\ ( ..

- \~C:Zt;- <~E

I~

~:<':.. <1'C\C:'~"

!11:* \,\, c \, 14. c-\\c, ,,,.,

NORMAL DESIGN

2.1 General
In general, a composite Golunni must be designed for the ultimate Iinxit state. For sumctoral
adequacy, the internal forces and moments resulting from the most unfavourable load
combination should not exceed the design resistances of the composite cross-sections. While
local buckling of the steel sections may be 61niiinated, the reduction in the compression
resistance of the composite columni due to overall buckling should be allowed for, together with
the effects of residual stresses and lintial imperfections. Moreover, the second order effects in
slender coluinns, as well as the effect of creep and shankage of concrete under long-tenn
loading, must be considered if they are significant. The reduction of flexoral stiffness due to
cracking of the concrete in the tension area should also be considered. These are provided for

either explicitly, or empiricalIy, in prEN 1994-I-I: 1994'"' (EC4-I-I).

2.2 Material properties

2.2. , Hot rolled structural steel

Normnal values of the yield stress I, , and the ultimate tensile stress I, , for structural steel are
presented in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1 Mechanical properties of Celsius Sections
Nominal steel grade

Nominal thickness of element t (min)

to

t:!^ 40 min

BS EN 1002,0-1

40 mm < ts; 100 min

I! (N/min')

j, (N/min')

I} (N/mm')

I, (N/min')

S 275

275

430

255

410

S 355

355

510

335

490

Design values of other coefficients for the steel sections are given as follows:
210 000 NIInm2

Modulus of elasticity

G,

Shear modulus

'a

Poisson's ratio

0.3

P,

Density

785 0 kg/in3

2(I + ^,, )

2.2.2 Structural concrete

Concrete strengths are based on the characteristic cylinder strengths I, , measured at 28 days in

accordance with Clause 3.1.2.2, of DD ET. IV 1992-I-I: 1992"" (EC2-I-I). The different
strength classes, and the associated cube strengths, given by this Eurocode are presented in
Table 2.2 below. Classification grades of concrete, such as C20/25, refer to the cylinder/cube
strength at the specified age.
For nomial weight concrete, the mean tensile strength I. im and the secant modulus of elasticity
E, , , for short-terni loading are also given in Table 2.2. The effect of creep and shamkage of
concrete may be significant under long-terni loading in some cases. As will be discussed in
9

Section 2.6.2, provision is given within EC4-I-I"" to reduce the secant modulus of elasticity,
depending on the proportion of penmanent load acting on the colornn.
The density of structural concrete is assumed to be 2400 kg/in' for plain, umeinforced, concrete
and 2500 kg/in' for reinforced concrete.
Table 2.2 Characteristic compressive strength I^k (cylinders), mean tensile strength
fatm and secant modulus of elasticity Eom for structural concrete
C20125 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60

Strength class of
concrete

I^k (N/min')
161m (N/mm')

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

2.2

2.6

2.9

3.2

3.5

38

4.1

E. , (N/min')

29000

30500

32000

33500

35000

36000

37000

2.2.3 Steel reinforcement bars

In the UK, steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete should confonn to BS 4449:1997'"'. DD

ET*TV 10080: 1996"" which is Gunently at the draft for development stage, will eventually
replace this British Standard. However, the 1997 edition of BS 4449 has been revised
considerably compared to its earlier versions, to bring it into line with the requirements of EC2-

I-I' '. The properties most frequently required in design calculations are referred to in Clause
3.2 of EC2-I-I; types of reinforcement steel are classified as follows:
. High (class H) or nonnal (class N), according to ductility characteristics.
. Plain smooth or, ribbed bars, according to surface characteristics.

Steel grades that should be used in construction are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Characteristic yield strength 13k, ducti/ity requirements and modulus of
elasticity Es of reinforcing steel
BS 4449: 1997'"'

Reinforcing

DD ENV I 0080: I 996120i

steel standard
Name

460A (class N)

at maximum

460B (class H)

B500A (class N)

460

I;k (N/mm')
Total elongation
2.5

50

12

14

force (%)
Elongation at
fracture (%)
E, (N/min')

B500B (class H)

500

2.5

210000t

5.0

210000j'

+ According to EC4-1-1
As can be seen from Table 2.3, apart from the obvious difference in the characteristic yield

strength I;,, between reinforcing steels complying with BS 4449:1997"" and DD ENV 10080:
1996"" BS 4449 also specifies a minimum elongation at fracture: thereby guaranteeing the
length of the plastic defonnation plateau. Forthennore, in the 1997 edition of BS 4449, the
minimum elongation at fracture of 14%, for 460B steel, is higher than the 12% requirement for
this yidd strength, given in earlier versions of this code of practice. A graphical representation
of the difference in the elongation requirements for these two standards is shown in the stressstrain curve in Figure 2.1.

10

co
In
co
.

a^

I St rain

Figure 2.1

Total elongation at

Minimum elongation

maxim urn force 8 k

at fracture

Elongation limits for steel reinforcement bars

It should be noted, however, that although the ductility of reinforcing bars has a significant

effect on the behaviour of continuous composite beams"" this property is of little significance
with respect to the design of composite columns at ambient temperature. Concrete filled hollow
sections may be used without any reinforcement, except for reasons of fire resistance (see
Section 3).

2.3 Partial safety factors

National authorities are free to select appropriate values for partial safety factors for loads and
materials, and substitute them for 'boxed' values in the Eurocodes. The boxed values and the

in<. National Application Document (NAD) values are:

Loads:

EC4-,-, 'boxed' values

UK NAD

Imposed (variable) load, To

1.50

1.50

Dead (permanent) load, yG

1.35

1.35

Steel, y,

1.4 O

1.05

Concrete, y.

