Chap 10 Fluid Mechanics

Flow in ducts and in open channels
Flow in ducts:
h
driving force is the pressure difference between the ends of the pipe
no free surface
Open channel flow:
p atm
v
driving force is gravity (fluid weight)

free surface with atmospheric pressure
Universitt Stuttgart
Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung
lehre/VL-HM/E-HYDRO-LECTURE-NOTES/HYDROFOLIEN/gerin_F.tex
Open channel flow
. p.1/28
Velocity profiles (isolines)
0.5
2.0
0.5
2.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
2.5
2.0
2.5
1.0
1.5
0.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Open channel flow
. p.2/28
One-dimensional description
hv
EGL
v2
2g
v
y
z
1
The one-dimensional analysis of open channel flows still plays an important role for
practical engineering problems.
Definition of cross-section-averaged parameters required.
Open channel flow
. p.3/28
Continuity condition:
x
v(x)
A(x)
v(x) A(x) = Q = const.
coordinate in channel flow direction

average flow velocity of the channel flow at point x
local cross-section area at point x
Energy balance:
H0,1 + z = H0,2 + hv
H0
hv
or
v12
v22
+ y1 + z =
+ y2 + hv
2g
2g
specific energy (related to channel bottom)

head loss between cross-sections 1 (upstream) and 2 (downstream)
(for example with the approach of Darcy and Weisbach):
2
2
x2 x1 vm
x2 x1 vm
=
hv =
dhy,m 2g
4rhy,m 2g
Open channel flow
. p.4/28
b0
hydraulic radius:
wetted perimeter:
equivalent water depth:
specific energy:
rhy = A/P
P (e.g., = b + 2y for rectangular cross-section)
y = A/b0
2
2
H0 = y + v2g = y + 2gQ
y
2 b2
0
Open channel flow
. p.5/28
Froude number - flow regimes

fixed
wave
c
still
water
111111111111111
000000000000000
c v
control
volume
111111111111111
000000000000000
g(y+ y)
gy
a)
b)
Propagation velocity of a small surface wave: c =
gy
The Froude number Fr describes the ratio of the channel flow velocity to the propagation velocity of an infinitesimal shallow-water surface wave:
Fr =
v
v
=
c
gy
Thus, Fr is a measure for the influence of inertia in comparison to gravity.

Open channel flow
. p.6/28
Froude number - flow regimes

Three different flow regimes can be distinguished:
Fr < 1.0
subcritical flow
Fr > 1.0
supercritical flow
Fr = 1.0
critical flow
Different flow regimes in a flow over a weir:

critical
flow
lake
energy
grade line
supercritical
flow
hydraulic
jump
subcritical
flow
specific
energy
Open channel flow
. p.7/28
Specific energy and discharge diagrams

Specific energy diagram for q = const.
y
Specific discharge diagram for H0 =

const.
H0
ycr = 3_2 H 0
ycr
H 0min
H0
qmax
Open channel flow
. p.8/28
Frictionless flow over a bump
y 1,sub
y 2,sub
subcritical flow
1,sub
2,sub
y2,sup
1111111111hsupercritical flow
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000
y
ycr
y 2,sup
y 1,sup
1,sup
H 0 min H 0 2
H 01
Open channel flow
. p.9/28
Hydraulic jump
Discontinuous transition from supercritical to subcritical flow.
Strong turbulence, dissipation of flow energy
e.g., purposeful construction of stilling basins
Behavior of the hydraulic jump is predominantly affected by the upstream Froude

number (in any cases: Fr > 1 !!).
subcritical
Fr < 1
hydraulic jump
supercritical
Fr > 1
v1
y2
v2
F2
y1
F1
11111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000
control volume
Open channel flow
. p.10/28
Hydraulic jump - upstream and downstream depths

Determination of the conjugated upstream and downstream depths for constant
channel width b and horizontal bottom level (this assumption can also be taken as an
approximation for channels with not too steep bottom inclination):
Continuity (mass conservation):
y1 v1 b1 = y2 v2 b2 .
Momentum balance:
1
gb(y12 y22 ) = v1 y1 b(v2 v1 ) .
2
Conjugated upstream and downstream depths:

q
q
1
1
y2
y1
=
=
1 + 8Fr21 1
1 + 8Fr22 1
y1
2
y2
2
Loss of energy in the hydraulic jump:
H = H01 H02
(y2 y1 )3
=
4y1 y2
Open channel flow
. p.11/28
Discharge control
The fluid follows the principle of less constraint.
For a given channel geometry and a given level of the available energy head
the maximal possible discharge occurs.
The cross-section which can deliver the smallest Qmax (at critical flow
conditions) for a given level of the available energy, controls the discharge.
For a given discharge the minimal required energy level adapts in such a way
that the discharge can be delivered.
The discharge is controlled in that cross-section where the maximum absolute
energy head (H0 + distance to the datum line) is required to let the given discharge pass through.
The locus of discharge control is always characterized by critical flow conditions.
It is further valid:
Supercritical flow is controlled upstream.
Subcritical flow is controlled downstream.
Open channel flow
. p.12/28
Uniform flow with friction

