Hey, My Names Nathanael and I hope you find these notes useful.

Work hard
and do your best this year my biggest tip is just to be organised and work
hard all year. I hope you do well! Feel free to contact me if you have any
questions!
Psalm 34.
Nat.

Production of Materials Notes

Revision:
Hydrocarbon
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane

Formula
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18

Use
Natural Gas
Petrochemicals
LPG
LPG
Petrol
Petrol
Petrol
Petrol

-ane = single bond (Formula: CnH2n+2)

-ene = double bond (Formula CnH2n
-yne = triple bond (Formula: CnH2n-2)
Ethene = Ethylene.

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking

of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum
-

Cracking involves breaking larger molecules into smaller ones.

In Petroleum, there are many types of hydrocarbons, the
bigger ones can be broken into smaller ones.
Catalytic cracking involves splitting larger hydrocarbons into
smaller ones in high temperatures with a catalyst. The smaller
molecules have a much lower boiling point due to weaker
dispersion forces.
Zeolites are used as catalysts. They are inorganic compounds.
During Catalytic cracking Alkanes with 15-25 Carbons are split
into an alkane and an alkene.
The alkene can be split into other alkenes until propene or
ethene (or both) are formed.
Ethene is one of the main biproducts of cracking and is very
useful.

E.g C15H32 C10H22 + C5H10.

C5H10 C2H4 + C3H6
-

Steam Thermal cracking is the other method, where ethane

gas or larger hydrocarbons are mixed with steam and passed
through hot metal coils to produce ethene.

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its

double bond, is readily transformed into many useful
products
-

The double bond in an Alkene makes it

far more reactive then its respective
alkane.
The double bond is relatively easy to
break into two single bonds, creating an
addition reaction where other
atoms/molecules can be added to the
hydrocarbon.
Ethene is used to make a large number of materials such as
vinyl chloride, polyethene, polystyrene, toothpaste and
shampoo. This is because the double bond can be broken and
other substances added with differing properties. See the
table below for some examples.

Product

Ethanol

Ethylene

Ethylene

oxide

glycol

Vinyl chloride

Reactan

Ethylene and

Ethylene

Ethylene

Oxygen and

ts

water

and

oxide and

chlorine

oxygen

dilute acid

Conditio - High

About

Treatment

- About 150C

ns

pressure

250C

with dilute

- Copper

- About

with silver acid solution

chloride

300C

as a

catalyst

- Phosphoric

catalyst

acid catalyst
Uses

- Fuel

Fumigant

- Anti-freeze

Monomer for

- Industrial,

liquid

producing

commercial

polyvinyl

and domestic

Manufacturing chloride

solvent

of polyester

- Cleaning
and
disinfecting
fluid
2D

structur
e
diagram
3D
structur
e
diagram
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which
polymers are made
-

Monomer: A relatively simple molecule from which polymers

can be made
Polymer: Many monomers repeated to form a large molecule.
Polymerisation: The process of turning a large number of
monomers into a polymer.
Ethylene polymerises to form polyethylene when the double
bond in ethene breaks and those bonds join to other
ethene/ethane molecules to form a long, saturated chain.

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the

meaning of this term
-

An addition polymer is a polymer formed by adding the same

monomer together into a long chain, without the loss of any
atoms.
Polyethylene is the only product in the polymerisation of
ethene.

Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an

example of a commercially and industrially important
polymer
-

There are two forms of Polyethylene high density and low

density.

Form

Name of

Low density

High density

polyethylene (LDPE)

polyethylene (HDPE)

Ziegler-Natta process

process
Requirements High pressure (1000 to

Pressure of a few

3000 atmospheres),

atmospheres,

high temperature

temperatures of about

(300C), and an initiator 60C, and a catalyst

(usually an organic
peroxide)
Polymerisatio The peroxide initiator

The polymerisation

n process

occurs on the surface of

splits to form free

radicals, which allow the the catalyst

initiation of the joining
of ethylene monomers
(the initiator is not a
catalyst as it gets
incorporated into the
polymer)
Branching of

Significant chain

Unbranched

polymer

branching, meaning

polyethylene molecules

formed

that polymer chains

that are able to pack

cannot pack closely

closely together in an

together or in an orderly orderly fashion

way
Molecular
weight of
molecules
formed

Up to 1 000 000 g/mol

Up to 3 000 000 g/mol

Recycling sy
mbol

Polyethylene is used in milk cartons, pipes cutting boards,

bottles, cling wrap and for other purposes.
High-density Polyethylene is more crystalline. It has stronger
dispersion forces and a higher melting and boiling point.