1.50

1.50

Reinforcement, y,

1.15

1.15

Materials:

2.4 Basis of design method

in EC4-1-1, isolated collnnns are defined as compression members that are integral parts of a
braced or non-sway frame but which are considered to be isolated for design purposes.

Definitions of non-sway structures are given in EC2-I-1''" as follows:

o

Structores or structural elements, with or without bracing elements, for which the influence
of displacements of the connections upon the design moments and forces may be neglected,
are classified as non-sway. Otherwise, they are classified as sway.
11

Braced building structores, where substantial shear walls or core structures provide the
bracing, may be assumed to be non-sway

Frames may be classified as non-sway if the first order displacements of the connections do
not increase the effects of actions calculated without considering these displacements by
more than 10%. In general, it is sufficient to consider only the relevant bending moments
due to these second-order effects

A sinxilar definition of a non-sway frame in DD ENV 1993-I-I: 1992"" (EC3-I-I) is also given
for reference

. A frame may be classified as non-sway if its response to in-plane horizontal forces is

sufficiently stiff for it to be acceptably accurate to neglect any additional internal forces or
moments arising from horizontal displacements of its nodes.
Two methods of design for isolated composite colunms in braced or, non-sway frames are given
within EC4- I - I :

2.4. , General design method

This comprehensive method is used for composite colornns with non-symmetrical or nonrunfonn cross-section over the coluinn length. It is also used for composite collirnns of doubly
synnnetrical, and unifonn cross-section over the column height, when the 11nitts of applicability
for the simplified design method are not satisfied (see Section 2.5). in these circumstances,
some of the important design issues which should be considered using the general method, are
as follows

. geometrical and material non-linearity;

. second order effects (on slender collirmis);
. creep and shrinkage of the concrete under long-tenn loading;
. contribution of the tensile strengtti of the concrete between cracks;
. imperfections for the calculation of internal forces and moments about both axes;
. distribution of internal forces and moments between the steel section and the concrete by
means of a clearly defined load path;
. transfer of longitudinal shear stress at the interface between the steel section and the
concrete under large transverse shear; and
. chemical bond and friction together with mechanical shear connection if necessary
in order to allow for these design considerations, it is necessary to use sophisticated computer
software, which operate with both geometrical and material non-linearity. in general, the design
effort is considerable. Thus, this method is not preferred for use in practical design, and is
outside the scope of this publication.

2.4.2 Simplified design method

This method is used for composite columns of doubly syinmetrical and uniform cross-section
over the coluinn height. It is based on certain assumptions relating to the geometrical
configurations of the composite cross-sections. Moreover, it also adopts the European buckling
curves for steel colutims as the basis of colorim buckling design. The lintts of applicability of
this method givenin EC4-1-1 are also listed in Section 2.5; when the Innits are not satisfied, the
above general design method should be used
12

It should be noted that this method is fomTulated in such a way that only hand calculation is
required in practical design. The simplified design method is presented in detail within this
publication. The calculation procedure is in six parts, as follows:
(i)

Check that the litints of the simplified design method are satisfied.

(ii) Calculate the properties of the cross-section

(in) Calculate the buckling resistance of the colornn
(iv)

Check whether second-order effects should be considered

(v)

Calculate the effect of interaction between axial load and bending.

(vi) Calculate the longitudinal and transverse shear

2.5 Restrictions on the simplified design method

The application of the simplified design method is subject to various restrictions, as follows:
(a) The columni is doubly-sytrunetrical and is of runfonn cross-section over the height of the
column

(b) The steel contribution ratio 6 must satisfy the following conditions:
0.2 ^ 6 :!;; 0.9

If 6 is less than 0.2, the column may be designed according to EC2-I-1''". If 6 is larger
than 0.9, the concrete is ignored in the calculations, and the colorim is designed as a bare
steel section.

(c)

The maximum non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio of the composite coluinn 2, is lintted

to 2.0

(co

The maximum amount of longitudinal reinforcement that can be considered in the

analysis is 6% of the concrete area. However, if design for fire resistance is not needed,

according to prEN 1994-I-I: 2001'"' no nullimum amount of reinforcement is nomially

necessary within a filled SHS column; in other words:
A,
14.

O% :I^ = :^ 6.0%.

2.6 Properties of cross-section

2.6. , Squash (plastic) resistance, Npi, Rd
The plastic resistance, to compression, of a composite cross-section represents the maximum
load that can be applied to a short composite colornn. It is important to recognize that concrete
filled circular hollow sections exhibit enhanced resistance due to the triaxial containment

effects. Concrete filled rectangular sections (R. HS) do not achieve such enhancement
Local buckling of steel ho"ow sections
Before the plastic resistance of the concrete filled hollow section is calculated, it should be
insured that local buckling of the steel does not occur. To prevent premature local buckling, the

width to thickness ratio of the steel section in compression must satisfy the following jintits:
For concrete filled rectangular hollow sections (Rl{S)
13

h
- ^ 528

For concrete filled circular hollow sections (CHS)

- ^ 908'

where:

is the wallthickness of the steel hollow section in rum.

h

is the larger outer dimension of the rectangular hollow section in nun

is the outer diameter of the circular hollow section in nun.

235

I,
I, is the yield strength of the steel section in N/nun'.
Local buckling in some rectangular hollow sections with large h/t ratios may be critical. No
specific design reconrrnendation is given within EC4-1-1, and design using sections which
exceed the local buckling 11ntits should be verified by tests
Concrete filled rectangular hollow sections (RHS)
The plastic resistance of a concrete filled rectangular hollow section (i. e. , the so-called "squash
load") is given by the sinn of the resistances of the components as follows:

N _ '1, , 41;, , A. /;^

I,

I,

I.

where:

is the area of the steel section.

A,
A,

is the area of the reinforcement.

I,

is the yield strengtti of the steel section

I;*
Ich

is the characteristic yield strength of the steel reinforcement bars

is the area of the concrete.

is the characteristic compressive strength (cylinder) of the concrete.

