bAwVvO71FXoC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false) (3rd ed.), New York:
John Wiley & Sons, p.386, ISBN 0-471-08658-4,
[2] http:/ / www. concretenetwork. com/ concrete/ foundations. htm
[3] Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations (http:/ / offshorewind. net/ Other_Pages/ Turbine-Foundations. html), 2009-09-09, accessed 2010-04-12.
[4] Constructing a turbine foundation (http:/ / www. hornsrev. dk/ Engelsk/ Opstillingen/ uk-fundament. htm) Horns Rev project, Elsam
monopile foundation construction process, accessed 2010-04-12]
[5] Lynn and Inner Dowsing description (http:/ / www. greenenergytalkdirectory. org/ library/ Lynn-and-Inner-Dowsing. php)
[6] Horns Revolution (http:/ / www. modernpowersystems. com/ story. asp?storyCode=2017033), Modern Power Systems, 2002-10-05, accessed
2010-04-14.
[7] (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=kzVvd4Dk6sw& locale=en_US& persist_locale=1)

Bearing capacity
In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The
bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should
not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be
supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety.
Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear failure
occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement.
There are three modes of failure that limit bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear failure, and punching
shear failure.

Introduction
Spread footings and mat foundations are generally classified as shallow foundations. These foundations distribute the
loads from the superstructures to the soil on which they are resting. Failure of a shallow foundation may occur in two
ways: (a) by shear failure of the soil supporting the foundation, and (b) by excessive settlement of the soil supporting
the foundation. The first type of failure is generally called bearing capacity failure.[1]

General shear failure

The general shear failure case is the one normally analyzed. Prevention against other failure modes is accounted for
implicitly in settlement calculations.[2] There are many different methods for computing when this failure will occur.

Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Theory

Karl von Terzaghi was the first to present a comprehensive theory for the evaluation of the ultimate bearing capacity
of rough shallow foundations. This theory states that a foundation is shallow if its depth is less than or equal to its
width.[3] Later investigations, however, have suggested that foundations with a depth, measured from the ground
surface, equal to 3 to 4 times their width may be defined as shallow foundations(Das, 2007).
Terzaghi developed a method for determining bearing capacity for the general shear failure case in 1943. The
equations are given below.
For square foundations:

For continuous foundations:

151

Bearing capacity

152

For circular foundations:

where

for ' = 0
for ' > 0

c is the effective cohesion.

zD is the vertical effective stress at the depth the foundation is laid.
is the effective unit weight when saturated or the total unit weight when not fully saturated.
B is the width or the diameter of the foundation.
is the effective internal angle of friction.
Kp is obtained graphically. Simplifications have been made to eliminate the need for Kp. One such was done
by Coduto, given below, and it is accurate to within 10%.[2]

For foundations that exhibit the local shear failure mode in soils, Terzaghi suggested the following modifications to
the previous equations. The equations are given below.
For square foundations:

For continuous foundations:

For circular foundations:

, the modified bearing capacity factors, can be calculated by using the bearing capacity factors
equations(for
equal to

, respectively) by replacing the effective internal angle of friction

[3]

by a value

Bearing capacity

153

Factor of Safety
Calculating the gross allowable-load bearing capacity of shallow foundations requires the application of a factor of
safety(FS) to the gross ultimate bearing capacity, or:
[3]

Meyerhofs's Bearing Capacity theory

In 1951, Meyerhof published a bearing capacity theory which could be applied to rough shallow and deep
foundations.[4] The equation is given below:

Where:

= bearing capacity factors, B = width of the foundation

References
[1] Das, Braja (2007), Theoretical Foundation Engineering (2nd ed.), J. Ross Publishing
[2] Coduto, Donald (2001), Foundation Design, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-589706-8
[3] Das, Braja (2007), Principles of Foundation Engineering (6th ed.), Cengage Publisher
[4] Das, Braja (1999), Bearing Capacity and Settlement, CRC Press LLC

External links
Bearing Capacity Factors related to the angle of internal friction (http://www.geotechnicalinfo.com/
bearing_capacity_factors.html)

Shallow foundation
A shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very near the surface, rather
than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep foundation. Shallow foundations include spread
footing foundations, mat-slab foundations, slab-on-grade foundations, rubble trench foundations, and
earthbag foundations.

Spread footing foundation

Shallow foundation

154

Spread footing foundations consists of strips or pads of concrete (or

other materials) which transfer the loads from walls and columns to the
soil or bedrock. Embedment of spread footings is controlled by several
factors, including development of lateral capacity, penetration of soft
near-surface layers, and penetration through near-surface layers likely
to change volume due to frost heave or shrink-swell.
These foundations are common in residential construction that includes
a basement, and in many commercial structures. But for high rise
building it is not sufficient.

Mat-slab foundations
Mat-slab foundations are used to distribute heavy column and wall
loads across the entire building area, to lower the contact pressure
compared to conventional spread footings. Mat-slab foundations can be
constructed near the ground surface, or at the bottom of basements. In
high-rise buildings, mat-slab foundations can be several meters thick,
with extensive reinforcing to ensure relatively uniform load transfer.

In ground reinforced concrete foundation in

cyclonic area, Northern Australia.

In ground reinforced concrete foundation in

cyclonic area, Northern Australia.

Slab-on-grade foundation
Slab-on-grade foundations are a structural engineering practice
whereby the concrete slab that is to serve as the foundation for the
structure is formed from a mold set into the ground. The concrete is
then placed into the mold, leaving no space between the ground and the
structure. This type of construction is most often seen in warmer
climates, where ground freezing and thawing is less of a concern and
where there is no need for heat ducting underneath the floor.
The advantages of the slab technique are that it is cheap and sturdy,
and is considered less vulnerable to termite infestation because there
Example of slab on grade foundation
are no hollow spaces or wood channels leading from the ground to the
structure (assuming wood siding, etc., is not carried all the way to the ground on the outer walls).

Shallow foundation

The disadvantages are the lack of access from below for utility lines,
the potential for large heat losses where ground temperatures fall
significantly below the interior temperature, and a very low elevation
that exposes the building to flood damage in even moderate rains.
Remodeling or extending such a structure may also be more difficult.
Over the long term, ground settling (or subsidence) may be a problem,
as a slab foundation cannot be readily jacked up to compensate; proper
soil compaction prior to pour can minimize this. The slab can be
decoupled from ground temperatures by insulation, with the concrete
poured directly over insulation (for example, Styrofoam panels), or
heating provisions (such as hydronic heating) can be built into the slab
(an expensive installation, with associated running expenses).

155

Raft slab house foundation in cyclonic area,

Northern Australia.

Slab-on-grade foundations are commonly used in areas with expansive

clay soil, particularly in California and Texas. While elevated
structural slabs actually perform better on expansive clays, it is
generally accepted by the engineering community that slab-on-grade
foundations offer the greatest cost-to-performance ratio for tract
homes. Elevated structural slabs are generally only found on custom
homes or homes with basements.
Care must be taken with the provision of services through the slab.
Copper piping, commonly used to carry natural gas and water, reacts
with concrete over a long period, slowly degrading until the pipe fails.
Raft slab house foundation in cyclonic area,
Copper pipes must be lagged (that is, insulated) or run through a
Northern Australia.
conduit or plumbed into the building above the slab. Electrical conduits
through the slab need to be water-tight, as they extend below ground level and can potentially expose the wiring to
groundwater.

Rubble Trench foundation

The rubble trench foundation, a construction approach popularized
by architect Frank Lloyd Wright, is a type of foundation that uses loose
stone or rubble to minimize the use of concrete and improve drainage.
It is considered more environmentally friendly than other types of
foundation because cement manufacturing requires the use of
enormous amounts of energy. However, some soil environments (such
as particularly expansive or poor load-bearing (< 1 ton/sf) soils) are not
suitable for this kind of foundation.
A foundation must bear the structural loads imposed upon it and allow
proper drainage of ground water to prevent expansion or weakening of
soils and frost heaving. While the far more common concrete
foundation requires separate measures to ensure good soil drainage, the
rubble trench foundation serves both foundation functions at once.

A cross section view of a rubble trench

foundation

To construct a rubble trench foundation a narrow trench is dug down below the frost line. The bottom of the trench
would ideally be gently sloped to an outlet. Drainage tile, graded 1":8' to daylight, is then placed at the bottom of the
trench in a bed of washed stone protected by filter fabric. The trench is then filled with either screened stone

Shallow foundation
(typically 1-1/2") or recycled rubble. A steel-reinforced concrete grade beam is poured at the surface to provide
ground clearance for the structure.
If an insulated slab is to be poured inside the grade beam, then the outer surface of the grade beam and the rubble
trench should be insulated with rigid XPS foam board, which must be protected above grade from mechanical and
UV degradation.
The rubble-trench foundation is a relatively simple, low-cost, and environmentally-friendly alternative to a
conventional foundation, but may require an engineer's approval if building officials are not familiar with it. Frank
Lloyd Wright used them successfully for more than 50 years in the first half of the 20th century, and there is a
revival of this style of foundation with the increased interest in green building.

Earthbag foundation
The basic construction method begins by digging a trench down to undisturbed mineral subsoil. Rows of woven bags
(or tubes) are filled with available material, placed into this trench, compacted with a pounder to around 1/3
thickness of pre-pounded thickness, and form a foundation. Each successive layer will have one or more strands of
barbed wire placed on top. This digs into the bag's weave and prevents slippage of subsequent layers, and also resists
any tendency for the outward expansion of walls. The next row of bags is offset by half a bag's width to form a
staggered pattern. These are either pre-filled with material and delivered, or filled in place (often the case with
Superadobe). The weight of this earth-filled bag pushes down on the barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on
the row below. The same process continues layer upon layer, forming walls. A roof can be formed by gradually
sloping the walls inward to construct a dome. Traditional types of roof can also be made.

External links
Procedure of shallow foundation construction [1]
Diagram of mat slab foundation [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. foundationengineering. info/ photo_galleries/ 08/ footing_construction/
[2] http:/ / www. iagram. com/ index. php/ diagrams?func=detail& id=78

156

Deep foundation

157

Deep foundation
A deep foundation is a type of foundation distinguished from shallow
foundations by the depth they are embedded into the ground. There are
many reasons a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep
foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common
reasons are very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site
constraints (like property lines). There are different terms used to
describe different types of deep foundations including piles, drilled
shafts, caissons and piers. The naming conventions may vary between
engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out
of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned concrete. Deep
foundations can be installed by either driving them into the ground or
drilling a shaft and filling it with concrete, mass or reinforced.

A deep foundation installation for a bridge in

Napa, California, United States.

Pile driving operations in the Port of Tampa,

Florida, United States.

Driven foundations
Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver.
Driven piles are either wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden
piles are made from trunks of tall trees. Concrete piles are available in
square, octagonal, and round cross-sections (like Franki Piles). They
are reinforced with rebar and are often prestressed. Steel piles are
either pipe piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile).
Historically, wood piles were spliced together when the design length
was too large for a single pile; today, splicing is common with steel
piles, though concrete piles can be spliced with difficulty. Driving
Pipe piles being driven into the ground.
piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is advantageous because the soil
displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding soil, causing
greater friction against the sides of the piles, thus increasing their load-bearing capacity.

Deep foundation

158

Pile foundation systems

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into
which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than one pile can bear. Pile caps and
isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural
elements bear on the grade beams while heavier elements bear directly on the pile cap.

Monopile foundation
A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the
loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.
A large number of monopile foundations[1] have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing
fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.[2] For example, the Horns Rev wind farm from
2002 in the North Sea west of Denmark utilizes 80 large monopiles of 4 meter diameter sunk 25 meters deep into the
seabed,[3] while the Lynn and Inner Dowsing Wind Farm off the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100
turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-meter-diameter monopile foundation in ocean depths up to 18 meters of water.[4]
The typical construction process for a wind turbine subsea monopile foundation in sand includes driving a large
hollow steel pile, of some 4m in diameter with approximately 2-inch-thick walls, some 25m deep into the seabed,
through a 0.5m layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. A "transition piece (complete
with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement, cathodic protection, cable ducts for sub-marine cables,
turbine tower flange, etc.)" is attached to the now deeply-driven pile, the sand and water are removed from the center
of the pile and replaced with concrete. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5m diameter, is applied to
the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection.[2]

Drilled piles
Also
called
caissons,
drilled
shafts,
drilled
piers,
Cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or Cast-in-Situ piles. Rotary
boring techniques offer larger diameter piles than any other piling
method and permit pile construction through particularly dense or hard
strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the site. In
particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground
conditions or through water-logged but stable strata - i.e. 'wet boring'.
Boring is done until the hard rock or soft rock layer is reached in the
case of end bearing piles. If the boring machine is not equipped with a
rock auger, then socketing of the hard rock layer is done with the help
of a heavy chisel which is dropped from a height of about 1.5 metres
(depends on the weight of the chisel and design requirements) by
suspending it from a tripod stand attached to a winch crane. The
socketing is carried out until the desired depth within the rock layer has
been attained. Usually, the required depth within the rock layer is
considered to be equal to the diameter of the pile in hard rock layers
and is taken to be equal to 2.5 times the diameter of the pile in soft
rock layers.

A pile machine in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

'Dry' boring methods employ the use of a temporary casing to seal the pile bore through water-bearing or unstable
strata overlying suitable stable material. Upon reaching the design depth, a reinforcing cage is introduced, concrete is
poured in the bore and brought up to the required level. The casing can be withdrawn or left in situ.

Deep foundation
'Wet' boring also employs a temporary casing through unstable ground and is used when the pile bore cannot be
sealed against water ingress. Boring is then undertaken using a digging bucket to drill through the underlying soils to
design depth. The reinforcing cage is lowered into the bore and concrete is placed by tremmie pipe, following which,
extraction of the temporary casing takes place.
The reinforcement cage may need to be lapped with another cage if the depth of the pile exceeds 12 metres as that is
the standard length of reinforcement bars of diameter 16mm and above.
In some cases there may be a need to employ drilling fluids (such as bentonite suspension) in order to maintain a
stable shaft. Rotary auger piles are available in diameters from 350mm to 2400mm or even larger and using these
techniques, pile lengths of beyond 50 metres can be achieved.
Such piles commonly fail due to the collapse of the walls of the shaft resulting in the formation of a reduced section
which may not be able to bear the loads for which it had been designed. Hence at least a third of piles in projects
with a large number of piles are tested for uniformity using a "Pile Integrity Tester". This test relies on the manner in
which low intensity shock waves are affected as they pass through the pile and are reflected to judge the uniformity
and integrity of the pile. A pile failing the integrity test is then subjected to a pile load test

Under reamed piles

Underreamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that have been as much as 6m in diameter. The form is
that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils. In such conditions they allow very high load bearing
capacities.

Augercast pile
An augercast pile, often known as a CFA pile, is formed by drilling into the ground with a hollow stemmed
continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casing is required. A cement grout mix is
then pumped down the stem of the auger. While the cement grout is pumped, the auger is slowly withdrawn, lifting
the soil on the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to ground level. Reinforcement placed by hand is
normally limited to 6 metres in depth. Longer reinforcement cages can be installed by a vibrator, or placed prior to
pumping cement grout if appropriate specialized drilling equipment is used.
Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance, and are often used for noise and environmentally sensitive sites.
Augercast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils, due to expensive waste disposal costs. In
ground containing obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less suitable as damage can occur to the
auger. An alternative to augercast piles in contaminated soils areas would be CMC ground improvement (Controlled
Modulus Column- Developed by Menard ) in which a hollow stemmed displacement auger is used to drill the
elements to the required depth. This process minimizes spoils and is usually used for warehouses, residential
buildings, Bridge abutments, highway embankments and petrochemical plants.

Pier and grade beam foundation

In most drilled pier foundations, the piers are connected with grade beams - concrete beams at grade (also referred
to as 'ground' beams) - and the structure is constructed to bear on the grade beams, sometimes with heavy column
loads bearing directly on the piers. In some residential construction, the piers are extended above the ground level
and wood beams bearing on the piers are used to support the structure. This type of foundation results in a crawl
space underneath the building in which wiring and duct work can be laid during construction or remodeling.

159

Deep foundation

160

Speciality piles
Micropiles
Micropiles, also called mini piles, are used for underpinning. Micropiles are normally made of steel with diameters
of 60 to 200mm. Installation of micropiles can be achieved using drilling, impact driving, jacking, vibrating or
screwing machinery.[5]
Where the demands of the job require piles in low headroom or otherwise restricted areas and for specialty or smaller
scale projects, micropiles can be ideal. Micropiles are often grouted as shaft bearing piles but non-grouted micropiles
are also common as end-bearing piles.

Tripod piles
The use of a tripod rig to install piles is one of the more traditional ways of forming piles. Although unit costs are
generally higher than with most other forms of piling, it has several advantages which have ensured its continued use
through to the present day. The tripod system is easy and inexpensive to bring to site, making it ideal for jobs with a
small number of piles. It can work in restricted sites (particularly where height limits exist), it is reliable, and it is
usable in almost all ground conditions.

Sheet piles
Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the
ground. The main application of steel sheet piles is in retaining walls and cofferdams erected to enable permanent
works to proceed. Normally, vibrating hammer, t-crane and crawle drilling are used to establish sheet piles.

Soldier piles
Soldier piles, also known as king piles or Berlin walls, are constructed
of wide flange steel H sections spaced about 2 to 3m apart and are
driven prior to excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal
timber sheeting (lagging) is inserted behind the H pile flanges.
The horizontal earth pressures are concentrated on the soldier piles
because of their relative rigidity compared to the lagging. Soil
movement and subsidence is minimized by maintaining the lagging in
firm contact with the soil.
Soldier piles are most suitable in conditions where well constructed
walls will not result in subsidence such as over-consolidated clays,
soils above the water table if they have some cohesion, and free
draining soils which can be effectively dewatered, like sands.

A soldier pile wall using reclaimed railway

sleepers as lagging.

Unsuitable soils include soft clays and weak running soils that allow large movements such as loose sands. It is also
not possible to extend the wall beyond the bottom of the excavation and dewatering is often required.

Deep foundation

161

Suction Piles
Suction piles are used underwater to secure floating platforms. Tubular piles are driven into the seabed (or more
commonly dropped a few metres into a soft seabed) and then a pump sucks water out the top of the tubular, pulling
the pile further down.
The proportions of the pile (diameter to height) are dependent upon the soil type: Sand is difficult to penetrate but
provides good holding capacity, so the height may be as short as half the diameter; Clays and muds are easy to
penetrate but provide poor holding capacity, so the height may be as much as eight times the diameter. The open
nature of gravel means that water would flow through the ground during installation, causing 'piping' flow (where
water boils up through weaker paths through the soil). Therefore suction piles cannot be used in gravel seabeds.
Once the pile is positioned using suction, the holding capacity is simply a function of the friction between the pile
skin and the soil, along with the self-weight and weight of soil held within the pile. The suction plays no part in
holding capacity because it relieves over time. The wall friction may increase slightly as pore pressure is relieved.

Adfreeze Piles
In extreme latitudes where the ground is continuously frozen, adfreeze
piles are used as the primary structural foundation method.
Adfreeze piles derive their strength from the bond of the frozen ground
around them to the surface of the pile. Typically the pile is installed in
a pre-drilled hole 1.5 - 3.0 dm (6"-12") larger than the diameter of the
pile. A slurry mixture of sand and water is then pumped into the hole to
fill the space between the pile and the frozen ground. Once this slurry
mixture freezes it is the shear strength between the frozen ground and
the pile, or the adfreeze strength, which support the applied loads.
Adfreeze Piles supporting a building in Barrow,

Adfreeze pile foundations are particularly sensitive in conditions which

Alaska, United States
cause the permafrost to melt. If a building is constructed improperly, it
will heat the ground below resulting in a failure of the foundation
system. Global warming has caused the permafrost in some areas to melt, and destabilize and damage buildings with
adfreeze piles.

Vibro Stone Columns

Vibro stone column is a ground improvement technique where columns of coarse aggregates are placed in soils with
poor bearing capacity to improve it.

Piled walls

Deep foundation

These methods of retaining wall construction employ bored piling

techniques - normally CFA or rotary. They provide special advantages
where available working space dictates that basement excavation faces
be vertical. Both methods offer technically effective and cost efficient
temporary or permanent means of retaining the sides of bulk
excavations even in water bearing strata.When used in permanent
works, these walls can be designed to accommodate vertical loads in
addition to moments and horizontal forces.Construction of both
methods is the same as for foundation bearing piles. Contiguous walls
are constructed with small gaps between adjacent piles. The size of this
space is determined by the nature of the soils.

162

Sheet piling, by a bridge, was used to block a

canal in New Orleans, United States after
Hurricane Katrina damaged it.

Secant piled walls are constructed such that space is left between alternate 'female' piles for the subsequent
construction of 'male' piles. Construction of 'male' piles involves boring through the concrete in the 'female' piles in
order to key 'male' piles between them. The male pile is the one where steel reinforcement cages are installed, though
in some cases the female piles are also reinforced.
Secant piled walls can either be true hard/hard, hard/intermediate (firm), or hard/soft, depending on design
requirements. Hard refers to structural concrete and firm or soft is usually a weaker grout mix containing bentonite.
All types of wall can be constructed as free standing cantilevers, or may be propped if space and sub-structure design
permit. Where party wall agreements allow, ground anchors can be used as tie backs.

Deep mixing/mass stabilization techniques

These are essentially variations of in situ reinforcements in the form of piles (as mentioned above), blocks or larger
volumes.
Cement, lime/quick lime, flyash, sludge and/or other binders (sometimes called stabilizer) are mixed into the soil to
increase bearing capacity. The result is not solid as concrete, but should be seen as an improvement of the bearing
capacity of the original soil.
The technique is most often applied on clays or organic soils like peat. The mixing can be carried out by pumping
the binder into the soil whilst mixing it with a device normally mounted on an excavator or by excavating the
masses, mixing them separately with the binders and refilling them in the desired area. The technique can also be
used on lightly contaminated masses as a means of binding contaminants, as opposed to excavating them and
transporting to landfill or processing.

Materials
Timber
As the name implies, timber piles are made of wood.
Historically, timber has been a plentiful, locally-available resource in many areas of the globe. Today, timber piles
are still more affordable than concrete or steel. Compared to other types of piles (steel or concrete), and depending
on the source/type of timber, timber piles may not be suitable for heavier loads (although for instance 350mm toe
diameter piles sourced from Australian hardwoods can take upward of 3500kN for some species).
A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be protected from deterioration above groundwater
level. Timber will last for a long time below the groundwater level. For timber to deteriorate, two elements are
needed: water and oxygen. Below the groundwater level, oxygen is lacking even though there is ample water. Hence,
timber tends to last for a long time below groundwater level. It has been reported that some timber piles used during

Deep foundation
16th century in Venice still survive since they were below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above the
water table can be protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of preservative treatment (ACQ, CCA,
creosote, PEC, copper napthenate, etc.).
Splicing timber piles is still quite common and is the easiest of all the piling materials to splice. The normal method
for splicing is by driving the leader pile first, driving a steel tube (normally 6001000mm long, with an internal
diameter no smaller than the minimum toe diameter) half its length onto the end of the leader pile. The follower pile
is then simply slotted into the other end of the tube and driving continues. The steel tube is simply there to ensure
that the two pieces follow each other during driving. If uplift capacity is required, the splice can incorporate bolts,
coach screws, spikes or the like to give it the necessary capacity.

Pipe piles
Pipe piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good candidate for battered piles.
Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven open end, soil is allowed to enter the bottom of
the pipe or tube. If an empty pipe is required, a jet of water or an auger can be used to remove the soil inside
following driving. Closed end pipe piles are constructed by covering the bottom of the pile with a steel plate or cast
steel shoe.
In some cases, pipe piles are filled with concrete to provide additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance. In
the United Kingdom, this is generally not done in order to reduce the cost. In these cases, corrosion protection is
provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher grade of steel. If a concrete filled
pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the pile will remain intact due to the concrete, while it
will be lost in an empty pipe pile.
The structural capacity of pipe piles is primarily calculated based on steel strength and concrete strength (if filled).
The thickness of the steel considered for determining capacity is typically reduced by 1/16 in. compared to the actual
pipe to account for corrosion.
The amount of corrosion for a steel pipe pile can be categorized; for a pile embedded in a non aggressive and natural
soil, 0.015mm per side per year can be assumed from the British Steel Piling Handbook. Eurocode 3 now specifies
various corrosion rates based on the nature or soil conditions and pipe pile exposure.
Steel pipe piles can either be new steel manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel tubular
casing previously used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration.

Prestressed concrete piles

Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing tendons to obtain the tensile strength
required, to survive handling and driving, and to provide sufficient bending resistance.
Long piles can be difficult to handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form one
long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and prestressed concrete piles.

See also
International Society for Micropiles

163

Deep foundation

Notes
[1] Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations (http:/ / offshorewind. net/ Other_Pages/ Turbine-Foundations. html), 2009-09-09, accessed 2010-04-12.
[2] Constructing a turbine foundation (http:/ / www. hornsrev. dk/ Engelsk/ Opstillingen/ uk-fundament. htm) Horns Rev project, Elsam
monopile foundation construction process, accessed 2010-04-12]
[3] Horns Revolution (http:/ / www. modernpowersystems. com/ story. asp?storyCode=2017033), Modern Power Systems, 2002-10-05, accessed
2010-04-14.
[4] Lynn and Inner Dowsing description (http:/ / www. greenenergytalkdirectory. org/ library/ Lynn-and-Inner-Dowsing. php)
[5] "International Society for Micropiles" (http:/ / www. ismicropiles. org). . Retrieved 2007-02-02.

References
Fleming, W. G. K. et al., 1985, Piling Engineering, Surrey University Press; Hunt, R. E., Geotechnical
Engineering Analysis and Evaluation, 1986, McGraw-Hill.
Coduto, Donald P. Foundation Design: Principles and Practices 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall Inc., 2001.
NAVFAC DM 7.02 Foundations and Earth Structures (http://www.ce.washington.edu/~geotech/courses/
cee523/manuals/NAVFAC72.pdf) U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 1986.
Rajapakse, Ruwan., Pile Design and Construction Guide, 2003
Tomlinson, P.J., Pile Design and Construction Practice, 1984
Stabilization of Organic Soils (http://ns.swedgeo.se/sd/pdf/SD-R3E.pdf)

External links

ADSC: The International Association of Foundation Drilling (http://www.adsc-iafd.com)

Deep Foundations Institute (http://www.dfi.org)
International Society for Micropiles (http://www.ismicropiles.org)
Federation of Piling Specialists (UK) (http://www.fps.org.uk)
Procedure of Installing Drilled Shaft (Bored Pile) (http://www.foundationengineering.info/photo_galleries/12/
drilled_shafts/)
Information on the analysis and design of sheeting piles (http://www.finesoftware.eu/geotechnical-software/
help/sheeting-design/analysis-of-sheet-pile-wall/)

164

Dynamic load testing

Dynamic load testing

Dynamic load testing of piles is a fast and effective method of assessing foundation bearing capacity that requires
instrumenting a deep foundation with accelerometers and strain transducers and analyzing data collected by these
sensors.
The procedure is based on the case method of pile testing and is standardized by ASTM D4945-00 Standard Test
Method for High Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles. It may be performed on driven piles, drilled shafts and other cast
in place foundations. In addition to bearing capacity, Dynamic Load Testing gives information on resistance
distribution (shaft resistance and end bearing) and evaluates the shape and integrity of the foundation element.
The foundation bearing capacity results obtained with dynamic load tests correlate well with the results of static load
tests performed on the same foundation element.

References
Rausche, F., Moses, F., Goble, G. G., September, 1972. Soil Resistance Predictions From Pile Dynamics. Journal
of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers. Reprinted in Current
Practices and Future Trends in Deep Foundations, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 125, DiMaggio, J. A.,
and Hussein, M. H., Eds, August, 2004. American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, VA; 418-440.
Scanlan, R.H., and Tomko, J.J., 1960, "Dynamic Prediction of Pile Static Bearing Capacity", Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 86, No. SM4; 35-61

External links
Instrumentation and Pictures of Dynamic Load Test of Piles [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. foundationengineering. info/ photo_galleries/ 14/ pda

165

Wave equation analysis

Wave equation analysis

Wave equation analysis is a numerical method of analysis for the behavior of driven foundation piles. It predicts the
pile capacity versus blow count relationship (bearing graph) and pile driving stress. The model mathematically
represents the pile driving hammer and all its accessories (ram, cap, and cap block), as well as the pile, as a series of
lumped masses and springs in a one-dimensional analysis. The soil response for each pile segment is modeled as
viscoelastic-plastic. The method was first developed in the 1950s by E.A. Smith of the Raymond Pile Driving
Company.
Wave equation analysis of piles has seen many improvements since the 1950s such as including a thermodynamic
diesel hammer model and residual stress. Commercial software packages (such as GRLWEAP) are now available to
perform the analysis.
One of the principal uses of this method is the performance of a driveability analysis to select the parameters for safe
pile installation, including recommendations on cushion stiffness, hammer stroke and other driving system
parameters that optimize blow counts and pile stresses during pile driving. For example, when a soft or hard layer
causes excessive stresses or unacceptable blow counts.

References
Smith, E.A.L. (1960) Pile-Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation. Journal of the Engineering Mechanics
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. 86, No. EM 4, August.