Identify vinyl chloride and styrene as commercially

significant monomers by both their systematic and common
names
-

Ethene monomers can be modified to have different atoms or

functional groups instead of hydrogen. Two common ones are
chlorine and benzene rings.
Chlorine creates vinyl chloride, a benzene ring (made of 6
carbons) makes styrene.
The former can be turned into polyvinyl chloride and the latter
into polystyrene.

Functional

Monomer

Monomer

Polymer

Polymer syste

group

common

systemic name

common

name

name
Chlorine (Cl)

Vinyl chloride

name
Chloroethene

Polyvinyl

Polychloroethen

chloride
Phenyl (C6H5) Styrene

Ethenylbenzene

Polystyrene

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above

monomers in terms of their properties

Polyethenylbenz

Polymer

Low density
polyethylene
(LDPE)

High density
polyethylene
(HDPE)

Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)

Properties

Uses

Sym

Low density

Wrapping materials

Low melting point

Carry bags

Flexible

Milk bottles

Soft

Squeeze bottles

High density

Kitchen utensils

High melting point

Toys

Hard

Grocery carry bags

Building materials

Water resistant

Electrical insulation

Flame resistant

Appliance leads

Sewerage and drain

pipes

Polystyrene

Transparent

When expanded (gas

added):
o

Low density

Good insulator

Garden hoses

Tool handles

CD Cases

Foam cups

Foam packing

Containers

insulation

Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to

compare the reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the
corresponding alkanes in bromine water

A saturated hydrocarbon is one where there are only single

bonds and all bonds are filled.
An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one where there is at least one
double bond between carbons.
Alkenes react quickly with bromine water because they are
unsaturated. The reaction involves splitting these double
bonds and inserting bromine into them.
When an alkene is in contact with Bromine water, the bromine
water turns from brown to clear.
In contrast, Alkanes do not react quickly with bromine water
since they are already saturated. Bromine is non-polar, so it
does slowly join to the alkane and replace hydrogen atoms,
but the reaction is much slower. Under ultra-violet light this
substitution reaction occurs.
Cyclohexene and cyclohexane can be used to test this.

Biomass Research
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds
presently obtained from the petrochemical industry
-

Petroleum (and therefore ethene from it) is a non-renewable

resource. Eventually it will be entirely used up.
The world is heavily dependant on products from petroleum,
from car fuel to plastics from propylene and ethylene.
An alternative product would prevent us from using all these
reserves and running out of needed materials. They may also
cause less carbon dioxide and therefore help prevent climate
change.

Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

-

A condensation polymer is a polymer which is formed by a

condensation reaction, resulting in a bi-product when the two
monomers join. (Usually water).

Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer

is formed
-

In a condensation polymerisation reaction, a polymer and a biproduct are created.

These reactions do not involve double bonds.
One example of a condensation polymer reaction is that of
cellulose
n(HOC6H10O4OH) H(OC6H10O4)nOH + (n 1) + H2O

In this reaction, a number of glucose monomers combine into

a cellulose chain, and a number of water molecules are
created as bi-products. The process repeats to form a chain.

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an

example of a condensation polymer found as a major
component of biomass
-

Cellulose is a polymer made of many glucose monomers

joined. (Several hundred or thousand of them)
The OH (Hydroxy) groups on the chain create polar bonds with
adjacent chains, creating strong intermolecular forces. This
results in great strength and length of chains.
It is insoluble and relatively resistant to other chemicals
because those hydoxy groups are involved in hydrogen
bonding already.
A biopolymer is a polymer made of living organisms, cellulose
is a biopolymer and is the main part of the cell wall of plant
cells.
Biomass is material produced by living organisms. Normal dry
plant matter is about 50% cellulose, with about 500 billion
tonnes being produced per year.

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain

structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its
potential as a raw material
o

Cellulose can be decomposed (broken down) into glucose by

certain enzymes in certain bacteria. There is currently no
economical large-scale method to do this though. It can be
done chemically with severe chemical treatment, heat and
pressure. The main problems with most enzymes is they break
it to water and CO2 instead of Glucose. One family, the
Cellulase enzymes can be used: Endoglucanase: Breaks long
polymer chains in half. Exoglucanase: Breaks cellobiose
molecules from the ends of polymer chains. BetaGlucosidase: Converts cellobiose to glucose.