For cos^ of a, ression 1:1- "* and I'*I, am muont^d us nest at^^gth^ of th^ us cotiv^
I, I,

materials in the remainder of Section 2 as: I, , I;, and I;, respectively. As a result of this
simplification, the above equation for the plastic resistance of the composite column, can be
rewritten in the following compact fonn

N, ,,, = 41, , + 41;, + A. /;,

Concrete filled circular hollow sections (CHS)
For composite columns with concrete filled circular hollow sections, the increased resistance of
concrete due to the confining effect of the circular hollow section may be included. This
restraint to transverse strain in a tree dimensional confinement results in increased concrete
14

resistance. At the same time, circular tensile stresses in the circular hollow section also arise,
which reduce its axial resistance.

In general, the resistance of a concrete filled circular hollow section to compression may
increase by up to 15% under simple axial loads when the effect of in-axial confinement is
considered. However, this effect on the resistance enhancement of concrete depends also on the
SIGndemess of the composite colormis and is significant only in stocky Golurnns. For composite

colornns with a non-dimensional SIGndemess of, {. > 0.5 (where 2, is defined in Section 2.7),
this effect should be neglected and the plastic resistance assessed as for rectangular hollow
sections.

in addition, further linear interpolation is necessary to take account of any effective load
eccentricities. However, the eccentricity, e of the applied load may not exceed the value d/10,
where d is the outer diameter of the circular hoUow section.

The eccentricity, e is defined as follows

M
N
where:

Msd is the maximum d, g^Ig!I moment (second order effects are ignored)
N, , is the d, ::^!go, applied load.
The plastic resistance of a concrete filled circular hollow section may be obtained as foHows

N, ,,, = ,A, ,71,,, +,.

41;, + 4.di;kj
1;, 11+ 'A I7:'
where

is the wall thickness of the steelhollow section in nun

,, _*,,, I"I ,; for 0< e :!s d/10

00,101
n,, _-n,,, ,,,,_
+(I-nan)~I
n =O

' I fore>d/10

n2 ' 1.0

The basic values 7710 and 7720 depend on the non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio A, , and are
defined as follows:

77 = 4.9 - 18,521' + 17:1:2

but 77102: O

ty, , ^ 0. ^5(3 + ^^)

but 7720 ^ 1.0

15

If the eccentricity e exceeds the value d/10, or if the non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio A,
exceeds the value 0.5, then 77, , = 0 and n20 = 1.0 . Table 2.4 gives the basic values 77,0 and
7720 for different values of A, .

Table 2.4 Basic values of 7710 and 7720 to allow for the effect of triaxial confinement in
concrete filled circular hollow sections
Nori-dimensional
o

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

z: 0.5

7710

4.90

3.22

1.88

0.88

022

7720

0.75

080

0.85

090

095

4.00

slenderness ratio ,{.

2.6.2 Effective flexurel stiffness

Short-term loading

The effective flexoral stiffiiess of the composite colort111 (E/), is obtained from adding the up
the flexoral stiffiiesses of the individual components of the cross-section:

(E/I - E, I, + E/, + 0.6E. /.

where:

I , I, and I are the second moment of area, about the appropriate axis of bending, for the
steel section, the reinforcement and the concrete (assumed uricracked)
respectively.

E and E, are the elastic inoduli for the structural steel and the reinforcement respectively.
0.6E^.

cm

is the effective stif;filess of the concrete component (the 0.6 factor is an

empirical multiplier, which has been deterTinned from a calibration exercise, to
give good agreement with test results).
is the secant modulus of elasticity for structural concrete; see Table 2.2.

Long-term loading
For composite colunms under long-tenn loading, the creep and shankage of concrete will cause
a reduction in the effective elastic withess of the composite column, thereby reducing the
buckling resistance. However, this effect is only significant for slender columns; as a simple
rule, the effect of long-terni loading should be considered if the buckling length to depth ratio of
a composite colornn exceeds 15.
If the eccentricity of loading (see Section 2.6. I) is more than twice the cross-section dimension,
the effect on the applied bending moment distribution caused by increased deflections, due to
creep and shankage of the concrete, will be very small. Consequently, it may be neglected and
no provision for long-term loading is necessary. Moreover, no provision is necessary if the nondimensional SIGndemess I. of the composite colornn is less than the Iiniiting values given
within Table 2.5 below.

16

Table 2.5

Limiting values of A, for long-term loading

Frame type

Braced nori-sway frame

Concrete filled hollow sections

Sway frames and/or

unbraced frames

O. 8

O. 5

(I- 6)

(I- 6)

The steel contribution factor a, given in Table 2.5 above, is defined as follows:

11"Iyd
N, I, Rd
If the eccentricity of loading is less than twice the cross-section dimension and the non-

dimensional SIGndemess I. of the composite coluinn is less than the limiting values given
within Table 2.5, the effect of creep and shrinkage of concrete should be allowed for by
reducing the effective elastic modulus of the concrete to the value

^- - f -I
where:

is the ^,^!^ applied load

NG, sd is the part of the d, ^!g!! load penmanently acting on the colornn
Table 2.5 also allows the effect of long-tenn loading to be ignored for concrete filled bonow

sections with ,{. ^ 2.0 , provided that 6 is greater than 0.6 for braced (or non-sway) colorrms,
and 0.75 for unbraced (and'or sway) columns.