In long undisturbed channels with constant bottom inclination and constant crosssection the flow conditions are uniform (normal-depth conditions).
If normal-depth conditions are given, then there is an equilibrium between the component of the gravity in flow direction and the friction-induced forces due to shear
stress.
Dependent on the flow regime at normal-depth conditions, the channel slope can be
classified:
mild: subcritical normal-depth conditions
yN > ycr
steep: supercritical normal-depth conditions
yN < ycr
critical: critical normal-depth conditions
yN = ycr
Open channel flow
. p.13/28
Normal-depth conditions
Chzy approach:
For normal-depth conditions the slope of the energy grade line IE is equal to the bottom
slope I0 . Then it follows:
hv = z = I0 L
Head loss according to Darcy and Weisbach
L v2
hv =
4rhy 2g
with rhy =
A
P
By combinations of both equations and algebraic transformation it follows

v0 =
8g
1/2
1/2 1/2
rhy I0
Problem:
Determination of the Chzy coefficient C = (8g/)1/2 , which is a function of the channel geometry and the bottom roughness.
Open channel flow
. p.14/28
Approach of Gauckler, Manning, and Strickler
From the empirical conclusion that the Chzy coefficient increases approximately as
the sixth root of the hydraulic radius (channel size), we can introduce with the help of
C=
8g
1/2
1/6
rhy kst
the Strickler coefficient kst .

kst is a roughness coefficient (dimension
m1/3
[ s ]).
Gauckler-Manning-Strickler equation:
2/3
1/2
v0 = kst rhy I0
Open channel flow
. p.15/28
Roughness coefficients kst for open channel flow:
1/3
River bed with firm bottom, no irregularities

Neckar near Wendlingen
River bed, covered with aquatic plants
River bed with boulders and irregularities
River with high bed load
River bed with sand and gravel, plastered banks
River bed outlayed with large stones
Smooth cement surface
Concrete, constructed with wooden formwork, without plaster
kst [ m s ]
40
35
30-35
30
28
40-50
25-30
100
65-70
Open channel flow
. p.16/28
Normal-depth estimation
10
Normal depth for trapezoidal crosssections

1
10
0.1
m= 0
Graphical evaluation
of the GMS equation
for given discharge Q
and trapezoidal
cross-section with
different bank
inclinations:
0.25
0.5
100 S b
1
4 5
yN
b
1
yN
0.5 b
m= 0 1 24
yN
0.2
0.1
b0
1:m
b
Sb =
0.05
Q
1/2
8/3
kst . I E . b
0.001
10
0.01
Sb
0.1
0.02
Open channel flow
. p.17/28
Gradually varied flow

Assumptions:
Slowly changing bottom slope, cross-section and water depth (no hydraulic
jump).
One-dimensional velocity distribution.
Pressure distribution approximately hydrostatic.
v2
2g
I E,m
I E,mdx
Differential equation:
y
I0 IE,m
dy
=
.
2
dx
1 Fr
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
I0
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
y+dy
v+dv
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
I 0 dx
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
dx
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
x
v +d v
2g
2g
x+dx
Open channel flow
. p.18/28
Gradually varied flow

For non-uniform flows the bottom slope I0 and the slope of the energy grade line IE
differ.
y < yN :
The flow velocity is larger than at normal-depth conditions. Since the losses
increase with increasing velocities, it follows that the slope of the EGL is larger
than the bottom slope.
IE > I0
y > yN :
The opposite case holds accordingly.
IE < I0
y = yN :
Normal-depth conditions, IE = I0 !!
Open channel flow
. p.19/28
Gradually varied flow - basic solution curves

Steep (S)
S1
yN <
I >
0
ycr
I cr
S 1 : yN < y > ycr

S 2 : yN < y < ycr
S 3 : yN > y < ycr
S2
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
S3
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
yN
000000000000000000
>
I
I111111111111111111
ycr
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
cr
0
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
Mild (M)
M1
yN > ycr
I 0 < I cr
M 1 : yN < y
M 2 : yN > y > ycr
M 3 : yN > y < ycr
M2
yN
M
3
cr
1111111111111111111
0000000000000000000
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
I 0 < I cr
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
Open channel flow
. p.20/28
Gradually varied flow - basic solution curves