External links
The Wave Equation Page for Piling [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. vulcanhammer. net/ wave/

166

Statnamic load test

Statnamic load test

Introduction
The Statnamic load test is a type of test for assessing the load carrying capacity of deep foundations which is faster
and less expensive than the static load test. The Statnamic test was conceived in 1985, with the first prototype tests
carried out in 1988 through collaboration between Berminghammer Foundation Equipment of Canada and TNO
Building Research of the Netherlands (Middendorp et al., 1992 & Middendorp, 2000). Guidance on rapid load pile
testing can be found in: Methods for Axial Compressive Force Pulse (Rapid) Testing of Deep Foundations. ASTM
D7383 - 08 Standard Test.

How it works
Statnamic testing works by accelerating a mass upward that in turn imparts a load onto the foundation pile below the
Statnamic device. The load is applied and removed smoothly resulting in load application of 100 to 200
milliseconds. This is 30 to 40 times the duration of dynamic pile load testing. As the duration of the loading is
relatively long, piles less than 40m in length remain in compression throughout resulting in negligible stress wave
effects and potentially simpler analysis. For foundation design it is necessary to derive the equivalent static
load-settlement curve from the Statnamic data. The simplest form of Statnamic analysis used to obtain equivalent
static pile response is known as the unloading point method (UPM) The UPM analysis method was conceived to be
simple and based on measured results alone (Middendorp et al, 1992).
The Statnamic test applies a force to the pile head over a typical duration of 120 milliseconds by the controlled
venting of high pressure gas. The gas is the product of the combustion of a fast burning fuel within a piston (fuel
chamber) (Figure 1). At the top of the piston are vent holes that are sealed by the load hanger retaining the reaction
mass. At some point the pressure within the piston is of such a magnitude to force the load hanger arrangement
upward at accelerations in order of 196m/s2 (20g). This process applies a load downwards on the test pile.
During the loading sequence the load applied to the test pile is monitored by a calibrated load cell incorporated in the
base of the combustion piston. Pile settlement is measured using a remote laser reference source that falls on a
photovoltaic cell incorporated in the piston. The laser reference source should be placed at least 15m from the test
pile to avoid the influence of test induced ground surface wave disturbance (Brown & Hyde, 2006). Data capture is
undertaken using a data acquisition system connected to a laptop computer. It is recommended to allow accurate data
processing that sampling should be undertaken at frequencies above 1kHz.

Typical equipment
The most common form of Statnamic rigs typically have testing capacities of 3 to 4MN. These devices are self
contained and may be transported using a single articulated lorry. Whilst on site they require the use of a mobile
crane with a typical capacity of 70 tonne, with mobilisation in less than 2 hours. In addition to these typical
capacities, devices have been produced which can apply maximum loads ranging from 0.3 to 60MN. To achieve
greater loads the major components of the device including the piston, silencer-weight hanger and reaction mass
must be scaled up in size.
The Statnamic weight packs usually consist of steel or concrete rings placed over the Statnamic silencer. As the
device does not rely on gravity to apply loads as in static or drop weight testing it can be used vertically, horizontally
and inclined to test raked piles. The ability to test horizontally has led to the method being used for lateral load
testing of piles and simulation of ship impacts on mooring bodies (Middendorp, 2000). In order to improve the
flexibility of the device and minimise transportation costs for offshore works a device has also been tested that can
apply up to 14MN using water as a reaction mass. This is achieved in an over water pile tests by connected the

167

Statnamic load test

Statnamic device to a vessel full of water below the water bodies surface (Middendorp, 2000), thus removing the
need for heavy reaction weights.
The only significant difference between the smaller and larger testing devices is the method of catching the reaction
mass. The catching method for larger tests uses gravel. This is achieved by placing the Statnamic device on the test
pile and lowering the reaction mass onto its hanger. A large containing container is then placed around the assembly
and filled with gravel. As the Statnamic weights move upwards the gravel moves to fill the void left and support the
weights once movement has ceased. Due to the time required to place and remove the gravel after testing this
method is reserved for tests above 16MN. Smaller rigs utilise a hydraulic catching mechanism that allows the mass
to be caught within the frame of the device. This allows up to ten individual piles to be tested in a day or multiple
cycles on a single pile at 15 minute intervals. Further description of the hydraulic catching mechanism is given by
Middendorp (2000). The most recent development is the mounting of a 1MN Statnamic device on a 360 tracked
excavator which allows rapid deployment (1 hour) and increased production.

References
Hoelscher, P. & van Toll, F. (2009) Rapid load testing on piles. CRC Press/Balkema, Leiden, Netherlands. [1]
Brown, M.J., Hyde, A.F.L. & Anderson, W.F. (2006) Analysis of a rapid load test on an instrumented bored pile
in clay. Geotechnique. Vol. 56, No. 9. pp. 627-638. [2]
Brown, M.J. & Hyde, A.F.L. (2006) Some observations of Statnamic pile testing. Proc. Inst. of Civil Engineers:
Geotechnical Engineering Journal, Vol 159, GE4. pp. 269-273. [3]
Middendorp, P. (2000) Statnamic the engineering of art. Proc.6th Int. Conf. on the Application of Stress Wave
Theory to Piles, Balkema, Rotterdam, 551-562.
Brown, D.A. (1994) Evaluation of static capacity of deep foundations from Statnamic testing. Geotech. Testing J.,
ASTM, 17(4), 403-414. [4]
Middendorp, P., Bermingham, P. & Kuiper, B. (1992) Statnamic load testing of foundation piles. 4th Int. Conf. on
the Application of Stresswave Theory to Piles, The Hague 21-24 September 1992, pp. 265-272.

External links
Statnamic Pile Load Test [5]

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

http:/ / www. crcnetbase. com/ isbn/ 9780415482974

http:/ / www. icevirtuallibrary. com/ content/ article/ 10. 1680/ geot. 2006. 56. 9. 627
http:/ / www. icevirtuallibrary. com/ content/ article/ 10. 1680/ geng. 2006. 159. 4. 269;jsessionid=5goq56qfs6h4e. z-telford-01
http:/ / www. astm. org/ DIGITAL_LIBRARY/ JOURNALS/ GEOTECH/ PAGES/ GTJ10301J. htm
http:/ / cee. engr. ucdavis. edu/ faculty/ boulanger/ geo_photo_album/ Foundations%20-%20Deep/ Statnamic/ Statnamic%20Main. html

168

169

RETAINING WALLS
Retaining wall
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral
pressure of soil when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds
the angle of repose of the soil. The active pressure increases on the retaining wall
proportionally from zero at the upper grade level to a maximum value at the
lowest depth of the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to be acting
through the centroid of the triangular distribution pattern, one-third above the
base of the wall.[1]

Definition
Retaining walls serve to retain the lateral pressure of soil. The basement wall
is thus one form of retaining wall.

A gravity-type stone retaining wall

However, the term is most often used to refer to a cantilever retaining wall,
which is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its top. [2]
Typically retaining walls are cantilevered from a footing extending up
beyond the grade on one side and retaining a higher level grade on the
opposite side. The walls must resist the lateral pressures generated by
loose soils or, in some cases, water pressures. [3]
The most important consideration in proper design and installation of
retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the fact that the retained
material is attempting to move forward and downslope due to gravity.
This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on
the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the
retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement
the retaining structure undergoes.
Lateral earth pressures are typically smallest at the top of the wall and increase toward the bottom. Earth pressures
will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not
dissipated by a drainage system causes an additional horizontal hydrostatic pressure on the wall.[4]
It is very important to have proper drainage behind the wall as it is critical to the performance of retaining walls.
Drainage materials will reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and will therefore greatly improve the stability
of the material behind the wall, assuming that this is not a retaining wall for water.
As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to ensure stability against
overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that they be designed for a safety factor of
1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning.[5]

Retaining wall

170

Types

Various types of retaining walls

Gravity
Gravity walls depend on the weight of their mass (stone, concrete or
other heavy material) to resist pressures from behind and will often
have a slight 'batter' setback, to improve stability by leaning back into
the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are often made from
mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units)[6] .
Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a
rigid footing in frost areas. Home owners who build larger gravity
walls that do require a rigid concrete footing can make use of the
services of a professional excavator, which will make digging a trench
for the base of the gravity wall much easier.

Construction types of gravity retaining walls

Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or
stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity walls such as: geosynthetic or with
precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from
precast concrete or timber and filled with soil); or soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete
rods).[7]

Retaining wall

171

Cantilevered
Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of
steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in
the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads (like a beam)
to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures from
behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes
cantilevered walls are butressed on the front, or include a counterfort
on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads. Buttresses
are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These
walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This
type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.

Conterfort/Buttress on Cantilevered Wall

Sheet piling
Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces.
Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are
driven into the ground. For a quick estimate the material is usually
driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered
depending on the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a
tie-back anchor, or "dead-man" placed in the soil a distance behind the
face of the wall, that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod.
Anchors are placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.
Sheet pile wall

Anchored
An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also includes additional
strength using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it. Usually driven into the material with
boring, anchors are then expanded at the end of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting
pressurized concrete, which expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this method is very useful
where high loads are expected, or where the wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too weak.yes

Alternative Retaining Techniques

Soil nailing
Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by the insertion of
relatively slender elements - normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and
then grouted into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight
downward inclination. A rigid or flexible facing (often sprayed concrete) or isolated soil nail heads may be used at
the surface.

Retaining wall

Soil-strengthened
A number of systems exist that do not simply consist of the wall itself, but reduce the earth pressure acting on the
wall itself. These are usually used in combination with one of the other wall types, though some may only use it as
facing (i.e. for visual purposes).
Gabion meshes
This type of soil strengthening, often also used without an outside wall, consists of wire mesh 'boxes' into which
roughly cut stone or other material is filled. The mesh cages reduce some internal movement/forces, and also reduce
erosive forces.

Mechanical stabilization
Mechanically stabilized earth, also called MSE, is soil constructed with artificial reinforcing via layered horizontal
mats (geosynthetics) fixed at their ends. These mats provide added internal shear resistance beyond that of simple
gravity wall structures. Other options include steel straps, also layered. This type of soil strengthening usually needs
outer facing walls (S.R.W.'s - Segmental Retaining Walls) to affix the layers to and vice versa. [8]
The wall face is often of precast concrete units[6] that can tolerate some differential movement. The reinforced soil's
mass, along with the facing, then acts as an improved gravity wall. The reinforced mass must be built large enough
to retain the pressures from the soil behind it. Gravity walls usually must be a minimum of 50 to 60 percent as deep
or thick as the height of the wall, and may have to be larger if there is a slope or surcharge on the wall.

References
[1] Ching, F. D., Faia., R., S., & Winkel, P. (2006). Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2006 International Building Code
(Building Codes Illustrated) (2 ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
[2] Ambrose,J. (1991). Simplified Design of Masonry Structures (pp. 70-75.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
[3] Crosbie, M. & Watson, D. (Eds.). (2005). Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
[4] Terzaghi, K. (1934), Large Retaining Wall Tests, Engineering News Record Feb. 1, March 8, April 19
[5] 2006 International Building Code Section 1806.1.
[6] "Segmental Retaining Walls" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080304073923/ http:/ / www. ncma. org/ use/ srw. html). National Concrete
Masonry Association. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ncma. org/ use/ srw. html) on 2008-03-04. . Retrieved 2008-03-24.
[7] Terzaghi, K. (1943), Theoretical Soil Mechanics, New York: John Wiley and Sons
[8] http:/ / geostone. com/ CAD/ 8vs4-16ft_batter. jpg

Ambrose,J.,(1991). Simplified Design of Masonry Structures (pp. 70-75.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Bowles, J.,(1968). Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
Building Code (Building Codes Illustrated) (2 ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Ching, F. D., Faia., R., S., & Winkel, P. (2006). Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2006
International
Crosbie, M. & Watson, D. (Eds.). (2005). Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.

172

Retaining wall

173

External links

Segmental Retaining Walls - Case Studies (http://srwalls.blogspot.com)

Pictures of Gravity Walls (http://www.foundationengineering.info/photo_galleries/16/gravity_walls)
Information on the design of retaining walls (http://www.vulcanhammer.net/geotechnical/retaining.php)
Information on the analysis and design of retaining walls (http://www.finesoftware.eu/geotechnical-software/
help/gravity-wall/analysis-of-walls/)
The Lagest China Steel Sheet Pile Manufacturer - Nanjing Wanze (http://www.china-sheetpiling.com)
Steel Sheet Pile China Leading Manufacturer - Jiangsu Shunli (http://www.sheetpiling-china.com)
NCMA is the national trade association representing the concrete masonry industry (http://www.ncma.org/
Pages/default.aspx)
NCMA Certified Retaining Wall Contractor In Marietta Georgia (http://rwallsinc.com/)

Mechanically stabilized earth

Mechanically stabilized earth or MSE is soil constructed with
artificial reinforcing. It can be used for retaining walls, bridge
abutments, dams, seawalls, and dikes.[1] [2] Although the basic
principles of MSE has been used throughout history, MSE was
developed in its current form in the 1960s. The reinforcing elements
used can vary but include steel and geosynthetics.

History
A diagram of a mechanically stabilized earth wall
as it would be modeled in a finite element
Using straw, sticks, and branches to reinforce adobe bricks and mud
analysis.
dwellings has happened since the earliest part of human history, and in
the 16th and 17th centuries, French engineers used sticks to reinforce
dikes. Reinforcing levees with branches has been done in China for at least a thousand years, and other
reinforcements have been universally used to prevent soil erosion. Modern use of soil reinforcing for retaining wall
construction was pioneered by French architect and engineer Henri Vidal in the 1960s. The first MSE wall in the
United States was built in 1971 on State Route 39 near Los Angeles. It is estimated that since 1997, approximately
23,000 MSE walls have been constructed in the world. The highest MSE wall built in the United States is 30m
(98ft) high.[3]

Reinforcement
The reinforcement materials of MSE can vary. Originally, long steel strips 50 to 120mm (2 to 5in) wide were used
as reinforcement. These strips are sometimes ribbed, although not always, to provide added friction. Sometimes steel
grids or meshes are also used as reinforcement. Several types of geosynthetics can be used including geogrids and
geotextiles. The reinforcing geosynthetics can be made of high density polyethylene, polyester, and polypropylene.
These materials may be ribbed and are available in various sizes and strengths.[3]

Mechanically stabilized earth

References
[1] "Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures" (http:/ / tc17. poly. edu/ mse. htm). . Retrieved 2007-01-27.
[2] "Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall Inspector's Handbook" (http:/ / www. dot. state. fl. us/ structures/ Manuals/ mse. pdf). Florida
Department of Transportation. . Retrieved 2007-01-27.
[3] "MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALLS AND REINFORCED SOIL SLOPES DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES"
(http:/ / isddc. dot. gov/ OLPFiles/ FHWA/ 010567. pdf). FHWA. . Retrieved 2007-08-27.

Soil nailing
Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by the insertion of
relatively slender elements - normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and
then grouted into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight
downward inclination. A rigid or flexible facing (often pneumatically applied concrete otherwise known as
shotcrete) or isolated soil nail heads may be used at the surface. Since its first application using modern techniques in
Versailles, France in 1972,[1] soil nailing is now a well-established technique around the world. One of the first
national guideline publications for soil nailing was produced in Japan in 1987; the USA has produced national
guideline publications through the Federal Highway Administration on this subject in 1996[2] and in 2003.[3]

References
[1] "Construction d'un mur de soutnement entre Versailles-Chantiers et Versailles-Matelots", S. Rabejac and P. Toudic, Revue gnrale des
chemins de fer, 93me annee, pp 232-237
[2] FHWA Publication No. "FHWA-SA-96-069" (http:/ / www. fhwa. dot. gov/ engineering/ geotech/ library_arc. cfm?pub_number=160),
Manual for Design and Construction Monitoring of Soil Nail Walls
[3] FHWA Publication No. "FHWA-IF-03-017" (http:/ / isddc. dot. gov/ OLPFiles/ FHWA/ 016917. pdf), Geotechnical Engineering Circular No.
7- Soil Nail Walls

174

Tieback (geotechnical)

175

Tieback (geotechnical)
A tieback is a horizontal wire or rod, or a helical anchor used to reinforce retaining walls for stability. With one end
of the tieback secured to the wall, the other end is anchored to a stable structure, such as a concrete deadman which
has been driven into the ground or anchored into earth with sufficient resistance. The tieback-deadman structure
resists forces that would otherwise cause the wall to lean, as for example, when a seawall is pushed seaward by water
trapped on the landward side after a heavy rain.
Grouted tiebacks can be constructed as steel rods drilled through a concrete wall out into the soil or bedrock on the
other side. Grout is then pumped under pressure into the tieback anchor holes so that the rods can utilize soil
resistance to prevent tieback pullout and wall destabilization.
Helical anchors are screwed into place. Their capacity is proportional to the torque required during installation. This
relationship is in accordance with the equation Qt = kT where Qt is the total tensile resistance, k is an empirical
constant and T is the installation torque. These anchors are installed either for small loads in short sections (as
pioneered by the AB Chance company) or for larger loads and in long continuous lengths (as pioneered by Helical
Solutions Inc.).

External links
California Department of Transportation tieback document [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ esc/ construction/ manuals/ OSCCompleteManuals/ Foundation. pdf

Gabion
Gabions (from Italian gabbione meaning "big cage"; from Italian
gabbia and Latin cavea meaning "cage") are cages, cylinders, or boxes
filled with soil or sand that are used in civil engineering, road building,
and military applications. For erosion control caged riprap is used. For
dams or foundation construction, cylindrical metal structures are used.
In a military context, earth or sand-filled gabions are used to protect
artillery crews from enemy fire.
Leonardo da Vinci designed a type of gabion called a Corbeille
Leonard ("Leonard[o] basket") for the foundations of the San Marco
Castle in Milan.[1]

Gabions with cannon, from a late 16th century

illustration.

Gabion

176

Reinforced earth with gabions, Sveti Rok,

Croatia.

Up close view of a bank protection made with

mattresses in Vrtier, Slovakia.

Civil engineering
In civil engineering a gabion wall is a retaining wall made of
rectangular containers (baskets) fabricated of heavily galvanized wire,
which are filled with stone and stacked on one another, usually in tiers
that step back with the slope rather than vertically.
The most common civil engineering use of gabions is to stabilize
shorelines or slopes against erosion. Other uses include retaining walls,
temporary floodwalls, to filter silt from runoff, for small or
temporary/permanent dams, river training, channel lining.[2] They may
be used to direct the force of a flow of flood water around a vulnerable
structure. Gabions are also used as fish barriers on small streams.
Gabion baskets have some advantages over loose riprap because of
their modularity and ability to be stacked in various shapes; they are
also resistant to being washed away by moving water. Gabions also
Bridge abutment with gabions.
have advantages over more rigid structures because they can conform
to ground movement, dissipate energy from flowing water, and drain
freely. Their strength and effectiveness may increase with time in some cases, as silt and vegetation fill the
interstitial voids and reinforce the structure. They are sometimes used to keep stones which may fall from a cutting
or cliff from endangering traffic on a thoroughfare.
Gabions have also been used in building, as in the Dominus Winery in Napa Valley, California. The exterior is
formed by modular wire mesh gabions containing locally quarried stone; this construction creates an environment of
moderate temperatures within the building.[3] [4]

Gabion

177

Military use
In the medieval era, gabions were round cages with open tops and bottoms, made from wickerwork and filled with
earth for use as military fortifications. These early military gabions were used to protect field artillery gunners. The
wickerwork cylinders were light and could be carried relatively conveniently in the ammunition train, particularly if
they were made in several diameters to fit one inside another. At the site of use in the field, they could be stood on
end, staked in position, and filled with soil to form an effective wall around the gun. Today, gabions are often used to
protect forward operating bases (FOBs) against explosive, fragmentary, indirect fires such as mortar or artillery fire.
Examples of areas within a FOB that make extensive use of gabions would be sleeping quarters, mess halls, or any
place where there will be a large concentration of unprotected soldiers.

References
[1] Belgian site on gabion design with image of 'Corbeille Leonard', a gabion invented by Leonardo da Vinci. (http:/ / gabiondesign. be/ gabion.
html) Accessed on 20 Mar 2009.
[2] "Gabions (in small-scale construction or hard landscaping)" (http:/ / www. pavingexpert. com/ featur04. htm#gab). Paving Expert (http:/ /
www. pavingexpert. com). .
[3] "Dominus Winery in Napa Valley, California, USA." (http:/ / www. floornature. com/ articoli/ articolo. php?id=12& sez=3). floornature.com.
. Retrieved 2009-02-22.
[4] "Dominus Winery" (http:/ / www. archiplanet. org/ wiki/ Dominus_Winery). Archiplanet. . Retrieved 2009-02-22.

Freeman, Gary E.; Fischenich, Craig J.(May 2000), " Gabions for Streambank Erosion Control (http://el.erdc.
usace.army.mil/elpubs/pdf/sr22.pdf)", Environmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Slurry wall
A slurry wall is technique used to build reinforced-concrete walls in
areas of soft earth close to open water or with a high ground water
table. This technique is typically used to build diaphragm
(water-blocking) walls surrounding tunnels and open cuts, and to lay
foundations.
A trench is excavated to create a form for each wall. The trench is kept
full of slurry at all times. The slurry prevents the trench from
collapsing by providing outward pressure which balances the inward
hydraulic forces and prevents water flow into the trench.
Reinforcement is then lowered in and the trench is filled with concrete,
which displaces the slurry.
Slurry walls are typically constructed by starting with a set of guide
walls, typically 1metre (3.3ft) deep and 0.5metre (1.6ft) thick. The
guide walls are constructed on the ground surface to outline the desired
slurry trench(es) and guide excavation. Excavation is done using a
special clamshell-shaped digger or a hydromill trench cutter. The
excavator digs down to design depth, or bedrock, for the first cut. The
excavator is then lifted and moved along the trench guide walls to
continue the trench with successive cuts as needed. The trench is kept
filled with slurry (usually a mixture of bentonite and water) at all times
to prevent collapse.

Slurry wall excavator

Slurry wall

178

Once a particular length is reached, a reinforcing cage is lowered into

the slurry-filled pit and the pit is filled with concrete from the bottom
up using tremie pipes. The concrete displaces the bentonite slurry,
which is pumped out and recycled.
Slurry walls are built to enclose the desired area, blocking water and
softened earth from flowing into it. On completion of concreting,
digging within the now concrete wall-enclosed area can proceed. To
prevent the concrete wall from collapsing into the newly open area,
temporary supports such as tiebacks are installed. When completed, the
structure built within the walled-off area supports the wall, so that
tiebacks and/or other temporary bracing may be removed.

A set of Slurry wall guide walls before

excavation

Slurry wall construction was used to construct the "bathtub" that surrounded most of the World Trade Center site.
Slurry walls were also used heavily in Boston's Big Dig tunnel project.

External links

WTC-slurry wall construction-1967 [1]

Slurry Trenches [2]
Video of slurry wall construction [3]
A technical resource for slurry wall construction, slurry trenches and cut-off walls [4]
Natural shale appears to be ideal material for landfill liners [5]
Barrier technologies for environmental management [6]
Pictures of slurry mixers and equipment [7]
Pictures of slurry walls [8]

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]

http:/ / www. icanda. com/ world. html

http:/ / www. icanda. com/ services. html#SLURRY
http:/ / www. geo-solutions. com/ construction-technologies/ slurry-walls. asp
http:/ / www. slurrywall. com
http:/ / www. umich. edu/ ~urecord/ 9394/ Mar28_94/ 27. htm
http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=5539& page=133
http:/ / www. geo-solutions. com/ equipment/ slurry-grout-mix. asp
http:/ / www. foundationengineering. info/ photo_galleries/ 16/ slurry_walls

Mass wasting

179

Mass wasting
Mass wasting, also known as slope
movement or mass movement, is the
geomorphic process by which soil, regolith,
and rock move downslope under the force of
gravity. Types of mass wasting include
creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls, each
with its own characteristic features, and
taking place over timescales from seconds to
years. Mass wasting occurs on both
terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has
been observed on Earth, Mars, Venus, and
Jupiter's moon Io.
When the gravitational force acting on a
slope exceeds its resisting force, slope
failure (mass wasting) occurs. The slope
material's strength and cohesion and the
amount of internal friction between material
help maintain the slope's stability and are
known collectively as the slope's shear
strength. The steepest angle that a
cohesionless slope can maintain without
losing its stability is known as its angle of
repose. When a slope possesses this angle,
its shear strength perfectly counterbalances
the force of gravity acting upon it.

Example of mass wasting at Palo Duro Canyon (2002)

Talus cones produced by mass wasting, north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard, Norway.

Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate,

particularly in areas that are very dry or
those areas that receive sufficient rainfall
such that vegetation has stabilized the
surface. It may also occur at very high
speed, such as in rock slides or landslides,
with
disastrous
consequences,
both
immediate and delayed, e.g., resulting from
the formation of landslide dams.
Factors that change the potential of mass
wasting include: change in slope angle;
weakening of material by weathering;
increased water content; changes in
vegetation cover; and overloading.
A rockfall in Grand Canyon National Park

Mass wasting

The importance of water in mass wasting

Water can increase or decrease the stability of a slope depending on the amount present. Small amounts of water can
strengthen soils because the surface tension of water gives the soil a lot of cohesion. This allows the soil to resist
erosion better than if it were dry. If too much water is present the water may act as a lubricant, accelerating the
erosion process and resulting in different types of mass wasting (i.e. mudflows, landslides, etc.). A good example of
this is to think of a sand castle. Water must be mixed with sand in order for the castle to keep its shape. If too much
water is added the sand washes away, if not enough water is added the sand falls and can not keep its shape.

Types of mass movement

Types of mass movement are distinguished based on how the soil, regolith or rock moves downslope as a whole.

Creeps
Downhill creep is a long term process. The combination of small movements of soil or rock in different directions
over time are directed by gravity gradually downslope. The steeper the slope, the faster the creep. The creep makes
trees and shrubs curve to maintain their perpendicularity, and they can trigger landslides if they lose their root
footing. The surface soil can migrate under the influence of cycles of freezing and thawing, or hot and cold
temperatures, inching its way towards the bottom of the slope forming terracettes. This happens at a rate that is not
noticeable to the naked eye.

Landslides
Where the mass movement has a well-defined zone or plane of sliding, it is called a landslide. This includes rock
slides, slumps and sturzstroms.
It is also one of the common classification of mass wasting.

Flows
Movement of soil and regolith that more resembles fluid behavior is called a flow. These include avalanches,
mudflows, debris flows, earth flow, lahars and sturzstroms. Water, air and ice are often involved in enabling fluidlike
motion of the material.

Topples
Topples are instances when blocks of rock pivot and fall away from a slope.

Slump
A slipping of coherent rock material along the curved surface of a decline. Slumps involve a mass of soil or other
material sliding along a curved surface (shaped like a spoon). It forms a small, crescent-shaped cliff, or abrupt scarp
at the top end of the slope. There can be more than one scarp down the slope.

Falls
A fall, including rockfall, is where regolith cascades down a slope, but is not of sufficient volume or viscosity to
behave as a flow. Falls are promoted in rocks which are characterised by presence of vertical cracks. Falls are a
result of undercutting of water as well as undercutting of waves. They usually occur at very steep slopes such as a
cliff face. The rock material may be loosened by earthquakes, rain, plant-root wedging, expanding ice, among other
things. The accumulation of rock material that has fallen resides at the base of the structure and is known as talus.

180

Mass wasting

Triggers of mass wasting

Soil and regolith remain on a hillslope only while the gravitational forces are unable to overcome the frictional
forces keeping the material in place (see Slope stability). Factors that reduce the frictional resistance relative to the
downslope forces, and thus initiate slope movement, can include:

seismic shaking
increased overburden from structures
increased soil moisture
reduction of roots holding the soil to bedrock
undercutting of the slope by excavation or erosion
weathering by frost heave
bioturbation

References
Monroe, Wicander (2005). The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution. Thomson Brooks/Cole.
ISBN0-495-01020-0.
Selby, M.J. (1993). Hillslope Materials and Processes, 2e. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-874183-9.
Pudasaini, Shiva P., Hutter, Kolumban (2007). Avalanche Dynamics: Dynamics of Rapid Flows of Dense
Granular Avalanches. Springer, Berlin, New York. ISBN3-540-32686-3.

External links
Mass Wasting [1]

References
[1] http:/ / gpc. edu/ ~pgore/ geology/ geo101/ masswasting. html

181

Landslide

182

Landslide
A landslide or landslip is a geological
phenomenon which includes a wide
range of ground movement, such as
rock falls, deep failure of slopes and
shallow debris flows, which can occur
in offshore, coastal and onshore
environments. Although the action of
gravity is the primary driving force for
a landslide to occur, there are other
contributing factors affecting the
original slope stability. Typically,
pre-conditional factors build up
specific sub-surface conditions that
make the area/slope prone to failure,
whereas the actual landslide often
requires a trigger before being
released.

Computer simulation of a "slump" landslide in San Mateo County, California (USA) in

January 1997

Causes
Landslides occur when the stability of a slope changes from a stable to
an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be
caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes
of landslides include:
groundwater (porewater) pressure acting to destabilize the slope
Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and
soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire)
erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
weakening of a slope through saturation by snowmelt, glaciers
melting, or heavy rains
earthquakes adding loads to barely-stable slope

The Mameyes Landslide, in barrio Tibes, Ponce,

Puerto Rico, which buried more than 100 homes,
was caused by extensive accumulation of rains
and, according to some sources, lightning.

earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes

volcanic eruptions
landslides are aggravated by human activities, Human causes include:deforestation, cultivation and construction,
which destabilize the already fragile slopes
vibrations from machinery or traffic
blasting
earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope

Landslide

183

in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock
Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount of water which infiltrates the
soil.

Types

The landslide at Surte in Sweden, 1950. It was a

quick clay slide killing one person.

