Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

Mechanisms of groundwater recharge and pesticide penetration

to a chalk aquifer in southern England
Atul H. Haria*, Martin G. Hodnett, Andrew C. Johnson
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (formerly Institute of Hydrology), Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford,
Oxfordshire OX10 8BB, UK
Received 25 November 2002; accepted 7 January 2003

Abstract
In order to assess the potential for enhanced agrochemical contamination of shallow groundwaters, a field study was
established on the Upper Chalk in Hampshire, UK. Two instrumented sites, 380 m apart, were established on a hillslope; one on
the interfluve with a deep water table (,18 m depth), the other on the dry valley bottom where the groundwater was close to the
surface (, 4 m depth). Hourly measurements of water potentials in the unsaturated zone to 3.0 m depth identified very different
groundwater recharge processes between the two sites in response to the same storm event. On the interfluve site with the deep
water table only matrix flow through the chalk unsaturated zone at 3 m depth was identified. In contrast, at the dry valley bottom
with a shallow water table, both rapid preferential flow and matrix flow processes were observed at a 3 m depth. The correlation
between groundwater depth measurements and unsaturated profile moisture content measurements demonstrated the
importance of the capillary fringe in sustaining a higher moisture content in the unsaturated zone at the shallow groundwater
site. The resulting reduced water storage capacity for vertical drainage fluxes meant that little water was required to wet the
shallow profile before rapid preferential flow events, demonstrated by rapid water potential responses, occurred. However,
where the groundwater was deeper, intermediate storage sites located on chalk surfaces and at chalk ped/block contact
points remained empty and unsaturated water potential profiles showed that rainfall pulses were attenuated as these sites
absorbed the downward water fluxes. Consequently, preferential events at these deep groundwater sites are rare. The
importance of these intermediate storage sites in controlling recharge processes is highlighted. The potential mass load of
pesticide transported to the shallow groundwater in preferential events during 1996 7 was determined using bromide tracer
studies, water balance calculations and measured groundwater pesticide concentrations. An estimated 0.1% of the applied
pesticide reached the shallow groundwater along preferential pathways in 1996 7. Calculations under a worst-case scenario
showed that this value did not increase beyond 0.2% of pesticide applied.
q 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Chalk; Groundwater recharge; Unsaturated zone; Hillslope hydrology; Capillary fringe; Isoproturon; Chlotoluron

1. Introduction

* Corresponding author. Fax: 44-(0)-1491-692424.

E-mail address: atu@ceh.ac.uk (A.H. Haria).

Chalk aquifers of south-east England contribute

55% of all groundwater use in the UK (Lloyd, 1993).
Large tracts of the typically thin soils overlying these

0022-1694/03/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00017-9

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

unconfined aquifers are under arable land use and the

water quality of this potable resource remains an
important issue. The impact of intensive agriculture
on underlying groundwater was first realised in the
mid-1970s when observed nitrate concentrations
exceeded European Union permissible limits (Foster,
1993). Concern in recent years has spread to pesticide
contamination following the introduction of the
0.1 mg/l drinking water limit by the EU (Headworth,
1989; Anonymous, 1995, 1999; Johnson et al., 2001).
Chalk has been described as a dual porosity system
where water flow can occur both in the chalk matrix
and through the fractures between the chalk blocks
(Price et al., 1993). The Upper Chalk, a sub-division
of UK chalk based on lithology (the others being
Lower and Middle Chalk), has specific physical
properties. The maximum pore diameter of the
Upper Chalk matrix is about 1.0 mm, with an
associated intergranular hydraulic conductivity of
about 0.001 m/day (Price et al., 1976). The porosity
and permeability of the Upper Chalk matrix is greater
than that of the Middle and Lower Chalk.
Understanding the mechanisms of groundwater
recharge is critical to assessing pollutant transfer to
the water table. If water and solutes move rapidly
through fractures then dilution, attenuation and
degradation will be minimised and the contaminant
is likely to arrive at relatively high concentrations
soon after application on the soil surface. However, if
transport is through the matrix then the much slower
travel time will allow for dispersion, dilution and
potential degradation (Johnson et al., 1998) which
will influence the final concentration that reaches the
groundwater. In addition to fracture flow and matrix
flow a third mechanism of thin film flow (i.e. water
film flow along fracture surfaces of porous rocks
where the fractures are largely unsaturated) needs to
be considered. In fractured porous media at potentials
close to saturation, Tokunaga and Wan (1997) showed
how thin film flows could be significant in moving
water at fluxes about three orders in magnitude greater
than matrix pore water under unit gradient saturated
flow. Recently, Tokunaga and Wan (2001) have
identified surface-zone flows as another fast flow
system in the enhanced porosity of the rock skin at the
fracture surface.
Vertical fracture flow in chalk will only begin
when the vertical drainage flux exceeds the saturated