Critical (C)
yN =
I0 =
ycr
I cr
C 1 : yN < y
C 3 : yN > y
C1
C
3
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
yN = ycr
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
I 0 = I cr
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
Horizontal (H)
8
yN
H2
I0 = 0
H 2 : yN > ycr
H 3 : yN < ycr
H 3 ycr
1111111111111111111
0000000000000000000
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
0000000000000000000
1111111111111111111
I0 = 0
Open channel flow
. p.21/28
Gradually varied flow - integration of the diff. equation

Given discharge Q:
dy
=
dx
I0
Q2
Single-step approximation:
e.g., for the calculation of a backwater
curve
4/3
2 r
A2
kst
hy
Q2 b
gA3
v12
v22
+ y1 + xI0 =
+ y2 + xIE,m
2g
2g
Choose the discretization

length x or y
IE,m =
Numerical integration
Computation from upstream
to downstream for
supercritical flow
x =
Computation from
downstream to upstream for
subcritical flow
y2 +
2
v2
2g
I0
2
vm
4/3
2
kst
rhy,m
y1 +
2
vm
4/3
2 r
kst
hy,m
2
v1
2g
H02 H01
I0 IE,m
Open channel flow
. p.22/28
Gradually varied flow - composite flow profiles

Changing water depth in channel regions with different roughness (constant bottom
slope)
critical
flow
M2
S1
y N,1
y cr
S2
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
y N,3
mild
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
steep
00000000000000
11111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111
00000000000000
11111111111111
mild
k st,2 > k st,1
y N,2
hydraulic
jump
> k st,3
Open channel flow
. p.23/28
Gradually varied flow - composite flow profiles

Changing water depth in channel regions with different bottom slope (constant roughness)
M1
y N,1
M2
y N,2
y cr
critical
flow
S2
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
mild
y N,3
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
milder
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
steep
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
I 0,3 > I 0,1 > I 0,2
Open channel flow
. p.24/28
Broad-crested weirs
H1
boundarylayer
h1
y cr
ventilation
111111111111
000000000000
000000000000
111111111111
w
000000000000
111111111111
L
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000
0
Critical flow occurs on the weir crest (position of discharge control)

Specific discharge over a broad-crested weir
1 2p
3/2
q=
2gh1
33
General weir formula:
2p
3/2
q=
2gh1
3
In general, the discharge coefficient must be determined by experiments.
Open channel flow
. p.25/28
Sharp-crested weirs
h1
2
2 h
1
3
ventilation
1
w0
111111111111111111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000000000000000000
Formulation of the Bernoulli equation along the streamline 12
Specific discharge over a sharp-crested weir:
2p
3/2
2gh1
q=
3
p
Rough estimation = 2/3 0.81
Poleni equation for h1 /w0 < 6:
= 0.611 + 0.075 h1 /w0

Open channel flow
. p.26/28
Round-crested weirs
h 1 : head on the weir
h 1a : design head on the weir
w0 : height of weir
h1
h1
w0
h 1a
w0
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
sharpcrested, ventilated weir
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
roundcrested weir
Atmospheric conditions on the weir crest for design water level h1a
h1 > h1a : Under-pressure on the weir crest, the nappe (water overflow) is
sucked to the weir crest. The discharge coefficient is increased.
h1 < h1a : Over-pressure on the weir crest, decreased discharge coefficient.
Open channel flow
. p.27/28
Round-crested weirs - discharge coefficient

Discharge coefficient for round-crested weirs at design head on the weir (h1 = h1a )
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0
2
h 1a /w0
Open channel flow
. p.28/28

Chap 10 Fluid Mechanics

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Chap 10 Fluid Mechanics

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Flow in ducts and in open channels

driving force is gravity (fluid weight)

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Velocity profiles (isolines)

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

v(x) A(x) = Q = const.

coordinate in channel flow direction

specific energy (related to channel bottom)

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Froude number - flow regimes

Propagation velocity of a small surface wave: c =

Thus, Fr is a measure for the influence of inertia in comparison to gravity.

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Froude number - flow regimes

Different flow regimes in a flow over a weir:

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Specific energy and discharge diagrams

Specific discharge diagram for H0 =

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Frictionless flow over a bump

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Behavior of the hydraulic jump is predominantly affected by the upstream Froude

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Hydraulic jump - upstream and downstream depths

Conjugated upstream and downstream depths:

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Uniform flow with friction

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

By combinations of both equations and algebraic transformation it follows

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

the Strickler coefficient kst .

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

River bed with firm bottom, no irregularities

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Normal depth for trapezoidal crosssections

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Gradually varied flow

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Gradually varied flow

Institut fr Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fr Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Open channel flow

Gradually varied flow - basic solution curves