Fermentation is the process of turning organic compounds into

simpler substances by using yeast and bacteria. The main
problem with fermentation is that Yeast can only survive in
15% ethanol. The product must be distilled to get pure
ethanol.
e.g turning glucose into ethanol - C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H5OH (l) +
2CO2 (g)
Ethanol can be converted to ethene by dehydration.
Dehydration and/or hydration of ethane/ethanol both require
sulphuric acid as a catalyst (Dehydration = concentrated,
hydration = dilute). In Hydration the acid breaks the double
bonds do Hydrogen can be added. In Dehydration the opposite
occurs. This is expensive. C2H5OH (g) C2H4 (g) + H2O (g)
Therefore cellulose can be turned into ethene, which is one of
the most common petrochemicals (Products of petroleum).
Cellulose is a major component of biomass which is a
renewable resource unlike petroleum.
The process: Cellulose Glucose via enzymes/bacteria.
Glucose Ethanol via fermentation (with yeast). Ethanol
Ethene via dehydration.

Use available evidence to gather and present data from

secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent
development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis
should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used
to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or
potential use of the polymer produced related to its
properties
-

One recent biopolymer which has been developed is PHB. It

comes from the Polyhydroxylalkanoates (PHAs) which are
biopolymers, produced by microprganisms and re very similar
to polyproylene. PHB is the simplest form of PHAs.
It is produced when a culture of micro-organisms (in this case
Alcalingenes eutrophus). It is fed certain nutrients until the
culture is a suitable size.
The diet is changed, resticting it from a particular nutrient
(e.g. Nitrogen), so they stop reproducing and instead create a
certain polymer.
This certain organism can produce 30%-80% of its own dry
weight, then the product can be separated out.
PHB is stable in air and moisture, but is attacked in anaerobic
conditions by bacteria which lives there.
They are biodegradable, and therefore have a lot of potential,
including in packaging, nappies, bags, bottles and wrapping
film.

Renewable Ethanol.
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify
the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
-

Dehydration is the process of removing water molecules from

a substance.
Ethanol can be Dehydrated to produce Ethene and water
when heated in concentrated sulphuric acid or Phosphoric
acid.

Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the

production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used
-

Hydration is the process of adding water to a substance

Ethylene can be made into ethanol when it is heated with
dilute sulphic acid as a catalyst. It is an addition reaction.

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a

solvent for polar and non-polar substances
-

Ethanol is both a polar and non-polar molecule. The hydroxy

group (OH) makes it polar, and allows Hydrogen bonding with
other molecules and also attracts ionic molecules.
The Ethyl (C2H4) is non-polar and therefore attracts non-polar
substances.
Because of these things, it can dissolve both polar and nonpolar substances making it extremely useful, being the second
most important solvent (after water) for both commercial and
industrial purposes.
It is the least toxic of the alcohols, making it even more
suitable for these purposes, and is common in cosmetics, food

colourings, cleaning agents, antiseptics and other medicinal

preparations.

Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can

be called a renewable resource
-

Ethanol can combust in the presence of Oxygen, to produce

CO2 and Water

Since there is Oxygen in the

molecule, complete
combustion is much more
common, lessening the
production of carbon and
carbon monoxide.
It is easy to combust and
easily transported, making
it a potential fuel for
vehicles.
It can be created from plant material (i.e. glucose), and is
therefore renewable. Glucose is created in photosynthesis.
When the glucose is fermented Ethanol is produced and the
Carbon dioxide and water produced from burning it are key to
photosynthesis, and so it is a cycle.
Much energy is required in the fermentation and distillation
processes, and for it to be truly renewable this energy would
have to come from renewable resources also.

Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is

promoted
Fermentation requires four main conditions:
-

The sugar being dissolved in water.

Yeast (which contains certain enzymes which ferment the
substance)
A temperature of about 37 degrees celcius.
Anaerobic (no oxygen)

The yeast dies when the solution is about 15% ethanol.

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

-

Under the above mentioned conditions a starch or sucrose will

be converted to glucose or fructose.

These products are then converted to Ethanol and Carbon

Dioxide by certain enzymes in yeast.