123

hydraulic conductivity of the chalk matrix (Wellings,

1984a; Cooper et al., 1990; Price et al., 1993).
Wellings (1984a) observed fracture flow only once in
a five year period in the unsaturated zone over a deep
groundwater site on the Upper Chalk in Hampshire.
Although fractures have the ability to conduct large
volumes of water quickly to depth, fracture flow is
rare and the predominant mode of recharge is through
the fine pores of the chalk matrix. Wellings (1984a)
showed that fracture flow was generated only when
matric chalk water potentials exceed a threshold value
of 2 5 kPa. In a study on the Upper Chalk of the
Berkshire downs, Barraclough et al. (1994) showed
tracer profiles (15NO3, 2H2O and Cl2) that were also
inconsistent with significant vertical macrofissure
flow, and were explained by flow through the water
filled porosity of the chalk matrix.
A number of field studies conducted on sites with
a thick unsaturated zone over a deep water table
have measured rates of water movement through the
chalk matrix to be about 1 m/yr (Wellings and Bell,
1980; Wellings, 1984b; Barraclough et al., 1994).
However, to date, little work on the hydrology of
shallow chalk groundwater systems has been conducted. Gillham (1984) described the effect of the
capillary fringe on shallow groundwater responses
and the implications for contaminant transport. The
work, however, refers to homogeneous systems and
not a dual porosity system like chalk. Recent work
on the Upper Chalk over a shallow water table has
shown how these groundwaters may receive sudden
peaks of high pesticide concentration shortly after
heavy rainfall (Johnson et al., 2001). This would
suggest that these shallow water table sites may
represent hot spots for rapid pesticide transport to
the groundwater.
This paper describes a field study that was designed
to determine the differences, if any, in recharge
mechanisms between deep and shallow groundwater
sites and whether this may lead to a greater
contamination risk where the groundwater is close
to the soil surface. Using a combination of hydrological measurements and bromide tracer studies an
assessment of groundwater recharge and pesticide
transport was made. Water balance calculations
combined with pesticide concentrations measured in
groundwater following rainfall were used to estimate
the pesticide load arriving rapidly to the shallow

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groundwaters. The hypothesis of a field having

different recharge mechanisms in different areas and
therefore different risk potentials for groundwater
contamination was addressed.

2. Site description
The study area WON (Johnson et al., 1998) was
located on the Upper Chalk in Hampshire, about
24 km north of Winchester and 1 km from a small
tributary of the River Test. The study was located on a
hillslope in an arable field on the chalk outcrop and
comprised of an upper interfluve site and, at the foot
of the slope (4 5% gradient), a lower dry valley floor
site. The dry valley floor site, subsequently referred to
as WON 4, had a water table that was approximately
4 m from the soil surface and the interfluve site,
subsequently referred to as WON 7, had a water table
approximately 18 m below ground level. The distance
between sites WON 4 and WON 7 was about 380 m
(Fig. 1).
The top 0.8 m of the profile at WON 4 is a silty clay
loam soil described as Andover series (Jarvis et al.,
1984), with increasing amounts of chalk mixed in
below this depth; the soil-free chalk begins between
1.5 and 2.0 m below the soil surface. Chalk gravels,
created by cryoturbation and other weathering
processes, are found to a 3.0 m depth; the whole
weathered chalk profile extending to 5 m below the
surface. Additionally, chalk with a putty type
structure, likely to be weathered chalk sludge washed
down from the higher slopes, was also present in some
areas.
Observations from a 3 m deep pit at WON 7
showed a soil profile (Andover Series; Jarvis et al.,
1984) with an average thickness of 0.3 m overlying a
weathered chalk horizon (0.3 1.0 m) with isolated
patches of chalk gravels. Fracturing was observed to
decrease with depth.
During the 1996 7 agricultural crop season the
field was sown with grass, however, 5 5 m plots
over the boreholes were sown with wheat to permit
pesticide use. Further details on the site and cropping
patterns can be found elsewhere (Johnson et al., 1998;
2001).