2.7 Column buckling resistance

The plastic resistance to compression of a composite cross-section N ,,,, represents the
maximum load that can be applied to a short collnnn. However, for slender colornns, with low
elastic critical load, overall buckling considerations may be more significant.
In Figure 2.2(b), the buckling resistance of a colornnis expressed as a proportion x of the plastic
resistance to compression Npj, R , thereby non-dimensionialising the vertical axis compared to
Figure 2.2(a). The horizontal axis may be non-dimensionalised sirntlarly by use of the EUler
buckling load N. , as is also shown in Figure 2.2(b)
By incorporating the effects of both residual stresses and geometric imperfections, the European
buckling curves may be drawn on this basis as shown in Figure 2.2(c). These curves fomi the
basis of colorim buckling design for both steel and composite Goluinns

17

N
_N

x '77;
NGr

yr SIendemess

(a)
X'

I^-

(b)

NRd

In:^~d
PI, Rd

1.00

b
C

0.2

1.0

(c)

Figure 2.2

2.0

^-I^'

(a) Idealised column buckling curve, (b) Non-dimensionalised column

buckling curve, (0) European buckling curves according to EC3-7-7

The buckling resistance is calculated from the plastic resistance and the EUler (elastic) critical

load using the EC3-1-1"" buckling curve 'a' (N. B. at the fire limit state, curve 'c' is used due to
its close agreement with the results from fire tests; see Section O). The EUler buckling load is
given by:
N,

^'(E/).
12

where:

(E/), is the effective elastic flexoral stiffiiess of the composite column (see Section 26.2).
is the buckling length of the column.

EC4-1-1 suggests that the buckling length I of an isolated non-sway composite column may
conservativeIy be taken as equal to its system length L. Alternatively, the buclding 16ngtti may
be detennined using Annex E of EC3-I-I.
The non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio is given by:
_ N

I, = -9--

Nor
18

where:

N I, R is the plastic resistance of the composite cross-section to compression, according to

Section 2.6. I, with I, =I, =I. =1.0.
The resistance of a composite column in axial compression (buckling load) is obtained from:

NRd ' X. N, j. in
where:

x is the reduction coefficient for buckling obtained from curve 'a' of EC3-I-I, and is
dependant on the non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio A, .
The reduction factor may be determined from
but I :^ I .O

N^ , - it, I'~ '

where:

dy -,.^"+^(^-,.^)+ipi
or is an imperfection parameter depending on the buckling curve considered
Relevent Buckling Curves andlmperfection Factors
According to prEN 1994-I-I, circular or rectangular hollow section colornns filled with plain
concrete or containing up to 3% reinforcement can be designed using buckling curve 'a' with an
imperfection factor, or, = 0.21. However, concrete filled sections containing between 3% to 4%
reinforcement must be designed using buckling curve 'b' with an imperfection factor, or, = 0.34
(see Figure 2.3 co and (b) below).
In addition, concrete filled circular hollow section colunms as shown in Figure 2.3(c) containing
an additional open Section used as primary steel can also be designed as a composite section
using buckling curve 'b' with an imperfection factor, or, = 0.34

..

. .

..\

flit*

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.3 Typical column cross-sections

19

(c)

Although not explicitly stated, Clause 4.8.3.2 of EC4-I-I, while defining the partial safety
factors implies that isolated non-sway composite columns need not be checked for buckling, if
any of the following conditions is satisfied

(1) the axial force in the columnis less than 0.1N, , ; or

(ii) the non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio I. is less than 0.2

2.8 Analysis of bending moments due to second-order

effects
Under the action of the design axial load N, , on a column with an initial imperfection e, , as
shown in Figure 2.4, there will be a maximum internal moment of N, ,e, . It is important to note
that this 'second order moment', or 'imperfection moment', does not need to be considered
separately, as its effect on the buckling resistance of the composite colunm is already accounted
for in the European buckling curves as shown in Figure 2.2(c).

,, 1_N s d

^..

Figure 2.4 Initially imperfect column under axial compression

However, in addition to axial forces, a composite Goluinn may be also subject to end moments
as a consequence of transverse loads acting on it or, because the composite coluinn is a part of a
frame. The moments and displacements obtained lintially are referred to as 'first order' values
For slender colornns, the 'first order' displacements may be significant and additional, or
'second order' bending moments may be induced under the actions of the applied loads. As a
simple rule, the second order effects should be considered if the buckling length to depth ratio
of a composite colorrm exceeds 15.
The second order effects on bending moments for isolated nori-sway columns should be
considered if both of the following conditions are satisfied
I)

_;:^-- > 0. I

Nor
where:

Nsd

is the design applied load

N, ,

is the EUler buckling load

2) it ^ 0.2(2 - ")
where:

I.

is the non-dimensional SIGndemess ratio

is the ratio of the smaller to the larger Grid moment (see Figure 2.5). If there is
any transverse loading, r should be taken as 1.0

20

Msd

-I ^ r ^1.1

rMsd

Figure 2.5 Ratio r of the end moments

The second order effects in an isolated non-sway colornn may be allowed for by modifying the

maximum first-order bending moment Min, ,,,, , with a correction factor k, which is defined as
follows

k-

z: 1.0

A4, ,, ff
where:

is the design applied load

Nsd
Nor, of

is the elastic critical load of the composite colornn based on the system length, L, and

a reduced design value of effective stillfi, .ess (El)e, n

where:

(E1)., 11 ' 0.9(EJ, + E*I, + 0.5E. ,I, )

is the equivalent moment factor.
For coluTnns with transverse loading within the columni length, the value for 13 should be taken
as 1.0. For pure Grid moments, ^ can be detennined as follows:
13 = 0.66 + 0,441

but ^ ^ 0.44

2.9 Combined compression and bending

The design for a composite coluinn subjected to combined compression and bending is carried
out in stages as follows
. The composite colorrm is isolated from the framework, and the end moments, which result
from the analysis of the system as a whole, are taken to act on the colornn under
consideration. Internal moments, and forces within the Golunm length, are detennined from
the structural consideration of end moments, axial and transverse loads

. For each axis of syinmetry, the buckling resistance to compression should be checked with
the relevant non-dimensional SIGndemess of the composite colunm
. In the presence of applied moment about one particular axis e. g. , the y-y axis, the moment
resistance of the composite cross-section should be checked with the relevant non-

dimensional SIGndemess of the composite colornn i. e. , 11, , instead of ,1. ,, although A. , may
be larger, and thus more critical, than I. .
. For slender colornns (see Table 2.5 and Section 2.8), both the effect of long-tenn loading
and the second-order effects are included

21

It should be noted that, by adopting the EC4-I-1''" simplified method, imperfections within the
column length need not be considered as they are taken account of in the relevant buckling
curve when detemiining the buckling resistance of the colonni (see Section 2.7).

