Earth Surface Processes and Landforms

1874
Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 32, 18741883 (2007)
Published online 15 March 2007 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/esp.1503

S. McCabe, B. J. Smith and P. A. Warke

Sandstone response to salt weathering following

simulated fire damage: a comparison of the effects
of furnace heating and fire
S. McCabe,* B. J. Smith and P. A. Warke
School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queens University Belfast, UK

*Correspondence to: S. McCabe,

School of Geography, Archaeology
and Palaeoecology, Queens
University Belfast, BT7
1NN, UK. E-mail:
Stephen.mccabe@qub.ac.uk

Received 25 October 2006;

Revised 5 January 2007;
Accepted 11 January 2007

Abstract
Fire has long been recognized as an agent of rock weathering. Our understanding of the
impact of fire on stone comes either from early anecdotal evidence, or from more recent
laboratory simulation studies, using furnaces to simulate the effects of fire. This paper
suggests that knowledge derived from simulated heating experiments is based on the preconceptions of the experiment designer when using a furnace to simulate fire, the operator
decides on the maximum temperature and the duration of the experiment. These are key
factors in determining the response of the stone to fire, and if these are removed from realworld observations then knowledge based on these simulations must be questioned.
To explore the differences between heating sandstone in a furnace and a real fire, sample
blocks of Peakmoor Sandstone were subjected to different stress histories in combination
(lime rendering and removal, furnace heating or fire, frost and salt weathering). Block response
to furnace heating and fire is discussed, with emphasis placed on the non-uniformity of the fire
and of block response to fire in contrast to the uniform response to surface heating in a furnace.
Subsequent response to salt weathering (by a 10% solution of sodium chloride and magnesium sulphate) was then monitored by weight loss. Blocks that had experienced fire showed
a more unpredictable response to salt weathering than those that had undergone furnace
heating spalling of corners and rapid catastrophic weight loss were evidenced in blocks
that had been subjected to fire, after periods of relative quiescence. An important physical
side-effect of the fire was soot accumulation, which created a waxy, relatively impermeable
layer on some blocks. This layer repelled water and hindered salt ingress, but eventually
detached when salt, able to enter the substrate through more permeable areas, concentrated
and crystallized behind it, resulting in rapid weight loss and accelerated decay. Copyright
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Keywords: sandstone; fire; furnace; simulation; stress

Introduction
Fire has long been recognized as an agent of change in the natural environment and as an agent of rock weathering
(Blackwelder, 1926; Emery, 1944; Scotter, 1970; Dorn, 2003). Early research on fire consisted mainly of anecdotal
evidence, while more recent studies have sought to better understand how fire impacts stone through laboratory
simulation experiments (Goudie et al., 1992; Allison and Goudie, 1994; Allison and Bristow, 1999; Gomez-Heras
et al., 2006). Understanding in this area relies heavily on these laboratory experiments, which often employ furnace
heating to simulate the extreme heat of a fire.
Fire has been placed in the context of heritage (McCabe et al., in press a), raising the issue of the potential longterm impact of historical fire on the performance of masonry. Fire is a major threat to cultural heritage, with estimations of one historic structure being lost every day in the EU (Gomez-Heras et al., 2006; COST C17, 2001). It is likely
that over a long lifespan a historic structure will experience fire (sometimes multiple fires) at some stage (Obojes
et al., 2006). The importance of research into the impact of fire on stone has also been highlighted in the area of rock
Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Sandstone response to salt weathering following simulated fire damage