3. Methods
3.1. Hydrological monitoring
3.1.1. Site WON 4
Soil and chalk water contents were recorded
weekly through the 1996 7 season using a neutron
probe (Bell, 1976) in two access tubes spaced 0.5 m
apart to a depth of 6 m. Readings were taken at 0.1 m
depth increments to 0.5 m and then at 0.25 m depth
increments to 6 m. Soil and chalk water potentials
were measured using Pressure Transducer Tensiometers (PTTs) installed vertically by auguring
through access tubes to ensure a watertight seal, to
depths of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 m. The
PTTs were installed in two rows 0.5 m apart with a
similar spacing between each PTT within the rows.
The PTT site was situated in the corner of the field
approximately 15 m from the closest field boundary
and 3 m upslope of a 150 mm diameter observation
borehole, WON 4. Rainfall was measured using a
tipping bucket gauge and data were logged hourly. In
addition to on-site rainfall measurements, MORECS
(Thompson et al., 1981) rainfall and evaporation data
were used for water balance calculations providing
information outside the instrumented field season;
farming practice meant field instruments had to be
removed for part of the year.
The permanent borehole at WON 4 was drilled on
12th November 1991 to 8 m below ground level using
a dry percussion drilling method (Dixon, 1989).
Sufficient slotted PVC casing (78 mm i.d.) was
installed to accommodate the seasonal water level
fluctuations. The annulus adjacent to the slots was
infilled with clean gravel, followed by a 0.5 m sealing
layer of bentonite above, and cement grout to the
surface. The depth of the water table below the ground
surface was recorded hourly using a pressure
transducer interfaced to a data logger. Further boreholes (e.g. WON 5) were drilled close to WON 4 to
provide additional chemical data (Johnson et al.,
2001).
3.1.2. Site WON 7
The borehole at WON 7 was drilled using the same
dry percussion method on 8th September 1996 to a
depth of 20.71 m. WON 7, 77 m above sea level and
382 m upslope of WON 4, represented the site with

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the study area showing the deep groundwater site WON 7 and the shallow groundwater site WON 4.

125

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A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

the greatest depth of unsaturated zone to the water

table (18 m approx.) (Fig. 1). Water potentials were
also measured at this site using Pressure transducer
tensiometers (PTTs) installed to the same depths and
in the same manner as for site WON 4. Data were
logged hourly.
3.2. Bromide tracer studies
On 22nd February 1995, 8 l of 50,000 mg/l KBr
tracer solution was applied manually using a watering
can with a rose spout in a 24 m2 grid 1 m upslope from
borehole WON 4. Chalk cores of about 0.25 m length
were extracted (on 28th September 1996 and 22nd
September 1997) using a dry percussion sampling
method on the site of application to assess, over time,
bromide transport through the chalk matrix. Pore
water from the cores was extracted by centrifugation
using the method described by Kinniburgh and Miles
(1983) and analysed for Br2 by ion chromatography
(Dionex model 2010i). The eluent used was 1.8 mM
sodium carbonate and 1.7 mM sodium bicarbonate.
The regenerate used was 25 mM sulphuric acid.
Detection was by electrical conductivity. Pore water
Br2 concentrations for the profile were obtained.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Hillslope recharge processes
PTT data describing recharge processes through
the unsaturated chalk profile at sites WON 4 and
WON 7 were compared for a single rainfall event in
1997 (Storm 1, Table 1 and Fig. 2). The comparison
was restricted to one storm event because of practical
difficulties experienced with PTTs at WON 7;
potentials at this site were very low for most of the
season, and often below the minimum potential that
can be recorded by tensiometers (2 80 kPa). Only
Table 1
Rainfall data for Storm 1 and Storm 2
Event

Date

Rainfall
(mm)

Duration
(hrs)

Avg. intensity
(mm/hr)