2.9. , Combined compression and uni-axial bending

In EC4-I-I"", the resistance of a composite colornn subjected to combined compression and

bending is detemxined from an interaction curve. For a bare steel section, the interaction carve is
characterised by a continuous reduction of the moment resistance with a corresponding increase
in axial load.

NRd

7^^

1.0

A. ~O

N
M
,

I. O

MRd

7, ^
Figure 2.6 Interaction curve for a composite column sub^^cted to compression and
uni-axial bending
However, as shown from the interaction curve in Figure 2.6: a short composite columni may
exhibit an increase in moment resistance under axial load. The reason for this increase is that,

under some favourable conditions, the compressive axial load prevents concrete cracking, and
therefore makes the cross-section of a short composite colornn more effective in resisting
moments.

An interaction curve between compressive axial load and moment can be obtained for a short
composite colurnn by considering several possible positions of the neutral axis within the crosssection, and detennining the internal forces and moments from the resulting plastic stress
blocks. For the simplified method given within EC4-I-I, sufficient accuracy in estimating the
effects of combined compression and bending may be found by constructing the interaction
curve, shown in Figure 2.7, from 4 or 5 points.

22

Npi, Rd

A
----

E
^

~~ C

N pin, Rd

I\
I \
I \
I \

I, ^N pin, Rd

D
I I

I11
1/1

B'I I
Mpi, Rd Minax, Rd M
Figure 2.7

Interaction curve with 11hear approximation

For composite collnnns, which are doubly symmetrical and of a runfonn cross-section over their

height, the foUowing approach given in EC4-I-1' ', and the inc NAD, may be adopted.
Figure 2.8 shows the plastic stress distributions within the cross-section of a concrete filled ERS
at point A, B, C, D and E of the interaction curve given in Figure 2.7. The significance of each
of these points are as follows:
. Point A indicates the plastic resistance of the cross-section to compression, in the absence
of an applied bending moment:

NA ' N I, M
MA ' O
. Point B corresponds to the plastic moment resistance of the cross-section, in the absence of
an applied axial load:
NB ' O

MB ' M, I, M
. At point C, the axial compression and moment resistance of the composite Golurmi are
given as:

Nc = N, ,, Rd (or N. in) = A. fad

Mc = M, I, M

23

Point A
I

fcd

fsd

fyd

1/1

'-!ypl.
Rd
No moment

1/1

. I 4'6"
Point B

fcd

fsd

fyd

I, ' ,'

_ MB' M PI, .Rd

zero axial force

+
.

Point C
11

fcd

fsd

fyd

1/1
I

M c:' M PI, Rd

I
.

Nc= N c, Rd

Point D

fcd

fsd

fyd

.10
I

Mj^ M max, Rd

+
.

N
, N c, ^Rd
ND'

Point E
I, ' ,'
1/1

fcd

fyd

h/2

fsd
ME
NE

I ~ ^~ ~

h4

(N. B. , the moment resistance Minax. Rd, at point D, is not allowed in the UK NAD)

Figure 2.8

Stress distributions for the points on the interaction curve for concrete filled

hollow sections, according to EC4-7.17'I

The expressions may be obtained by combining the stress distributions of the cross-section
at points B and C; the compression area of the concrete at point B is equal to the tension
area of the concrete at point C. The moment resistance at point C is equal to that at point B,
since the stress resultants from the additionally compressed parts cancel one another out in
the central region of the cross-section. However, these additionally compressed regions
create an internal axial force, which is equal to the plastic resistance to compression of the

concrete alone i. e. , N, ,, Rd Or N, ,Rd .

At point D, the plastic neutral axis coincides with the centi. oid of the cross-section, and the
resulting axial forceis halfofthe value at point C, i. e. :

ND ' N, m, Rd I2
MD = Min, *, Rd
24

Generally, point D is less than point C in design

. Point E is rind-way between A and C, and is often required for highly non-linear interaction
curves, in order to achieve a better a better approximation. For concrete filled structural
hollow sections, the use of point E will yield a more econonxical design; however, much
more calculation effort is required. Thus, to retain simplicity, point E tends not to be used
According to the inc NAD, the additional moment resistance of the composite cross-section
(indicated by point D within Figure 2.7), should not be taken account of in design. Therefore, in
the UK, an interaction curve consisting of A-C-B or A-E-C-B may only be considered
The plastic moment resistance of a concrete filled hollow section may be evaluated as follows

'd, M ' I;,,(pyro ~ \, an) + 0,571, (IP, . - IP, on) + I;d(11',, - IP, ,,)
where

I, , , I;, , I;,

am IL I;^, an, I" re, adjv. I

JP
, 11',
pa, ,IP
PC
, ps

are the plastic section inoduli for the steel section, the concrete of the

I,

I,

I,

composite cross-section (assumed to be uricracked) and the

reinforcement respectively.
IPpan
, 17
,11',
, PCn
, pSn

are the plastic section inoduli of the corresponding components within

the region of 2h from the centre-line of the composite cross-section.