Debris flow
Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a
debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may
pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries
causing flooding along its path.
Debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely
different processes.
Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures
and infrastructure and often claim human lives. Muddy-debris flows
can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can
dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the
impoundments fail, a "domino effect" may be created, with a
remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up
the debris in the stream channel. The solid-liquid mixture can reach
densities of up to 2tons/m and velocities of up to 14m/s (Chiarle and
Luino, 1998; Arattano, 2003). These processes normally cause the first
severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the
road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in
Amboori debris flow, occurred on 9 November
some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways
2001 in Kerala, India. The event killed 39
crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common
[1]
people.
underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for
example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the
flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area =
1.76km) affected by a debris flow, Chiarle and Luino (1998) estimated a peak discharge of 750 m3/s for a section
located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water
discharge (by HEC-1), was 19 m/s, a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that
occurred.

Landslide

184

Earth flow
Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained
materials, which move at any speed from slow to fast. Typically, they
can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20km/h. Though these are a lot like
mudflows, overall they are slower moving and are covered with solid
material carried along by flow from within. They are different from
fluid flows in that they are more rapid. Clay, fine sand and silt, and
fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. The
velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much water content
is in the flow itself: if there is more water content in the flow, the
higher the velocity will be.
These flows usually begin when the pore pressures in a fine-grained
mass increase until enough of the weight of the material is supported
by pore water to significantly decrease the internal shearing strength of
the material. This thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a
slow, rolling motion. As these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass
A rock slide in Guerrero, Mexico
increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall
velocity of the flow. This process causes the flow to thicken. The
bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much more common than their rapid counterparts.
They develop a sag at their heads and are usually derived from the slumping at the source.
Earthflows occur much more during periods of high precipitation, which saturates the ground and adds water to the
slope content. Fissures develop during the movement of clay-like material creates the intrusion of water into the
earthflows. Water then increases the pore-water pressure and reduces the shearing strength of the material.[2]

Debris avalanche
A debris avalanche is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic
movement of rocks soil and debris mixed with water or ice (or both).
They are usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes
which results in an incoherent mixture of broken timber, smaller
vegetation and other debris.[2] Debris avalanches differ from debris
slides because their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a
result of lower cohesion or higher water content and commonly steeper
slopes.
Goodell Creek Debris Avalanche, Washington

Movement
Debris slides generally begin with large blocks that slump at the head of the slide and then break apart as they move
towards the toe. This process is much slower than that of a debris avalanche. In a debris avalanche this progressive
failure is very rapid and the entire mass seems to somewhat liquefy as it moves down the slope. This is caused by the
combination of the excessive saturation of the material, and very steep slopes. As the mass moves down the slope it
generally follows stream channels leaving behind a V-shaped scar that spreads out downhill. This differs from the
more U-shaped scar of a slump. Debris avalanches can also travel well past the foot of the slope due to their
tremendous speed.[3]

Landslide

185

Sturzstrom
A sturzstrom is a rare, poorly understood type of landslide, typically
with a long run-out. Often very large, these slides are unusually
mobile, flowing very far over a low angle, flat, or even slightly uphill
terrain.

Blockade of Hunza river

Shallow landslide
Landslide in which the sliding surface is located within the soil mantle
or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth from few decimetres to
some metres). They usually include debris slides, debris flow, and
failures of road cut-slopes. Landslides occurring as single large blocks
of rock moving slowly down slope are sometimes called block glides.
Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high
permeable soils on top of low permeable bottom soils. The low
permeable, bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high
Hotel Limone at the Garda Lake. Part of a hill of
permeable soils creating high water pressure in the top soils. As the top
Devonian shale was removed to make the road,
forming a dip-slope. The upper block detached
soils are filled with water and become heavy, slopes can become very
along a bedding plane and is sliding down the
unstable and slide over the low permeable bottom soils. Say there is a
hill, forming a jumbled pile of rock at the toe of
slope with silt and sand as its top soil and bedrock as its bottom soil.
the slide.
During an intense rainstorm, the bedrock will keep the rain trapped in
the top soils of silt and sand. As the topsoil becomes saturated and heavy, it can start to slide over the bedrock and
become a shallow landslide. R. H. Campbell did a study on shallow landslides on Santa Cruz Island California. He
notes that if permeability decreases with depth, a perched water table may develop in soils at intense precipitation.
When pore water pressures are sufficient to reduce effective normal stress to a critical level, failure occurs.[4]

Deep-seated landslide
Landslides in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located below
the maximum rooting depth of trees (typically to depths greater than
ten meters). Deep-seated landslides usually involve deep regolith,
weathered rock, and/or bedrock and include large slope failure
associated with translational, rotational, or complex movement. These
typically move slowly, only several meters per year, but occasionally
move faster. They tend to be larger than shallow landslides and form
along a plane of weakness such as a fault or bedding plane. They can
be visually identified by concave scarps at the top and steep areas at
the toe.[5]

Landslide of soil and regolith in Pakistan

Landslide

186

Causing tsunamis
Landslides that occur undersea, or have impact into water, can generate tsunamis. Massive landslides can also
generate megatsunamis, which are usually hundreds of meters high. In 1958, one such tsunami occurred in Lituya
Bay in Alaska.

Related phenomena
An avalanche, similar in mechanism to a landslide, involves a large amount of ice, snow and rock falling quickly
down the side of a mountain.
A pyroclastic flow is caused by a collapsing cloud of hot ash, gas and rocks from a volcanic explosion that moves
rapidly down an erupting volcano.

Landslide prediction mapping

Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information
for catastrophic loss reduction, and assist in the development of
guidelines for sustainable land use planning. The analysis is used to
identify the factors that are related to landslides, estimate the relative
contribution of factors causing slope failures, establish a relation
between the factors and landslides, and to predict the landslide hazard
in the future based on such a relationship.[6] The factors that have been
used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped into
geomorphology, geology, land use/land cover, and hydrogeology.
Since many factors are considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS
is an appropriate tool because it has functions of collection, storage,
manipulation, display, and analysis of large amounts of spatially
referenced data which can be handled fast and effectively.[7] Remote
sensing techniques are also highly employed for landslide hazard
assessment and analysis. Before and after aerial photographs and
satellite imagery are used to gather landslide characteristics, like
distribution and classification, and factors like slope, lithology, and
land use/land cover to be used to help predict future events.[8] Before
and after imagery also helps to reveal how the landscape changed after
an event, what may have triggered the landslide, and shows the process
of regeneration and recovery.[9]

Global landslide risks

Ferguson Slide on California State Route 140 in

June 2006

Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it is possible to generate maps of likely
occurrences of future landslides.[10] Such maps should show the locations of previous events as well as clearly
indicate the probable locations of future events. In general, to predict landslides, one must assume that their
occurrence is determined by certain geologic factors, and that future landslides will occur under the same conditions
as past events.[11] Therefore, it is necessary to establish a relationship between the geomorphologic conditions in
which the past events took place and the expected future conditions.[12]
Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the environment. Early predictions and
warnings are essential for the reduction of property damage and loss of life. Because landslides occur frequently and
can represent some of the most destructive forces on earth, it is imperative to have a good understanding as to what
causes them and how people can either help prevent them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do occur.
Sustainable land management and development is an essential key to reducing the negative impacts felt by

Landslide

187

landslides.
GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and
display large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Because so many variables are involved, it is important to be
able to overlay the many layers of data to develop a full and accurate portrayal of what is taking place on the Earth's
surface. Researchers need to know which variables are the most important factors that trigger landslides in any given
location. Using GIS, extremely detailed maps can be generated to show past events and likely future events which
have the potential to save lives, property, and money.

Prehistoric landslides
Landslide which moved Heart Mountain to its current location, the
largest ever discovered on land. In the 48 million years since the
slide occurred, erosion has removed most of the portion of the slide.
Flims Rockslide, ca. 13000km3 (3100 cumi), Switzerland, some
10000 years ago in post-glacial Pleistocene/Holocene, the largest so
far described in the alps and on dry land that can be easily identified
in a modestly eroded state.[13]
The landslide around 200BC which formed Lake Waikaremoana on
the North Island of New Zealand, where a large block of the
Ngamoko Range slid and dammed a gorge of Waikaretaheke River,
forming a natural reservoir up to 248 metres deep.

Rhine cutting through Flims Rockslide debris,

Switzerland

Cheekye Fan, British Columbia, Canada, ca. 25km2 (9.7 sqmi), Late Pleistocene in age.

Prehistoric submarine landslides

The Storegga Slide, Norway, ca. 3500km3 (840 cumi), ca. 8,000 years ago, a catastrophic impact on the
contemporary coastal Mesolithic population
The Agulhas slide, ca. 20000km3 (4800 cumi), off South Africa, post-Pliocene in age, the largest so far
described[14]
The Ruatoria Debris Avalanche, off North Island New Zealand, ca. 3,000km in volume, 170,000 years ago.[15]

Historical landslides

The Cap Diamant Qubec rockslide on September 19, 1889

Frank Slide, Turtle Mountain, Alberta, Canada, on 29 April 1903
Khait landslide, Khait, Tajikistan, Soviet Union, on July 10, 1949
Monte Toc landslide (260 millions cubic metres) falling into the Vajont Dam basin in Italy, causing a
megatsunami and about 2000 casualties, on October 9, 1963
Hope Slide landslide (46 million cubic metres) near Hope, British Columbia on January 9, 1965.[16]
The 1966 Aberfan disaster
Tuve landslide in Gothenburg, Sweden on November 30, 1977.
The 1979 Abbotsford landslip, Dunedin, New Zealand on August 8, 1979.
Val Pola landslide during Valtellina disaster (1987) Italy
Thredbo landslide, Australia on 30 July 1997, destroyed hostel.

Vargas mudslides, due to heavy rains in Vargas State, Venezuela, on December, 1999, causing tens of thousands
of casualties.
2007 Chittagong mudslide, in Chittagong, Bangladesh, on June 11, 2007.
2008 Cairo landslide on September 6, 2008.

Landslide

188

The 2010 Uganda landslide caused over 100 deaths following heavy rain in Bududa region.
Zhouqu county mudslide in Gansu, China on August 8, 2010.[17]
Devil's Slide, an ongoing landslide in San Mateo County, California

Extraterrestrial landslides
Evidence of past landslides has been detected on many bodies in the
solar system, but since most observations are made by probes that only
observe for a limited time and most bodies in the solar system appear
to be geologically inactive not many landslides are known to have
happened in recent times. Both Venus and Mars have been subject to
long-term mapping by orbiting satellites, and examples of landslides
have been observed on both.

Before and after radar images of a landslide on

Venus. In the center of the image on the right, the
new landslide, a bright, flow-like area, can be
seen extending to the left of a bright fracture.
1990 image.

Landslide in progress on Mars, 2008-02-19

See also

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

Deformation monitoring
Earthquake engineering
Geotechnics
Geotechnical engineering
Landslide dam
Landslide mitigation
Mass wasting
Slope stability
Sturzstrom
Submarine landslide
Washaway
Mudslide
California landslides

An infra-red view of a landslide in the Valley of

the Geysers

Landslide

References
[1] History of landslide susceptibility and a chorology of landslide prone areas in the Western Ghats of Kerala, India (http:/ / www. springerlink.
com/ content/ c1q6465428351032/ ). Environmental Geology. 2008. doi:10.1007/s00254-008-1431-9. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007/
s00254-008-1431-9. ).
[2] Easterbrook, Don J. (1999). Surface Processes and Landforms. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. ISBN0138609586.
[3] Schuster, R.L. & Krizek, R.J. (1978). Landslides: Analysis and Control. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
[4] Renwick,W., Brumbaugh, R. and Loeher, L (1982). "Landslide Morphology and Processes on Santa Cruz Island California" (http:/ / www.
jstor. org/ pss/ 520642). Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography 64 (3/4): 149159. doi:10.2307/520642. .
[5] Johnson, B.F. Slippery slopes. Earth magazine. June 2010. pgs 4855.
[6] Chen, Zhaohua; Wang, Jinfei (2007). "Landslide hazard mapping using logistic regression model in Mackenzie Valley, Canada". Natural
Hazards 42: 75. doi:10.1007/s11069-006-9061-6.
[7] Clerici, A; Perego, S; Tellini, C; Vescovi, P (2002). "A procedure for landslide susceptibility zonation by the conditional analysis method1".
Geomorphology 48: 349. doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00079-X.
[8] Metternicht, G; Hurni, L; Gogu, R (2005). "Remote sensing of landslides: An analysis of the potential contribution to geo-spatial systems for
hazard assessment in mountainous environments". Remote Sensing of Environment 98: 284. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2005.08.004.
[9] De La Ville, Noemi; Chumaceiro Diaz, Alejandro; Ramirez, Denisse (2002). Environment, Development and Sustainability 4: 221.
doi:10.1023/A:1020835932757.
[10] Fabbri, Andrea G.; Chung, Chang-Jo F.; Cendrero, Antonio; Remondo, Juan (2003). "Is Prediction of Future Landslides Possible with a
GIS?". Natural Hazards 30: 487. doi:10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000007282.62071.75.
[11] Lee, S; Talib, Jasmi Abdul (2005). "Probabilistic landslide susceptibility and factor effect analysis". Environmental Geology 47: 982.
doi:10.1007/s00254-005-1228-z.
[12] Ohlmacher, G (2003). "Using multiple logistic regression and GIS technology to predict landslide hazard in northeast Kansas, USA".
Engineering Geology 69: 331. doi:10.1016/S0013-7952(03)00069-3.
[13] Weitere Erkenntnisse und weitere Fragen zum Flimser Bergsturz (http:/ / www. angewandte-geologie. ch/ Archiv/ Volumes/ vol112. htm)
A.v. Poschinger, Angewandte Geologie, Vol. 11/2, 2006
[14] Dingle, R. V. (1977). "The anatomy of a large submarine slump on a sheared continental margin (SE Africa)". Journal of the Geological
Society 134: 293. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.134.3.0293.
[15] The giant Ruatoria debris avalanche on the northern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand: Result of oblique seamount subduction (http:/ / www.
agu. org/ pubs/ crossref/ 2001/ 2001JB900004. shtml). Agu.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-16.
[16] . BC Geographical Names Information System. http:/ / archive. ilmb. gov. bc. ca/ bcgn-bin/ bcg10?name=53154.
[17] Large landslide in Gansu Zhouqu August 7 (http:/ / www. easyseosolution. com/ blog/ archives/ 932) August 19, 2010. Retrieved August 19,
2010.

External links

United States Geological Survey site (http://landslides.usgs.gov/)

British Geological Survey landslides site (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslides/)
British Geological Survey National Landslide Database (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslides/NLD.html)
European Soil Portal, Landslides (http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/LandSlides/)
British Columbia government landslide information (http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geolsurv/Surficial/
landslid/)
Slide! (http://www.knowledgenetwork.ca/slide/splash.html), a program on B.C.'s Knowledge Network, with
video clips
Pictures of Slope Failure (http://www.foundationengineering.info/photo_galleries/17/slopes/)
JTC1 Joint International Technical Committee on Landslides and Engineered Slopes (http://www.geoforum.
com/jtc1/)
Landslide blog written by Professor David Petley, Wilson Professor, Department of Geography, Durham
University, UK (http://blogs.agu.org/landslideblog/)

bjn:Rumbih

189

Slope stability analysis

190

Slope stability analysis

The slope stability analyses are performed to assess
the safe and economic design of a human-made or
natural slopes (e.g. embankments, road cuts, open-pit
mining, excavations, landfills etc.) and the equilibrium
conditions.[1] [2] The term slope stability may be
defined as the resistance of inclined surface to failure
by sliding or collapsing.[3] The main objectives of slope
stability analysis are finding endangered areas,
investigation of potential failure mechanisms,
determination of the slope sensitivity to different
triggering mechanisms, designing of optimal slopes
with regard to safety, reliability and economics,
designing possible remedial measures, e.g. barriers and
stabilization.[1] [2]

Figure 1: Rotational failure of slope on circular slip surface

Successful design of the slope requires geological information and site characteristics, e.g. properties of soil/rock
mass, slope geometry, groundwater conditions, alternation of materials by faulting, joint or discontinuity systems,
movements and tension in joints, earthquake activity etc.[4] [5] Choice of correct analysis technique depends on both
site conditions and the potential mode of failure, with careful consideration being given to the varying strengths,
weaknesses and limitations inherent in each methodology.[6]
Before the computer age stability analysis was performed graphically or using hand-held calculator. Today engineers
have a lot of possibilities to use analysis software, ranges from simple limit equilibrium techniques through
computational limit analysis approaches (e.g. Finite element limit analysis, Discontinuity layout optimization) to
complex and sophisticated numerical solutions (finite-/distinct-element codes).[1] The engineer must fully understand
limitations of each technique. For example, limit equilibrium is most commonly used and simple solution method,
but it can become inadequate if the slope fails by complex mechanisms (e.g. internal deformation and brittle fracture,
progressive creep, liquefaction of weaker soil layers, etc.). In these cases more sophisticated numerical modelling
techniques should be utilised. In addition, the use of the risk assessment concept is increasing today. Risk assessment
is concerned with both the consequence of slope failure and the probability of failure (both require an understanding
of the failure mechanism).[7]
Within the last decade (2003) Slope Stability Radar has been developed to remotely scan a rock slope to monitor the
spatial deformation of the face. Small movements of a rough wall can be detected with sub-millimeter accuracy by
using interferometry techniques.

Conventional methods of analysis

Most of the slope stability analysis computer programs are based on the limit equilibrium concept for a two- or
three-dimensional model.[8] [9] In rock slope stability analysis conventional methods can be divided into three
groups: kinematic analysis, limit equilibrium and rock fall simulators.[7]

Limit equilibrium analysis

The conventional limit equilibrium methods investigate the equilibrium of the soil mass tending to slide down under
the influence of gravity. Transitional or rotational movement is considered on assumed or known potential slip
surface below soil or rock mass.[10] In rock slope engineering, methods may be highly significant to simple block
failure along distinct discontinuities.[7] All methods are based on comparison of forces (moments or stresses)

Slope stability analysis

resisting instability of the mass and those that causing instability (disturbing forces). Two-dimensional sections are
analyzed assuming plain strain conditions. These methods assume that the shear strengths of the materials along the
potential failure surface are governed by linear (Mohr-Coulomb) or non-linear relationships between shear strength
and the normal stress on the failure surface.[10] analysis provides a factor of safety, defined as a ratio of available
shear resistance (capacity) to that required for equilibrium. If the value of factor of safety is less than 1.0, slope is
unstable. The most common limit equilibrium techniques are methods of slices where soil mass is discretized into
vertical slices (Fig. 2).[9] [11] Results (factor of safety) of particular methods can vary because methods differs in
assumptions and satisfied equilibrium conditions.[10] [12]
Functional slope design considers calculation with the
critical slip surface where is the lowest value of factor
of safety. Locating failure surface can be made with the
help of computer programs using search optimization
techniques.[13] Wide variety of slope stability software
using limit equilibrium concept is available including
search of critical slip surface. The program analyses the
stability of generally layered soil slopes, mainly
embankments, earth cuts and anchored sheeting
structures. Fast optimization of circular and polygonal
Figure 2: Method of slices
slip surfaces provides the lowest factor of safety.
Earthquake effects, external loading, groundwater
conditions, stabilization forces (i.e. anchors, georeinforcements etc.) can be also included. The software uses solution
according to various methods of slices (Fig. 2), such as Bishop simplified, Ordinary method of slices (Swedish circle
method/Petterson/Fellenius), Spencer, Sarma etc.
Sarma and Spencer are called as rigorous methods because they satisfy all three conditions of equilibrium: force
equilibrium in horizontal and vertical direction and moment equilibrium condition. Rigorous methods can provide
more accurate results than non-rigorous methods. Bishop simplified or Fellenius are non-rigorous methods satisfying
only some of the equilibrium conditions and making some simplifying assumptions.[11] [12]
Another limit equilibrium program SLIDE[14] provides 2D stability calculations in rocks or soils using these
rigorous analysis methods: Spencer, Morgenstern-Price/General limit equilibrium; and non-rigorous methods:
Bishop simplified, Corps of Engineers, Janbu simplified/corrected, Lowe-Karafiath and Ordinary/Fellenius.
Searching of the critical slip surface is realized with the help of a grid or as a slope search in user-defined area.
Program includes also probabilistic analysis using Monte Carlo or Latin Hypercube simulation techniques where any
input parameter can be defined as a random variable. Probabilistic analysis determine the probability of failure and
reliability index, which gives better representation of the level of safety. Back analysis serves for calculation of a
reinforcement load with a given required factor of safety. Program enables finite element groundwater seepage
analysis.[14]
Program SLOPE/W[15] is formulated in terms of moment and force equilibrium factor of safety equations. Limit
equilibrium methods include Morgenstern-Price, General limit equilibrium, Spencer, Bishop, Ordinary, Janbu etc.
This program allows integration with other applications. For example finite element computed stresses from
SIGMA/W[16] or QUAKE/W[17] can be used to calculate a stability factor by computing total shear resistance and
mobilized shear stress along the entire slip surface. Then a local stability factor for each slice is obtained. Using a
Monte Carlo approach, program computes the probability of failure in addition to the conventional factor of
safety.[15]
SVSlope[18] is formulated in terms of moment and force equilibrium factor of safety equations. Limit equilibrium
methods include Morgenstern-Price, General limit equilibrium, Spencer, Bishop, Ordinary, Kulhawy and others This
program allows integration with other applications in the geotechnical software suite. For example finite element

191

Slope stability analysis

computed stresses from SVSolid[19] or pore-water pressures from SVFlux[20] can be used to calculate the factor of
safety by computing total shear resistance and mobilized shear stress along the entire slip surface. The software also
utilizes Monte Carlo,Latin Hypercube, and the APEM probabilistic approaches. Spatial variability through random
fields computations may also be included in the analysis.
Some other programs based on limit equilibrium concept:
GALENA[21] - includes stability analysis, back analysis, and probability analysis, using the Bishop,
Spencer-Wright and Sarma methods.[21]
GSLOPE[22] - provides limit equilibrium slope stability analysis of existing natural slopes, unreinforced
man-made slopes, or slopes with soil reinforcement, using Bishops Modified method and Janbus Simplified
method applied to circular, composite or non-circular surfaces.[22]
CLARA-W[23] - three-dimensional slope stability program includes calculation with the help of these methods:
Bishop simplified, Janbu simplified, Spencer and Morgenstern-Price. Problem configurations can involve
rotational or non-rotational sliding surfaces, ellipsoids, wedges, compound surfaces, fully specified surfaces and
searches.[23]
TSLOPE3[24] - two- or three-dimensional analyses of soil and rock slopes using Spencer method.[24]
Rock slope stability analysis based on limit equilibrium techniques may consider following modes of failure:
Planar failure -> case of rock mass sliding on a single surface (special case of general wedge type of failure);
two-dimensional analysis may be used according to the concept of a block resisting on an inclined plane at limit
equilibrium[25] [26]
Polygonal failure -> sliding of a nature rock usually takes place on polygonally-shaped surfaces; calculation is
based on a certain assumptions (e.g. sliding on a polygonal surface which is composed from N parts is
kinematically possible only in case of development at least (N - 1) internal shear surfaces; rock mass is divided
into blocks by internal shear surfaces; blocks are considered to be rigid; no tensile strength is permitted etc.)[26]
Wedge failure -> three-dimensional analysis enables modelling of the wedge sliding on two planes in a direction
along the line of intersection[26] [27]
Toppling failure -> long thin rock columns formed by the steeply dipping discontinuities may rotate about a pivot
point located at the lowest corner of the block; the sum of the moments causing toppling of a block (i.e. horizontal
weight component of the block and the sum of the driving forces from adjacent blocks behind the block under
consideration) is compared to the sum of the moments resisting toppling (i.e. vertical weight component of the
block and the sum of the resisting forces from adjacent blocks in front of the block under consideration); toppling
occur if driving moments exceed resisting moments[28] [29]

Stereographic and kinematic analysis

Kinematic analysis examines which modes of failure can possibly occur in the rock mass. Analysis requires the
detailed evaluation of rock mass structure and the geometry of existing discontinuities contributing to block
instability.[30] [31] Stereographic representation (stereonets) of the planes and lines is used.[32] Stereonets are useful
for analyzing discontinuous rock blocks.[33] Program DIPS[34] allows for visualization structural data using
stereonets, determination of the kinematic feasibility of rock mass and statistical analysis of the discontinuity
properties.[30] [34]

Rockfall simulators
Rock slope stability analysis may design protective measures near or around structures endangered by the falling
blocks. Rockfall simulators determine travel paths and trajectories of unstable blocks separated from a rock slope
face. Analytical solution method described by Hungr & Evans[35] assumes rock block as a point with mass and
velocity moving on a ballistic trajectory with regard to potential contact with slope surface. Calculation requires two
restitution coefficients that depend on fragment shape, slope surface roughness, momentum and deformational

192

Slope stability analysis

properties and on the chance of certain conditions in a given impact.[36]
Program ROCFALL[37] provides a statistical analysis of trajectory of falling blocks. Method rely on velocity
changes as a rock blocks roll, slide or bounce on various materials. Energy, velocity]], bounce height and location of
rock endpoints are determined and may be analyzed statistically. The program can assist in determining remedial
measures by computing kinetic energy and location of impact on a barrier. This can help determine the capacity, size
and location of barriers.[37]

Numerical methods of analysis

Numerical modelling techniques provide an approximate solution to problems which otherwise cannot be solved by
conventional methods, e.g. complex geometry, material anisotropy, non-linear behaviour, in situ stresses. Numerical
analysis allows for material deformation and failure, modelling of pore pressures, creep deformation, dynamic
loading, assessing effects of parameter variations etc. However, numerical modelling is restricted by some
limitations. For example, input parameters are not usually measured and availability of these data is generally poor.
Analysis must be executed by well trained user with good modelling practise. User also should be aware of boundary
effects, meshing errors, hardware memory and time restrictions. Numerical methods used for slope stability analysis
can be divided into three main groups: continuum, discontinuum and hybrid modelling.[38]

Continuum modelling
Modelling of the continuum is suitable for the analysis
of soil slopes, massive intact rock or heavily jointed
rock
masses.
This
approach
includes
the
finite-difference and finite element methods that
discretize the whole mass to finite number of elements
with the help of generated mesh (Fig. 3). In
finite-difference method (FDM) differential equilibrium
equations (i.e. strain-displacement and stress-strain
relations) are solved. finite element method (FEM) uses
Figure 3: Finite element mesh
the approximations to the connectivity of elements,
continuity of displacements and stresses between
elements. Most of numerical codes allows modelling of discrete fractures, e.g. bedding planes, faults. Several
constitutive models are usually available, e.g. elasticity, elasto-plasticity, strain-softening, elasto-viscoplasticity etc.[]

Discontinuum modelling
Discontinuum approach is useful for rock slopes controlled by discontinuity behaviour. Rock mass is considered as
an aggregation of distinct, interacting blocks subjected to external loads and assumed to undergo motion with time.
This methodology is collectively called the discrete-element method (DEM). Discontinuum modelling allows for
sliding between the blocks or particles. The DEM is based on solution of dynamic equation of equilibrium for each
block repeatedly until the boundary conditions and laws of contact and motion are satisfied. Discontinuum modelling
belongs to the most commonly applied numerical approach to rock slope analysis and following variations of the
DEM exist[38] :
distinct-element method
discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA)
particle flow codes
The distinct-element approach describes mechanical behaviour of both, the discontinuities and the solid material.
This methodology is based on a force-displacement law (specifying the interaction between the deformable rock

193

Slope stability analysis

blocks) and a law of motion (determining displacements caused in the blocks by out-of-balance forces). Joints are
treated as [boundary conditions. Deformable blocks are discretized into internal constant-strain elements.[38]
Discontinuum program UDEC[39] (Universal distinct element code) is suitable for high jointed rock slopes subjected
to static or dynamic loading. Two-dimensional analysis of translational failure mechanism allows for simulating
large displacements, modelling deformation or material yielding.[39] Three-dimensional discontinuum code
3DEC[40] contains modelling of multiple intersecting discontinuities and therefore it is suitable for analysis of wedge
instabilities or influence of rock support (e.g. rockbolts, cables).[38]
In discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) displacements are unknowns and equilibrium equations are then
solved analogous to finite element method. Each unit of finite element type mesh represents an isolated block
bounded by discontinuities. Advantage of this methodology is possibility to model large deformations, rigid body
movements, coupling or failure states between rock blocks.[38]
Discontinuous rock mass can be modelled with the help of distinct-element methodology in the form of particle flow
code, e.g. program PFC2D/3D.[41] [42] Spherical particles interact through frictional sliding contacts. Simulation of
joint bounded blocks may be realized through specified bond strengths. Law of motion is repeatedly applied to each
particle and force-displacement law to each contact. Particle flow methodology enables modelling of granular flow,
fracture of intact rock, transitional block movements, dynamic response to blasting or seismicity, deformation
between particles caused by shear or tensile forces. These codes also allow to model subsequent failure processes of
rock slope, e.g. simulation of rock[38]

Hybrid/coupled modelling
Hybrid codes involve the coupling of various methodologies to maximize their key advantages, e.g. limit equilibrium
analysis combined with finite element groundwater flow and stress analysis adopted in the SVOFFICE[43] or
GEO-STUDIO[44] suites of software; coupled particle flow and finite-difference analyses used in PF3D[42] and
FLAC3D.[45] Hybrid techniques allows investigation of piping slope failures and the influence of high groundwater
pressures on the failure of weak rock slope. Coupled finite-/distinct-element codes, e.g. ELFEN,[46] provide for the
modelling of both intact rock behaviour and the development and behaviour of fractures.[38]