Storm 1
Storm 2

2327 Feb 97
34 Mar 97

38
14.5

22
19

1.7
0.8

after air was purged from the PTTs insitu, were

reliable readings obtained for short periods. It was
fortunate that the PTTs at WON 7 were purged
(denoted by P in Fig. 2(b)) immediately prior to
Storm 1. Data in Fig. 2(b) prior to purging, P, were
unreliable and should be ignored. The need for regular
purging of tensiometers at the deep groundwater site
(WON 7) is clear evidence of highly negative
potentials and drier profile to a 3 m depth compared
with the shallow groundwater site (WON 4) where the
wetter profile meant that the PTTs worked efficiently
for the season.
Different responses in groundwater recharge,
between WON 4 and WON 7 unsaturated chalk
zones, were observed for Storm 1 (Fig. 2). Unsaturated hydraulic potentials (0.5 3.0 m depth) at WON
4 increased in two phases on 13th February 1997 and
18th February 1997 in response to rainfall. The
increases were simultaneous from 1.5 to 3.0 m depths,
marked A and B in Fig. 2(c)), resulting from piston
displacement of downward water fluxes through the
uniform porosity of the chalk matrix. The low chalk
water potentials (more obvious in the deeper profile)
mean that flow is through the matrix porosity only.
The rate of change of potential in the chalk was
greatest nearest the soil surface indicating a wetting
pulse moving down the profile (Fig. 2(c)). The overall
increase in water potentials show the gradual wetting
of the profile by small rainfall events prior to Storm 1.
Under these antecedent conditions, the rainfall
associated with Storm 1 was of sufficient volume
and intensity to allow the water flux to be transmitted
quickly through the profile. The sharp (short duration)
peaks in hydraulic potential in response to Storm 1
(Fig 2(c)) indicate larger fluxes over a short interval,
compared to the preceding period. The peaks showing
highest potential indicate when the hydraulic conductivity was at its highest. Depending on the gradient,
the greatest flux will then occur at almost the same
time. Similar findings in the Middle Chalk have been
observed by Hodnett and Bell (1990).
The anomaly arrowed X in Fig. 2(c) shows an early
rise in potential clearly visible at 3.0 m and less so at
2.5 m. These may be explained either by decreased
barometric pressure as a frontal system associated
with rainfall passed over, causing instantaneous
hydrostatic pressure responses at the water table in
the borehole, or by the weight of rainwater on

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

127

Fig. 2. Time series hydraulic potential responses to Storm 1 showing the attenuated response at WON 7 compared to the fast response at WON 4.

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A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

the whole aquifer system causing isostatic responses

in the borehole. Similar water level fluctuations were
cited by Headworth (1972), in a review of groundwater level fluctuations in the chalk of Hampshire.
Assuming the highest water potentials represent
the peak water flux through the profile, Fig. 2(b)
shows a much greater delay and attenuation in transit
of peak water fluxes at the deep groundwater site
WON 7, in response to Storm 1, than the sharp peaks
in hydraulic potential observed at WON 4 (Fig. 2(c)).
Peak water fluxes reached a 3.0 m depth in just over a
day at the shallow groundwater site WON 4, whilst at
WON 7 the peak flux arrived seven days after peak
rainfall (Fig. 3).
The hydrological response at the shallow groundwater site WON 4 to Storm 1 is more clearly
demonstrated in Fig. 4(b), which shows the
changes in hydraulic potential with depth from 11th
to 26th February 1997. Following rainfall, the
potentials increase, moving towards the line denoting

Fig. 3. Graph showing the delay in peak drainage flux with depth,
after peak rainfall, at WON 7 compared to WON 4.

gravitational potential (saturation) until they become

parallel with it at an approximate matric potential of
2 2.4 kPa during peak flux at 3.0 m depth (26th
February 1997). The increase in potential indicates an
increase in water content and therefore hydraulic
conductivity to a point where the increasing downward water fluxes can be transmitted through the
profile. Under unit gradient conditions, where the
hydraulic potential profile is parallel to the line
denoting gravitational potential as at WON 4
(Fig. 4(b)), the increase in drainage flux is proportional to the increase in hydraulic conductivity.
Previous work on conductivity potential relationships (Wellings, 1984a; Hodnett and Bell, 1990;
Cooper et al., 1990; Tokunaga and Wan, 1997) has
shown that small increases in water potential close to
saturation can greatly increase the hydraulic conductivity. In this case a matric potential of 2 2.4 kPa is
well within the threshold figure of 2 5 kPa for the
onset of preferential fracture flow in the Upper Chalk
as determined by Wellings (1984a).
Changes in hydraulic potential with depth at the
deep groundwater site WON 7, between 26th
February 1997 and 3rd March 1997 (in response to
Storm 1), are shown in Fig. 4(a). Matric potentials at
3.0 m depth did not exceed 2 17 kPa (well below the
2 5 kPa threshold for the initiation of fracture flow)
during peak drainage (3rd March 1997) at this depth,
showing that water flow was through the chalk matrix
only. However, in the upper profile matric potentials
as high as 2 2 kPa were observed indicating preferential or thin-film flows occurring down to a 1.0 m
depth which were subsequently attenuated deeper in
the chalk (discussed later). This indicates a lag in the
drainage flux as downward water fluxes are held and
slowly released. At the surface this is likely to be a
result of hydrodynamic dispersion in the soil horizon,
however, the lag is also evident well below the soil
zone (e.g. 2 3 m depth). Conventional thinking
cannot explain this phenomenon since at the low
potentials in question the fractures would all be empty
and the uniform matrix porosity would all be waterfilled. The results highlight the existence of potentially important intermediate storage sites (between
the fracture and matrix porosities) where downward
water fluxes can be held and consequently reduced.
A very small attenuation in drainage flux is observed
at the shallow groundwater site (WON 4) suggesting