The values of the relevant parameters in the above equation for concrete filled hoUow sections
are:

Rectangular hollow sections

_ (b - 2, Xh - 20'

17

-I -r (4-7:1--t-11 ~',

where: I is the internal radius of the corners to the hollow section

Circular hollow sections

(d - 20'

17

W,

In general, for both types of section:

h,

:=

A. I. , - A, , (21;, - I. , )
261. , + 4t 21, , - fad

where: A, is the area of reinforcing bars within the region of 2h from the centre-line of the
composite cross-section

For rectangular borrow sections, it can be explicitly stated that

W, an = 2t. h,
25

IP. - (b - 20h -17, ,

Sirntlar simple explicit equations cannot be witten for circular sections. However, the above
equations can be conservativeIy applied to circular sections with a high accuracy by substituting
diameter d for breadth b

For the calculation of the resistances at the additional point E, NE, Rd and ME, Rd (see above),
the neutral axis is located between h and the border of the section, so that

hE = 0.5h + 0.25h . Using rectangular hollow sections, the axial resistance of the coluinn for
this case is:

N, ,Rd ' b(hE ~ h, )I, d + 2 t(hE ~ h, X2f, d ~ I, d ) + A, E (21;, ~ I'd ) ' NomRd
where A, is the sinn of the areas of reinforcement lying in the additional compression region
between hE and h

The magnitude of ME, Rd is calculated from the above equations but with h, substituted for h,
in the values of \ and 17 . .

Again, the above equations can be applied to circular sections by substituting diameter d for
breadth b but may become highly over-conservative. In such circumstances it may be preferable
to simply apply a linear interpolation between points A and C

The principal for checking the composite cross-section under combined compression and urn-

axial bending, in accordance with EC4-I-I"" is illustrated graphicalIy in Figure 2.9. Firstly, the
resistance of the composite Golutnn under axial load is detennined in the absence of bending,

which is given by xN, ,,,, (see Section 2.7). The moment resistance of the composite colurnn
should then be checked with the relevant non-dimensional SIGndemess, which is in the sanie

plane of the applied moment. As mentioned earlier, the initial imperfections of Golunms have
been incorporated within the appropriate buckling curve, and no additional consideration of
geometticalimperfections is necessary in the evaluation of bending moments within the column
height.
Consider the interaction curves for combined compression and uni-axial bending shown in

Figure 2.9. Under an applied force N, , equal to xN, I, Rd , the horizontal coordinate 11kM, I, Rd
represents the second order moment due to imperfections within the columni, otherwise known
as the 'imperfection moment'. It is important to recognise that the moment resistance of the
colornn has been fully utilised in the presence of the imperfection moment; the colornn,
therefore, cannot resist any additional applied moment. Moreover, the influence of the

imperfections decreases when the axial load ratio is less than x, and it is assumed to vary
linearly between I and x. For an axial load ratio less than I, , the effect of imperfections is
neglected.

It is important to note that the value ,21' accounts for the fact that the influence of the
imperfections and that of the bending moment do not always act together unfavourably. For
collnnns with only end moments, z', may be detennined as follows:

, (I - ,")

"~ 4'
26

where I is the ratio of the small to the large end moment (see Figure 2.5).
If transverse loads occur within the colormi height, then r must be taken as unity and I is thus
equal to zero (i. e. , it coincides with the origin of the interaction curve shown in Figure 2.9).

NRd

NRd

79^

79^
Cross-section
interaction curve

1.0

1.0

,' I

____,:____I______
I

Xd

Xd

__r:__L_____
I

I
I

Xn

Xpm

ILL

Xn

I IL

B
o

F1k I'd 1.0

F1k

F'd

MRd

MRd

^;^;
(a)

Figure 2.9

1.0

T7^;
(b)

Interaction curve for compression and uni-axial bending using (a) the EC4i-I method, ' and to) the simplified method Ih the UK NAD

With a design axial load of N, , , the design axial load ratio I, is defined as foUows:

Id = NsdIN, I, Rd
By reading off the horizontal distance from the interaction curve (see Figure 2.9), the moment
resistance ratio F1 may be obtained, and the moment resistance of the composite Golunni under
combined compression and run-axial bending may be evaluated. Details of the UK NAD
method for calculating F1, and its limitations, are discussed below.

EC4-I-I"" considers that the design is adequate when the following condition is satisfied:
Msd ^ 0,911M I, Rd
where:

is the design bending moment, which may be factored to allow for second-order effects,
if necessary (see Section 2.8).

IL

is the moment resistance ratio obtained from the interaction curve.

M I, Rd is the plastic moment resistance of the composite cross section.

The interaction curve shown in Figure 2.9 has been deterTrimed without considering the strain
litnttations within the concrete. Hence the moments, including second-order effects (if

necessary), are calculated using the effective elastic flexoral stiffiiess (El). , and taking into
27

account the entire concrete area of the cross-section (i. e. , the concrete is uricracked).
Consequently, in order to allow for these simplifications, the 0.9 constant, shown in the above
equation, is applied to the moment resistance.
For concrete filled hollow sections, the interaction carve of A-E-C-B (shown in Figure 2.7) may
be preferred to A-C-B (shown in Figure 2.9(b)), as it will give a more econonxical design:
especially for columns with high axial load and low Grid moments (although much more
calculation effort is required). For a better approximation, the position of point E may be chosen
to be closer to point A rather than being rind-way between points A and C. For further

infonnation, refer to EC4-I-I"".

Requirements of the UK National App"cation Document (NAD)
The following additional requirements are specified in the U}<. NAD
. For colornns under combined compression and bending, the ratio I should be
detennjnedt24,251 as follows

(4) Concrete/med rectangular hollow sections

Providing the non-dimensional SIGndemess A. does not excess 1.0, the ratio Id ;^ Z' in
may be determined from the equation shown above. For values of ,^, in the range of 1.0 to
2.0, I = O
(ip Concrete/med circular or square hollow sections
The ratio I may be deterTinned from the equation shown above, with no limits place on
the non-dimensional SIGndemess ,I. .