References
[1] Eberhardt 2003, p.4
[2] Abramson 2002, p.2
[3] Kliche 1999, p.2
[4] USArmyCorps 2003, pp.12
[5] Abramson 2002, p.1
[6] Stead 2001, p.615
[7] Eberhardt 2003, p.6
[8] Abramson 2002, p.329
[9] Abramson 2002, p.363
[10] USArmyCorps 2003, p.2
[11] Zhu 2003, pp.377395
[12] Abramson 2002, pp.363367
[13] USArmyCorps 2003, p.5
[14] "SLIDE 2D Limit Equilibrium Slope Stability Analysis" (http:/ / www. rocscience. com/ products/ Slide. asp), http:/ / www. rocscience.
com (Toronto, Canada: Rocscience), , retrieved 20 July 2009
[15] "SLOPE/W Slope Stability Analysis" (http:/ / www. geo-slope. com/ products/ slopew2007. aspx), http:/ / www. geo-slope. com (Calgary,
Canada: Geo-Slope International), , retrieved 20 July 2009
[16] "SIGMA/W Stress-deformation Analysis" (http:/ / www. geo-slope. com/ products/ sigmaw2007. aspx), http:/ / www. geo-slope. com
(Calgary, Canada: Geo-Slope International), , retrieved 21 July 2009
[17] "QUAKE/W Dynamic Earthquake Analysis" (http:/ / www. geo-slope. com/ products/ quakew2007. aspx), http:/ / www. geo-slope. com
(Calgary, Canada: Geo-Slope International), , retrieved 21 July 2009

194

Slope stability analysis

[18] "SVSlope Slope Stability Analysis" (http:/ / www. svslope. com), http:/ / www. soilvision. com (Saskatoon, Canada: SoilVision Systems
Ltd.), , retrieved 20 July 2010
[19] "SVSolid Stress-deformation Analysis" (http:/ / www. svsolid. com), (Saskatoon, Canada: SoilVision Systems Ltd.), , retrieved 24 July
2010
[20] "SVFlux Groundwater Seepage Analysis" (http:/ / www. svflux. com), http:/ / www. soilvision. com (Saskatoon, Canada: SoilVision
Systems Ltd.), , retrieved 24 July 2010
[21] "GALENA Slope Software System" (http:/ / www. scisoftware. com/ environmental_software/ product_info. php?products_id=117), http:/
/ www. scisoftware. com (Utah, USA: Scientific Software Group), , retrieved 20 July 2009
[22] "GSLOPE Limit Equilibrium Slope Stability Analysis for Reinforced Slopes" (http:/ / www. mitresoftware. com/ prod01. htm), http:/ /
www. mitresoftware. com (Edmonton, Canada: Mitre Software Corporation), , retrieved 20 July 2009
[23] "CLARA-W 2D and 3D Slope Stability Analysis" (http:/ / www. clara-w. com/ ), (West Vancouver, Canada: O. Hungr Geotechnical
Research), , retrieved 21 July 2009
[24] "TSLOPE3 2D and 3D Analyses of Soil and Rock Slopes" (http:/ / www. tagasoft. com/ TAGAsoft/ TAGAsoft/ Products/ slope), http:/ /
www. tagasoft. com (California, USA: TAGA Engineering Software), , retrieved 21 July 2009
[25] Kliche 1999, pp.125137
[26] Kovari 1978, pp.103124
[27] Kliche 1999, pp.153169
[28] Kliche 1999, p.15
[29] Kliche 1999, pp.139152
[30] Eberhardt 2003, p.7
[31] Kliche 1999, p.111
[32] Kliche 1999, pp.111123
[33] Kliche 1999, pp.4365
[34] "DIPS Graphical and Statistical Analysis of Orientation Data" (http:/ / www. rocscience. com/ products/ Dips. asp), http:/ / www.
rocscience. com (Toronto, Canada: Rocscience), , retrieved 21 July 2009
[35] Hungr 1988, pp.685690
[36] Eberhardt 2003, pp.1517
[37] "ROCFALL Statistical Analysis of Rockfalls" (http:/ / www. rocscience. com/ products/ Slide. asp), http:/ / www. rocscience. com
(Toronto, Canada: Rocscience), , retrieved 21 July 2009
[38] Eberhardt 2003, pp.1738
[39] "UDEC - Universal Distinct Element Code" (http:/ / www. itascacg. com/ udec/ index. php), http:/ / www. itascacg. com (Minneapolis,
USA: Itasca), , retrieved 27 July 2009
[40] "3DEC - Three Dimensional Distinct Element Code" (http:/ / www. itascacg. com/ 3dec/ index. php), http:/ / www. itascacg. com
(Minneapolis, USA: Itasca), , retrieved 27 July 2009
[41] "PFC2D - Particle Flow Code in Two Dimensions" (http:/ / www. itascacg. com/ pfc2d/ ), http:/ / www. itascacg. com (Minneapolis, USA:
Itasca), , retrieved 27 July 2009
[42] "PFC3D - Particle Flow Code in Three Dimensions" (http:/ / www. itascacg. com/ pfc3d/ ), http:/ / www. itascacg. com (Minneapolis, USA:
Itasca), , retrieved 27 July 2009
[43] "SVOffice - Next generation geotechnical software" (http:/ / www. soilvision. com/ products/ ), http:/ / www. soilvision. com (Saskatoon,
Canada: SoilVision Systems Ltd), , retrieved 1 August 2009
[44] "GEO-STUDIO - Suite of software for geotechnical modelling" (http:/ / www. geo-slope. com/ products/ ), http:/ / www. geo-slope. com
(Calgary, Canada: Geo-Slope International), , retrieved 1 August 2009
[45] "FLAC3D - Fast Langrangian Analysis of Continua in Three Dimensions" (http:/ / www. itascacg. com/ flac3d/ index. php), http:/ / www.
itascacg. com (Minneapolis, USA: Itasca), , retrieved 2 August 2009
[46] "ELFEN - 2D/3D numerical modelling package" (http:/ / www. rockfield. co. uk/ elfen. htm), http:/ / www. rockfield. co. uk (West
Glamorgan, U.K.: Rockfield Software), , retrieved 2 August 2009

Bibliography
Kliche, Charles A. (1999), Rock Slope Stability (http://books.google.com/books?id=34AIOUkjGukC),
Colorado, USA: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, ISBN0-87335-171-1
Eberhardt, Erik (2003), Rock Slope Stability Analysis - Utilization of Advanced Numerical Techniques (http://
www.eos.ubc.ca/personal/erik/e-papers/EE-SlopeStabilityAnalysis.pdf), Vancouver, Canada: Earth and
Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia
US Army Corps of Engineers (2003), Engineering and Design - Slope Stability (http://140.194.76.129/
publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1902/entire.pdf), Washington DC, USA: US Army Corps of Engineers

195

Slope stability analysis

Stead, Doug; Eberhardt, E.; Coggan, J.; Benko, B. (2001), M. Khne, H.H. Einstein, E. Krauter, H. Klapperich
and R. Pttler, ed., Advanced numerical techniques in rock slope stability analysis - Applications and limitations
(http://www.eos.ubc.ca/personal/erik/e-papers/01EE_UEF-Modelling.pdf), Davos, Switzerland: Verlag
Glckauf GmbH, pp.615624
Abramson, Lee W.; Lee, Thomas S.; Sharma, Sunil; Boyce, Glenn M. (2002), Slope Stability and Stabilization
Methods (http://books.google.com/books?id=cOI02OqUCdMC) (2nd ed.), New York, USA: John Wiley &
Sons, ISBN0-471-38493-3
Zhu, D.Y.; Lee, C.F.; Jiang, H.D. (2003), "Generalised framework of limit equilibrium methods for slope stability
analysis", Geotechnique (Telford, London, Great Britain) 53 (4): 377395, ISSN0016-8505
Kovri, Kalman; Fritz, P. (1978), Slope Stability with Plane, Wedge and Polygonal Sliding Surfaces (http://
www.geotechnics.ch/resources/publications/12/papers/8/78-13.pdf), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, pp.103124
Yang, Xiao-Li; Li, L.; Yin, J.H. (2004), "Stability analysis of rock slopes with a modified Hoek-Brown failure
criterion", International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics (Chichester, Great
Britain: John Wiley & Sons) 28 (2): 181190, doi:10.1002/nag.330, ISSN0363-9061
Barton, N.R.; Bandis, S.C. (1990), Barton, Nick, ed., Review of predictive capabilities of JRC-JCS model in
engineering practice (http://books.google.com/?id=00fDaqhru2cC&pg=PA603), Rotterdam: Balkema,
pp.603610, ISBN 90-6191-109-5, ISBN9789061911098
Hungr, O.; Evans, S.G. (1988), Bonnard, C., ed., Engineering evaluation of fragmental rockfall hazards,
Rotterdam: Balkema, pp.685690

External links
Geotechnical Software (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Technology/ Civil_Engineering/ Geotechnical/ Software/
) at the Open Directory Project

196

197

EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake,
tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden
release of energy in the Earth's crust that
creates seismic waves. The seismicity or
seismic activity of an area refers to the
frequency, type and size of earthquakes
experienced over a period of time.
Earthquakes are measured with a
seismometer; a device which also records is
known as a seismograph. The moment
magnitude (or the related and mostly
obsolete Richter magnitude) of an
earthquake is conventionally reported, with
magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being
mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7
causing serious damage over large areas.
Intensity of shaking is measured on the
modified Mercalli scale. The depth of the
earthquake also matters: the more shallow
the earthquake, the more damage to
structures (all else being equal). [1]
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest
themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacing the ground. When a large
earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the
seabed sometimes suffers sufficient
displacement to cause a tsunami. The
shaking in earthquakes can also trigger
landslides and occasionally volcanic
activity.

Global earthquake epicenters, 19631998

Global plate tectonic movement

In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic eventwhether a natural phenomenon
or an event caused by humansthat generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of
geological faults, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of
initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The term epicenter refers to the point at ground level directly above
the hypocenter.

Earthquake

198

Naturally occurring earthquakes

Tectonic earthquakes will occur anywhere within the earth where there is
sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a
fault plane. In the case of transform or convergent type plate boundaries,
which form the largest fault surfaces on earth, they will move past each other
smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along
the boundary that increase the frictional resistance. Most boundaries do have
such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behaviour. Once the
boundary has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to
increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the
fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break
through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the
fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of
radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and
cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual
build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake
failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10
percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy.
Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture
growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes
lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature,
though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and
convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.[2]
Fault types

Earthquake fault types

There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and
reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and
movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being
extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a
convergent boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past
each other ; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by
movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip.

Earthquakes away from plate boundaries

Where plate boundaries occur within continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out over a much larger area than
the plate boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas fault continental transform, many earthquakes occur away
from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major
irregularities in the fault trace (e.g. the Big bend region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with
movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary
between the Arabian and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of the Zagros mountains. The
deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular
to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault
close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms.[3]
All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary
loading or unloading (e.g. deglaciation[4] ). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault

Earthquake
planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.[5]

Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes

The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers.
Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70km are classified as 'shallow-focus' earthquakes, while those with a
focal-depth between 70 and 300km are commonly termed 'mid-focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In
subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus
earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700kilometers).[6] These seismically active
areas of subduction are known as Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth at which the
subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism
for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel
structure.[7]

Earthquakes and volcanic activity

Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and the movement of
magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during the Mount St.
Helens eruption of 1980.[8] Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma
throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be recorded by seismometers and tiltmeters (a device which measures
the ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions.[9]

Rupture dynamics
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The
scale of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the smallest
earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by
low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves
some sort of preparation process is supported by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by
foreshocks. Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this
process are poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also
the effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation zone.[10]
Rupture propagation is generally modelled using a fracture mechanics approach, likening the rupture to a
propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture energy in the volume around
the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy. The velocity of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude
faster than the displacement velocity across the fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in
the range 7090 % of the S-wave velocity and this is independent of earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake
ruptures appear to have propagated at speeds greater than the S-wave velocity. These supershear earthquakes have all
been observed during large strike-slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused by the 2001
Kunlun earthquake has been attributed to the effects of the sonic boom developed in such earthquakes. Some
earthquake ruptures travel at unusually low velocities and are referred to as slow earthquakes. A particularly
dangerous form of slow earthquake is the tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities,
caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighbouring
coast, as in the 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[10]

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200

Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time.[11] Most earthquake
clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a
regular pattern.[12]
Aftershocks
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same
region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the
aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks
are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock.[11]
Earthquake swarms
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are
different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is
obviously the main shock, therefore none have notable higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an
earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.[13]
Earthquake storms
Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in
clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but
on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as
damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the
North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large
earthquakes in the Middle East.[14] [15]

Size and frequency of occurrence

There are around 500,000 earthquakes each year. About 100,000 of these can actually be felt.[16] [17] Minor
earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in
Guatemala. Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, and
Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including New York City, London, and Australia.[18] Larger
earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many
earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In
the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an
earthquake of 3.7 - 4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7 - 5.5 every 10years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every
100years.[19] This is an example of the Gutenberg-Richter law.
The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931
to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are
reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in
instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes.
The USGS estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18
major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-7.9) and one great earthquake
(magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been
relatively stable.[21] In recent years, the number of major earthquakes
per year has decreased, although this is thought likely to be a statistical
fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. More detailed statistics on
the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the USGS.[22]

The Messina earthquake and tsunami took as

many as 200,000 lives on December 28, 1908 in
[20]
Sicily and Calabria.

Earthquake
Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long, horseshoe-shaped
zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the
Pacific Plate.[23] [24] Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the
Himalayan Mountains.
With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo and Tehran, in areas of high seismic risk, some
seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3million people.[25]

Induced seismicity
While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth's tectonic plates, human activity can also produce
earthquakes. Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon: constructing large dams and buildings, drilling and
injecting liquid into wells, and by coal mining and oil drilling.[26] Perhaps the best known example is the 2008
Sichuan earthquake in China's Sichuan Province in May; this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the 19th
deadliest earthquake of all time. The Zipingpu Dam is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault 1650feet
(503 m) away; this pressure probably increased the power of the earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for
the fault.[27] The greatest earthquake in Australia's history was also induced by humanity, through coal mining. The
city of Newcastle was built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake was spawned from a fault which
reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process.[28]

Measuring and locating earthquakes

Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because seismic waves travel through the whole
Earth's interior. The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the Moment magnitude
scale (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is
reported using the modified Mercalli intensity scale (intensity II-XII).
Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves which travel through rock with different velocities: the
longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves), the transverse S-waves (both body waves) and several surface
waves (Rayleigh and Love waves). The propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approx. 3km/s up to
13km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the Earth's interior the shock- or P waves travel
much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1.7 : 1). The differences in travel time from the epicentre to the
observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the
Earth. Also the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.
In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle to
~13km/s. The velocity of S-waves ranges from 23km/s in light sediments and 45km/s in the Earth's crust up to
7km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earth quake arrive at an observatory via the
Earth's mantle.
Rule of thumb: On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and
S wave times 8.[29] Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of
seismograms the Earth's core was located in 1913 by Beno Gutenberg.
Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is
divided into 754 Flinn-Engdahl regions (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as
well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to
larger F-E regions.

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202

Effects/impacts of earthquakes
The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the
following:

Shaking and ground rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by
earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to
buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects
depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the
distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and
geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave
propagation.[30] The ground-shaking is measured by ground
acceleration.

1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins

and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake,
which killed an estimated 60,000 people. A
tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor.

Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the
ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally
due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy
focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may
be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large
engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing
faults to identify any likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.[31]

Landslides and avalanches

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope
instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel
are attempting rescue.[32]

Fires
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines.
In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also
become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For
example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were
caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.[33]

Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated
Fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake
granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and
transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid
structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of
earthquakes. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the
ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves.[34]

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203

Tsunami

The tsunami of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the

sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open
ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100kilometers (62
miles), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour.
Such tsunamis travel 600-800kilometers per hour (373497 miles per
hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an
earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas
in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of
kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores
hours after the earthquake that generated them.[35]

Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some
instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or
more.[35]

Floods
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land.[36] Floods occur usually when the volume of water
within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the
water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of
earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which then collapse and cause
floods.[37]
The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flood if the landslide dam formed by the
earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood
could affect roughly 5million people.[38]

Earthquake

204

Tidal forces
Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces and non-volcanic tremor
activity.[39] [40] [41] [42]

Human impacts
Earthquakes may lead to disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life,
higher insurance premiums, general property damage, road and bridge
damage, and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future
collapse) of buildings. Earthquakes can also precede volcanic
eruptions, which cause further problems; for example, substantial crop
damage, as in the "Year Without a Summer" (1816).[43]

Major earthquakes
The largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph
reached 9.5 magnitude, occurring on 22 May 1960.[16] [17] Its epicenter
was near Caete, Chile. The energy released was approximately twice
that of the next most powerful earthquake, the Good Friday
Earthquake, which was centered in Prince William Sound, Alaska.[44]
[45]
The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all been megathrust
earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in
history.

Damaged infrastructure, one week after the 2007

Peru earthquake

The earthquakes with the greatest amount of loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to
either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where earthquakes can potentially create tsunamis which can devastate
communities thousands of miles away. Regions that are most at risk for great loss of life include those where
earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic building
codes.

Preparation
In order to determine the likelihood of future seismic activity, geologists and other scientists examine the rock of an
area to determine if the rock appears to be "strained". Studying the faults of an area to study the buildup time it takes
for the fault to build up stress sufficient for an earthquake also serves as an effective prediction technique.[46]
Measurements of the amount of accumulated strain energy on the fault each year, time passed since the last major
temblor, and the energy and power of the last earthquake are made.[46] Together the facts allow scientists to
determine how much pressure it takes for the fault to generate an earthquake. Though this method is useful, it has
only been implemented on California's San Andreas Fault.[46]
Today, there are ways to protect and prepare possible sites of earthquakes from severe damage, through the
following processes: earthquake engineering, earthquake preparedness, household seismic safety, seismic retrofit
(including special fasteners, materials, and techniques), seismic hazard, mitigation of seismic motion, and earthquake
prediction. Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to seismic
activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes. With better understanding of seismic demand on
structures and with our recent experiences with large earthquakes near urban centers, the need of seismic retrofitting
is well acknowledged. Prior to the introduction of modern seismic codes in the late 1960s for developed countries
(US, Japan etc.) and late 1970s for many other parts of the world (Turkey, China etc.),[47] many structures were

Earthquake

205

designed without adequate detailing and reinforcement for seismic protection. In view of the imminent problem,
various research work has been carried out. Furthermore, state-of-the-art technical guidelines for seismic assessment,
retrofit and rehabilitation have been published around the world - such as the ASCE-SEI 41 [48] and the New Zealand
Society for Earthquake Engineering (NZSEE)'s guidelines.[49]

History
Pre-Middle Ages
From the lifetime of the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras in the 5th
century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually
attributed to "air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth".[50] Thales of
Miletus, who lived from 625-547 (BCE) was the only documented
person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between
the earth and water.[50] Other theories existed, including the Greek
philosopher Anaxamines' (585-526 BCE) beliefs that short incline
episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek
philosopher Democritus (460-371BCE) blamed water in general for
earthquakes.[50] Pliny the Elder called earthquakes "underground
thunderstorms".[50]

An image from a 1557 book

Earthquakes in culture
Mythology and religion
In Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god Loki. When Loki, god of
mischief and strife, murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a
poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Loki's wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the
poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison would drip on Loki's face, forcing him to jerk his head
away and thrash against his bonds, causing the earth to tremble.[51]
In Greek mythology, Poseidon was the cause and god of earthquakes. When he was in a bad mood, he would strike
the ground with a trident, causing this and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon
people as revenge.[52]
In Japanese mythology, Namazu () is a giant catfish who causes earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath
the earth, and is guarded by the god Kashima who restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima lets his guard fall,
Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes.

Popular culture
In modern popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such as
Kobe in 1995 or San Francisco in 1906.[53] Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning.[53]
For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as
in Short Walk to Daylight (1972), The Ragged Edge (1968) or Aftershock: Earthquake in New York (1998).[53] A
notable example is Heinrich von Kleist's classic novella, The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the destruction of
Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakami's short fiction collection, After the Quake, depicts the consequences of the Kobe
earthquake of 1995.

Earthquake
The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical "Big One" expected of California's San Andreas
Fault someday, as depicted in the novels Richter 10 (1996) and Goodbye California (1977) among other works.[53]
Jacob M. Appel's widely anthologized short story, A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an
elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent.[54] In Pleasure Boating in Lituya Bay, one of the stories
in Jim Shepard's Like You'd Understand, Anyway, the "Big One" leads to an even more devastating tsunami.
In the film 2012 (2009), solar flares (geologically implausibly) affecting the Earth's core caused massive
destabilization of the Earth's crust layers. This created destruction planet-wide with earthquakes and tsunamis,
foreseen by the Mayan culture and myth surrounding the last year noted in the Mesoamerican calendar - 2012.
Contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the manner in which they reflect human
psychological reactions to the actual trauma that can be caused to directly afflicted families and their loved ones.[55]
Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and
key community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, loss of essential supplies and services to maintain
survival.[56] [57] Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to protect, nourish,
and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake, and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been
shown to be even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions.[58] As
was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, such as those of
the 2001 World Trade Center Attacks or Hurricane Katrinaand has been recently observed in the 2010 Haiti
Earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of
governmental administration and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive
problem-solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected.[59]

Notes
[1] [ (http:/ / www. crustal. ucsb. edu/ outreach/ faq. php)]
[2] Spence, William; S. A. Sipkin, G. L. Choy (1989). "Measuring the Size of an Earthquake" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ learning/ topics/
measure. php). United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2006-11-03.
[3] Talebian, M. Jackson, J. 2004. A reappraisal of earthquake focal mechanisms and active shortening in the Zagros mountains of Iran.
Geophysical Journal International, 156, pages 506-526
[4] Nettles, M.; Ekstrm, G. R. (2010). "Glacial Earthquakes in Greenland and Antarctica". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 38:
467. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152414.
[5] Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington State Earthquake Hazards: Washington State Department of Natural Resources.
Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 85.
[6] "M7.5 Northern Peru Earthquake of 26 September 2005" (ftp:/ / hazards. cr. usgs. gov/ maps/ sigeqs/ 20050926/ 20050926. pdf) (PDF).
USGS. . Retrieved 2008-08-01.
[7] Greene, H. W.; Burnley, P. C. (October 26, 1989). "A new self-organizing mechanism for deep-focus earthquakes". Nature 341: 733737.
doi:10.1038/341733a0.
[8] Foxworthy and Hill (1982). Volcanic Eruptions of 1980 at Mount St. Helens, The First 100Days: USGS Professional Paper 1249.
[9] Watson, John; Watson, Kathie (January 7, 1998). "Volcanoes and Earthquakes" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ earthq1/ volcano. html). United
States Geological Survey. . Retrieved May 9, 2009.
[10] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Science of Earthquakes (2003). "5. Earthquake Physics and Fault-System Science"
(http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10493& page=282). Living on an Active Earth: Perspectives on Earthquake Science.
Washington D.C.: National Academies Press. p.418. ISBN9780309065627. . Retrieved 8 July 2010.
[11] "What are Aftershocks, Foreshocks, and Earthquake Clusters?" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ eqcenter/ step/ explain. php). .
[12] "Repeating Earthquakes" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ research/ parkfield/ repeat. php). United States Geological Survey. January 29,
2009. . Retrieved May 11, 2009.
[13] "Earthquake Swarms at Yellowstone" (http:/ / volcanoes. usgs. gov/ yvo/ 2004/ Apr04Swarm. html). USGS. . Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[14] Amos Nur (2000). "Poseidons Horses: Plate Tectonics and Earthquake Storms in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean"
(http:/ / water. stanford. edu/ nur/ EndBronzeage. pdf). Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 4363. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0431.
ISSN0305-4403. .
[15] "Earthquake Storms" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ horizon/ 2003/ earthquakestorms. shtml). Horizon. 9pm 1 April 2003. . Retrieved
2007-05-02.
[16] "Earthquake Facts" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ learn/ facts. php). USGS. . Retrieved 2010-04-25.
[17] Pressler, Margaret Webb (14 April 2010). "More earthquakes than usual? Not really.". KidsPost (Washington Post: Washington Post):
pp.C10.

206

Earthquake
[18] "Earthquake Hazards Program" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ ). USGS. . Retrieved 2006-08-14.
[19] "Seismicity and earthquake hazard in the UK" (http:/ / www. quakes. bgs. ac. uk/ hazard/ Hazard_UK. htm). Quakes.bgs.ac.uk. . Retrieved
2010-08-23.
[20] " Italy's earthquake history (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ low/ europe/ 2381585. stm)". BBC News. October 31, 2002.
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2006-08-14.
[22] "Earthquake Facts and Statistics: Are earthquakes increasing?" (http:/ / neic. usgs. gov/ neis/ eqlists/ eqstats. html). USGS. . Retrieved
2006-08-14.
[23] "Historic Earthquakes and Earthquake Statistics: Where do earthquakes occur?" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ learning/ faq.
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[24] "Visual Glossary - Ring of Fire" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ learning/ glossary. php?termID=150). USGS. . Retrieved 2006-08-14.
[25] " Global urban seismic risk (http:/ / cires. colorado. edu/ ~bilham/ UrbanEarthquakesGlobal. html)". Cooperative Institute for Research in
Environmental Science.
[26] Madrigal, Alexis (4 June 2008). "Top 5 Ways to Cause a Man-Made Earthquake" (http:/ / blog. wired. com/ wiredscience/ 2008/ 06/
top-5-ways-that. html). Wired News (CondNet). . Retrieved 2008-06-05.
[27] "How Humans Can Trigger Earthquakes" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2009/ 02/ photogalleries/
humans-cause-earthquakes/ photo2. html). National Geographic. February 10, 2009. . Retrieved April 24, 2009.
[28] Brendan Trembath (January 9, 2007). "Researcher claims mining triggered 1989 Newcastle earthquake" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ am/
content/ 2007/ s1823833. htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved April 24, 2009.
[29] "Speed of Sound through the Earth" (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ facts/ 2001/ PamelaSpiegel. shtml). Hypertextbook.com. . Retrieved
2010-08-23.
[30] "On Shaky Ground, Association of Bay Area Governments, San Francisco, reports 1995,1998 (updated 2003)" (http:/ / www. abag. ca. gov/
bayarea/ eqmaps/ doc/ contents. html). Abag.ca.gov. . Retrieved 2010-08-23.
[31] Guidelines for evaluating the hazard of surface fault rupture, California Geological Survey (http:/ / www. consrv. ca. gov/ cgs/ information/
publications/ cgs_notes/ note_49/ Documents/ note_49. pdf)
[32] "Natural Hazards - Landslides" (http:/ / www. usgs. gov/ hazards/ landslides/ ). USGS. . Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[33] "The Great 1906 San Francisco earthquake of 1906" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ regional/ nca/ 1906/ 18april/ index. php). USGS. .
Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[34] "Historic Earthquakes -1946 Anchorage Earthquake" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ regional/ states/ events/ 1964_03_28. php). USGS. .
Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[35] Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 85. Washington State
Earthquake Hazards.
[36] MSN Encarta Dictionary. Flood (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encnet/ features/ dictionary/ DictionaryResults. aspx?refid=1861612277).
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[37] "Notes on Historical Earthquakes" (http:/ / www. quakes. bgs. ac. uk/ earthquakes/ historical/ historical_listing. htm). British Geological
Survey. . Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[38] "Fresh alert over Tajik flood threat" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 3120693. stm). BBC News. 2003-08-03. . Retrieved
2008-09-15.
[39] Thomas, Amanda M.; Brgmann, Roland; Nadeau, Robert M. (December 24, 2009). "Tremor-tide correlations and near-lithostatic pore
pressure on the deep San Andreas fault" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v462/ n7276/ full/ nature08654. html). Nature 462 (7276):
pp.10481051. doi:10.1038/nature08654. PMID20033046. . Retrieved December 29, 2009
[40] "Gezeitenkrfte: Sonne und Mond lassen Kalifornien erzittern" (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ wissenschaft/ natur/ 0,1518,669370,00. html)
SPIEGEL online, 29.12.2009
[41] Tamrazyan, Gurgen P. (1967). "Tide-forming forces and earthquakes". ICARUS (Elsevier) 7: pp.5965
[42] Tamrazyan, Gurgen P. (1968). "Principal Regularities in the Distribution of Major Earthquakes Relative to Solar and Lunar Tides and Other
Cosmic Forces". ICARUS (Elsevier) 9: pp.574592
[43] "Facts about The Year Without a Summer" (http:/ / www. discoverychannel. co. uk/ earth/ year_without_summer/ facts/ index. shtml).
National Geographic UK. .
[44] Kanamori Hiroo. "The Energy Release in Great Earthquakes" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ uploads/ File/ People/ kanamori/ HKjgr77.
pdf). Journal of Geophysical Research. . Retrieved 2010-10-10.
[45] USGS. "How Much Bigger?" (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ learn/ topics/ how_much_bigger. php). USGS. . Retrieved 2010-10-10.
[46] Watson, John; Watson, Kathie (October 23, 1997). "Predicting Earthquakes" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ earthq1/ predict. html). .
Retrieved May 9, 2009.
[47] "NZSEE Bulletin 39(2)-June 2006" (http:/ / ir. canterbury. ac. nz/ bitstream/ 10092/ 204/ 1/ 12605029_Main. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2010-08-23.
[48] ASCE-SEI 41 (https:/ / www. asce. org/ bookstore/ book. cfm?book=7245)
[49] "Contents" (http:/ / www. nzsee. org. nz/ PUBS/ 2006AISBEGUIDELINES_Corr_06a. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-23.
[50] "Earthquakes". Encyclopedia of World Environmental History. 1. Encyclopedia of World Environmental History. 2003. pp.358364.
[51] Sturluson, Snorri (1220). Prose Edda. ISBN1156786215.