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

129

Fig. 4. Change in hydraulic potential with depth during peak drainage flux in response to Storm 1 at (a) WON 7 and (b) WON 4.

that the intermediate storage sites are largely waterfilled, so reducing the storage capacity of the profile.
By the time peak drainage fluxes reached a depth of
2 m and below at WON 7, chalk water potentials at
1.5 m and above were becoming more negative,
indicating the upper profile had started to dry out
(Fig. 4(a)). Hence, the rainfall event which caused
preferential flow at 2 3 m at the shallow groundwater
site (WON 4) resulted in matrix flow only through the
2 3 m chalk at the deep groundwater site (WON 7).
This is despite a thicker soil layer at site WON 4,

compared with WON 7, which might be expected to

absorb and hold more of the rainfall releasing it more
slowly to the chalk below. This study shows that it is
likely to be a reduction in the water storage capacity at
WON 4, itself likely to be a result of the shallow
groundwater, which is the most important factor in
governing the occurrence of preferential flow events.
The effect of Storm 2 (Table 1) for both sites had
less of an impact on recharge (Fig. 2). A unit potential
gradient had already been established at the WON 4,
and Storm 2 caused very slight rises in potential at 1.5

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A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

and 2.0 m depths with no effect observed below this

depth. Similarly, very little response to Storm 2 was
observed below 2.0 m depth at WON 7. This
emphasises the importance of individual storm
characteristics in which, regardless of the antecedent
conditions, certain threshold criteria of rainfall
intensity and volume still need to be met before
significant preferential/thin film flows can occur.
For both Storms 1 and 2, surface PTTs (0.1 m
depth) showed conditions remained unsaturated
indicating the absence of runoff at either site. There
was also no discernable response of the groundwater
level at WON 4 in response to Storm 1 or Storm 2.
There was a steady rise in groundwater level from
5.7 m below ground level to 4.7 m below ground level
over the period shown in Fig. 2 (9th February 1997
9th March 1997). Groundwater levels over the 1996/7
season fluctuated from 4.5 m below ground level to
greater than 6 m below ground level.
4.2. Shallow groundwater effects
Neutron probe data from WON 4 in the 1996 7
season provides evidence of the influence of changes
in shallow groundwater level on storage in the
unsaturated chalk profile above. Moisture content
data for 3 layers in the unsaturated chalk above the
water table (2 3 m, 3 4 m and 4 5 m depth layers)
show that the layer closest to the groundwater (4 5 m
depth) was consistently wetter than the 3 4 m layer
above, which in turn was wetter than the 2 3 m layer
highest up (Fig. 5; time series data not shown).
Correlating the moisture content in the 3 chalk
layers with groundwater depth showed the greatest
influence of the groundwater, throughout the 1996 7
season, on the unsaturated chalk profile closest to the
water table (Fig. 5). The coefficient of determination
(r 2 ) is greatest for the layer closest to the groundwater,
decreasing towards the surface layers. Significance F
testing of groundwater on unsaturated storage showed
an increasing influence with depth: 2 3 m layer
(0.024), 3 4 m layer (, 0.01) and 4 5 m layer
( ! 0.01). These data suggest that in the 1996 7
season groundwater had a significant impact on
unsaturated chalk water storage to a depth of 3
4 m, and a lesser impact above that depth.