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and

calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data
-

Molar Heat of combustion is the amount of heat created when

one mole of a substance undergoes complete combustion at
100 Kpa and at 25 degrees Celsius.
The Heat of combustion is a positive number, while enthalpy
change (H) is recoded in negative numbers, since the
reaction is always exothermic.
Typically they are recorded in Kilojoules per mole. For ethanol
it is 1360 KJ/Mol

To Calculate an experimental value:

-

Measure the mass of a burner with ethanol

Measure 100ml of water in a beaker and measure the
temperature
Light the burner under the beaker, leave it for one minute
Measure and record the change of heat and change in mass of
burner.
Substitute results into H = -mCT (H is the change in
joules, m is the mass of water, C is the thermal capacity of
water (4.18 x 10^(3)) and T is the change of temperature in
degrees celsius.)
Work out the amount of moles used (mass/molecular weight)
and divide H in kilojoules with this number.
Problems: Heat loss into surroundings, thermometer, beaker,
etc.

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and

discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Advantages

Disadvantages

Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource

Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum,

per unit of volume

petroleum

producing less carbon (soot) and carbon monoxide

o

The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could

Large amounts of a
produce the crops

reduce carbon dioxide emissions, provided that a

leading to problem

renewable energy resource was used to produce

deforestation, ferti

crops required to obtain ethanol and to distil

fermented ethanol

Ethanol has a lowe

Major environment

the disposal of was

o

Typical current eng

to use high concen

o

The food used for e

those in starving n
o

Ethanol is miscible

potentially cheat c

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained

alkanols from 1 to C8
Prefix

Carbon

Met Et Pro Bu Pe

He He

Oc

nt

pt

atoms
-

ane means single bond

ol means hydroxy (OH) group.
When the hydroxy group can be on more then one position a
number shows which carbon it is on. E.g. propan-2-ol.

Process information from secondary sources such as

molecular model kits, digital technologies or computer
simulations to model:

the addition of water to ethylene

the dehydration of ethanol

Hydration: The sufuric acid breaks open the double bond

One H molecule and the HSO4 molecule attatch to each of the
new bonds.
The HSO4 is then replaced by the OH group and the extra H
from the water is added to make H2SO4 once again.
Dehydration: Reverse.

Process information from secondary sources to summarise

the processes involved in the industrial production of
ethanol from sugar cane
-

The process involves fermenting the sugar cane and then

distilling the ethanol from the water to create a pure product.
This requires half the energy which is released in burning the
ethanol.

Process information from secondary sources to summarise

the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the
success of current usage
-

Using ethanol as a fuel has both advantages and

Disadvantages.
It can be used to extend the life of the petrol to concentrations
of about 24% without engine modification.
Brazil in the 70s adopted ethanol as a car fuel and had to
change their car engines entirely
In Australia fuel usually has 10% enthanol.

Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation

to carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass
changes
-

Place 50 grams of glucose in a flask, with 150ml of water, a

few crystals of citric acid and 5g of yeast,
Measure the mass of the flask
Keep it airtight and 37 degrees Celsius for three days.
CO2 will be produced, measure and record the weight of the
flask, there should be a loss of mass as CO2 is released.
If one wishes, they can bubble the CO2 through lime water to
produce a white precipitate.

Present information from secondary sources by writing a

balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to
ethanol

Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a firsthand investigation to determine and compare heats of
combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and
per mole
-

Measure the mass of a burner with an alkanol

Measure 100ml of water in a beaker and measure the
temperature
Light the burner under the beaker, leave it for one minute
Measure and record the change of heat and change in mass of
burner.
Substitute results into H = -mCT (H is the change in
joules, m is the mass of water, C is the thermal capacity of
water (4.18 x 10^3) and T is the change of temperature in
degrees celsius.)
Work out the amount of moles used (mass/molecular weight)
and divide H in kilojoules with this number.
Problems: Heat loss into surroundings, thermometer, beaker,
accuracy of implements, etc.

Electrochemical Methods
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of
transfer of electrons
-

Oxidation: Loss of electrons. (OIL)

Reduction: Gain of electrons. (RIG)
Redox reaction: when both oxidation and reduction occur.
Displacement reaction: When a more reactive metal converts
the ion of a less reactive metal into a solid.
Displacement reaction = redox reaction. More reactive =
oxidised. Less reactive = reduced.
In a displacement reaction, the electrons are transferred from
a more reactive metal to a less reactive metal.

Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions

in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals
-

The more reactive metal (displaces the less reactive metal)

turns into ions while the less reactive metal is turned solid.
Therefore displacement reactions can rank metals in their
activity series.
It also means the reactivity series can be used to show which
metal will displace ions from another metal.

Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in

terms of their loss or gain of electrons
-

Oxidation state = a metals degree of oxidation. Describes the

electron transfer.
Oxidation = increase in Oxidation state.
Reduction = decrease in Oxidation state.
Uncombined elements = 0.
Simple ion = charge of the ion (valency).
During redox reactions the metal element will increase is
oxidation state as it loses electrons and the metal ion will
decrease its oxidation state as it gains electrons.
The sum of oxidation states for elements within a molecule is
0.
Usually, in molecules the Oxidation state for Hydrogen = 1,
Oxygen = -2. From there it is usually possible to work out the
numbers of the other atoms.

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of

oxidation/reduction reactions
-

Galvanic Cell: a cell which produces an electric current via a

redox reaction.
In normal Redox reactions the electrons are transferred
directly
This is done by having two halves with the different reactions
occurring in opposite halves, and joining them with a wire
around a circuit with a conductor and salt bridge.
Electrons flow from the oxidising metal, pass through the
conductor, producing electricity then into the metal being
reduced. This is converting chemical energy into electrical
energy.

Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the

direction of electron flow

The salt bridge allows the two solutions to keep the same
charge, so that electrons continue to flow. It maintains a
balance of charge across the cell.

Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte

to describe galvanic cells
-

Electrode: A conductor, allowing electrons to pass from the

external circuit to a half-cell (or visa versa)
Anode: The negative electrode, where oxidation occurs.
Cathode: The positive electrode where reduction occurs
Electrolyte: An aqueous or molten substance that conducts
electricity.
All solutions in a galvanic cell are electrolytes.

Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions

under which a galvanic cell is produced
A Galvanic cell needs:
-

Two electrodes of different Metals

Two separate solutions, each with the ions of the metals used
as electrodes.
The electrodes in contact with their respective ions in
solutions.
A salt Bridge between the solutions.
A conducting path between electrodes/a circuit.

Remove one of these conditions at a time to prove their necessity.

Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand

information to measure the difference in potential of
different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution

Select two metals and create a cell with them as below.

Observe and record the reading given on the Voltmetre.

If the Voltmetre reads 0, reverse the terminals
If the voltmeter gave a positive reading on the first try, Metal
B is more likely to be oxidised. If the voltmeter didnt then the
opposite is true.
The voltage reading is the difference between the potential of
the different metals
Put in other metals instead of Metal B
Use metal A as if it is 0 to work out the potentials of the other
metals.

The true standard is a Hydrogen electrode, since it has a potential of

0.
-

It is created by: platinum foil coated in platinum powder

dipping into a solution with 1 Mol/L of Hydrogen ions and
Hydrogen gas bubbling over the electrode.
The voltmeter reading is the potential of the metal used.

Gather and present information on the structure and

chemistry of a dry cell and evaluate it in comparison to a
lithium cell in terms of:

chemistry

cost and practicality

impact on society

environmental impacts

Chemistry

Dry Cell
Carbon Cathode
Zinc Anode
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2 eNH4 reduced at cathode
2NH+4 + 2e- 2NH3 (aq)
+ H2(g)
MnO2 absorbs H2 gas.
2MnO2 (s) + H2 (g)
Mn2O3 (s) + H2O (l)

Cost and
practicalit
y
Impact on
Society

Environme
ntal
Impact

1.5 V produced
Cheap, small and easily
moved. Voltage drops as
the battery runs out
uses up charge
Shorter life, charge
decreases as the battery
is used. Common and
provides energy for
many devices.
Small waste, but
corrosive materials
can be harmful if not
disposed of properly.

Lithium
Lithium Anode
Li(s) Li+ + eMnO2 cathode
MnO2 + e- MnO2Dry electrolytre (Lithium
salt and dimethyl ether)
3V produced

More expensive, lighter and

small, more power.
Much longer life, more
power, more dangerous.
Relatively common and
useful for many devices
Small waste, but corrosive
materials which need to be
disposed of carefully.

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the

potential (E) requirement of named electrochemical
processes using tables of standard potentials and halfequations
-

Table of standard potentials: all relative to hydrogen electrode,

all in reduction potentials.
Oxidation potentials are equal but opposite in sign.
Potential of a cell worked out by adding the reduction
potentian and oxidation potential.
The metal higher on the list is the anode, and is oxidised.
If the potential is positive, the reaction is a galvanic cell
(Spontaneous)
If the potential is negative, then more voltage must be put
into the cell (Electrolytic cell).
Note: We get the table of standard potentials in the exam.