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[52] Sellers, Paige (1997-03-03). "Poseidon" (http:/ / www. pantheon. org/ articles/ p/ poseidon. html). Encyclopedia Mythica. . Retrieved
2008-09-02.
[53] Van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2002). Science in popular culture: a reference guide. Westport: Greenwood Press. p.60. ISBN0313318220.
[54] JM Appel. A Comparative Seismology. Weber Studies (first publication), Volume 18, Number 2.
[55] Goenjian, Najarian, Pynoos, Steinberg, Manoukian, Tavosian, Fairbanks (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in elderly and younger adults
after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:895-901.
[56] Wang, Gao, Shinfuku, Zhang, Zhao, Shen (2000). Longitudinal Study of Earthquake-Related PTSD in a Randomly Selected Community
Sample in North China. Am J Psychiatry, 157(8): 1260 - 1266.
[57] Goenjian, Steinberg, Najarian, Fairbanks, Tashjian, Pynoos (2000).Prospective Study of Posttraumatic Stress, Anxiety, and Depressive
Reactions After Earthquake and Political Violence. Am J Psychiatry, 157(6): 911 - 895.
[58] Coates SW, Schechter D (2004). Preschoolers traumatic stress post-9/11: relational and developmental perspectives. Disaster Psychiatry
Issue. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27(3), 473-489.
[59] Schechter DS, Coates SW, First E (2002). Observations of acute reactions of young children and their families to the World Trade Center
attacks. Journal of ZERO-TO-THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 22(3), 9-13.

General references
Donald Hyndman, David Hyndman (2009). "Chapter 3: Earthquakes and their causes" (http://books.google.
com/?id=8jg5oRWHXmcC&pg=PT54&q=). Natural Hazards and Disasters (2nd ed.). Brooks/Cole: Cengage
Learning. ISBN0495316679.

External links
Educational
How to survive an earthquake - Guide for children and youth (http://www.edu4hazards.org/earthquake.html)
Earthquakes (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq1/)an educational booklet by Kaye M. Shedlock & Louis C.
Pakiser
The Severity of an Earthquake (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq4/severitygip.html)
USGS Earthquake FAQs (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/faq/)
IRIS Seismic Monitor (http://www.iris.edu/seismon/) - maps all earthquakes in the past five years.
Latest Earthquakes in the World (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsww/) - maps all earthquakes
in the past week.
Earthquake Information from the Deep Ocean Exploration Institute (http://www.whoi.edu/page.
do?pid=12460), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Geo.Mtu.Edu (http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/locating.html)How to locate an earthquake's epicenter
Photos/images of historic earthquakes (http://nisee.berkeley.edu/elibrary/browse/kozak?eq=5234)
earthquakecountry.info (http://www.earthquakecountry.info/) Answers to FAQs about Earthquakes and
Earthquake Preparedness
Interactive guide: Earthquakes (http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1121610,00.html) - an educational
presentation by Guardian Unlimited
Geowall (http://geowall.geo.lsa.umich.edu/visualization.html)an educational 3D presentation system for
looking at and understanding earthquake data
Virtual Earthquake (http://www.sciencecourseware.com/VirtualEarthquake/) - educational site explaining
how epicenters are located and magnitude is determined
CBC Digital ArchivesCanada's Earthquakes and Tsunamis (http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1561/
science_technology/earthquakes_and_tsunamis/)
Earthquakes Educational Resources - dmoz (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geophysics/
Earthquakes/)
USGS: Earthquakes for Kids (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/kids/)

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Earthquake

Seismological data centers

Europe

International Seismological Centre (ISC) (http://www.isc.ac.uk/)

European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC) (http://www.emsc-csem.org/)
Global Seismic Monitor at GFZ Potsdam (http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/geofon/seismon/globmon.html)
Global Earthquake Reportchart (http://tsunami.geo.ed.ac.uk/local-bin/quakes/mapscript/demo_run.pl)
Earthquakes in Iceland during the last 48 hours (http://hraun.vedur.is/ja/englishweb/index.html)
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Italy (http://www.ingv.it/)
Portuguese Meteorological Institute (Seismic activity during the last month) (http://www.meteo.pt/pt/
sismologia/actividade/)

Japan
Earthquake Information of Japan, Japan Meteorological Agency (http://www.jma.go.jp/en/quake/)
International Institute of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering (IISEE) (http://iisee.kenken.go.jp/)
Building Research Institute (http://www.kenken.go.jp/english/index.html)
Database for the damage of world earthquake, ancient period (3000 BC) to year of 2006 (http://iisee.kenken.go.
jp/utsu/)- Building Research Institute (Japan) () in Japanese
Seismic activity in last 7 days - Weathernews Inc. (http://weathernews.jp/quake/), indicated with circled
shindo () scale, magnitude (M) and its location.
Weathernews Inc, Global web site (http://weathernews.com/wpfglobal.xbap)
New Zealand
GeoNet - New Zealand Earthquake Report (latest and recent quakes) (http://www.geonet.org.nz/earthquake/
quakes/latest.html)
United States

The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center (http://neic.usgs.gov/)

Southern California Earthquake Data Center (http://www.data.scec.org/)
The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) (http://www.scec.org/)
Broadband Seismic Data Collection Center, San Diego, California (ANZA network) (http://eqinfo.ucsd.edu/)
Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country (http://www.earthquakecountry.info/roots/) An Earthquake
Science and Preparedness Handbook produced by SCEC
Recent earthquakes in California and Nevada (http://www.data.scec.org/recenteqs/Quakes/quakes0.html)
Seismograms for recent earthquakes via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer (http://rev.seis.sc.edu/)
Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) (http://www.iris.edu/), earthquake database and
software
IRIS Seismic Monitor (http://www.iris.edu/seismon/) - world map of recent earthquakes
SeismoArchives (http://www.iris.edu/seismo/) - seismogram archives of significant earthquakes of the world

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Earthquake

Seismic scales
The European Macroseismic Scale (http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/portal/gfz/Struktur/Departments/
Department+2/sec26/projects/04_seismic_vulnerability_scales_risk/EMS-98)

Scientific information
"Earthquake Magnitudes and the Gutenberg-Richter Law" (http://web.archive.org/web/20060927002415/
http://simscience.org/crackling/Advanced/Earthquakes/GutenbergRichter.html). SimScience (http://
simscience.org/index.html). Archived from the original (http://simscience.org/crackling/Advanced/
Earthquakes/GutenbergRichter.html) on 2006-09-27. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
Hiroo Kanamori, Emily E. Brodsky (June 2001). "The Physics of Earthquakes" (http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/
servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTOAD000054000006000034000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes&
bypassSSO=1). Physics Today 54 (6): 34. doi:10.1063/1.1387590.

Miscellaneous
Reports on China Sichuan earthquake 12/05/2008 (http://www.china-quake.com/)
Kashmir Relief & Development Foundation (KRDF) (http://www.kashmirearthquake.com/)
PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes (http://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/earthquake/)
USGSLargest earthquakes in the world since 1900 (http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eqlists/10maps_world.html)
The Destruction of Earthquakes (http://www.armageddononline.org/earthquake.php) - a list of the worst
earthquakes ever recorded
Los Angeles Earthquakes plotted on a Google map (http://www.losangelesearthquakes.com/)
the EM-DAT International Disaster Database (http://www.em-dat.net/)
Earthquake Newspaper Articles Archive (http://www.earthquakearchive.com/)
Earth-quake.org (http://www.earth-quake.org/)
PetQuake.org (http://www.petquake.org/)- official PETSAAF system which relies on strange or atypical
animal behavior to predict earthquakes.
A series of earthquakes in southern Italy - 23 November 1980, Gesualdo (http://carlogesualdo.altervista.org/
pagine/terremoto_irpinia_1980.htm)
Recent Quakes WorldWide (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsww/)
Real-time earthquakes on Google Map, Australia and rest of the world (http://www.aus-emaps.com/
earthquakesRSS.php)
Earthquake Information (http://earthquakedb.com/) - detailed statistics and integrated with Google Maps and
Google Earth
Kharita - INGV portal for Digital Cartography (http://kharita.rm.ingv.it/Gmaps/rec/en/index.htm) - Last
earthquakes recorded by INGV Italian Network (with Google Maps)
Kharita - INGV portal for Digital Cartography (http://kharita.rm.ingv.it/Gmaps/reg/en/index.htm) - Italian
Seismicity by region 1981-2006 (with Google Maps)
Earthquakes In The Last Week (http://earthquakes.tafoni.net/)
Interactive world map, showing recent earthquakes (day/week/month) (http://qcn.stanford.edu/qcnalpha/
maptrigtime.php)Quake-Catcher Network, BOINC
bjn:Lindu

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Soil liquefaction

211

Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction describes a phenomenon whereby a soil substantially
loses strength and stiffness in response to an applied stress, usually
earthquake shaking or other rapid loading (force), causing it to behave
like a liquid.
The phenomenon is most often observed in loose sandy soils. This is
because a loose sand has a tendency to compress when a load is
applied, dense sands by contrast tend to expand in volume or 'dilate'. If
the soil is saturated by water, as exists when the soil is below the
ground water table or sea level, then water fills the gaps between soil
grains ('pore spaces'). In response to the soil compressing, this water
increases in pressure and attempts to flow out from the soil. However,
if the loading is rapidly applied and repetitive (e.g. earthquake shaking,
storm wave loading) the water does not flow out in time before the
next cycle of load is applied. Therefore each cycle of loading continues
to build the water pressure in the soil. Eventually this water pressure
may become greater than the stresses acting between the soil grains
that keep them in contact with each other. This causes the soil to lose
all of its strength (the ability to transfer shear stress) and is observed to
flow like a liquid (hence 'liquefaction'). The pressures generated during
large earthquakes with many cycles of shaking can cause the liquefied
sand and excess water to force its way to the ground surface from
several metres below the ground. This is often observed as "sand boils"
or "sand volcanoes" (as they appear to form small volcanic craters) at
the ground surface.
The effects of soil liquefaction on the built environment can be
extremely damaging. Buildings may settle unevenly causing structural
damage, including cracking of foundations and damaging the building
structure itself. Bridges and buildings constructed on pile foundations
may lose support from the adjacent soil and buckle. Sloping ground
and ground next to rivers and lakes may slide on a liquefied soil layer
(termed 'lateral spreading'), opening large cracks or fissures in the
ground, and can cause significant damage to buildings, roads and
services such as water, natural gas, sewerage, power and
communications installed in the affected ground. Buried tanks and
manholes may float in the liquefied soil due to buoyancy. Earth
embankments such as flood levees and earth dams may lose stability or
collapse if the material comprising the embankment or its foundation
liquefies.
One positive aspect of soil liquefaction is the tendency for the effects
of earthquake shaking to be significantly damped (reduced). This is
because liquids do not support a shear stress and so once the soil

Some effects of liquefaction during the 1964

Niigata earthquake

Liquefaction allowed this sewer to float upward

Sand blow in Christchurch, New Zealand, caused

by liquefaction during Mw 7.1 2010 Canterbury
earthquake.

Lateral spread in Christchurch, New Zealand,

caused by liquefaction during Mw 7.1 2010
Canterbury earthquake.

Soil liquefaction
liquefies due to shaking, subsequent earthquake shaking (transferred through ground by shear waves) is not
transferred to buildings at the ground surface.
Although the effects of liquefaction have been long understood, it was more thoroughly brought to the attention of
engineers and seismologists after the 1964 Niigata earthquake and 1964 Alaska earthquake. It was also a major
factor in the destruction in San Francisco's Marina District during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, Kobe Port
during the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake, and was largely responsible for extensive damage to residential
properties in Christchurch's eastern suburbs and satellite townships during the 2010 Darfield earthquake.

Technical Definition
Liquefaction is more likely to occur in loose to moderately saturated granular soils with poor drainage, such as silty
sands or sands and gravels capped or containing seams of impermeable sediments [1] [2] . During wave loading,
usually cyclic undrained loading, e.g. seismic loading, loose sands tend to decrease in volume, which produces an
increase in their porewater pressures and consequently a decrease in shear strength, i.e. reduction in effective stress.
Deposits most susceptible to liquefaction are young (Holocene-age, deposited within the last 10,000 years) sands and
silts of similar grain size (well-sorted), in beds at least metres thick, and saturated with water. Such deposits are often
found along riverbeds, beaches, dunes, and areas where windblown silt (loess) and sand have accumulated. Some
examples of liquefaction include quicksand, quick clay, turbidity currents, and earthquake liquefaction.
Depending on the initial void ratio, the soil material can respond to loading either strain-softening or
strain-hardening. Strain-softened soils, e.g. loose sands, can be triggered to collapse, either monotonically or
cyclically, if the static shear stress is greater than the ultimate or steady-state shear strength of the soil. In this case
flow liquefaction occurs, where the soil deforms at a low constant residual shear stress. If the soil strain-hardens, e.g.
moderately dense to dense sand, flow liquefaction will generally not occur. However, cyclic softening can occur due
to cyclic undrained loading, e.g. earthquake loading. Deformation during cyclic loading will depend on the density
of the soil, the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and amount of shear stress reversal. If stress reversal
occurs, the effective shear stress could reach zero, then cyclic liquefaction can take place. If stress reversal does not
occur, zero effective stress is not possible to occur, then cyclic mobility takes place [3] .
The resistance of the cohesionless soil to liquefaction will depend on the density of the soil, confining stresses, soil
structure (fabric, age and cementation), the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and the extent to which
shear stress reversal occurs [4] .

212

Soil liquefaction

Earthquake liquefaction
Earthquake liquefaction is a major contributor to urban seismic risk. The
shaking causes increased pore water pressure which reduces the effective
stress, and therefore reduces the shear strength of the sand. If there is a dry
soil crust or impermeable cap, the excess water will sometimes come to the
surface through cracks in the confining layer, bringing liquefied sand with it,
creating sand boils, colloquially called "sand volcanoes"[5] .
Studies of liquefaction features left by prehistoric earthquakes, called
paleoliquefaction or paleoseismology, can reveal a great deal of information
about earthquakes that occurred before records were kept or accurate
measurements could be taken.[6]

Quicksand
Quicksand forms when water saturates an area of loose sand and the ordinary
sand is agitated. When the water trapped in the batch of sand cannot escape, it
A liquefaction susceptibility map creates liquefied soil that can no longer support weight. Quicksand can be
excerpt of USGS map for the San
Francisco Bay Area. Many areas of
formed by standing or (upwards) flowing underground water (as from an
concern in this region are also densely
underground spring), or by earthquakes. In the case of flowing underground
urbanized.
water, the force of the water flow opposes the force of gravity, causing the
granules of sand to be more buoyant. In the case of earthquakes, the shaking
force can increase the pressure of shallow groundwater, liquefying sand and silt deposits. In both cases, the liquefied
surface loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over.
The saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a change in pressure or shock initiates the liquifaction causing
the sand to form a suspension with each grain surrounded by a thin film of water. This cushioning gives quicksand,
and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture. Objects in the liquefied sand sink to the level at which the
weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced sand/water mix and the object floats due to its buoyancy.

Quick clay
Quick clay, also known as Leda Clay in Canada, is a unique form of highly sensitive clay, with the tendency to
change from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed. Undisturbed quick clay resembles a
water-saturated gel. When a block of clay is held in the hand and struck, however, it instantly turns into a flowing
ooze, a process known as spontaneous liquefaction. Quick clay behaves this way because, although it is solid, it has a
very high water content, up to 80%. The clay retains a solid structure despite the high water content, because surface
tension holds water-coated flakes of clay together in a delicate structure. When the structure is broken by a shock, it
reverts to a fluid state.
Quick clay is only found in the northern countries such as Russia, Canada, Alaska in the U.S., Norway, Sweden, and
Finland, which were glaciated during the Pleistocene epoch.
Quick clay has been the underlying cause of many deadly landslides. In Canada alone, it has been associated with
more than 250 mapped landslides. Some of these are ancient, and may have been triggered by earthquakes.[7]

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Soil liquefaction

Turbidity currents
Submarine landslides are turbidity currents and consist of water saturated sediments flowing downslope. An example
occurred during the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake that struck the continental slope off the coast of Newfoundland.
Minutes later, transatlantic telephone cables began breaking sequentially, farther and farther downslope, away from
the epicenter. Twelve cables were snapped in a total of 28 places. Exact times and locations were recorded for each
break. Investigators suggested that a 60-mile-per-hour (100 km/h) submarine landslide or turbidity current of water
saturated sediments swept 400 miles (600 km) down the continental slope from the earthquakes epicenter, snapping
the cables as it passed.[8]

Effects
Liquefaction can cause damage to structures in several ways.[9] Buildings whose foundations bear directly on sand
which liquefies will experience a sudden loss of support, which will result in drastic and irregular settlement of the
building. Liquefaction causes irregular settlements in the area liquefied, which can damage buildings and break
underground utility lines where the differential settlements are large. Pipelines and ducts may float up through the
liquefied sand. Sand boils can erupt into buildings through utility openings, and may allow water to damage the
structure or electrical systems. Soil liquefaction can also cause slope failures. Areas of land reclamation are often
prone to liquefaction because many are reclaimed with hydraulic fill, and are often underlain by soft soils which can
amplify earthquake shaking. Soil liquefaction was a major factor in the destruction in San Francisco's Marina District
during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Mitigating potential damage from liquefaction is part of the field of
geotechnical engineering.

See also

Paleoseismology
Dry quicksand
Atterberg limits
Mud volcano
Sand volcano or sand blow
Thixotropy
Earthquake engineering

Events
Aberfan disaster

References
[1] Jefferies, M. and Been, K. (Taylor & Francis, 2006) Soil Liquefaction (http:/ / www. tandfbuiltenvironment. com/ books/
Soil-Liquefaction-isbn9780419161707)
[2] Youd, T.L., and Idriss, I.M. (2001). "Liquefaction Resistance of Soils: Summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF
Workshops on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils", Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 127(4),
297-313
[3] Robertson, P.K., and Fear, C.E. (1995). "Liquefaction of sands and its evaluation.", Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Tokyo
[4] Robertson, P.K., and Wride, C.E. (1998). "Evaluating Cyclic Liquefaction Potential using the cone penetration test." Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Ottawa, 35(5), 442-459.
[5] "What happened under Canterbury yesterday morning" (http:/ / theatavism. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 09/ what-happened-under-canterbury. html)
[6] http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ research/ hazmaps/ whats_new/ workshops/ CEUS-WORKSHP/ Tuesday/ NE-Tuttle. 2. pdf
[7] (http:/ / geoscape. nrcan. gc. ca/ ottawa/ landslides_e. php)
[8] Bruce C. Heezen and Maurice Ewing, Turbidity Currents and Submarine Slumps, and the 1929 Grand Banks Earthquake, American Journal
of Science, Vol. 250, December 1952, pp. 849873.
[9] Damage Caused by EarthQuakes (http:/ / www. es. ucsc. edu/ ~es10/ fieldtripEarthQ/ Damage1. html)

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Soil liquefaction

215

External links
Soil Liquefaction (http://www.ce.washington.edu/~liquefaction/html/main.html)
Shaking, Liquefaction on Harbor Island (http://www.pnsn.org/SEIS/EQ_Special/WEBDIR_01022818543p/
quakestory.html), one of the few known live observations of an earthquake liquefaction event by a seismologist

Response spectrum
A response spectrum is simply a plot of the peak or steady-state
response (displacement, velocity or acceleration) of a series of
oscillators of varying natural frequency, that are forced into
motion by the same base vibration or shock. The resulting plot can
then be used to pick off the response of any linear system, given
its natural frequency of oscillation. One such use is in assessing
the peak response of buildings to earthquakes. The science of
strong ground motion may use some values from the ground
response spectrum (calculated from recordings of surface ground
motion from seismographs) for correlation with seismic damage.
If the input used in calculating a response spectrum is steady-state
periodic, then the steady-state result is recorded. Damping must be
present, or else the response will be infinite. For transient input
(such as seismic ground motion), the peak response is reported.
Some level of damping is generally assumed, but a value will be
obtained even with no damping.

A series of mixed vertical oscillators

A plot of the peak acceleration for the mixed vertical

oscillators
Response spectra can also be used in assessing the response of
linear systems with multiple modes of oscillation (multi-degree of
freedom systems), although they are only accurate for low levels of damping. Modal analysis is performed to
identify the modes, and the response in that mode can be picked from the response spectrum. This peak response is
then combined to estimate a total response. A typical combination method is the square root of the sum of the
squares (SRSS) if the modal frequencies are not close. The result is typically different from that which would be
calculated directly from an input, since phase information is lost in the process of generating the response spectrum.

The main limitation of response spectra is that they are only universally applicable for linear systems. Response
spectra can be generated for non-linear systems, but are only applicable to systems with the same non-linearity,
although attempts have been made to develop non-linear seismic design spectra with wider structural application.
The results of this cannot be directly combined for multi-mode response.

Seismic Response Spectra

Response spectra are very useful tools of earthquake engineering for analyzing the performance of structures and
equipment in earthquakes, since many behave principally as simple oscillators (also known as single degree of
freedom systems). Thus, if you can find out the natural frequency of the structure, then the peak response of the
building can be estimated by reading the value from the ground response spectrum for the appropriate frequency. In
most building codes in seismic regions, this value forms the basis for calculating the forces that a structure must be
designed to resist (seismic analysis).
As mentioned earlier, the ground response spectrum is the response plot done at the free surface of the earth.
Significant seismic damage may occur if the building response is 'in tune' with components of the ground motion

Response spectrum
(resonance), which may be identified from the response spectrum. This was observed in the 1985 Mexico City
Earthquake [1] where the oscillation of the deep-soil lake bed was similar to the natural frequency of mid-rise
concrete buildings, causing significant damage. Shorter (stiffer) and taller (more flexible) buildings suffered less
damage.
In 1941 at Caltech, George W. Housner began to publish calculations of response spectra from
accelerographsHousner. In the 1982 EERI Monograph on "Earthquake Design and Spectra"Newmark, Newmark and
Hall describe how they developed an "idealized" seismic response spectrum based on a range of response spectra
generated for available earthquake records. This was then further developed into a design response spectrum for use
in structural design, and this basic form (with some modifications) is now the basis for structural design in seismic
regions throughout the world (typically plotted against structural "period", the inverse of frequency). A nominal level
of damping is assumed (5% of critical damping).
For "regular" low-rise buildings, the structural response to earthquakes is characterized by the fundamental mode (a
"waving" back-and-forth), and most building codes permit design forces to be calculated from the design spectrum
on the basis of that frequency, but for more complex structures, combination of the results for many modes
(calculated through modal analysis) is often required. In extreme cases, where structures are either too irregular, too
tall or of significance to a community in disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate,
and more complex analysis is required, such as non-linear static or dynamic analysis like in seismic performance
analysis technique.

References
1. Report on 1985 Mexico City Earthquake [1] from "EQ Facts & Lists: Large Historical Earthquakes", USGS.
2. "Historic Developments in the Evolution of Earthquake Engineering" [2], illustrated essays by Robert
Reitherman, CUREE, 1997, p10.
3. Newmark, N. M., and Hall, W. J. 1982. Earthquake Spectra and Design, Engineering Monographs on
Earthquake Criteria, Structural Design, and Strong Motion Records, Vol 3, Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute [3], Oakland, CA.

External links
"Illustration of Newmark-Hall Approach to Developing Design Response Spectra" [4] - Appendix B of
"Engineering and Design - Response Spectra and Seismic Analysis for Concrete Hydraulic Structures (EM
1110-2-6050)", US Army Corps of Engineers

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

http:/ / neic. usgs. gov/ neis/ eq_depot/ world/ 1985_09_19. html

http:/ / www. curee. org/ image_gallery/ calendar/ essays/ 1998-CUREE_excerpt. pdf
http:/ / www. eeri. org/
http:/ / 140. 194. 76. 129/ publications/ eng-manuals/ em1110-2-6050/ a-b. pdf

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Seismic hazard

Seismic hazard
When building a house, regional seismic hazard maps are used to find the best (or the worst) place to locate for
earthquake shaking. [1] Although greatly confused with its sister, seismic risk, seismic hazard is the study of expected
earthquake ground motions at any point on the earth.
The calculations for seismic hazard, first formulated by
C. Allin Cornell in 1968[2] , can be quite complex.[3]
First, the regional geology and seismology is examined
for patterns (using seismometers and earthquake
location). Zones of similar potential for seismicity are
drawn. For example, the famous San Andreas Fault
might be drawn as a long narrow zone. Zones in the
continental interior (the site for intraplate earthquakes)
would be drawn as broad areas, since causative faults
are generally not identified.
Each zone is given properties associated with source
Surface motion map for a hypothetical earthquake on the northern
potential: how many earthquakes per year, the
portion of the Hayward Fault Zone and its presumed northern
extension, the Rodgers Creek Fault Zone
maximum size of earthquakes (maximum magnitude),
etc. Finally, the calculations require formulae that give
the required hazard indicators for a given earthquake size and distance. For example, some districts prefer to use
peak acceleration, others use peak velocity, and more sophisticated uses require response spectral ordinates.
The computer program then integrates over all the zones and produces probability curves for the key ground motion
parameter. The final result gives you a 'chance' of exceeding a given value over a specified amount of time. Standard
building codes for homeowners might be concerned with a 1 in 500 years chance, while nuclear plants look at the
10,000 year time frame. A longer-term seismic history can be obtained through paleoseismology. The results may be
in the form of a ground response spectrum for use in seismic analysis.
More elaborate variations on the theme also look at the soil conditions.[4] If you build on a soft swamp, you are
likely to experience many times the ground motions than your neighbour on solid rock. The standard seismic hazard
calculations become adjusted upwards if you are postulating characteristic earthquakes.
Areas with high ground motion due to soil conditions are also often subject to soil failure due to liquefaction. Soil
failure can also occur due to earthquake-induced landslides in steep terrain. Large area landsliding can also occur on
rather gentle slopes as was seen in the "Good Friday Earthquake" in Anchorage, Alaska, March 28, 1964.

References
[1] Natural Resources Canada page on Seismic Hazard Calculations (http:/ / earthquakescanada. nrcan. gc. ca/ hazard/ zoning/ haz_e. php)
[2] Cornell, C.A. 1968, Engineering seismic risk analysis, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 58, 1583-1606 (http:/ / www.
geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ georef/ 1968056524)
[3] McGuire, R. 2008, Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis: Early history, Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn., 37, 329338 (http:/ / tlacaelel.
geofisica. unam. mx/ ~cruz/ Sismociones_Libres/ Biblio_Sismocion/ McGuire PSHA History. pdf)
[4] Wang, Z. 2008. A technical note on seismic microzonation in the central United States, J. Earth Syst. Sci. 117, S2, pp. 749756 (http:/ / www.
ias. ac. in/ jess/ nov2008/ jess124. pdf)

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Seismic hazard

External links
U.S. Geological Survey National Seismic Hazard Maps: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/hazmaps/
The Global Seismic Hazard map: http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/GSHAP/
Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada (http://www.
inrisk.ubc.ca/)
Seismic Risk Analysis using GIS: Evaluation of Structural Damage to Buildings and Loss Estimation (http:/ / www.
hazardmapping.com)

Ground-structure interaction
Design
The interaction between soil (ground) and structure consists of an exchange of mutual stress between the structure
itself and the foundations ground. This means that the movement of the whole ground-structure system is influenced
by the type of ground as well as by the type of structure. The main types of foundations, based upon several building
characteristics, are:

Isolated plinths (currently not feasible)

Plinths connected by foundations beams
Reverse beams
A plate (used for low-quality grounds)

The filing of foundations grounds takes place according to the mechanical properties of the grounds themselves: in
Italy, for instance, according to the new earthquake-proof norm Ordinanza 3274/2003 you can identify the
following categories:

Category A: homogeneous rock formations

Category B: compact granular or clayey soil
Category C: quite compact granular or clayey soil
Category D: not much compact granular or clayey soil
Category E: alluvial surface layer grounds (very low quality soil)

The type of foundations is selected according to the type of ground; for instance, in the case of homogeneous rock
formations connected plinths are selected, while in the case of very low quality grounds plates are chosen.

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Ground-structure interaction

For further information about the various ways of building foundations see foundation (architecture).
Both grounds and structures can be more or less deformable; their combination can or cannot cause the amplification
of the seismic effects on the structure. Ground, in fact, is a filter with respect to all the main seismic waves, as stiffer
soil fosters high-frequency seismic waves while less compact soil accommodates lower frequency waves. Therefore,
a stiff building, characterized by a high fundamental frequency, suffers amplified damage when built on stiff ground
and then subjected to higher frequencies.
For instance, suppose there are two buildings that share the same high stiffness. They stand on two different soil
types: the first, stiff and rockythe second, sandy and deformable. If subjected to the same seismic event, the
building on the stiff ground suffers greater damage.
The second interaction effect, tied to mechanical properties of soil, is about the lowering (sinking) of foundations,
worsened by the seismic event itself, especially about less compact grounds. This phenomenon is called soil
liquefaction.

Mitigation
The methods most used to mitigate the problem of the ground-structure interaction consist of the employment of the
before-seen isolation systems and of some ground brace techniques, which are adopted above all on the low-quality
ones (categories D and E). The most diffused techniques are the jet-grouting technique and the pilework technique.
The jet-grouting technique consists of injecting in the subsoil some liquid concrete by means of a drill. When this
concrete hardens it forms a sort of column that consolidates the surrounding soil. This process is repeated on all
areas of the structure. The pilework technique consists of using piles, which, once inserted in the ground, support the
foundation and the building above, by moving the loads or the weights towards soil layers that are deeper and
therefore more compact and movement-resistant.