4.3. Groundwater recharge and pesticide penetration

at WON 4
Information on mean pore water velocity of
recharge through the chalk matrix at the shallow
groundwater site WON 4, between September 1996
and September 1997, was derived from the differences
in bromide peak travel between the profiles in Fig. 6.
Recovery of bromide from profile 1 was 104%,
however, the forward tailing suggests this value is
likely to be greater because of incomplete recovery.
Recovery from profile 2 was 63%. The variability in
bromide application by hand combined with the
effects of micro-topography and the small sampling
volume (0.1 m (4 inch) diameter cores) indicate that
little can be concluded from this information.
Certainly, more replicate cores needed to be taken at
any one sampling period.
The distance moved by the peak for profile 1,
calculated as 2.17 m (the mid-point of the flat
plateau), to the peak for profile 2 (3.31 m) was
1.14 m. The recharge through the chalk matrix
required to move bromide peak 1 to peak 2 (Table 2,
Fig. 6) was calculated based on three effective water
filled porosity values of 0.43 v/v (100%), 0.37 v/v
(85%, after Besien et al., 2000) and 0.22 v/v (50%,
after Barraclough et al., 1994). The latter represents
the worst-case scenario, with the more realistic results
based on an effective porosity of 0.37 v/v calculated
from breakthrough experiments on cores taken from
site WON 4 (Besien et al., 2000). The remaining
rainfall was assumed to be partitioned between crop
interception/evaporation, soil water storage changes
and rapid preferential drainage.
MORECS (Thompson et al., 1981) data indicate
that there was only 88 mm of recharge (rainfall
minus evaporation) between the times of the two
cored profiles. With a water content of 0.37, this
would explain a downward movement of bromide of
only about 0.24 m, compared with the observed
movement of 1.14 m. It is therefore concluded that
the recharge must have been greater than calculated
by MORECS, probably because some of the
evaporative demand was satisfied by the shallow
groundwater. Movement of shallow groundwater
into the unsaturated profile above, along upward
gradients during the summer months, was identified
by PTT data (not shown).

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

131

Fig. 5. Correlation between moisture content in three unsaturated chalk layers and groundwater depth at WON 4 showing the greatest effect of
the shallow groundwater on the deepest stratum.

In order to estimate the potential pesticide mass

likely to reach the groundwater along preferential
pathways for the period between cored bromide
profiles, water balance calculations were combined
with data of pesticide concentrations found in the
groundwater. The evaporation component of the
water balance was assumed to be negligible
because: (a) the groundwater inputs satisfied much
of the evaporative demand in the summer, (b)
preferential recharge was likely to occur over a
short duration during the wet winter months when
evaporation would be lowest. Although information
on crop interception was limited, estimates of
canopy interception for winter wheat range from
30 to 40% where the leaf area index (LAI) is
greater than 1 (Butler and Huband, 1985). However, in the 1996 7 season, the field had been
sown with grass and the expected interception
would be less. Water balance calculations where
rainfall from June to August 1997 (when LAI is
greater than 1) was reduced by 30% did not make

significant differences to the pesticide load reaching

the groundwater. Therefore, to bias the estimated
pollution risk by preferential flow events to a
worst-case scenario, the interception was assumed
to be negligible. For water balance purposes,
changes in profile water storage were also assumed
to be negligible over the year because of capillary
rise from the shallow groundwater. Weekly neutron
probe data also showed very small changes in the
chalk profile water content during the experimental
season. The volume of rainfall not travelling
through the chalk matrix (identified by the
bromide profiles) was, therefore, allocated to
preferential recharge to provide a worst-case
scenario (Table 2).
The spiked concentrations of pesticides Isoproturon (IPU) and Chlorotoluron (CTU), recorded
over 3 years in the groundwater close to the water
table (borehole WON 5) at site WON 4 by
automated daily sampling after rainfall (Johnson
et al., 2001), were used as a measure of

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A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

Fig. 6. Bromide concentration profiles in the chalk unsaturated zone at WON 4 in September 1996 and September 1997.