Nuclear Methods

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and

describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable
-

Isotope: atoms with the same number of protons, but different

numbers of neutrons.
They have the same atomic number, but different mass
They are names by their mass numbers. E.g. rubidium-85.

Isotopes are often represented using the symbol:

where:

M is the chemical symbol for the element.

A is the mass number.

Z is the atomic number.

Stable Isotopes do not emit radiation, and have a stable

Nuclei.
Radioisotopes: have an unstable nuclei and emit radiation.
In some elements, all isotopes are radioactive (e.g. uranium)
and in others only some isotopes are radioactive.
An isotope may be radioactive because:
- There are too many neutrons for the number of protons
(usually 1.5x as many or above). If this is the case, a
neutron changes to a proton and electron, emitting the
electron as a Negative Beta particle. E.g. Cobalt-60.

- If there are too many protons for the number of

Neutrons. In this case a proton turns into a neutron and a
positron is emitted as a Positive Beta particle. E.g. Sodium-22.

- If there are too many protons and neutrons and the

nucleus is too heavy, two protons and two neutrons are
emitted as a helium nucleus or alpha particle. E.g. radon.

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Commercial Radioisotopes are those used in medicine,

industry and/or scientific research.
These are produced in two main ways:
- Using neutrons produced in a nuclear fission reactor. E.g.
Cobalt-60

Using particle accelerators to fire protons, deuterium

atoms or alpha particles at a target element. e.g. the
production of iodine-123.

Identify instruments and processes that can be used to

detect radiation
-

All three types of radiation ionises gasses.

- Alpha is strongly ionising
- Beta Radiation is less ionising
- Gamma radiation is weak at ionising.
This can be used to detect radiation. There are a number of
instruments that can be used.

Instrument

Description

Photographic film

Darkens when exposed to radiation

Cloud chamber

Contains a supersaturated vapour of water or alco

Radiation ionises some of the air, and the vapour c

tracing a path

Geiger-Mller Counter

Consists of a conductive tube filled with argon gas

connected to the outer casing and an electrode

Radiation ionises argon atoms and the high voltag

to accelerate towards the electrode, ionising more

o

The resulting cascade of electrons constitutes and

detected by a counter

Scintillation counter

When certain substances are irradiated with alpha

substances for each type of ray), they emit a flash

o

This flash can be collected and amplified in a phot

The electric signal thus generated can operate an

Identify one use of a named radioisotope:

in industry

in medicine

Describe the way in which the above named industrial and

medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in
terms of their chemical properties

Radioisotope

Cobalt-60

Sodium-24

Field

Medicine

Industry

Decays to

Nickel-60

Magnesium-24

Radiation

Beta and gamma

Beta and gamm

Neutron bombardment of cobalt-59

Neutron bomba

produced
Production

Use

Treatment of cancer
o

produces gamma rays, which can be

Detection of le
o

Can be a

used to treat cancer by irradiating the

in a pipe

affected areas of the body

the pipe

Kills cancer cells along with other cells

No radiat
the pipe

If it leaks

pipe, it c
located
Suitability of half-

Has a suitable half-life for the process, being Has a half-life o

life

long enough to have a reasonable lifetime in the liquid quick

the equipment (5 years) but emits a

and the enviro

reasonable intensity of radiation

decontaminate

Process information from secondary sources to describe

recent discoveries of elements
-

Transuranic elements (elements higher then Uranium) can be

produced either in nuclear reactors of by firing particles at
elements in an accelerator.
Hassium-265, atomic number of 108 was produced in 1984 by
firing iron-58 nuclei at lead 208-atoms.

Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems

associated with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified
industries and medicine
Field

Applications and benefits

Problem

Industry

Nuclear power production - reduces dependence

on other forms of power production, such as

coal, which contributes more to climate change
o

Leak detection tracing

Smoke alarms

Thickness gauges

Building ventilation tests

Irradiation of food and raw wool to destroy

Req

pro
o

Can

tiss

inc

sto
o

Rad

disp

micro-organisms
o

Medicine

Diagnosis/tracing and treatment of medical

illnesses
o

Can

tiss

inc

Medical sterilisation - prevents patient infection

sto
o

Rad

disp