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Ground-structure interaction

External links
Do you like to better understand what happens when seismic waves get through the ground-structure system? [1]
(Italian)

Seismic soil-structure interaction [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. ingegneriasismica. net/ Tematiche/ 4ZS/ 4ZSfondazioniM/ 4ZSfondazioniM_interazione/ 4ZSfondazioniM_interazione. htm
[2] http:/ / sokocalo. engr. ucdavis. edu/ ~jeremic/ ECI281a/ Presentations/ 2001/ Louie_pres. ppt

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221

GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetic
Geosynthetics is the term used to describe a range of generally polymeric products used to solve civil engineering
problems. The term is generally regarded to encompass eight main product categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets,
geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells (cellular confinement) and geocomposites. The
polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are
required. Properly formulated, however, they can also be used in exposed applications. Geosynthetics are available
in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end use. These products have a wide range of
applications and are currently used in many civil, geotechnical, transportation, geoenvironmental, hydraulic, and
private development applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs,
canals, dams, erosion control, sediment control, landfill liners, landfill covers, mining, aquaculture and agriculture.

History
Inclusions of different sorts mixed with soil have been used for thousands of years. They were used in roadway
construction in Roman days to stabilize roadways and their edges. These early attempts were made of natural fibres,
fabrics or vegetation mixed with soil to improve road quality, particularly when roads were built on unstable soil.
They were also used to build steep slopes as with several pyramids in Egypt and walls as well. A fundamental
problem with using natural materials (wood, cotton, etc.) in a buried environment is the biodegradation that occurs
from microorganisms in the soil. With the advent of polymers in the middle of the 20th Century a much more stable
material became available. When properly formulated, lifetimes of centuries can be predicted even for harsh
environmental conditions.
The first papers on geosynthetics in the 1960s (as we know them today) were as filters in the United States and as
reinforcement in Europe. The 1977 conference in Paris brought together many of the early manufacturers and
practitioners. The International Geosynthetics Society (IGS) founded in 1982 has subsequently organized worldwide
conference every four years and its numerous chapters have additional conferences. Presently separate geosynthetic
institutes, trade-groups, and standards-setting groups are active. Approximately twenty universities teach stand-alone
courses on geosynthetics and almost all include the subject in geotechnical, geoenvironmental, and hydraulic
engineering courses. Geosynthetics are available worldwide and the activity is robust and steadily growing.

Geosynthetic

Categories
Geotextiles
Geotextiles form one of the two largest
groups of geosynthetic materials. They
are indeed textiles in the traditional
sense, but consist of synthetic fibers
(all are polymer-based) rather than
natural ones such as cotton, wool, jute
or silk. Thus, biodegradation and
subsequent short lifetime is not a
problem. These synthetic fibers are
made into flexible, porous fabrics by
standard weaving machinery or they
are matted together in a random
nonwoven manner. Some are also
knitted. The major point is that
Collage of geosynthetic products
geotextiles are porous to liquid flow
across their manufactured plane and also within their thickness, but to widely varying degree. There are at least 100
specific application areas for geotextiles that have been developed; however, the fabric always performs at least one
of four discrete functions; separation, reinforcement, filtration and/or drainage.

Geogrids
Geogrids represent a rapidly growing segment within geosynthetics. Rather than being a woven, nonwoven or
knitted textile fabric, geogrids are polymers formed into a very open, gridlike configuration, i.e., they have large
apertures between individual ribs in the machine and cross machine directions. Geogrids are (a) either stretched in
one or two directions for improved physical properties, (b) made on weaving or knitting machinery by standard
textile manufacturing methods, or (c) by bonding rods or straps together. There are many specific application areas,
however, they function almost exclusively as reinforcement materials. Modern geogrids were invented by Dr. Brian
Mercer (Blackburn, UK) in the late 1970s. Dr. Mercer devised and patented the stretched sheet method of production
which results in a stiff polymer grid and avoids the bonding of separate elements required in a woven or knitted grid.
Subsequent development by Dr. Mercer led to the uniaxial (single direction stretch) geogrid with rectangular
apertures and the biaxial (two way stretch) geogrid with virtually square apertures.
Stiff polymer geogrids are used in layers with mineral aggregate fills or other suitable soil to create a stiff
mechanically stabilised layer within the soil and thus improve its load bearing capacity The apertures of the grid hold
or confine the aggregate or soil particles, preventing the lateral shear created by vertical loading. The latest
developments in stiff polymer geogrid manufacture (e.g. TriAx 2007) are based on an isosceles triangular aperture,
produced by a new manufacturing technique from a punched then stretched polymer sheet. Whereas uniaxial and
biaxial geogrids offered maximum in-plane stiffness in one and two axis, respectively, the triangular aperture results
is a near isotropic in-plane stiffness.

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Geosynthetic

Geonets
Geonets, called "geospacers" by some, constitute another specialized segment within the geosynthetics area. They
are formed by continuous extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric ribs at acute angles to one another. When the ribs
are opened, relatively large apertures are formed into a netlike configuration. Their design function is completely
within the in-plane drainage area where they are used to convey all types of liquids.

Geomembranes
Geomembranes represent the other largest group of geosynthetics and in dollar volume their sales are even greater
than that of geotextiles. Their initial growth in the USA and Germany was stimulated by governmental regulations
originally enacted in the early 1980s [5]. The materials themselves are relatively thin impervious sheets of polymeric
materials used primarily for linings and covers of liquid- or solid-storage facilities. This includes all types of
landfills, reservoirs, canals and other containment facilities. Thus the primary function is always containment
functioning as a liquid and/or vapor barrier. The range of applications is very great, and in addition to the
geoenvironmental area, applications are rapidly growing in geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic, and private
development engineering.

Geosynthetic Clay Liners

Geosynthetic clay liners, or GCLs, are an interesting juxtaposition of polymeric materials and natural soils. They are
rolls of factory fabricated thin layers of bentonite clay sandwiched between two geotextiles or bonded to a
geomembrane. Structural integrity of the subsequent composite is obtained by needle-punching, stitching or physical
bonding. GCLs are used as a composite component beneath a geomembrane or by themselves in geoenvironmental
and containment applications as well as in transportation, geotechnical, hydraulic, and many private development
applications.

Geofoam
Geofoam is a product created by a polymeric expansion process resulting in a foam consisting of many closed, but
gas-filled, cells. The skeletal nature of the cell walls is the unexpanded polymeric material. The resulting product is
generally in the form of large, but extremely light, blocks which are stacked side-by-side providing lightweight fill in
numerous applications. The primary function is dictated by the application; however separation is always a
consideration and geofoam is included in this category rather than creating a separate one for each specific material.

Geocells
Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-dimensional honeycombed cellular structures that
form a confinement system when infilled with compacted soil. Extruded from polymeric materials into strips welded
together ultrasonically in series, the strips are expanded to form the stiff (and typically textured and perforated) walls
of a flexible 3D cellular mattress or slab. Infilled with soil, a new composite entity is created from the cell-soil
interactions. The cellular confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil particles, thereby maintaining
compaction and forms a stiffened mattress or slab that distributes loads over a wider area. The result is high bearing
capacity even from inferior fill material, reduction of structural layer thickness and longer-term durability.
Traditionally used in slope protection and earth retention applications, geocells made from advanced polymers are
being increasingly adopted for long-term road and rail load support.

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Geosynthetic

224

Drainage / Infiltration Cells

Related to Geocells, being also three-dimensional cellular structures, these are not infilled with compacted soil. They
provide an extremely strong, in comparison to their weight, void volume supporting structure. This allows a more
effective management of water and also gases, replacing traditional implementations such as gravel, blue metal or
stone aggregate. These systems are rigid, to support extreme weight, modular and scalable. Normally made of plastic
injection molded material, they are used in conjunction with geotextiles, that serve as the necessary separation and
filtration media. Implementations and applications can range from roof gardens, hydro static pressure relief for
retaining walls, increased catchment area and efficiency for stormwater harvesting, among others.

Geocomposites
A geocomposite consists of a combination of geotextiles, geogrids, geonets and/or geomembranes in a factory
fabricated unit. Also, any one of these four materials can be combined with another synthetic material (e.g.,
deformed plastic sheets or steel cables) or even with soil. As examples, a geonet with geotextiles on both surfaces
and a GCL consisting of a geotextile/bentonite/geotextile sandwich are both geocomposites. This specific category
brings out the best creative efforts of the engineer and manufacturer. The application areas are numerous and
constantly growing. The major functions encompass the entire range of functions listed for geosynthetics discussed
previously; separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage, and containment.

Functions
The juxtaposition of the various types of geosynthetics just described with the primary function that the material is
called upon to serve allows for the creation of an organizational matrix for geosynthetics; see Table 1. In essence,
this matrix is the scorecard for understanding the entire geosynthetic field and its design related methodology. In
Table 1, the primary function that each geosynthetic can be called upon to serve is seen. Note that these are primary
functions and in many cases (if not most) cases there are secondary functions, and perhaps tertiary ones as well. For
example, a geotextile placed on soft soil will usually be designed on the basis of its reinforcement capability, but
separation and filtration might certainly be secondary and tertiary considerations. As another example, a
geomembrane is obviously used for its containment capability, but separation will always be a secondary function.
The greatest variability from a manufacturing and materials viewpoint is the category of geocomposites. The primary
function will depend entirely upon what is actually created, manufactured, and installed.
Table 1 - Identification of the Usual Primary Function for Each Type of Geosynthetic
Type of Geosynthetic (GS)
Geotextile (GT)

Separation

Reinforcement

Filtration

Drainage

Geogrid (GG)

Containment

Geonet (GN)

Geomembrane (GM)

Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL)

Geopipe (GP)
Geofoam (GF)

X
X

Geocells (GL)

Drainage cell (DC)

Geocomposite (GC)

Geosynthetics are generally designed for a particular application by considering the primary function that can be
provided. As seen in the accompanying table there are five primary functions given, but some groups suggest even

Geosynthetic
more.
Separation is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a porous geotextile, between dissimilar
materials so that the integrity and functioning of both materials can remain intact or even be improved. Paved roads,
unpaved roads, and railroad bases are common applications. Also, the use of thick nonwoven geotextiles for
cushioning and protection of geomembranes is in this category. In addition, for most applications of geofoam,
separation is the major function.
Reinforcement is the synergistic improvement of a total systems strength created by the introduction of a
geotextile, geogrid or geocell (all of which are good in tension) into a soil (that is good in compression, but poor in
tension) or other disjointed and separated material. Applications of this function are in mechanically stabilized and
retained earth walls and steep soil slopes; they can be combined with masonry facings to create vertical retaining
walls. Also involved is the application of basal reinforcement over soft soils and over deep foundations for
embankments and heavy surface loadings. Stiff polymer geogrids and geocells do not have to be held in tension to
provide soil reinforcement, unlike geotextiles. Stiff 2D geogrid and 3D geocells interlock with the aggregate
particles and the reinforcement mechanism is one of confinement of the aggregate. The resulting mechanically
stabilized aggregate layer exhibits improved loadbearing performance. Stiff polymer geogrids, with rectangular or
triangular apertures, in addition to three-dimensional geocells made from new polymeric alloys are also increasingly
specified in unpaved and paved roadways, load platforms and railway ballast, where the improved loadbearing
characteristics significantly reduce the requirements for high quality, imported aggregate fills, thus reducing the
carbon footprint of the construction.
Filtration is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for adequate liquid flow without soil loss,
across the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the application under consideration.
Filtration applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage, landfill leachate collection systems,
as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible forms for bags, tubes and containers.
Drainage is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that allows for adequate liquid flow without soil loss, within
the plane of the geosynthetic over a service lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Geopipe
highlights this function, and also geonets, geocomposites and (to a lesser extent) geotextiles. Drainage applications
for these different geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields, dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks. Also
to be noted is that sheet, edge and wick drains are geocomposites used for various soil and rock drainage situations.
Containment involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, or some geocomposites which function as liquid or
gas barriers. Landfill liners and covers make critical use of these geosynthetics. All hydraulic applications (tunnels,
dams, canals, reservoir liners, and floating covers) use these geosynthetics as well.
"Base for Plantation on dome" Use of geotextile was made in little unused application in India Pavilion at Shanghai
Expo 2010. Plantation was to made on a very large dome (more than 34 m diameter). Non woven geotextile was
used in two layers. one layer was provided as a base layer and over the same another layer was provided which was
punctured at the places where plants were to be planted throgh stappling process. The gap between two layers was
used for irrigating the plants and supplying nutrients(Dr. K M Soni).

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Geosynthetic

Advantages
The manufactured quality control of geosynthetics in a controlled factory environment is a great advantage over
outdoor soil and rock construction. Most factories are ISO 9000 certified and have their own in-house quality
programs as well.
The thinness of geosynthetics versus their natural soil counterpart is an advantage insofar as light weight on the
subgrade, less airspace used, and avoidance of quarried sand, gravel, and clay soil materials.
The ease of geosynthetic installation is significant in comparison to thick soil layers (sands, gravels, or clays)
requiring large earthmoving equipment.
Published standards (test methods, guides, and specifications) are well advanced in standards-setting
organizations like ISO, ASTM, and GSI.
Design methods are currently available in that many universities are teaching stand-alone courses in geosynthetics
or have integrated geosynthetics in traditional geotechnical, geoenvironmental, and hydraulic engineering courses.

Disadvantages
Long-term performance of the particular formulated resin being used to make the geosynthetic must be assured by
using proper additives including antioxidants, ultraviolet screeners, and fillers.
Clogging of geotextiles, geonets, geopipe and/or geocomposites is a challenging design for certain soil types or
unusual situations. For example, loess soils, fine cohesionless silts, highly turbid liquids, and microorganism
laden liquids (farm runoff) are troublesome and generally require specialized testing evaluations.
Handling, storage, and installation must be assured by careful quality control and quality assurance of which
much as been written.

References
Van Zanten, R. V. (1986). Geotextiles and Geomembranes in Civil Engineering, A. A. Balkema Publ., Rotterdam,
The Netherlands, 685 pgs.
_____, (1990). A Design Primer: Geotextiles and Related Materials, IFAI Publ., Roseville, MN, USA, ~ 150 pgs.
Van Santvoort, G. P. T. M., Translator (1995). Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering, A. A. Balkema Publ.,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 105 pgs.
Jewell, R. A. (1996). Soil Reinforcement With Geotextiles, CIRIA Publishers, London, England, 332 pgs.
Holtz, R. D., Christopher, B. R. and Berg, R. R. (1997). Geosynthetic Engineering, BiTech Publishers, Ltd.,
Richmond, B.C., Canada, 452 pgs.
Pilarczyk, K. W. (2000). Geosynthetics and Geosystems in Hydraulic and Coastal Engineering, A. A. Balkema
Publ., Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 913 pgs.
Rowe, R. K. (Ed.), (2001). Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Handbook, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Boston, USA, 1088 pgs.
Dixon, N., Smith, D. M., Greenwood, J. R. and Jones, D. R. V. (2003). Geosynthetics: Protecting the
Environment, Thomas Telford Publ., London, England, 164 pgs.
Koerner, R. M. (2005). Designing With Geosynthetics, 5th Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall Publ., Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, USA, 796 pgs.
Shukla, S. K. and Yin, J.-H. (2006). Fundamentals of Geosynthetic Engineering, Taylor and Francis Publishers,
London, England, 410 pgs.
Sarsby, R. W. Ed. (2007). Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, England,
295 pgs.

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Geosynthetic

227

External links

International Association of Geosynthetic Installers (http://www.iagi.org)

International Geosynthetics Society Website (http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org)
Engineering Use of Geotextiles (http://www.army.mil/usapa/eng/DR_pubs/dr_a/pdf/tm5_818_8.pdf)
Geosynthetic Materials Association (http://www.gmanow.com)
Geosynthetic Institute (http://www.geosynthetic-institute.org)
Geosynthetics magazine (http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com)
Geosynthetica.net - Free access geosynthetics information. (http://www.geosynthetica.net)
Geosindex.com - Search, Select, Sort and Specify Geosynthetics. (http://www.geosindex.com)
2009 Jubilee Symposium on Polymer Geogrid Reinforcement Proceedings (http://www.tensar.co.uk/
jubilee-symposium/downloads.html)

Geotextile
Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which,
when used in association with soil, have the
ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect,
or
drain.
Typically
made
from
polypropylene or polyester, geotextile
fabrics come in three basic forms: woven
(looks like mail bag sacking), needle
punched (looks like felt), or heat bonded
(looks like ironed felt).
Geotextile composites have been introduced
and products such as geogrids and meshes
have been developed. Overall, these
materials are referred to as geosynthetics
and each configuration-geonets, geogrids
and others-can yield benefits in
geotechnical and environmental engineering
design.

Examples of geotextiles.

Applications
Geotextiles and related products have many applications and currently
support many civil engineering applications including roads, airfields,
railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams,
bank protection, coastal engineering and construction site silt fences.
Usually geotextiles are placed at the tension surface to strengthen the
soil. Geotextiles are also used for sand dune armoring to protect upland
coastal property from storm surge, wave action and flooding. A large
sand-filled container (SFC) within the dune system prevents storm
erosion from proceeding beyond the SFC. Using a sloped unit rather
than a single tube eliminates damaging scour.

A silt fence on a construction site.

Geotextile
Erosion control manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating shoreline erosion
damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution for upland property protection.
Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels and swales.[1] [2]
Geotextiles can improve soil strength at a lower cost than conventional soil nailing. In addition, geotextiles allow
planting on steep slopes, further securing the slope.
Geotextiles have been used to protect the fossil hominid footprints of Laetoli in Tanzania from erosion, rain, and tree
roots.[3]
In building demolition, geotextile fabrics in combination with steel wire fencing can contain explosive debris.[4]
Coir (coconut fiber) geotextiles are a popular solution for erosion control, slope stabilization and bioengineering, due
to the fabric's substantial mechanical strength.[1] :App. I.E Coir geotextiles last approximately 3 to 5 years depending
on the fabric weight. The product degrades into humus, enriching the soil.[5]

Design considerations
To use geotextiles to reinforce a steep slope, two components have to be calculated:
the tension required for equilibrium
the appropriate layout of the geotextile reinforcement.

References
[1] Dane County Department of Land and Water Resources (2007) Dane County Erosion Control and Stormwater Management Manual (http:/ /
www. danewaters. com/ pdf/ manual/ ecsm_manual. pdf). Madison, WI. (Report). Retrieved 2010-02-09.
[2] Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (2003) Massachusetts Erosion and Sediment Control Guidelines for Urban and
Suburban Areas (http:/ / www. mass. gov/ dep/ water/ esfull. pdf). (Report). pp. 73-74.
[3] Renfrew, Colin and Paul Bahn, Archaeology. 4th ed. New York: Thames 2004.
[4] WGBH Boston (1996-12). "Interview with Stacey Loizeaux" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ kaboom/ loizeaux. html). NOVA Online.
Public Broadcasting Service. . Retrieved 2009-04-29. "Other preparatory operations involve covering/wrapping the columns first with chain
link fence and then with geotextile fabric, which is very puncture resistant and has a very high tensile strength. It allows the concrete to move,
but it keeps the concrete from flying. The chain link catches the bigger material and the fabric catches the smaller material from flying up and
out."
[5] Richards, Davi (2006-06-02). ""Coir is sustainable alternative to peat moss in the garden"" (http:/ / extension. oregonstate. edu/ news/ story.
php?S_No=904& storyType=garde). Garden Hints. Oregon State University Extension Service. . Retrieved 2010-02-09.

Woolson, Eric (2003). "Geosynthetics in Stormwater Management" (http://www.stormh2o.com/

july-august-2003/geosynthetics-in-stormwater.aspx). Stormwater.
"Types of Geosynthetic Materials" (http://www.stormh2o.com/july-august-2003/
types-of-geosynthetic-materials-39520.aspx). Stormwater. 2003.

External links
Alberta Government site on Geotechnical and Erosion Control (http://www.infratrans.gov.ab.ca/686.htm)
Enviro Technical Systems. Installation of geotextile and geomembrane products (http://www.
envirotechnicalsystems.com)
Geotextile (http://www.texdelta.com/app/productos/productos.asp?idioma=es)

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Geomembranes

Geomembranes
Geomembranes are a kind of geosynthetic material. They are impermeable membranes used widely as cut-offs and
liners. Until recent years, geomembranes were used mostly as canal and pond liners.

Current applications
One of the largest current applications is at landfill sites for the containment of hazardous or municipal wastes and
their leachates.[1] In many of these applications geomembranes are employed with geotextile or mesh underliners
which reinforce or protect the more flexible geomembrane whilst also acting as an escape route for gases and
leachates generated in certain wastes.

Composition
Geomembranes are made of various materials. Some common geomembrane materials are EPDM rubber (ethylene
propylene diene Monomer), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Polyvinyl
Chloride (PVC), Polyurea and Polypropylene (PP). Another type of geomembrane is bituminous geomembrane (such
as Teranap), which is made up of a non-woven polyester geotextile and glass fleece, impregnated in SBS modified
bitumen.

Characteristics
Each type of geomembrane material has different characteristics which affect installation procedures, lifespan and
performance. For example, PVC geomembranes are very flexible and as a result can conform to uneven surfaces
without becoming punctured. EPDM rubber is highly flexible and has excellent UV and weathering characteristics,
but is not suitable for use in long term contact with oils and hydrocarbons. LDPE, on the other hand, is very
susceptible to UV radiation, and therefore should not be used in applications where it will be exposed or else it will
become brittle and fragile. HDPE has excellent chemical resistance, but is inflexible and suffers from environmental
stress cracking and thermal stresses.

Physical Properties/Testing
The physical material properties of geomembranes include thickness, density, water vapor transmission, solvent
vapor transmission, and melt flow index. The thickness can be measured by using a standard thickness test in which
a thickness gauge under twenty kPa is applied for five seconds. All densities for PVC and polyethylene (PE) are less
than one, so it is reasonable find the mass per unit volume instead of the density for most geomembranes. The water
vapor transmission is the amount of water that can permeate the geomembrane. The solvent vapor index is the
measurement of the flow of vapors besides water vapor through the geomembrane liner. The melt flow index is the
measurement of the fluidity of the molten geomembrane. It is measured by heating the polymer until it is liquid.
Once it has been heated, it is then pushed through a small orifice under a constant load for ten minutes. The higher
the melt flow index is, the lower the density. (Redding et al., 690)

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Geomembranes

References
Reddy, Krishna R., Sharma, Hardi D. Geoenvironmental Engineering: Site Remediation, Waste Containment, and
Emerging Waste Management Technologies. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2004.

Mechanical Properties/Testing
The mechanical properties of the geomembrane include the behavior of the membrane under a tensile load; tear,
impact, and puncture resistance; interface shear strength between geomembranes and other materials; environmental
stress cracking behavior; and shear and peal mode seam failures. The mechanical properties are some of the most
important properties to be tested due to their impact on how the geomembrane will hold up under the direct load of
municipal solid waste, or sometimes hazardous waste materials. (Redding et al., 691) The tensile testing of
geomembranes is important because it informs the experimenter the allowable tensile stress a geomembrane can be
put under before a tensile rupture occurs. A study done by Ryan Berg and Rudolph Bonaparte detail a common way
of testing tensile strength. The testing was done on polyethylene (PE) geomembranes. The procedure requires that
first a creep test is performed on the material at a variety of temperatures. Once this is complete, rupture tests are
completed and stress-rupture-time relationships can be found. From the creep and rupture tests, a derived
geomembrane stress-strain relationship can be found. Using this number, the reduction factor for chemicals, the weld
factor for seam strength, the reduction factor for installation, and the overall factor of safety, a formula is used to find
the allowable tensile stress. (301 ) Another method for performing tensile loading tests consists of using uniaxial
tests on geomembranes and literally stretching them to their tensile limit. A test similar to this was performed by
Rust, Visser, and Wesseloo. The test was performed on high density polyethylene (HDPE). Due to viscoelastic
nature of the HDPE, as the strain is increased, the strength and stiffness increased as well. The strain was then
measured by detecting the distance the specimen was stretched before failure. From here, a stress-strain relationship
can be developed using a mathematical model. (275) The interface shear strength between a geomembrane and other
materials provides important information that is needed to determine the stability analysis in the design of landfills
slopes. To perform a test on the interface shear between a geomembrane and another surface, shearing blocks are
typically used. These can apply pressure from the top and bottom to the interface surfaces. In an experiment done by
Patrick Fox and Robert Kim, the other surface used, besides the geomembrane, was a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL).
The geomembrane used was called a GMX, which is composed of very flexible polyethylene (VFPE). Testing was
done on shear blocks and at four normal stress levels. The results from this experiment provide important
characteristics of how a geomembrane constructed in the same way as a GMX would interact with a geosynthetic
clay liner. In this particular situation, the test showed a smooth transition from the start load, to the peak shear
strength, and then on to the residual shear strength on the stress-displacement relationship curve. This means the test
was of good quality and can be trusted. (Fox et al., 462) Shear strength between a geomembrane and a soil is also of
utmost importance. It is responsible for keeping the slopes of the landfill from failing and collapsing in on
themselves. One of the easiest methods of improving the shear strength at the geomembrane-soil interface is to use a
textured geomembrane instead of a non-textured geomembrane. (Fleming et al., 274) This allows the geomembrane,
in essence, to grip the soil and have a strong hold on it. The strength of this interface can be tested by placing the
soil and the geomembrane next to each other and putting normal forces on both. Once this is complete a shearing
force can be applied and measured. (Fleming et al., 276) The puncture resistance of a geomembrane is very
important. Most of the time, the geomembrane is laid directly onto the ground surface. This means if there are any
rocks, pieces of glass, metal scraps, etc. on the ground they will be directly in contact with the geomembrane. The
waste put in the landfill is also laid directly on top of the geomembrane in some cases. Waste can many times be
sharp and tough, making the geomembrane susceptible to puncture. For these reasons, the geomembrane must be
tested for puncture resistance. One such test used is called the truncated cone test. In this test, a specimen of
geomembrane is placed in a chamber and held in place by sixteen clamps. It is placed at the elevation of three
truncated cones. The chamber is then filled with water. Air pressure or water pressure is used to press the cones

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Geomembranes
through the geomembrane. A pressure valve is able to measure the pressure difference between the point right before
and right after the puncture. This is the puncture resistance measurement of the geomembrane. (Boerman et al., 483 )

References
Berg, Ryan R. Bonaparte, Rudolph. Long-Term Allowable Tensile Stresses for Polyethylene Geomembranes.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 12 (1993) : 287-306
Boerman, T.R. Conner, C.J. Stark, T.D. Technical Note: Puncture Resistance of PVC Geomembranes Using the
Truncated Cone Test. Geosynthetics International. 15.6 (2008) : 480-486
Fleming, I.R. Jogi, Fox, Patrick J. Kim, Robert H. Effect of Progressive Failure on Measured Shear Strength of
Geomembrane/GCL Interface. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 134.4 (2008) : 459-469
Rust, E. Visser, A.T. Wesseloo, J. A Mathematical Model for the Strain-Rate Dependent Stress- Strain Response of
HDPE Geomembranes. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 22 (2004) : 273-295

Endurance Properties
The thermal, chemical, and biological properties can all be categorized under the umbrella of endurance properties.
These material properties explain how well the geomembrane liner will withstand elements over time. These
elements can be such things as ultraviolet rays from the sun, which break down the compounds in the geomembranes
causing severe polymer damage. This is cause by the short wavelengths of the ultraviolet light. Chemical resistance
is an extremely important aspect as well. The liner must be able to withstand the chemicals that are part of the
leachate. Hot and cold temperatures can also affect the mechanical and physical properties of geomembrane liners.
For example, in extremely cold temperatures geomembranes become less flexible and seaming becomes more
difficult. (Redding et al., 695) The reason for the aging and degradation in the geomembrane is due to the
development of the semi-crystalline polymers into more crystal and brittle bonds as the polymers move towards
equilibrium. (Rowe et al., 78) This means that from the application perspective, the chemical resistance of the
geomembrane is the most important quality. As the geomembrane chemically breaks down, the mechanical and
physical properties all get much weaker, making the geomembrane much more susceptible to tearing and failure. To
test this, it is typical to remove a piece of geomembrane from a liner that has been withstanding normal conditions
for a number of years and run normal physical and material properties testing on it. When this was tested, it was
found that while tensile loading tests showed tensile strength increase at both the yielding point and the failure point,
both strain and tear resistance experienced a decrease. (Rowe et al., 86) Many times to test durability, tests are run on
geomembranes which were previously part of a landfill liner. This was the case with the study done by Newman and
Stark. The study took a ten year old specimen and ran tests including a tensile loading test and tear resistance test. As
with the Rowe and Sangam study, it was found that the ten year time wear on the specimen did not negatively affect
the tensile strength in any way. In the tear resistance test, there was little change. This showed that there is no impact
of plasticizer migration. (Newman et al., 103)

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Geomembranes

References
Newman, E.J. Stark, T.D. Ten Year PVC Geomembrane Durability. Geosynthetics International. 16.2 (2009) :
97-108
Rowe, R Kerry. Sangam, Henri P. Durability of HDPE Geomembranes. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 20 (2002)
: 77-95