the pesticide concentration in the water moving in

the fractures. Although there will be some degree
of dilution, these samples represented the best
available estimates of the mass balance of pesticide
preferentially reaching the groundwater. Based on
the values observed by Johnson et al. (2001),
estimates of potential pesticide concentrations
likely to reach the groundwater by preferential
fracture flow during the 1996 7 season are
presented in Table 2. The findings suggest that,
with an effective porosity of 0.37 v/v (Besien et al.,
2000) and averaged pesticide spike concentrations
(Johnson et al., 2001), approximately 0.1% IPU or
CTU applied, preferentially reached the groundwater in the 1996 7 season. Calculations under a
worst-case scenario show that no more than 0.2%
of applied IPU and CTU reached the groundwater
in the 1996 97 crop season by preferential flow

mechanisms. These results provide a field measured

estimate of rapid pesticide loading to a shallow
unconfined chalk aquifer.
4.4. Conceptual model of groundwater recharge
processes
Although chalk is considered to be a dual porosity
system, this study has identified the effect of a third
intermediate porosity or storage site as the main
controlling factor in recharge processes to shallow
groundwater systems. This intermediate porosity can
be described as that which is greater in size than the
Upper Chalk matrix porosity and smaller than the
fractures that become water-filled at potentials greater
than 2 5 kPa matric suction. Note that the term
intermediate porosity covers a range of pore sizes
and hydraulic conductivities in between fracture and

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

133

Table 2
Calculation of % pesticide applied reaching the groundwater by preferential means in 19967
IPU

CTU

IPU

Effective porosity (%)

Effective pore volume (v/v)
Recharge through chalk matrix (mm)
Maximum preferential recharge through chalk fractures (mm)
% IPU/CTU applied reaching groundwater (max. spike conc.)
% IPU/CTU applied reaching groundwater (avg. spike conc.)

100
0.43
490
162
0.07
0.05

0.06
0.06

0.1
0.07

Additional data used for calculations above

Br

IPU

CTU

Rainfall between coring (mm)

Chalk porosity (v/v)
Distance between Br peaks (m)
Max. IPU/CTU spike conc. (mg/l) measured in 19967 (Johnson et al., 2001)
Avg. IPU/CTU spike conc. (mg/l) in 19967

652.6
0.43
1.14
0.54
0.4

0.8
0.72

CTU

IPU

85
0.37
417
236

CTU
50
0.22
245
408

0.09
0.09

0.17
0.13

0.16
0.15

IPU applied at 1.3 kgha21 on 13th December 1995. CTU applied at 2.0 kgha21 on 30th October 1996.

matrix porosities. A possible conceptual explanation

of these intermediate porosities or storage sites is
given in Section 4.5.
The postulated effect of the capillary fringe above
the water table on the intermediate porosity is
demonstrated in Fig. 7. Under this scheme, recharge

to deep groundwaters in the chalk aquifer is restricted

to flow through the chalk matrix only. Recharge fluxes
through the upper chalk horizons will be little
impacted upon by the deep groundwater; only the
fine matrix porosity (Fig. 7) will be kept water-filled
up to at least 30 m above the water table (Price et al.,

Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the different hydrological condition between the deep and shallow groundwater sites resulting from the
capillary fringe effect.

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A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

Fig. 8. Conceptual description of the development of intermediate storage/porosity as explained by contact point theory.

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

2000). Therefore, although the matrix is saturated, the

intermediate and fracture porosities will be empty.
Water flow will initially recharge through the
fine matrix porosity. Only when the hydraulic
conductivity of the matrix is exceeded will the
intermediate porosity fill, and subsequently only
when the hydraulic conductivity of the intermediate
porosity is exceeded will the vertical fractures begin
operating, first as thin-film flow and then as full
fracture flow.
Recharge drainage fluxes, which might move
quickly through the upper chalk horizons, will be
attenuated as the intermediate storage sites are filled.
Not only will there be a delay in the travel time down
the profile of peak drainage flux following peak
rainfall, but this will also result in an overall reduction
in drainage flux down the profile. So, although some
vertical preferential flow in the chalk horizons closest
to the soil occurs, the attenuation in water flux at depth
means the hydraulic conductivity of the chalk matrix
is sufficient to transmit the recharging water. Consequently, the fracture porosity does not need to operate.
At shallow groundwater sites (e.g. dry valley
bottoms) the impact of the capillary fringe on the
chalk profile above the water table is far more
significant. Fig. 7 shows how, in addition to the
matrix porosity, the intermediate porosity may be
largely water-filled resulting in reduced storage sites
for vertical drainage fluxes in response to rainfall.
This means that the unsaturated profile will quickly
wet up in response to vertical drainage fluxes to a
point where both the matrix porosity and intermediate
porosity are water-filled. Any further drainage fluxes,
which exceed the hydraulic conductivity of the chalk
matrix and intermediate porosity, will subsequently
move rapidly to the groundwater along fracture
pathways.
4.5. Intermediate chalk storage porosity
Hodnett and Bell (1990) described how the contact
area within horizontally separated chalk peds would
form a bottleneck in hydraulic connectivity and so
would be the first loci to wet up and exhibit thin-film
preferential behaviour. This localised wetting at
contact points is schematically described in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8(a) shows how at low drainage fluxes the
hydraulic conductivity at the contact points is