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art (Tratebas et al., 2004), where culturally priceless works of ancient art are lost to fire every year. With this threat to
cultural heritage ever present, practical research is needed to better understand the complex problem of fire damage to
stone, and how the stress legacy left by fire can be exploited by subsequent background environmental weathering
processes.
Fire has implications for both physical and chemical stone decay processes. Mechanical strain in stone can be
brought about because of the sudden extreme temperature changes caused by fire. Internal stress gradients are rapidly
established, and can cause spalling or splitting of rock. This is a common response to thermal shock change/stress
that is beyond the ability of the stone to absorb. Thermal shock occurs when temperatures rise or fall very suddenly,
generating steep surface/substrate temperature gradients. It is the mechanical failure of stone brought about in
response to a single event (in contrast to fatigue, which describes the mechanical failure of stone in response to
cumulative thermal stresses) (Gomez-Heras, 2006). When temperatures increase suddenly, as in the case of a fire,
failure of the stone surface can occur in the form of spalling this is the result of compressive surface stress and the
shear stress induced by it (Yatsu, 1988). Past studies have suggested that quartz sandstones can be particularly
susceptible to extreme heat (Goudie et al., 1992), and it is common for quartz grains to fracture when temperatures
exceed 573 C (Chakrabarti et al., 1996). Chemically, the extreme heat caused by fire can trigger changes in the
mineral matrix or cement of a sandstone. As is often the case in stone decay, chemical processes can weaken the
integrity of the stone, leaving it susceptible to physical decay processes and mechanisms.
A major question that needs to be addressed is whether heating in a furnace provides a true picture of the impact of
fire on stone, and on its subsequent response to background environmental factors (salt weathering and temperature
cycling). Furnace heating replicates only one very controlled component of the complex environmental conditions and
consequences experienced and produced in a fire (that is, it provides constant heat). Furthermore, furnace heating is
based on the pre-conceptions of the experiment designer the operator decides what temperature blocks should
experience and for how long they should be kept in the furnace. Yet it is these factors that are the essential controls on
the impact of fire on masonry (Goudie et al., 1992). The use of furnace heating to study fire damage may reflect a
belief that the only significant factor is temperature something that this paper seeks to challenge. While furnace
experiments may provide a better understanding of how stone responds to extreme heat, they may not necessarily
improve understanding of the impact of fire on stone or the response to of stone to background environmental
factors after a fire event. For example, the impact of historical fire on masonry is not likely to be uniform each block
in a faade may experience different temperatures for different durations, leaving the structure with a wide range of
inheritance effects. Thus, some stone may have escaped the fire and have no memory of the event. Other blocks may
have lost the memory of historical fire through the detachment of material. Perhaps most importantly for conservators, some blocks may still hold the memory of fire, and conceal stresses and weaknesses that are yet to be exploited
(McCabe et al., in press a). Temperature changes in a natural fire are not consistent spatially or temporally they can
rise extremely rapidly at the surface (creating stress gradients), but are not stable, fluctuating continually through time.
Furthermore, the gases produced in a real wood fire are complex, and the surfaces of stone blocks are likely to
accumulate deposits of combustion particles and residues (for example, soot and oils) that may have an impact on the
blocks subsequent response to its environment.

Methods
To explore the differences between furnace heating and a real fire, blocks of Peakmoor Sandstone (10 cm
10 cm 10 cm), quarried from Matlock in Derbyshire, were divided into three main groups. The characteristics of this
sandstone can be seen in Table I. This sandstone is commonly used as a building stone in the UK, and is often
deployed in conservation and restoration work in historic structures. Table II illustrates the different combinations of
stress histories experienced by the three groups and the order in which the pre-treatments were carried out (from left
to right). This order is based on an actual event timeline of a real historic sandstone structure, Bonamargy Friary on
the north Antrim coast, Northern Ireland construction, lime rendering, fire, frost (likely to be enhanced during the
Little Ice Age, which many historic structures will have experienced) and salt (McCabe et al., in press a). The groups
were then further divided into subsets (a and b), where subset a would undergo furnace heating and subset b
would experience a real wood fire.
Three groups were placed in a furnace at 500 C for 30 minutes. One of these groups had experienced a lime render
pre-treatment before going into the furnace, while the other two groups were fresh, untreated, sandstone. Lime
rendering, and its removal over time, is a common event in the history of many historic structures (McCabe et al., in
press a, 2006). Blocks were lime rendered (to a depth of approximately 1 cm) in a test wall, which was left to dry for
a month before being dismantled and the render chipped and scraped off. A thin residue of lime render was left on
Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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S. McCabe, B. J. Smith and P. A. Warke

Table I. Characteristics of Peakmoor Sandstone

Colour
Porosity
Ave. permeability
Saturation coefficient
Absorption
Compressive strength
Bulk specific gravity
Sodium sulphate crystallization test

Buff
1646%
3167 mD
068
507% (by wt)
725 MPa
2210 kg/m3
107% mean wt loss

Table II. Different stress histories experienced by blocks (groups 1a 3b) to explore the differences between furnace heating and
real fire
Lime render
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group

1a
1b
2a
2b
3a
3b

Furnace

Fire

Frost

Salt

Weight loss (as % of block weight in grams)

i
i
i
i

i
i
i
i
i
i

129
242
147
211
020
593

i
i
i
i
i
i

i
i

blocks as a result. The furnace was pre-heated to 500 C so that blocks would experience a rapid extreme temperature
change. 500 C was chosen as the temperature because this is thought to be the average temperature experienced by a
structure during burning fuelled by wood (Gomez-Heras, 2006). After being removed from the furnace, blocks were
allowed to cool naturally (it is unlikely that historic fires were put out with the same efficiency as in the present day).
The other groups of blocks were burned in a real wood fire (Figure 1). Again, one of these groups had been
previously lime rendered (as with the furnace experiment). Blocks were placed in an empty oil drum and surrounded
by wood. The fire was lit and was not interfered with it was allowed to take its natural course. Every minute the
temperature of the fire was measured in three places (flame temperature, block surface temperature and temperature at
the base of the fire) with an infrared thermometer. The block surface that was monitored was located at the edge of the

Figure 1. A photograph showing the real wood fire experiment.

Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Sandstone response to salt weathering following simulated fire damage

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fire and facing outwards, so it is likely that this gives a conservative value of the temperatures experienced by blocks
during the experiment. The base temperatures are likely to give a more accurate representation of temperatures
experienced at the centre of the fire; however, base temperature could not be monitored for the duration of the fire
because it was too hot and beyond the range of the thermometer until c. 45 minutes had passed.
As illustrated in Table II, after the furnace/fire pre-treatment, groups 2 and 3 were subjected to freezethaw cycles.
As well as experiencing environmental cycles over daily and seasonal scales, historic masonry may also experience a
change in local climate during its lifetime (McCabe et al., 2006). For example, many historic structures will have
experienced the Little Ice Age, when freezethaw conditions are likely to have been more frequent and intense. The
consideration of extreme frost events should not be limited to the past, however, as they may still occur as high
magnitude/low frequency events in the present day. To simulate the effects of freezethaw, groups 2 and 3 underwent
50 freezethaw cycles (with temperatures cycling between 10 and 10 C twice daily). At the beginning of each
alternate cycle, blocks were immersed in de-ionized water briefly, to provide moisture this simulated the periodic
wetting of blocks experienced in temperate environments.
To further investigate the differences in response of Peakmoor Sandstone to the stress legacies of furnace heating
and a real fire, blocks were subsequently subjected to salt weathering cycles under controlled laboratory conditions (in
a climate cabinet). The salt weathering and temperature cycles were designed to simulate background environmental
factors that structures experience on a daily basis. It can be hypothesized that background environmental factors such
as temperature cycling and salt weathering can exploit weaknesses in stone brought about by the effects of the various
stress history combinations lime rendering, fire and freezethaw weathering. The temperature regime experienced by
the blocks during the two-day experimental cycle is shown in Figure 2. This temperature regime is based on observations from the North Antrim Coast, Northern Ireland, during the month of May. Temperature data (which informed
laboratory simulation) were collected in the field by embedding bead thermistors within blocks at different distances
from the block surface. The top temperature experienced in the laboratory simulation is commensurate with sandstone
surface temperatures achieved on clear, sunny days on the North Antrim Coastline. At the beginning of each two-day
cycle, blocks were immersed for approximately 10 seconds in a 10% salt solution (equal parts NaCl and MgSO4) and
the debris released from blocks during this immersion was collected, dried and weighed. This immersion again
simulated the periodic wetting (and subsequent drying) of building sandstones in temperature environments. A 10%
salt solution was used because this strength provided the breakdown of blocks without being too aggressive, allowing
lessons to be drawn from the decay the study sought to investigate the slow, and realistic, breakdown of Peakmoor
Sandstone, monitoring subtleties in their decay pathways, rather than causing rapid deterioration of blocks.

Figure 2. The temperature regime experienced by blocks during salt weathering cycles.
Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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S. McCabe, B. J. Smith and P. A. Warke

Results
Furnace Heating
Blocks that had experienced heating in the furnace had a fairly uniform response, congruent with the uniform heating
at 500 C. Blocks underwent a colour change that can be attributed to the oxidation of iron in the stone (Figure 3).
This colour change (from very pale brown, Munsell 10YR 8/3, to pink, Munsell 75YR 7/4) was consistent throughout
the blocks that were subjected to furnace heating, although some blocks showed a slight surfacesubsurface gradient
of change (presumably due to block-specific variations in stone characteristics). The furnace experiment is characterized by uniformity.