Seaming and Seam Testing

The seaming aspect of geomembranes is as important, if not more important, than the actual properties of the
geomembrane. When a geomembrane is placed, the seams are the weakest part. For this reason, the properties of the
seams are vital in determining the total strength of the liner. There are two main types of tests: one is a destructive
test and the other is a non-destructive test. A typical destructive test is called a peel and shear test. In this, the seal is,
as the name suggests, peeled back until it shears from the attached geomembrane. A non-destructive test, unlike the
destructive test, does not permanently damage the geomembrane. It also, unfortunately, doesnt test for seam
strength. It is responsible for testing continuity and locating holes in the seam. (Redding et al., 698) Destructive
seaming is a common way for testing seams. It is critical to do because, although non-destructive testing is useful in
determining the continuity and if there are defects, destructive seam testing is the only way to get the most accurate
measurement of the seam strength and quality of the seam. There are three modes for testing seam strength: shear,
T peel, and 180 degree peel. The T peel is sometimes referred to as the 90 degree peel. Placing one end of the
seam in one set of clamps and one end in another set, the seam is effectively ripped apart and the amount of force the
sample is put under is quantified. From this number the experimenter can find both the maximum and residual stress
for the seam. (Haxo et al., 376) The more preferred way for testing seams is through non-destructive testing. This
occurs when the seam is tested but the geomembrane is not destroyed and the same geomembrane seam tested can be
used for the liner. Some common types are a vacuum test, air lance test, and pressure test. The vacuum test is
typically used on the more crystalline thermoplastic materials, such as high density polyethylene (HDPE) and linear
low density polyethylene (LLDPE). In a vacuum test, the geomembrane and seam are coated with a soapy solution.
Next whatever section is being tested is put into a vacuum box which is sealed and vacuumed. If bubbles appear on
the surface of the geomembrane seam, it means there is a leak somewhere and air is escaping from seam.
(Overmann, 418) An air lance test is also very popular and used on flexible, thermoplastic materials, such as PVC.
To perform an air lance test, a stream of air is forced through a nozzle at the end of a lance. The stream of air is
directed along the exposed edge of overlapped geomembrane material. Unbonded areas are detected as the air passes
through the defective area. (Overmann, 419) A pressurized test is yet another option, which is growing in popularity
and techniques that are available. This method can only be used on double-tracked seams. The test is performed by
first sealing both ends of the channel that is between the two tracks of the length of the seam to be tested. A rigid
needle is then inserted into one end of the seam and an air-tight seal is formed around it. (Overmann, 421) There are
a valve and a pressure gauge which are attached to the needle. The pressure that is withstood inside the seam is then
measured over time. (Overmann, 422 ) Although non-destructive tests cannot perform as well as destructive seam
tests in determining the strength of the weld, in the case of the pressurized dual seam test, the test can be said to be
almost as sufficient. When this test is completed, there is a relationship between the welded seam burst strength and
the seam peel strength. (Barroso et al., 16) This allows the seam to not be destroyed but still obtain an accurate seam
strength. Another type of common test is called the gas permeation pouch test. To perform this test, gas is
pressurized in the gap between the two seams on a geomembrane. An analysis of the rate of the depressurization of
the gas between the two seams will give a time constant of change. This can be used to determine the shear strength
of the seam. Although this test is extremely accurate, it cannot replace the mechanical tests for seams, for example,
the peel test. (Barroso et al., 20)

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Geomembranes

References
Barroso, M. Pierson, P. Lopes, M.G. A Non-Destructive Method for Testing Non-Flexible Dual Geomembrane
Seams Using Gas Permeation. Geosynthetics International. 13.1 (2006) : 15-22
Haxo, Jr, Henry E. Kamp, Lawrence C. Destructive Testing of Geomembrane Seams: Shear and Peel Testing of
Seam Strength. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 9 (1990) : 369-395
Overmann, Leo K. Geomembrane Seam and Nondestructive Tests: Construction Quality Control (CQC)
Perspective. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 9 (1990) : 415-429

Notes
[1] Kodikara J. (2000) "Analysis of tension development in geomembranes placed on landfill slopes" Geotextiles and Geomembranes Volume
18, pp. 47-61(15) (http:/ / openurl. ingenta. com/ content?genre=article& issn=0266-1144& volume=18& issue=1& spage=47& epage=61)

Geosynthetic clay liner

A geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) is a woven fabric like material primarily used for the lining of landfills. It is a kind
of geomembrane and geosynthetic which incorporates a bentonite or other clay, which has a very low hydraulic
conductivity. The resulting lower permeability slows the rate of seepage out of the landfill. Due to environmental
laws, any seepage from landfills must be collected and properly disposed of, otherwise contamination of the
surrounding ground water could cause major environmental and/or ecological problems. The lower the hydraulic
conductivity the more effective the GCL will be at retaining seepage inside of the landfill. Bentonite composed
predominantly (>70%) of Montmorillonite or other expansive clays, are preferred and most commonly used in
GCLs. A general GCL construction would consist of two layers of geosynthetics stitched together enclosing a layer
of processed sodium bentonite. Typically woven and/or non-woven textile geosynthetics are used, however
polyethylene or geomembrane layers or geogrid geotextiles materials have also been incorporated into the design or
in place of a textile layer to increase strength.GCLs are produced by several large companies in North America,
Europe and Asia. The United States Environmental Protection Agency currently regulates landfill construction and
design in the US through several legislations.

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Cellular confinement

Cellular confinement
Cellular Confinement Systems (CCS, also known as geocells) are widely used in construction for erosion control,
soil stabilization on flat ground and steep slopes, channel protection, and structural reinforcement for load support
and earth retention. Typical cellular confinement systems are made with ultrasonically-welded high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) or other polymeric alloy strips that are expanded on-site to form a honeycomb-like structure
which may be filled with sand, soil, rock or concrete.[1] [2]

History of Cellular Confinement

Research and development of cellular confinement systems (CCS) began with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in
September1975 to test the feasibility of constructing tactical bridge approach roads over soft ground.[3] Engineers
discovered that sand-confinement systems performed better than conventional crushed stone sections. They
concluded that a sand-confinement system could be developed that would provide an expedient construction
technique for building approach roads over soft ground and that the system would not be adversely affected by wet
weather conditions. [4] [5] These early efforts led to the civilian commercialization of the product by the Presto
Products Company.[6] to produce the first cellular confinement system from high density polyethylene (HDPE) that
was light weight, strong and durable.[7] This new cellular confinement system was used first for load support
applications in the United States in the early 1980s; second for slope erosion control and channel lining in the United
States in 1984 and; third for earth retention in Canada in 1986. Research on cellular confinement in these application
areas also started during the 1980s.[8] [9] [10] [11]
Research by Drs. Bathurst and Jarrett discovered that cellular confinement reinforced gravel bases are equivalent to
about twice the thickness of unreinforced gravel bases when placed over a saturated peat sub-base. Further,
1.25mm (50 mil) HDPE performed better than single sheet reinforcement schemes (geotextiles and geogrids) and
was more effective in reducing lateral spreading of the infill material under loading than conventional reinforced
bases.[12] In terms of the effectiveness of confinement, geocells have more attractive features due to its 3D structure
than any other planar geosynthetic reinforcement.[13] Since this early work, the results of large-scale triaxial test on
isolated geocells has demonstrated that cellular confinement imparts apparent cohesion to cohesionless compacted
granular material on the order of 169kPa - 190kPa (3500psf - 4000psf).[14] Cellular confinement systems are now
recognized as an important technology when applied to load support (Webster, 1986 and Bathurst & Jarrett, 1988)
under roads and rail lines, gravity and reinforced earth retaining wall systems (Crowe, Bathurst & Alston, 1989),
(Bathurst, Crowe & Zehaluk, 1993),[15] slope stabilization and erosion control, channel lining systems (Engel,P. &
Flato,G. 1987) (Simons, Li & Associates, 1988) (Wu & Austin, 1992) and other innovative uses.

From HDPE to new polymeric alloys

While traditional HDPE based geocells deform plastically over time, raising questions about their effectiveness for
long-term reinforcement, geocells from advanced polymeric alloys can provide the long term stiffness and
confinement to enable new, critical applications.[16] R&D for example by PRS[17] on cellular confinement systems
has focused on the development of advanced polymeric alloys that possess exponentially higher fatigue limits and
resistance to environmental factors, particularly high temperatures. Such properties expand the long-term design
strength and safety factors of these geocells well beyond those made of HDPE, thereby aligning their performance
and durability for load application and civil engineering applications.[18] More predictable and reliable performance
is driving the market transition of cellular confinement systems from traditional slope stabilization and channel
protection applications to heavy load support applications in paved and unpaved roads, rails, ports and platforms.

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Cellular confinement

How it works
A Cellular Confinement System when infilled with compacted soil creates a new composite entity that possesses
enhanced mechanical and geotechnical properties. When the soil contained within a geocell is subjected to pressure,
it causes lateral stresses on perimeter cell walls. The 3D zone of confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil
particles while vertical loading on the contained infill results in high lateral stress and resistance on the cell-soil
interface. These increase the shear strength of the confined soil, which:

Creates a stiff mattress or slab to distribute the load over a wider area
Reduces punching of soft soil
Increases shear resistance and bearing capacity
Decreases deformation

Confinement from adjacent cells provides additional resistance against the loaded cell through passive resistance,
while lateral expansion of the infill is restricted by high hoop strength. Compaction is maintained by the confinement
resulting in long term reinforcement.

Load Support
Cellular Confinement Systems (CCS) have been used to improve the performance of both paved and unpaved roads
by reinforcing the soil in the subgrade-base interface or within the base course. The effective load distribution of
CCS creates a strong, stiff cellular mattress. This 3D mattress reduces vertical differential settlement into soft
subgrades, improves shear strength, and enhances load-bearing capacity, while reducing the amount of aggregate
material required to extend the service life of roads. As a composite system, cellular confinement strengthens the
aggregate infill, thereby simultaneously enabling the use of poorly graded inferior material (e.g. local native soils,
quarry waste or recycled materials) for infill as well as reducing the structural support layer thickness. Typical load
support applications include reinforcement of base and subbase layers in flexible pavements, including: asphalt
pavements; unpaved access, service and haul roads; railway substructure and ballast confinement; working platforms
in intermodal ports; airport runways and aprons, permeable pavements; pipeline road support; green parking
facilities and emergency access areas.

Slope and Channel Protection

The three-dimensional lateral confinement of CCS along with anchoring techniques ensures the long-term stability
of slopes using vegetated topsoil, aggregate or concrete surfacing (if exposed to severe mechanical and hydraulic
pressures). The enhanced drainage, frictional forces and cell-soil-plant interaction of CCS prevents downslope
movement and limits the impact of raindrops, channeling and hydraulic shear stresses. The perforations in the 3D
cells allow the passage of water, nutrients and soil organisms. This encourages plant growth and root interlock,
which further stabilizes the slope and soil mass, and facilitates landscape rehabilitation. Typical applications include:
construction cut and fill slopes and stabilization; road and rail embankments; pipeline stabilization and storage
facility berms; quarry and mine site restoration; channel and coastline structures.

Earth Retention
CCS systems provide steep vertical mechanically stabilized earth structures (either gravity or reinforced walls) for
steep faces, walls and irregular topography. Construction of CCS earth retention is simiplified as each layer is
structurally sound thereby providing access for equipment and workers, while eliminating the need for concrete
formwork and curing. Local soil can be used for infill, while the outer faces enable a green fascia of the horizontal
terraces/rows. In addition research by Leshchinsky, D. (2009) has demonstrated superior seismic stability of CCS
systems in earthquake simulation tests.[19]

235

Cellular confinement

Reservoirs and landfills

CCS provides membrane liner protection, while creating stable soil, berms and slopes, for non-slip protection and
durable impoundment of liquids and waste. Infill treatment depends on the contained materials: concrete for ponds
and reservoirs; gravel for landfill drainage and leachates, vegetated infill for landscape rehabilitation. Concrete work
is efficient and controlled as CCS functions as ready-made forms; CCS with concrete forms a flexible slab that
accommodates minor subgrade movement and prevents cracking. In medium and low flow-velocities, CCS with
geomembranes and gravel cover can be used to create impermeable channels, thereby eliminating the need for
concrete.

Sustainable Construction
CCS is a green solution that makes civil infrastructure projects more sustainable. In load support applications, by
reducing the amount and type of infill needed to reinforce soil, the usage of haul and earthmoving equipment is
reduced. This in turn decreases fuel use, pollution and the carbon footprint, and at the same time minimizes on-site
disruption from dust, erosion and runoff. When used for slope applications, perforated geocells provides excellent
soil protection, water drainage and growth stratum for plants. The long-term design life of advanced CCS technology
means that maintenance and the associated environmental costs are significantly reduced, as are long-term economic
costs.

Research
In the field and laboratory tests, CCS has proven to significantly increase the lifetime of the pavement and decrease
road and railway substructure maintenance. Research on cellular confinement in these application areas focused on
three ways: 1) use of triaxial or resilient modulus cells to investigate the confinement effect on apparent cohesion or
reducing plastic deformation; 2) the use of laboratory model tests to investigate the reinforcement effect on bearing
capacity and reducing settlement under static or dynamic loading; and 3) full-scale trafficking tests to investigate the
overall effect, as reducing rut depth and prolonging road life. An extensive review of existing literature on 26 CCS
research studies including triaxial compression tests, laboratory model tests, and field tests, researchers concluded
that: 1) Geocell reinforced bases always performed better than unreinforced bases with the same thickness in terms
of the bearing capacity under static and repeated loading; 2) Proper tensile and seam strengths are needed for
geocells to provide effective reinforcement. Geocells made of high strength materials typically had higher bearing
capacity; 3) There exist optimum values of the geocell height/width ratio and the loading area width/geocell width
ratio; 4) Geocells showed excellent performance as compared with 2D planar reinforcement; 5) High-quality infill
materials yield high bearing capacity of geocell-reinforced bases.[20]

References
[1] State of California Department of Transportation, Division of Environmental Analysis, Stormwater Program. Sacramento, CA. "Cellular
Confinement System Research." (http:/ / www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ env/ stormwater/ pdf/ CTSW-RT-06-137-20-1. pdf) 2006.
[2] Managing Degraded Off-Highway Vehicle Trails in Wet, Unstable, and Sensitive Environments (http:/ / www. fhwa. dot. gov/ download/ hep/
fspubs/ pdf02232821. pdf), US Department of Agriculture in conjunction with USDOT, Federal Highway Administration. Page 28. October
2002.
[3] Webster, S.L. & Watkins J.E. 1977, Investigation of Construction Techniques for Tactical Bridge Approach Roads Across Soft Ground. Soils
and Pavements Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report S771,
September 1977.
[4] Webster, S.L. 1979, Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Reinforcement
Concepts - Report 1, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical
Report GL7920, November 1979.
[5] Webster, S.L. 1981, Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Reinforcement
Concepts - Report 2, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical
ReportGL7920(2), February1981

236

Cellular confinement
[6] Prestogeo.com (http:/ / www. prestogeo. com)
[7] Webster, S.L. 1986, Sand-Grid Demonstration Roads Constructed for JLOTS II Tests at Fort Story, Virginia, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical ReportGL8619, November1986.
[8] Engel, P. & Flato, G. 1987, Flow Resistance and Critical Flow Velocities for GEOWEB Erosion Control System, Research and Applications
Branch - National Water Research Institute Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario, Canada, March 1987
[9] Simons, Li & Associates, 1988, Full Scale Hydraulic Studies of GEOWEB Grid Confinement System for Minimizing Embankment Damage
During Overtopping Flows, Report to Presto Products Co., February 1988
[10] Bathurst, R.J, Crowe, R.E. & Zehaluk, A.C. 1993, Geosynthetic Cellular Confinement Cells for Gravity Retaining Wall - Richmond Hill,
Ontario, Canada, Geosynthetic Case Histories, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, March 1993, pp.
266-267
[11] Crowe, R.E., Bathurst, R.J. & Alston, C. 1989, Design and Construction of a Road Embankment Using Geosynthetics, Proceedings of the
42nd Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Winnipeg, Manitoba, October 1989, pp. 266271
[12] Bathurst, R.J. & Jarrett, P.M. 1988, Large-Scale Model Tests of Geocomposite Mattresses Over Peat Subgrades, Transportation Research
Record 1188 - Effects of Geosynthetics on Soil Properties and of Environment on Pavement Systems, Transportation Research Board, 1988,
pp. 2836
[13] Yuu, J., Han, J., Rosen, A., Parsons, R. L., Leshchinsky, D. (2008), Technical Review of Geocell-Reinforced Base Courses over Weak
Subgrade, The First Pan American Geosynthetics Conference & Exhibition proceedings (GeoAmericas), Appendix VII, Cancun, Mexico
[14] Bathurst, R.J. & Karpurapu, R. 1993, Large-Scale Triaxial Compression Testing of Geocell-Reinforced Granular Soils, Geotechnical
Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 16, No. 3, September 1993, pp. 296303
[15] Bathurst, R.J. & Crowe, R.E. 1993, Recent Case Histories of Flexible Geocell Retaining Walls in North America, International Symposium
on Recent Case Histories of Permanent Geosynthetic-Reinforces Soil Retaining Walls, Tokyo, Japan, November 199
[16] Leshchinksy, D. (2009) Research and Innovation: Seismic Performance of Various Geocell Earth-retention Systems, Geosysnthetics, No.
27, No. 4, 46-52
[17] PRS-med.com (http:/ / www. prs-med. com)
[18] Kief, O., and Rajagopal, K. (2008) Three Dimensional Cellular Confinement System Contribution to Structural Pavement Reinforcement.
Geosynthetics India 08, Hyderabad, India
[19] Leshchinksy, D. (2009) Research and Innovation: Seismic Performance of Various Geocell Earth-retention Systems, Geosysnthetics, No.
27, No. 4, 46-52
[20] Yuu, J., Han, J., Rosen, A., Parsons, R. L., Leshchinsky, D. (2008), Technical Review of Geocell-Reinforced Base Courses over Weak
Subgrade, The First Pan American Geosynthetics Conference & Exhibition proceedings (GeoAmericas), Appendix VII, Cancun, Mexico

237

238

Instrumentation for Stability Monitoring

Deformation monitoring
Deformation monitoring (also referred to as Deformation survey) is the systematic measurement and tracking of
the alteration in the shape or dimensions of an object as a result of the application of stress to it. Deformation
monitoring is a major component of logging measured values that may be used to for further computation,
deformation analysis, predictive maintenance and alarming.[1]
Deformation monitoring is primarily related to the field of applied surveying, but may be also related to the civil
engineering, mechanical engineering, plant construction, soil and rock sta-bility mechanics.
The causes for deformation monitoring are changes in the bedrock, increase or decrease of weight, changes of the
material properties or outside influences.
The used measuring devices (1) for a deformation monitoring depend on the application (2), the chosen method
(3) and the required regularity (4).

Measuring devices
Measuring devices (or sensors) can be sorted in two main groups, geodetic and geotechnical sensors. Both measuring
devices can be seamlessly combined in modern deformation monitoring.
Geodetic measuring devices measure georeferenced displacements or movements in one, two or three
dimensions. It includes the use of instruments such as total stations, levels and global navigation satellite system
receivers.
Geotechnical measuring devices measure non-georeferenced displacements or movements and related
environmental effects or conditions. It includes the use of instruments such as extensometers, piezometers, rain
gauges, thermometers, barometers, tilt meters, accelerometers, seismometers etc. Or refer to geotechnical sensors
for more detail.
Other techniques e.g. radar measuring devices.

Application
Deformation monitoring can be required for the following applications:

Dams
Roads
Tunnels
Bridges and Viaducts
High-rise and historical buildings
Foundations
Construction sites
Mining
Landslide and Volcanoes Slopes
Settlement areas

Earthquake areas

Deformation monitoring

Methods
Deformation monitoring can be made manually or automatically.
Manual deformation monitoring is the operation of sensors or instruments by hand for the purpose of
deformation monitoring.
An automatic deformation monitoring system is a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent software
and hardware elements forming a complex whole for deformation monitoring that, once set up, does not require
human input to function.
Note that deformation analysis and interpretation of the data collected by the monitoring system is not included in
this definition. An automatic monitoring system may be used for periodic or continuous monitoring.

Regularity and scheduling

The monitoring regularity and time interval of the measurements must be considered depending on the application
and object to be monitored. Objects can undergo both rapid, high frequency movement and slow, gradual movement.
For example, a bridge might oscillates with a period of a few seconds due to the influence of traffic and wind and
also be shifting gradually due to tectonic changes.
Regularity: ranges from a days, weeks or years for manual monitoring and continuous for automatic monitoring
systems.
Measurement interval: ranges from fractions of a second to hours.

Risk management
Deformation monitoring systems provide a proactive control of a hazard related to possible change or failure of a
structure. Policyholders can reduce risk exposure before and during construction and throughout the lifecycle of the
structure and hence decrease the insurance premium. Refer to Risk Management for more detail.

References
[1] Literature, Edited by J.F.A Moore (1992). Monitoring Building Structures. Blackie and Son Ltd. ISBN 0-216-93141-X, USA and Canada
ISBN 0-442-31333-0

Literature, B. Glisic and D. Inaudi (2008). Fibre Optic Methods for Structural Health Monitoring. Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-470-06142-8
Literature, John Dunnicliff (1988,1993). Geotechnical Instrumentation For Monitoring Field Performance.
Wiley. ISBN 0-471-00546-0

See also

Automatic deformation monitoring system

Deformation Survey
Engineering Geology
SAA - ShapeAccelArray
Slope stability
Structural health monitoring

239

Deformation monitoring

Further reading
Engineering and Design - Structural Deformation Surveying (http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/
eng-manuals/em1110-2-1009/toc.htm)
Competence center for engineering and surveying - Literature (http://www.cces.de/index.php?id=134&L=5)
Geodtische Netze in Landes- und Ingenieurvermessung II, Prof.Dr.-Ing. Hans Pelzer, Konrad Wittwer, 1985

External links
Canary Systems (http://www.canarysystems.com)
FIG Commission 6 - deformation monitoring, analysis and interpretation (http://www.fig.net/commission6/
index.htm)
Global Infrastructure Surveys (http://www.globalsurveys.com.au/)
GNSS/GPS/LPS based Online Control and Alarmsystem (GOCA) "Geodetic monitoring system" (http://www.
goca.info)
GroundProbe Slope Stability Radar (http://www.groundprobe.com/slopestability.html)
Leica Geosystems Monitoring Solutions (http://www.leica-geosystems.com/en/
Products-Monitoring-Systems_4211.htm)
Topcon DC3 Monitoring System (http://www.topcon-positioning.eu/index.
asp?pageid=2d4fabc1ae4b475ca1639edf732011c6)
Position-Control GmbH > liquid levelling monitoring systems > Web based monitoring (http://www.
position-control.de)
Trimble and Trimble 4D Control Monitoring Solutions (http://www.trimble.com/survey/trimble4dcontrol.
aspx)

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

An automatic deformation monitoring system is a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent software and
hardware elements forming a complex whole for deformation monitoring that, once set up, does not require human
input to function. Automatic deformation monitoring systems provide a critical function for the customer. In many
cases an automatic deformation monitoring system saved lives and prevented the loss of millions of dollars in
infrastructure and income.

Automatic deformation monitoring system components

Automatic deformation monitoring systems include:

Consulting
Sensors
Communication
Data acquisition software and data management
Deformation analysis

240

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

241

Consulting
The consulting of the automatic deformation monitoring system covers a number of service activities that range from
the first on site visit to sound out the situation and collect the requirements to the detailed project engineering with
the selection of a suitable combination of measuring devices, mounting, power, communications, data center location
and data acquisition software to the installation, operation and maintenance of the system.

Sensors
To cover all applications an automatic deformation monitoring system
must support any geodetic and geotechnical measuring device (sensor)
that is required by the monitoring application.
Geodetic measuring devices measure georeferenced displacements
or movements in one, two or three dimensions. It includes the use of
instruments such as total stations, levels and global navigation
satellite system receivers.
Geotechnical measuring devices measure non-georeferenced
displacements or movements and related environmental effects or
conditions. It includes the use of instruments such as extensometers,
piezometers, rain gauges, thermometers, barometers, tilt meters,
accelerometers, seismometers etc. Or refer to geotechnical sensors
for more detail.

A standard geodetic monitoring instrument in the

Freeport open pit mine, Indonesia

Other techniques e.g. radar measuring devices.

Communication
Between measuring devices and the data acquisition software a broad
range of communication alternatives are possible depending range,
data rate and cost.
Transmission cable (RS232, RS485, fiber optics)
Local area network (LAN)

GNSS reference station antenna for structural

monitoring of the Jiangying Bridge

Wireless LAN (WLAN)

Mobile communication (GSM, GPRS, UMTS)
WiMax

Data acquisition software including data management

The software is the heart of the monitoring system because of its key roles in acquiring data from the attached
sensors, computing meaningful values from the measurements, recording results, visualising the changes and
alarming responsible persons should threshold value be exceeded. Whilst the software is the heart of the system, the
operator is always the brains because they have the sufficient skills and expertise to make considered decisions on
the appropriate response to the movement, e.g. independent verification though on-site inspections, re-active controls
such as structural repairs and emergency responses such as shut down processes, containment processes and site
evacuation.

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

Deformation analysis
Deformation analysis is concerned with determining of a measured displacement is statistically significant. The
analysis can be done visually through the use of time line, scatter, vector and other plots and numerically. Numerical
deformation analysis is directly related to the science of network adjustment.