. The design moment resistance, in combined compression and uni-axial bending, of a

composite colunm should not exceed the design plastic moment resistance M I, Rd ,
irrespective of the applied load N (i. e. , point D on the interaction curve shown in Figure 2.7
is not allowed)
Combined compression and uni-axial bending to the UK National Application
Document

In order to comply with the UK NAD, the moment resistance ratio F1, for a composite column
under combined compression and run-axial bending should be evaluated as follows:

(I-%, XI-I, )

FL

I~Z'pm Z ~I, )
-I

(I-IXX, ~I, )

I~Ripm I~I, )

When Id '' IPm

when

I'd ' IPm

where:

I is the axial resistance ratio due to the concrete, N Rd I N I, Rd

,;I'd is the axial resistance ratio, Nsd I N I, Rd
28

I is the reduction factor due to collmm buckling (see Section 2.7)

For concrete filled rectangular hollow sections

_ (I - ")

for ,I, < 1.0

=O

for 1.0 :!:^ I. ^ 2.0

Z', ' 'I

For concrete filled circular or square hollow sections

_ (I"I
- ")

I,

for A, ^ 2.0

The expression, for the moment resistance ratio 11, is greatly simplified by taking I = O as
foUows

F1

I ~ Id

~}^;)

_,_ all-I)

' I ~ I^,

when I'd 22 ,^I', in

when

Id ' IPm

The above expressions are obtained from a general consideration of the geometry of the UK
NAD interaction curve shown in Figure 2.9(b). The simplified expression for the moment

resistance ratio F1, is always conservative; since, by taking I, = O it is implied that I= 1.0 (i. e. ,
the end moments are equal, and constant over the coluinn length, see Figure 2.5).

2.9.2 Combined compression and bi-axial bending

For the design of a composite collunn under combined compression and bi-axial bending, the
axial resistance of the coluinn in the presence of bending moment for each axis, has to be
evaluated separately. In general, it will be obvious which of the axes is more likely to fail and
the imperfections need to be considered for this direction only: as shownin Figure 2.10. Ifitis
not obvious which plane is more critical, checks should be made on both planes.

29

NRd

NRd

79^

77^

1.0
X

1.0

Xd

Xd
I

Hz

F'z

Xn

ILk

1.0

Ltdl. O

MRd

MRd

7^;

7, I^

(a) Plane expected to fail, with

(b) Plane without consideration

of imperfections

consideration of imperfections

,,' 0.9 F, F1

MZ Rd

----J

7^^

IC)
Momentbending
interaction curve
or bi-axial

0,911
Fly

@
Z

Figure 2.10 Verification for combined compression and bi-axial bending

After the evaluation of the moment resistance ratios I! and I, for both axes, as described in
the previous section, the interaction of the moments must also be checked using the linear curve

shown in Figure 2.10 (c). This linear interaction curve is cut off at 0.91, and 0,911, . The

design moments, M an and M, ,,, , related to the respective plastic moment resistances, must
lie within the moment interaction curve.

EC4-I-I"" considers the checkis adequate when anthe following conditions are satisfied:
M
:I^ 0.9

,,, M, I, y, Rd
M z, Sd

^ 0.9

11, M, I, ,, in
M
and

M
+

^ 1.0

11, Mpi, y, Rd 1'"'PI, ", in

As it is only necessary to consider the effect of geometric imperfections in the critical plane of
the coluinn buckling, the moment resistance ratio FL in the other plane may be evaluated without
the consideration of imperfections, which is presented as follows:

30

F1

I ~Id
I~Iru
~ IPm

When Id ' IPm

= 1.0

when Id :^ Inn

These expressions are based on the simplified interaction curve, given in the in< NAD.

2.1 0 Longitudinal and transverse shear

In general, the applied internal forces and moments from a member connected to the ends of a

composite columni are distributed between the steel section and the concrete. EC4-I-I""
requires that adequate provision should be made for the distribution of these internal forces and
moments.

For structural hollow sections, the shear resistance between the steel section and the concrete is

achieved by both chenxical bond and friction at the interface. In these circumstances, the design
shear resistance, developing at the interface between the concrete and the inner wall of the steel

section, is limited to"": 0.40 NIInm' for a square or rectangular hollow section (RHS); and
0.55 NIIrun' for a circular hollow section (CHS).
For axialIy loaded colunms, it is usually found that this interface shear is sufficient to utilise the
combined strengths of both materials at the critical cross-section (rind-colunm height). For
columnis with significant end moments, a horizontal shear force is required, which demands the
development of longituchiial shear forces between the concrete and the steel.
Similarly, the design transverse shear forces may be assumed: to act on the steel section alone;
or to be shared between the steel section and the concrete. For the latter case, the shear force to

be resisted by the concrete must be assessed in accordance with EC2-I-I, whereas the shear
force to be resisted by the steel section may be checked according to von Mises yield criterion.
However, it is simpler in design to assume that the whole of the transverse shear force acts on
the steel alone. Figure 2.11 indicates the reduction in the design strength of the shear area (web)
that will occur within a steel section subjected to transverse shear stress.
fcd
I
I
,

fyd

I
I
I

fsd

red . fyd
+

Figure 2.11 Reduction of design strength of steel within shear area in the presence of
transverse shear stress

For design purposes, any reduction in the design steel strength in the shear area of the steel
section may be transfomied into a reduction in steel thickness. For a steel section under major
axis bending, the effective wall thicimess of the 'web' t in the presence of transverse shear
may be evaluated as follows:

31

'd"
w, d w

" - I^ - " 11

where:

a, Sd

is the design shear force to be resisted by the cross-section

PIARd

is the plastic resistance of the steel cross-section in shear = A =:is the shear area of the steel section

A,

For rectangular hollow sections of runfonn thickness

Load parallel to depth, h, A, = Ah I(b + h)
Load parallel to breadth, b, A, = Ab I(b + h)
For circular hollow sections and tubes of mmfonn thiclm. ess, A = 21 I it
However, no reduction in the web thic}aless is necessary when