135

sufficient to transmit the water downward. As the

drainage flux increases, the small contact area
becomes restrictive to vertical water movement.
Consequently, thin water films develop at the contact
points (Fig. 8(b)) to accommodate the increased
vertical water fluxes. These water films increase in
thickness (Fig. 8(c)) to increase the hydraulic
conductivity by increasing the cross-sectional waterfilled porosity thereby reducing tortuosity of flow
pathways. When the horizontal fracture openings are
water-filled, but vertical fractures are empty, the
vertical water flux through the system will be equal to
the maximum matrix conductivity. Any further
increase in drainage flux will invoke vertical thin
film and fracture flow pathways. Hence, contact
point theory can describe the generation of effective
storage sites, in a dual porosity system, that are
intermediate between the fine matrix porosity and
the much greater fracture pore sizes. Since contact
point theory explains intermediate storage as the
partial filling of fractures, this storage is very difficult
to quantify using established water release characteristic and pore size distribution measurements.
Recently, Price et al. (2000) described water
storage sites in the irregularities on chalk fracture
surfaces as an additional storage component to the
traditional chalk dual porosity concept. Along with
micro-fractures, this surface storage can also represent a pore size that is intermediate to the fracture
and matrix porosities in addition to the contact point
storage described above.

5. Conclusions
Results from this study show how groundwater
recharge processes can be very different depending on
the depth to the water table. Preferential fracture flow
was observed at a shallow groundwater site (, 4 m
depth), whilst for the same storm the recharge
pathways, where the groundwater was deeper
(, 18 m), were through the chalk matrix only. The
different recharge processes observed resulted from
the capillary fringe effect on intermediate storage
sites in the unsaturated zone above the water table.
These intermediate storage sites on chalk surfaces
and at contact points at the shallow groundwater site
were largely water-filled and therefore had a reduced

136

A.H. Haria et al. / Journal of Hydrology 275 (2003) 122137

capacity for accommodating incoming water fluxes

when compared to the deep groundwater sites. The
shallow unsaturated profile rapidly reached potentials
close to saturation resulting in preferential pathways
operating at 3.0 m depth. Recharge fluxes where the
groundwater was deeper were attenuated as they were
held and then slowly released from similar intermediate storage sites. Consequently, during this
study, the recharge fluxes at 3.0 m depth over a deep
groundwater site never reached potentials where the
hydraulic conductivity of the chalk matrix was
exceeded, and so the conditions for preferential flow
were never reached.
Shallow groundwater sites are more likely to
demonstrate preferential water and solute transport
and therefore represent areas likely to pose the greatest
risk of groundwater contamination. Bromide tracer
analysis was used in an attempt to quantify the amount
of pesticide that might travel by preferential routes to
the groundwater at these sites. Calculations suggested
that approximately 0.1% of the applied pesticide
reached the groundwater preferentially in the 1996 7
crop season. Worst-case estimates over the same period
indicated no more than about 0.2% of the applied
pesticide reached the groundwater by preferential flow
paths at the shallow groundwater site in this study.
This paper highlights the complex relationship
between the groundwater and unsaturated zone
hydrological processes. It is very difficult to differentiate and draw clear distinctions between the two
zones with each impacting on the other in very
intricate ways. The resulting processes of recharge
and solute transport to shallow groundwater systems
are thus poorly understood and require more research
to further elucidate this important issue which has
been shown, in this paper, to potentially enhance the
contamination risk of a chalk aquifer.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank NERC for supporting
this work. The authors also thank Andy Dixon for
borehole installation and discussions on the hydrogeology of the site, and J.D. Cooper for his
invaluable experience of chalk gleaned through
countless discussions. The authors are grateful to
the Instruments Section at CEH Wallingford for

their expertise and assistance in field instrumentation, and to Site Services for providing suitable
support. Thanks are also given to the chemists at
Wallingford for their analysis of the bromide
samples and the British Geological Survey (BGS)
for providing groundwater level data. Finally, the
authors acknowledge the assistance given by the
farm manager that was vital to the success of this
study.

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