References
Literature, Edited by J.F.A Moore (1992). Monitoring Building Structures. Blackie and Son Ltd. ISBN
0-216-93141-X, USA and Canada ISBN 0-442-31333-0
Literature, B. Glisic and D. Inaudi (2008). Fibre Optic Methods for Structural Health Monitoring. Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-470-06142-8

Papers & Examples of automatic deformation monitoring systems

2009
North Americas Largest Copper Mine, Automated Mine Monitoring Integrated System (http://www.
canarysystems.com/pdfs/canary_pp22.pdf)
2008
The use of Slope Stability Radar (SSR) in managing Slope Instability Hazards, AusIMM Bulletin,
January/February 2008 (http://www.groundprobe.com/docs/NealHarries_JanFeb08Bulletin.pdf)
2007
FIG 2007 - Application of Automatic Deformation Monitoring System for Hong Kong KSL Railway
Monitoring (http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2007/papers/ts_1f/ts01f_02_tang_etal_1326.pdf)
The American Surveyor (Oct 2007) - 24/7 Structural Monitoring (http://www.amerisurv.com/PDF/
TheAmericanSurveyor_Speed-StructuralMonitoring_October2007.pdf)
Professional Surveyor Magazine (Oct 2007) - Unmanned and Secure (http://portal.leicaus.com/
enewsletters/enews2.9/UnmannedOct07.pdf)
Monitoring of Open Pit Mines using Combined GNSS Satellite Receivers and Robotic Total Stations (http://
www.leica-geosystems.com/common/shared/downloads/inc/downloader.asp?id=8542)
FIG 2007 - Continuous Beam Deflection Monitoring Using Precise Inclinometers (http://www.fig.net/pub/
fig2007/papers/ts_2f/ts02f_02_vancranenbroeck_1328.pdf)
Safety and Financial Value Created by Good Slope Management Strategies and Tactics (http://www.ausimm.
com.au/paperdetails.php?PaperID=2689)
Deformation monitoring system protects personnel and structures through early detection (http://www.
acppubs.com/article/CA6452957.html)
Engineering Solutions with Trimble 4D Control, Trimble Survey Controller, Trimble S8 Total Station White
Paper, Trimble 2007 (http://trl.trimble.com/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-400065/
WhitePaper_4D_Control_Software-Tunnels_and_Monitoring_English.pdf)
2006
Sunshine Skyway Bridge (http://www.gobridges.com/article.asp?id=319)
The American Surveyor (Spring 2006) - Robots Survey Dulles Tunnels (http://www.leica-geosystems.com/
common/shared/downloads/inc/downloader.asp?id=6441)
FIG 2006 - Driving Burj Dubai Core Walls With An Advanced Data Fusion System (https://www.fig.net/
commission6/baden_2006/PDF/OC/VanCranenbroeck.pdf)
Survey Slope Stability Monitoring Lessons from Venetia Diamond Mine (http://www.saimm.co.za/events/
0604rockslopes/downloads/361-374_Jooste.pdf)
2005

242

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

Advances in RTK and Post Processed Monitoring with Single Frequency GPS (http://www.leica-geosystems.
com/common/shared/downloads/inc/downloader.asp?id=8543)
2004
FIG 2004 - Networking Motorized Total Stations and GPS Receivers for Deformation Measurements (http://
www.fig.net/pub/athens/papers/ts16/TS16_2_Cranenbroeck_Brown.pdf)
Leica GPS Spider for Deformation Monitoring (http://www.fig.net/nottingham/proc/gs_07_cranenbroeck.
pdf)
Nachweis von Turmbewegungen mit einem Multisensorsystem (http://www.iv2004.ethz.ch/programm/
Session/S_08_IV2004.pdf)
2003
Flotron AG Chebalmtunnel A8, Iseltwald (BE) (http://www.messwerte.ch/beispiel/)
2001
Monitoring Hong Kong's Bridges Real-Time Kinematic Spans The Gap (http://sc.gpsworld.com/gpssc/
article/articleDetail.jsp?id=308346)
FIG 2001 - Modern Monitoring System Software Development (http://rincon.gps.caltech.edu/FIG10sym/
pdf/Session III_Paper 2.pdf)

Companies that are providing automatic deformation monitoring systems

CPG Laboratories Pte Ltd (http://www.cpglabs.com.sg/)

Canary Systems (http://www.canarysystems.com)
FT Laboratories Ltd. > Surveying Division > Web based ADMS (http://www.ft.com.hk)
Global Infrastructure Surveys Pty Ltd (http://globalsurveys.com.au/)
GNSS/LPS based Online Control and Alarm System and Software (GOCA) (http://www.goca.info)
GroundProbe Slope Stability Radar (http://www.groundprobe.com/slopestability.html)
IDS Ingegneria dei Sistemi Spa Interferometric Radars (http://www.idscompany.it/page.php?f=118&
id_div=4)
Leica GeoMoS Automatic Deformation Monitoring Software (http://www.leica-geosystems.com/en/
Monitoring-Systems-Leica-GeoMoS_4802.htm)
Measurand Inc Unattended 3D Slope Monitoring (http://www.measurandgeotechnical.com)
Monitoring Solution Providers Pte Ltd (http://www.mspsystem.com/)
Position-Control GmbH > liquid levelling monitoring systems > Web based monitoring (http://www.
position-control.de)
Reutech Radar Systems (http://www.rrs.co.za/products/mininghome.html)
Roctest Integrated Structural Health Monitoring systems (http://www.roctest.com)
SMARTEC: Fiber Optic Deformation monitoring systems (http://www.smartec.ch)
Softrock Solutions, Monitoring Specialists (http://www.softrock.com.au)
SolData, Monitoring Specialists (http://www.soldatagroup.com)
Topcon DC3 Monitoring System (http://www.topcon-positioning.eu/index.
asp?pageid=2d4fabc1ae4b475ca1639edf732011c6)
Trimble 4D Control (http://www.trimble.com/survey/trimble4dcontrol.aspx)
Wisescan Engineering Service Pte Ltd (http://www.wisescan.com/home)

243

Automatic Deformation Monitoring System

See also
Deformation monitoring

External links
Polyscope10/07 Drahtlos kommunizieren (http://www.netmodule.com/store/publications/
Drahtlos_kommunizieren.pdf)

244

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

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Abeautifulangel1990, Abeg92, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Academic Challenger, Acroterion, Addshore, AdjustShift, Adr1an2407, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajaxjt,
Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alec.N, Alex56780, Alexey61, Alexf, AlexiusHoratius, Algebraist, Alice1869, All Is One, Allophane, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Anclation, Andonic, Andycjp,
Andyforsleff, Angr, Angrysockhop, Animum, Anlace, AnmaFinotera, Antandrus, Antarticstargate, Anthere, Apothecia, Arabhorse, Arakunem, Areet, Arekku, Arthena, AstroHurricane001,
Autocracy, Avoided, AxelBoldt, BAT2009B, BOARshevik, Baguio, Baldhur, Basar, Battlemonk, BaxterG4, Bencherlite, Bettymnz4, Bihco, Bikeable, Billymay123, BlastOButter42, Blehfu,
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will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Carlroller, Charliecloudraiser'smummymags, ChiragPatnaik, Chiton magnificus, Chrislk02, Closedmouth, Cngodles, Cohesion,
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Gogo Dodo, Goodnightmush, Gozar, Graham87, Gravitan, Grayshi, Grey Shadow, Grim23, Gscshoyru, Gsmgm, Guanaco, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gutsul, Gwernol, Gkhan, H, H2O, Hagerman,
Hairhorn, HairyPerry, HamburgerRadio, HappyArtichoke, Happyjosh, Hardyplants, Hcheney, Helix84, Hellswarrior, Hemidemisemiquaver, Henning Makholm, Heron, Heyy12345678910,
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Thixotropy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394358314 Contributors: 777sms, Alan Canon, Alekjds, Alex Bakharev, Angelpeream, Angrense, Axl, BAxelrod, Ballista,
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Dougher, Duk, EvilSuggestions, Firien, Flowingaa, Gadlen, GeoGreg, Gioto, Grahn, Heron, Hooperbloob, IanBallard, Jag123, Janke, Jim Swenson, Jpgordon, Julesd, Kal1917, Keilana, Keith D,
Kosebamse, Leon II, Livingdeaddolls, Lswartz, Mac Davis, Martarius, Matt Gies, Mdotley, Meisam, Monado, Ojb500, Onco p53, Paleorthid, Peterlewis, PlantTrees, Sadalmelik, Septegram,
Skittle, Skylights76, Sonett72, Spiritia, StephanCom, TechnoFaye, Togo, Wavelength, Ziggurat, Zuejay, 82 anonymous edits
Reynolds' dilatancy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=260276504 Contributors: Basar, Flex, Sand777
Angle of repose Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=400433987 Contributors: Agrasa, Androstachys, Andycjp, Auntof6, Basar, Bhumiya, Biblbroks, BullRangifer, Campingcar,
Captain Sprite, Cobblet, Craig Pemberton, DerHerrMigo, Eruditorum, Fubar Obfusco, Gamaliel, Hare, Ike9898, Jay1279, Jwy, KGasso, Keith D, Lambda dog, Light current, LilHelpa, Lordnobin,
Lowellian, MamaGeek, Mathias-S, Mejor Los Indios, Mgarg1994, Mistersumner, Moink, Nabarry, Neurodoc, Novangelis, Sam Hocevar, Seth Ilys, Shai-kun, SiloCleaner, Storm Rider,
Teratornis, The Interior, Thrapper, TimBentley, Underpants, Unint, Vrenator, Wilson44691, Wizard191, Ziggy Sawdust, 45 anonymous edits
Cohesion (geology) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=350081231 Contributors: Basar, Bwpach, Carlos Rogrio Santana, Mejor Los Indios, Spacemika, 8 anonymous edits
Porosity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401475693 Contributors: 16@r, 21655, Aitias, AlWehrmann, Alansohn, Alias Flood, Anonymous Dissident, ArcAngel, Barath77,
Basar, Beagel, Beccarosehorganx, Berland, Biederman, Bobo192, BorisG, CalumH93, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Carlos Rogrio Santana, Causa sui, Cfailde, Cferrero,
Closedmouth, Cone, Connormah, Courcelles, DA3N, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Daniel Collins, DerHexer, Dtrebbien, Editore99, Elminster, Epbr123, Fabiform, Fryed-peach, Gaius Cornelius, Gene
Nygaard, Gogo Dodo, Grafen, Gkhan, Halogenated, HenHei, Heron, Hi.ro, Inwind, IronMan54, J.delanoy, Jmaster411, Jsgraber, Jstuby, KrisK, Lilac Soul, Luiz.bortolan, Magister
Mathematicae, Mak cranelly, Malcolma, ManN, Mani1, Marek69, Markadampeirano, Massestephanie, MatLab, Mdhowe, Merlion444, Michael Hardy, MichaelS82, Midgrid, Mikenorton, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Mwtoews, Natural Cut, NawlinWiki, Nenya17, Nneonneo, Nsaa, Omid Parto, Paleorthid, Pgk, Pinethicket, Rcnh, RedWolf, Rjwilmsi, Ron.swonger, Rsmithr, Ryan Roos, Ryk,
Sciurin, Shiladityapaul, Shinkolobwe, Slashme, Stan J Klimas, Suwa, Tarquin, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, Therefore, Thingg, Tomeasy, Towel401, Ufwuct, VBGFscJUn3,
Versus22, Vsmith, Woohookitty, Ysangkok, 183 anonymous edits

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Permeability (earth sciences) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387615812 Contributors: 777niceweather777, Argyriou, Basar, Berland, Brady8, Ciphers, Ck lostsword,
Closedmouth, Codairem, DabMachine, Ekojnoekoj, Enochlau, Euryalus, GeoGreg, Greatgavini, GregBenson, Grimey109, Jcallen78, Jtslm, KrisK, L-H, Lantonov, Mattisse, Mikenorton,
Mwtoews, Nikai, No Guru, One Salient Oversight, Paleorthid, Rlsheehan, Sargefam6usa, Scheinwerfermann, Sodapop12, Springnuts, Stan J Klimas, Steven J. Anderson, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Ufwuct, Vsmith, 52 anonymous edits
Specific storage Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394531027 Contributors: Basar, Edward, Fuhghettaboutit, KrisK, Lacshoet, Look2See1, Mais oui!, Mwtoews, Paleorthid,
25 anonymous edits
Soil mechanics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404511108 Contributors: 5d7ygtr09h, Ahmedmz, Alpha 4615, Argyriou, Bantab, Basar, Blake-, Blanchardb, Blkutter,
Bobo192, Bobobo2134, ChrisCork, Docu, Dominic, DonJor, Edward, Finn Krogstad, Franz76, GeoJuggler, Gimboid13, Giraffedata, GoingBatty, Haseeb Jamal, Henner78, Huw Powell,
KaiKemmann, Karrock, KatieDOM, King cheng, Koavf, KrisK, Lieiro, Ling Kah Jai, Lkinkade, Matticus78, Michael Hardy, Milyle, Munasharma, Musser, Mwtoews, NewEnglandYankee,
OLDSKLCHEVY, Ozcep, Pak umrfrq, Paleorthid, Piano non troppo, Pinkadelica, Professor A.N. Schofield, Qwfp, RazorICE, Rjwilmsi, Robert, Robsavoie, RookZERO, SD5, Sanpaz,
Shirimasen, Shustov, Sleepychap, Smalljim, Sonett72, Sopranosmob781, TVBZ28, Triddle, Velho, WikHead, YK Times, Zeizmic, Zuejay, , 174 anonymous edits
Effective stress Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=358739313 Contributors: Bargle567, Barticus88, Basar, Casper Gutman, Chas1964, DabMachine, Edward, Knatterton, NJ,
Regibox, Zeizmic, 5 anonymous edits
Pore water pressure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402483154 Contributors: Annelid, Aquarius ho2, Basar, Caffeinecruise, CyrilThePig, Mkcas, Mwtoews, NJ,
Nickcampbell18, Paleorthid, Pascal666, Rjwilmsi, S0me l0ser, Sonett72, Ufwuct, 6 anonymous edits
Shear strength (soil) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403972151 Contributors: Aaron north, Basar, Beetstra, Blkutter, Diannaa, Efischer80, Elockid, FelisLeo, GeoEng,
Jankar68, Koavf, Mejor Los Indios, Nonexistant User, Pathikoll, Sanpaz, V3nnus, Voyagerfan5761, Wknight94, Zuejay, 88 anonymous edits
Overburden pressure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=338942848 Contributors: Basar, Bramfab, C777, Carmen56, Cferrero, Chris Capoccia, Dthomsen8, Lir, Musser,
NatureA16, Olivier, RegRCN, Tedernst, Vsmith, 8 anonymous edits
Consolidation (soil) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403207408 Contributors: Anbihik, Basar, Blkutter, Chrismcclelland, Crookesmoor, Edward, Harryway, Kimura Aichi,
Koavf, Mejor Los Indios, Neelix, NellieBly, Nseepaul, Paleorthid, Pinethicket, Rolinator, Sanpaz, Sjhan81, Toiyabe, Ufwuct, 27 anonymous edits
Soil compaction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=370920233 Contributors: Alansohn, Angilbas, Argyriou, Atubeileh, Basar, CZmarlin, Debresser, EagleFan, Fleebo, IRP,
John D. Croft, Kappa, Leonard G., Life of Riley, LorenzoB, Malcolma, Neilc, Paleorthid, Pinethicket, Rogerhc, Scapler, Speciate, Sumivec, Tigersbplayer14, Woohookitty, 35 anonymous edits
Soil classification Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399185055 Contributors: Altenmann, Argyriou, Aunt Entropy, Basar, Bjarki S, Csensene, Eh kia, Erik9, Feydey, Gogo
Dodo, I am very very bored, Icairns, J.delanoy, JakeVortex, Khoikhoi, Mwaskod, Mwtoews, Nagy, PFHLai, Paleorthid, Pedology, Phil Boswell, Pt, Raz1el, Rosarinagazo, Saperaud, SimonD,
The Interior, The Thing That Should Not Be, Trueblood, Vigilius, Viriditas, Wavelength, Zuejay, , 54 anonymous edits
S-wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406392117 Contributors: Altenmann, Andonic, Basar, Belovedfreak, Berland, Bh3u4m, Binksternet, Blahman1111, Cdang, Charles
Matthews, Chasingsol, Chris the speller, Christian75, Conscious, Cookie4869, Daya0213, Dgies, Discospinster, Dspradau, Dysepsion, El C, ElationAviation, Explicit, FangzofBlood, Gbuffett,
GeoGreg, Giftlite, Iothiania, Jae-24, Jeff G., Jklin, Jlehtira, Kingdon, Kjkolb, Locke411, Loodog, Mandarax, MickMacNee, Mikenorton, Mpatel, Newton2, Noctibus, Omnipaedista, Philip
Trueman, PhilipO, R'n'B, Rational thinker, ResidueOfDesign, Robma, Rockfang, RomanUkraina, Ronchristie, Seraphim, SkyScrapers, Stwalkerster, Techman224, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Titoxd, Vanessaezekowitz, Vegaswikian, Vicenarian, Vsmith, Xanthoxyl, Zargulon, 103 anonymous edits
Lateral earth pressure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403504390 Contributors: Argyriou, Basar, CinchBug, CommonsDelinker, DMacks, DonJor, GeoEng, Ingolfson,
Koavf, Mecanismo, Mejor Los Indios, Mild Bill Hiccup, PythagorasX85, Runsum, YK Times, 47 anonymous edits
Geotechnical investigation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402710828 Contributors: Alansohn, Argyriou, Basar, Blkutter, DerHexer, Drillerguy, Geohumphrey, KatieDOM,
LilHelpa, Mauritzm, Mindopening, NE2, Ospalh, Ozcep, Paleorthid, Rjwilmsi, Skapur, Some jerk on the Internet, SorryGuy, Ulric1313, Vsmith, Zuejay, 33 anonymous edits
Cone penetration test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=370548967 Contributors: Aaronbromley, Argyriou, Basar, Black-Velvet, Ceyockey, D3, Da monster under your bed,
Drillerguy, Dysprosia, Edward, Eh kia, Explicit, Firsfron, Generale4300, Hephaestos, Hullie, LorenzoB, MER-C, Maximus Rex, Nafutesfera, RJFJR, Rolinator, Sfarringvt, Shinkolobwe, Snoyes,
Styrch, Tassedethe, Tonderai, VENCO, VZakharov, Withak30, Zloner, Zuejay, 61 anonymous edits
Standard penetration test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402654383 Contributors: Argyriou, Basar, Boda77, Carlos Rogrio Santana, Dan G. Luce, Golfandme, JMiall,
Jdhowlett, MER-C, Mondayis, Nafutesfera, Pearle, Shiny green, The Literate Engineer, Unixer, Unschool, Yanksox, 38 anonymous edits
Exploration geophysics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404481576 Contributors: 1exec1, Abrahami, Andykass, Arbitrary18, Argyriou, Basar, Bender235, Billlion,
BokicaK, Cmapm, CosineKitty, Djr32, Dr Shorthair, Dthomsen8, Elgrangarrote, Fleebo, GeoGreg, Geologyguy, GeotechConesuer, Hamsterlopithecus, Hunterd, Jstuby, Kkken, Kwinkunks,
LinuxChristian, Llywrch, Mikenorton, Mpfiz, Mwtoews, Ozcep, PeterWH, Rolinator, Tapatio, TastyCakes, Tvdm, Vsmith, Yill577, 30 anonymous edits
Water well Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402665454 Contributors: 89020, Adeliine, Alan Liefting, Alefbe, Alex43223, AlexVotan, AmarChandra, Amcaja, AnotherBrian,
AreaControl, Ario, Astanhope, Basar, Beano, Beetstra, BenC7, Bigbluefish, Biscuittin, Blurpeace, Bob Burkhardt, Bogdangiusca, Brains101, CaliforniaAliBaba, Calliopejen, Calton, Calyponte,
CanOfWorms, Cataclasite, Cflm001, Charles Matthews, Chriswaterguy, Cls14, Confuciou, Copysan, Correogsk, Csernica, Ctlarkin, Ctreyens, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DabMachine, Dave souza,
Daveswagon, Dbenbenn, Deeptrivia, Derek Ross, DeusMP, Dimitrii, Dittaeva, Doesburg, Dolfy, Dr agonfly, Drillerguy, Drillingfab, Drmies, Duja, Dutch Users, Dwayne, EdJogg, Emrys2,
Eplack, Erianna, Eric-Wester, Esprit15d, Eubulides, FayssalF, Fetchcomms, Fletcher, Folajimi, Francisco Valverde, Furrykef, Fwappler, Ganeshk, Gary King, GeneralBelly, Georgeg,
Gregorydavid, Gustable, Headbomb, HealthywaterCDC, HenryLi, Hmains, Hnsampat, Husond, IRP, Idont Havaname, Ikip, Imc, Instinct, J.delanoy, JBellis, JHunterJ, JMilty, JYolkowski, Jade
Knight, Jamesontai, Jean-Pol Grandmont, Jepace, Jerzy, Jj137, Jlinaker, Jmundo, Joshua BishopRoby, JustJoe, KVDP, Kaiwhakahaere, Karmela, Kelisi, Kickstart70, Kikos, Kingturtle, Kjkolb,
KocmutD, KrisK, Kubigula, Kuyabribri, Laslovarga, LeighBCD, LiNADoLoREs, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Llort, LonelyMarble, MANOJTV, Mac, Mais oui!, MartinHarper,
Mattisse, Mayooranathan, Meredyth, Meursault2004, Michael Hardy, Mididoctors, Mocu, Mryakima, Mydogtrouble, NTK, Namazu-tron, Nard the Bard, NawlinWiki, Ngwa, OhioGeologist,
Ojigiri, Open2universe, Osioni, Pearle, Pendragon39, Peter Ellis, Peter Napkin Dance Party, Piercekiltoff, Pietrow, Pigman, Pirules, Pollinator, Positronium, Quintote, QuiteUnusual,
R.J.Oosterbaan, Rajkiandris, RexNL, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rrburke, Sailko, Samw, Sasha Callahan, Shaharsh, Shandris, Shizhao, Sjakkalle, Sonett72, Spellmaster, Spiritia, SummerThunder,
Sushilover boy, Svick, Tabletop, Tacobell5410, Tarquin, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheinBomb, Tijuana Brass, Timneu22, Tinton5, Trainsrule333, Tripter, Twidget2, Ukraina, Uncle G, VI,
VMS Mosaic, Vegaswikian, Watertruth, Wayland, Wdyoung, WereSpielChequers, Wherearethetacos, White Shadows, Winchelsea, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Xyzzyplugh, Yak, Ybact, Zawersh,
Zeimusu, Zelse81, Ziadw, Zollernalb, Zzuuzz, 267 anonymous edits
Borehole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=400114227 Contributors: Adhib, Argyriou, BanyanTree, Basar, Bigbluefish, Bobblewik, Brimba, C.Fred, CanisRufus, Casey56,
DLH, DabMachine, Dicklyon, Dirkblack, Drillerguy, Gaius Cornelius, Grubber, HolgerK, Icenta, Imc, Jschwa1, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Lectonar, Lilac Soul, Mejor Los Indios, Mpeisenbr,
Nopetro, Orion11M87, ParticleMan, Phantomsteve, Q Science, Raphqcei, Rentar, Res1103, Saligron, Shadowjams, SpaceFlight89, Spm, SuzanneKn, Tide rolls, User27091, Vsmith, Wavelength,
William M. Connolley, Wizard191, Woohookitty, Yt95, ZabMilenko, 50 anonymous edits
Atterberg limits Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396111426 Contributors: Adjusting, Alansohn, Andrewmc123, AndyAndyAndy, Ang bud, Argyriou, Basar, Betacommand,
CorreiaPM, E smith2000, Fordskydog, Gsmgm, Gkhan, JonathanFoote, Ken l lee, Lear's Fool, Mad031683, Matt.T, N.Hopton, NJ, Nsigniacorp, Oneiros, Paleorthid, PhilKnight, SimonP,
Steinardo, Theboywonder, Tkynerd, Vinhtantran, William Avery, Zuejay, 56 anonymous edits
California bearing ratio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=400525562 Contributors: A2Kafir, Alex.rosenheim, Argyriou, Aw3978, Basar, CieloEstrellado, Emersoni, Gggh,
Jeepday, Mistersumner, Penom, Plumpurple, Shaddack, SilkTork, Tedernst, Toiyabe, 26 anonymous edits
Direct shear test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=357621430 Contributors: Argyriou, Basar, Esprit15d, Mdsleep, Munasharma, Rory096, 7 anonymous edits
Hydrometer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406096514 Contributors: A. B., ABF, Ahoerstemeier, Albedo, Antandrus, Argyriou, Astrochemist, Augusta2, Backslash
Forwardslash, Badagnani, Basar, Beano, Belovedfreak, Benbread, Benjamin Mako Hill, Biscuittin, Bomac, Caltrop, Carboxyl, Carlos Rogrio Santana, CatherineMunro, CheMechanical,
Chubbles, Davilla, Deglr6328, Dittaeva, Drpickem, ESkog, Ellywa, Enchanter, Flborn, GSchjetne, Gilliam, Glendoremus, GoingBatty, Gurch, Hankwang, Isaac Sanolnacov, Ivan Bajlo,
J.delanoy, J8079s, Jeroboambramblejam, Joe Rodgers, Joshua Scott, Katpatuka, Kaverin, Ke6jjj, Kingpin13, Kummi, Law, MAURY, MC10, MER-C, Macbook123, Maneater99, Mangoe,
Mardetanha, Marj Tiefert, Mbeychok, Mdsam2, Mentifisto, Mihovil, MrOllie, Nscheffey, OwenX, PeregrineAY, Peterlin, Rjd0060, Rjstott, SBKT, Sallyrio, Scientific29, SemperBlotto,
Shengancheng, Sherurcij, Sietse Snel, SilkTork, Skrunch55, Stickguy, Syncategoremata, Synchronism, Tarquin, Tealpanda, Techman224, The wub, Theresa knott, Thetrick, Thumperward, Tide

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Article Sources and Contributors

rolls, Tiggerjay, Tobby72, Tris2000, Twigletmac, UtherSRG, Venny85, Viriditas, WadeSimMiser, Wavelength, Wknight94, Wtshymanski, Zuejay, jlfr, 166 anonymous edits
Proctor compaction test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382352929 Contributors: Ang bud, Argyriou, Basar, Chris the speller, DeadEyeArrow, Dept of Alchemy, Jbram
2002, Kakofonous, Kidvicious, Kurtlyka, NickelShoe, ProfessorXY, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, Tealpanda, XMxWx, 28 anonymous edits
R-value (soils) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=276351822 Contributors: Argyriou, Basar, Edward, NE2, Nick, 1 anonymous edits
Sieve analysis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396222957 Contributors: Argyriou, Aushulz, Basar, Bgeelhoed, Capricorn42, CorreiaPM, Culmensis, Deekayfry,
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37 anonymous edits
Triaxial shear test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387172815 Contributors: Alansohn, Basar, Bporopat, Doctorfluffy, Dune777, Groucho NL, Sand777, Serein (renamed
because of SUL), Sintaku, Tedder, Zuejay, 23 anonymous edits
Crosshole sonic logging Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=375074993 Contributors: Basar, Blacklemon67, Fuhghettaboutit, JzG, Pdigrl, ReyBrujo, Tassedethe, Tecarr, Wiki
corection, 4 anonymous edits
Nuclear Densometer Test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=365139524 Contributors: Austinsiler, Fabrictramp, Justin Eiler, LilHelpa, Malcolma, Stusutcliffe, TexasAndroid,
Tide rolls, 9 anonymous edits
Foundation (engineering) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404316471 Contributors: AgnosticPreachersKid, Ahoerstemeier, Arakunem, Arbabian, Argyriou,
BananaManCanDance, Basar, Bennylin, Blacklemon67, BostonDIYer, Cameron Scott, CaribDigita, Chetvorno, Christian75, Commander Keane, Cpl Syx, Csernica, Davidandrade, Duk, ELApro,
Eh kia, El C, Emesee, Erudecorp, F.cristarella, GB fan, Gbleem, Glenn, Graham87, Hemmingsen, JZ85, Jakub.netik, Jnimens, JonSenior, Jonbo4414, Josh Parris, Keith D, Kincth, Kingpin13,
Lascorz, Ling Kah Jai, LizardJr8, Magnus Colossus, Marvtixx, Materialscientist, Mattisse, Mereda, Mfwitten, Mididoctors, N2e, Nordic Crusader, Onanoff, Oxymoron83, PCock, Parker007,
PoccilScript, Quadell, Rchandra, Rich Farmbrough, Roux, Salih, Seaphoto, Shustov, Sonett72, Spindustrious, TVBZ28, Tecarr, TenOfAllTrades, TheNightRyder, Tommy2010, Truthanado,
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Bearing capacity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393627528 Contributors: Anzineer, Argyriou, Basar, Edward, Gene Nygaard, Jakub.netik, Koavf, Mild Bill Hiccup, Neffk,
Robertpinedo88, UpstateNYer, Welsh, 19 anonymous edits
Shallow foundation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404006903 Contributors: Aaron of Mpls, Argyriou, BD2412, Basar, Billbeee, ChrisHodgesUK, Floquenbeam,
Hooperbloob, Into The Fray, Kliegmanmark, Luciodem, Matthew Brandon Yeager, Mattisse, Mfwitten, Paldipakce, Scapler, Shawnmackey11, Svenboatbuilder, Tecarr, Tslocum, Wookdong2, 44
anonymous edits
Deep foundation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401406490 Contributors: AbstractEpiphany, Adityarn, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alirazz, Argyriou, Astrobleme, Basar,
Brianski, Caltas, CardinalDan, Charles.luo, Chilscout, Chongkian, Christopher Fitton, DAJF, DMacks, Debresser, Dj stone, Dtsreddy, EdBever, EdDBall, Ejosse1, Electron9, Endofskull, Flewis,
Franz76, Geobobbyc, Gogo Dodo, Hamiltondaniel, Hydrogen Iodide, Hmbrger, Ideal gas equation, Iijjccoo, Ingolfson, Jhattara, JohnnyMrNinja, JoniFili, JoshuaZ, JustAGal, LorenzoB,
Luciodem, Matt5AU, Mattisse, Miquonranger03, Mistersumner, Mumbai1, Mushin, Mymcheung, N2e, Orange Suede Sofa, Ozaru, Pdigrl, Peter Horn, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, RHaworth,
ReyBrujo, Rich Farmbrough, SallyForth123, Sesking, Stephenb, TGCP, Tabletop, Tbonnie, Tecarr, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thester11, ThreeE, Tivedshambo, Tnech, Tom harrison,
Tomer T, Wakablogger2, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Woohookitty, Wookdong2, Zuejay, 108 anonymous edits
Dynamic load testing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=359281595 Contributors: (aeropagitica), Basar, Beimg, Edward, Fuhghettaboutit, JIP, Mecanismo, Pdigrl, ReyBrujo,
Tbonetime, The Thing That Should Not Be, VZakharov, Wiki corection, Wookdong2, Zuejay, 5 anonymous edits
Wave equation analysis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=235831177 Contributors: (aeropagitica), Argyriou, Basar, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Fuhghettaboutit, Pdigrl,
ReyBrujo, ShelfSkewed, Snowolf, SpLoT, 4 anonymous edits
Statnamic load test Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397240181 Contributors: Fabrictramp, Joel7687, Katharineamy, Mecanismo, 14 anonymous edits
Retaining wall Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402401715 Contributors: A More Perfect Onion, AB, Alan Liefting, Ali@gwc.org.uk, Alphachimp, Askari Mark,
AsmithNJIT, Basar, Basketball110, Beechhouse, BenFranske, Bozoid, Bullytr, Circeus, CommonsDelinker, Coyau, Cpl Syx, DMacks, Davidagee, Dogears, Donald Albury, Feydey, Frank C.
Mller, Franz76, FreplySpang, GAMEDAY BUNNY, GeeKaa, Geostone, Grahams Child, ILike2BeAnonymous, Ingolfson, Inwind, JForget, Jaknouse, Jakub.netik, Jdz, Jenkins Mc, Joshschr,
Kalanenelson, Knife Knut, Kymacpherson, Magore, Mandarax, Mejor Los Indios, Mfloryan, Mpdean1, Nadiral, Parker007, PaulfromBarrie, Philop234, Pinethicket, Plee223, Pollinator, RedWolf,
Renobuild, Robsavoie, Robth, Ronz, Ruhrfisch, RyJones, Shustov, Sonett72, Stratteggi, Sycogenix, TVBZ28, Tam0031, Tanya421, TerriersFan, Themfromspace, Thisisborin9, TreyHarris,
Triplestop, William D. Walker, Wookdong2, Zimbres, Zuejay, 112 anonymous edits
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Geomembranes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396585993 Contributors: A5b, Abatasigh, Abby.ahlers, Auntof6, Basar, Coletanche, Espoo, Gimboid13, GoingBatty,
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Geosynthetic clay liner Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=332021574 Contributors: AudioStatic82, Basar, Beetstra, Cskelsey, Ground Zero, Sarpy2, Vortexrealm, Wknight94,
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Cellular confinement Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405163021 Contributors: Agemegos, C.Fred, Celltekdirect, Daniel F Senf, Gaius Cornelius, Giraffedata, IMM39,
Ihaveafordv8, Lotje, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moreau1, Pol098, Woohookitty, YSchary, 2 anonymous edits
Deformation monitoring Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382098542 Contributors: AlexanderFreydin, DanieleInaudi, Dieselbub, Hankwang, Iszdfb, J04n, Kemp
Engineering, LesWhalley, Mattisse, Osoubra, Shaddack, Soskinpipetkin, The flamingo, Zhangmoon618, 11 anonymous edits
Automatic Deformation Monitoring System Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=385901323 Contributors: Aykp, Birdav, DanieleInaudi, Edward, JamesR, Jonny-mt,
LesWhalley, Mlaffs, Osoubra, Shmjl1, Softrock2010, The flamingo, 19 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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