'", sd < 0.5P, I, ,, in

Using the effective wall thickness of the 'web' I , of the steel hollow section, the moment
resistance of the composite cross-section may be evaluated using the same set of expressions
given within 2.91 : without any modification.
For simplicity, the division of the shear force between the hollow section and the concrete may
be neglected, and the design shear force is assumed to be resisted by the steel section alone

2.1 I Load introduction

Where a load is applied to a composite colornn, it must be ensured that the load is distributed
between the individual components of the cross-section in proportion to their design resistances
within a specified introduction length. For composite columns using SHS, this may be achieved
as follows

(i) No shear connection needs to be provided for load introduction through a cap plate, at the
top of a Goluinn, if the full interface between the concrete section and endplate is
permanently in compression: after due consideration of the effects of creep and shankage
Otherwise, the load introduction has to be verified according to (v). For concrete filled
circular hoUow sections, the effect caused by the confinement may be taken into account

for load introduction according to Section 2.61, but using the values 77 and 77 for ,^. =
O.

(11) If the cross-section of a cap-plate is only partially loaded (see Figure 2.12), loads may be
distributed with a ratio of 1:2.5, over the thiclmess of the end plate. The concrete stresses
should be limited then in the area of the effective load introduction area for concrete filled

hollow sections according to Figure 2.12, Figure 2.13 and (vi) below.
32

1:2.5

1:1

Steel

1:2.5

Concrete

1:1

Figure 2.12 Load dispersion through a locally loaded cap plate

(in) In absence of a more accurate method, when loads are introduced at an interniediate
position of an SHS length, the introduction length should be assumed not to exceed 2.5d,
where d is the nitnimurn transverse dimension in the case of concrete filled rectangular
hollow sections or the outside diameter of the colorTm for circular hoUow sections

(iv) Shear connectors should be provided in the load introduction area, and in areas with change
of cross-section, if a design shear strength at the interface between the steel and concrete
exceeds the values given in Section 2.10 viz. : 0.40 NIInm' for Ms; and 0.55 NIInm' for
CHS. The shear forces should be detennined from the change of sectional forces of the
steel or reinforced concrete section within the introduction length, where the sectional
forces should be datennined by plastic theory. If the loads are introduced only into the
concrete cross section, the values resulting from an elastic analysis considering creep and
shankage should be taken into account. At a beam connection position, it is necessary to
check that

For an 1<11S column: (I - 6)P, , I A, < 0.40 NITnm' with A, = 2.5db

For a CHS colornn: (I- 6)P. ,, I A, < 0.55 NIInm' with A, = 2.5itd' I4
where:

I'Sd

is the design shear load to be transferred to the column by a beam connection

is the steel contribution ratio

11,

is the usable shear area/connection at the concrete interface

is the breadth of RHS face at a shear connector.

is the minimum dimension of an RHS or diameter of a CHS

If load introduction would give rise to excessive interface shear stresses, then additional
shear stud connectors, or a through gusset plate (Figure 2.13), should be provided in the
load introduction area, to enable the additional load to be introduced into the concrete core

(v) Shear studs may be designed using the usual method given in EC4-I-I"", based on the
following assessment, namely that the design shear strength of a stud should be determined
as the lower of

33

^M -,-^11^^' "^),^,
or

'Rd = 0.29ud'10" "

with

^. o. 21(h/d)-11

for 3 ^ h/d ^ 4

o. = 1.0

for h/d > 4

where:

I, is the specified ultimate strength of the shear stud material (but not greater that 500
NIIrun2,
I, k

is the characteristic cylinder strength of the concrete.

E cm

is the secant modulus of the concrete as given in Table 2.2.

is the diameter of the shank of shear stud.

is the length of the shear stud within the concrete core

Y,

is a partial safety factor of 1.25.

N sd
A

A
_, r

,.S

.I_

^J

y.

T t.

o c Rd

^,.

INMsd
sd
t + 5t

o c, Rd :^ f yd

^^.
e

-^-

I
I

A1

Section A - A

T t,

Section B - B

Figure 2.13 Loadintroduction into a concrete core through a gusset plate

(vi) When a concrete filled circular or rectangular square hollow section is only partially loaded
by plate stiffeners at a cap colunm divider plate position (collmm section type A-A in
Figure 2.13), or from a gusset plate through the profile at an intennediate colunm length
position (section type B-B in Figure 2.13), the local design resistance strength of concrete
34

d, ,d under the gusset plate or stiffener, resulting from the sectional forces of the concrete
section, should be deteimned by:

O. R d ' I'd 1' ' 77.1 ~ '_ ,_ , ,_,,.

where:

71, andj:, are the design strength of the steel and the characteristic strength of the concrete
respectively.
is the wallthickiiess of the steel tube.

is the diameter of the tube or the width of the rectangular section.

A
C

is the cross-sectional area of the concrete.

is the loaded area under the gusset plate according to Figure 2.13.

rich

is 4.9 for circular steel tubes; and 3.5 for rectangular sections.

The ratio A I A in the equation above should not exceed 20. Welds between the gusset
plate and the steel borrow sections should be designed according to Section 3 of prEN
1993-I-8: 2002t291.
(vii) For concrete filled circular hoUow sections, longitudinal reinforcement may be fully taken
into account when assessing cross-sectional design parameters, even where the
reinforcement is not welded to the end plates or in direct contact with the endplates,
provided that the gap e between the reinforcement and the Grid plate does not exceed 30
nun (see also coluniii section type A-Am Figure 2.13).
Alternatively, proprietary nailed connectors can used to effect the required shear transfer
capacity. These must be shot fired through the tube wall from the outside in a defined pattern
before concrete filling. Typically, they can have a design shear capacity of 12 I, \TIConnector and

are placed at a spacing of 50 nun between connectors"" .For further infonnation see the cited
reference.

35