Real Fire
In contrast, the wood fire experiment is characterized by the non-uniform response of Peakmoor blocks (consistent
with the non-uniformity of the fire itself). Figure 4 shows temperatures recorded during the experiment. Flame
temperatures were recorded until the flames died down, after approximately 50 minutes. Around this time it was
possible to begin measuring the base temperature, which was around 700 C. Block surface temperatures actually
reached their peak (320 C) after the flames had died down. It took the blocks approximately 220 minutes to cool
down from the start of the fire. This experiment was non-uniform both spatially and temporally. Across the area of the
fire, and even across the face of a single block, different temperatures were experienced. This is illustrated by the fact
that some sides of blocks showed the effects of fire (both blackening from soot and reddening from the oxidation of
iron), while others did not, depending on their position in the fire. Temperatures fluctuated significantly during the
duration of the fire, although the cooling of the blocks from 150 minutes to 220 minutes was relatively uniform.
Figure 5 shows blocks that experienced the real wood fire.
From a scientific point of view, there are obvious limitations to this experiment. It is difficult to control/monitor and
to some extent unrepeatable. However, these are two defining characteristics of real fires, and even a one-off experiment such as this can give important insights into the impact of fire on sandstone.
One very important difference between the furnace and the real fire is the presence of soot. The soot often created
a black, waxy layer on the surface of the stone. Infrared spectroscopy spectra for this humic-like substance indicate
that it is made up of hydroxyl and amino compounds, likely to be derived from the burning wood (Dinar et al., 2006).
Areas of the stone surface affected by soot showed a drop in average permeability from 3167 mD (on fresh Peakmoor
Sandstone, from a range of 988 mD) to 2820 mD (from a range of 860 mD). This soot layer is likely to have an
impact on the subsequent performance of the block, for example in stone response to weathering processes such as salt

Figure 3. A photograph showing the change in colour experienced by blocks that had been in the furnace at 500 C for
30 minutes.
Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Sandstone response to salt weathering following simulated fire damage

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Figure 4. Temperatures (flame, stone surface, and at the base of the fire) recorded during the real wood fire experiment.

Figure 5. A photograph showing non-uniform change in blocks from the fire.

and frost, which are in turn controlled, in part, by surface moisture ingress and egress. The soot layer formed a partial
barrier to fluxes of heat and moisture at the stone surface. Soot may also act as a store for salts that may subsequently
be mobilized and precipitated in the substrate (Schaffer, 1932).

Response to Subsequent Salt Weathering Results and Discussion

The discussion in this paper focuses on the differences seen in the response of the sandstones to salt weathering after
exposure to furnace heating and a wood fire. The implications of variable response in relation to the other stress
history factors (lime rendering and frost) are investigated in ongoing research (McCabe et al., in press b). The
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S. McCabe, B. J. Smith and P. A. Warke

Figure 6. Weight loss of blocks from different stress history groups in response to salt weathering cycles.

cumulative weight loss graphs for representative blocks in each of the groups are shown in Figure 6. Generally, it can
be seen that, in each case, blocks that had been through the real wood fire yielded more debris (usually in rapid
catastrophic decay) than blocks that had experienced furnace heating. The blocks that had been in the fire behaved
differently to the furnace blocks in response to salt weathering they had a much more episodic/unpredictable
response, likely to be related to the microfractures created by the multiple and complex non-uniform stresses produced
in the fire. Specific observations and implications related to the response of different stress history groups are
discussed below.

Group 1: blocks 1a (furnace and salt) and 1b (fire and salt). Blocks in group 1a and 1b followed a similar pattern
of weight loss until approximately cycle 56. At this stage, the weight loss for the block that had experienced the fire
jumped considerably. This increase in debris release was related to the spalling off of a corner during the fire, a
microfracture had developed (picture), and this was subsequently exploited by salt weathering the decreasing
stone strength threshold was crossed by the cumulative stress applied by salt weathering cycles. After the spalling
event (approximately cycle 56), the weight loss shows a concave shape, reflecting a period of relative quiescence in
debris release. The corner that spalled was not associated with further granular disaggregation, but was, rather, a
clean break.
Group 2: blocks 2a (furnace, frost and salt) and 2b (fire, frost and salt). Both subsets again followed a similar
decay path until approximately cycle 60. At this stage weight loss in block 2a tailed off, while weight loss in block
2b continued to accelerate. While block 2b shows no major jump in weight loss related to, for example, the spalling
off of a corner (as other subset b blocks do), the continued accelerated weight loss is clearly related to the soot
layer deposited on the block during the fire. It is in response to repeated wetting and drying with salt solution that
the importance of soot is highlighted. The waxy impermeable soot layer has a water-repellent quality the salt
solution simply beaded on the surface of the block and slowly crystallized, or ran quickly off the block surface.
Similar hydrophobic behaviour has been reported in soil response to forest fires (Mataix-Solera and Doerr, 2004).
It is documented that humic-like substances, and especially amino acids, can have hydrophobic characteristics
(Meirovitch et al., 1980). However, the relatively impermeable soot layer did not cover blocks completely and so
some salt was penetrating into the substrate through the more permeable areas of the block surface. After around
60 cycles, the less permeable sooty crust began to flake off (Figure 7), presumably due to the concentration
and crystallization of salts behind the soot layer. The exposed surface of the stone under the soot layer showed
discoloration due to the fire, and also had a much higher average permeability than fresh Peakmoor Sandstone
(133 mD from a range of 78169 mD).
Group 3: blocks 3a (lime render/removal, furnace, frost and salt) and 3b (lime render/removal, fire, frost and salt).
The most divergent response was seen in blocks 3a and 3b. In block 3a, decay appears to be suppressed within the

Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Sandstone response to salt weathering following simulated fire damage

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Figure 7. A photograph showing the response of a soot-covered block to salt weathering.

period of the experimental run. Over 75 cycles, block 3a released the least amount of debris (020% of its total
weight). The reason for this suppressed response is likely to be the order in which the pre-treatments (lime render,
fire, frost) were applied. After lime rendering and removal, blocks experienced furnace heating. This appears to
have baked and hardened the remnant surface lime render layer (as well as the lime water that had infiltrated the
blocks). Ostensibly, this has led to an increase in the durability of block 3a. However, this is likely to be a false,
short-term, durability, as salts have been shown to concentrate at depth in previously lime rendered blocks (McCabe
et al., 2006). These salts may have implications for future decay a short-term increase in durability does not
preclude the future rapid catastrophic decay of block 3a. In sharp contrast, block 3b followed a similar suppressed
path of weight loss to begin with (cycles 064), but by the end of the experimental run it had yielded the most
debris of the different stress history groups (593% of its total weight). This can be explained, once again, by the
non-uniform stressing in the real fire causing more microfracturing. Debris released appears to have been suppressed initially, again because of the baking of the remnant lime layer. At approximately 65 cycles, however, a
corner spalled off block 3b (Figure 8), resulting in a jump in weight loss. A microfracture resulting from the fire had
been developed and exploited by the salt weathering cycles. After the major spalling event (cycle 65), the weight
loss graph shows a convex shape, reflecting continuing exaggerated granular disaggregation associated with the
extreme weight loss event. It may be surmised that the fire has left an inherited weakness in this area of the block,
related to the spalled corner. It is likely that the continued granular disaggregation occurred because debris that had
been held in place by the baked lime render layer was released when the hard layer was breached by the spalling of
the corner. Furthermore, the corner that was lost from block 3b was significantly bigger than that from 1b, and is
likely to have left a greater legacy of stress.
As the above discussion suggests, Peakmoor Sandstone response to salt weathering after furnace and fire pre-treatments can be variable. While heating blocks in a furnace provides some insight into the impact of extreme heat on
sandstone performance, it cannot recreate the complexity of a real fire fluctuating temperatures producing multiple
complex thermal stress gradients, and the by-product of soot, which has had a significant role to play in the subsequent response of Peakmoor Sandstone to salt weathering.
Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Figure 8. A photograph showing a block that experienced the spalling of a corner as salt weathering exploited fractures
propagated during the fire.

Conclusions

The use of furnaces to investigate fire damage may be a reflection of the belief that temperature is the only
significant factor this may not be the case, as soot cover and the irregular and complex stress legacy left by fire
play an important role in subsequent block decay.
Knowledge obtained by heating stone in a furnace is based on the preconceptions of the experiment designer, which
may mean that results are not a true representation of reality.
Furnace experiments were characterized by the consistent (and predictable) sandstone response of Peakmoor Sandstone, producing uniform colour change.
Real fire experiments were characterized by non-uniform sandstone response (reflecting the nature of fire) some
blocks showed the effects of fire more obviously than others. Effects included blackening from soot, reddening
from iron oxidation and fracturing (in extreme cases).
During subsequent salt weathering blocks that had experienced the real fire showed a more unpredictable response,
with rapid weight loss due to the spalling of corners this response is likely to be due to the multiple microfracture
networks produced by complex stressing in the fire.
Soot is an important side-effect of a fire, with a hydrophobic impermeable layer hindering the ingress of salt in
some blocks. The eventual detachment of the soot layer produced rapid debris release and accelerated decay.

Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Department of Employment and Learning, Northern Ireland. Thanks to the Environment and
Heritage Service for providing the sandstone for laboratory work. Thanks to Gill Alexander (QUB cartographic unit) for the
preparation of figures, and to Dr Jennifer McKinley and Dr Alastair Ruffell for help with permeability measurements. The comments of two anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged.
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Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 32, 1874 1883 (2007)

DOI: 10.1002/esp