Light volatile liquid and

gas shale reservoir potential

of the Cretaceous Shaftesbury
Formation in northeastern
British Columbia, Canada
Gareth R. L. Chalmers and R. Marc Bustin

Gareth R. L. Chalmers  Department of

Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British
Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada; gchalmer@eos.ubc.ca
Gareth R. L. Chalmers is a postdoctoral research
fellow at the University of British Columbia
focusing on the geologic controls on liquid and
gas shale reservoirs. He is the global director
of Chalmcoal Consulting, and he received his
Ph.D. from the University of British Columbia.
R. Marc Bustin  Department of Earth and
Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia,
6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada; mbustin@eos.ubc.ca

ABSTRACT
The geologic controls on reservoir properties and potential hydrocarbon (volatile, low-molecular-weight liquid and gas) resources of the Cretaceous Shaftesbury Formation in northeastern British Columbia have been investigated. Maturity
varies from the oil to dry gas window (Tmax = 429486C), with
increasing maturity and depth of burial toward the south. The
Tmax, in degrees Celsius, is the oven temperature at the peak
generation of S2 during pyrolysis. Total organic carbon (TOC)
content ranges between 0.64 and 8.0 wt. %, with an average
of 2.2 wt. %. The TOC content distribution mirrors the trends
in maturity, with lower TOC content in areas of high maturity. Kerogen is characterized as either type II-III or type III.
The quartz content ranges between 33 and 66%, with higher
quartz content in areas with lower TOC content and greater
maturities. Porosity ranges between 4.5 and 14.6%, with higher
porosities observed within shallower wells, low quartz content, or maturities, or a combination of all three. The porosity
is reduced in high-maturity samples by mechanical compaction and silica cementation. Total gas capacities range between
4.5 and 24.8 cm3/g, and gas-in-place (GIP) estimates are between 0.98 and 3.39 bcf/(section meter). The calculated
hydrocarbon generation is less than 3.6 bcf/(section meter),
with light liquid generation between 3.7 and 516.2 MMBO.
Present-day depths and organic maturity have strong
influences on the hydrocarbon capacity more so than TOC

Copyright 2012. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received March 24, 2011; provisional acceptance June 16, 2011; revised manuscript received
September 14, 2011; final acceptance October 4, 2011.
DOI:10.1306/10041111041

AAPG Bulletin, v. 96, no. 7 (July 2012), pp. 13331367

AUTHORS

1333

R. Marc Bustin is a professor of petroleum and

coal geology in the Department of Earth and
Ocean Sciences at the University of British Columbia and the president of R. Marc Bustin
Earth Science Consultants. Bustin is an elected
fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the EnCana Corporation for providing
financial assistance and drill cuttings. We acknowledge funding from Geoscience BC and
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council and technical assistance from CBM
Solutions. We thank the AAPG Editors Stephen
Laubach and Frances Whitehurst and the
reviewers Dale Leckie, Julia Gale, and Thomas
Whitfield for their helpful comments and
suggestions.
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Julia F. Gale, Dale
A. Leckie, and Thomas G. Whitfield.

content. Deeper, higher maturity samples in the

south have the largest total gas capacity and GIP
estimates (0.983.39 bcf/[section meter]). Maturity is within the dry gas window in the southern one-third of the study area. Highest volumes
of light liquid hydrocarbons are found within the
less mature northern part of the study area.

INTRODUCTION
Gas shale exploitation to date in northeastern British Columbia has focused on the Devonian shale
within the Horn River Basin and Cordova embayment and on the shale and tight sand hybrid
within the Triassic Doig and Montney formations.
These strata are exploited where the maturity exceeds the oil window, with the general assumption
that the absence of liquid phase is required for
commercial production. With the recent successful exploitation and economic importance of volatile liquids (light oil and condensate) from strata
with maturities that correspond to the oil window
such as the Eagle Ford (Texas), Marcellus (Appalachia), and Barnett (Texas), a renewed interest in
evaluating and reevaluating organic shales that lie
in the oil window is observed. One of the thickest
and most laterally extensive fine-grained intervals
in western Canada is the Cretaceous Shaftesbury
Formation. This formation is thick, organic rich,
and ranges in organic maturity from the oil to gas
window, with the potential of containing both volatile liquids and gas resources. Mud logs confirm
that free gas is present throughout the Shaftesbury
Formation albeit at varying levels.
This article evaluates the shale gas and hydrocarbon liquid potential of the Cretaceous Shaftesbury Formation within the Deep Basin (Masters,
1984) trough area south of Fort St. John in British
Columbia (Figure 1). The objectives of this research are to (1) identify the geologic controls on
the distribution of the hydrocarbon capacity of
the Shaftesbury Formation, (2) identify zones of
greater gas and volatile liquid potential within the
thick sequences, and (3) estimate and identify controls on the distribution of the maximum gas-inplace (GIP) capacity.
1334

GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
The Cretaceous Shaftesbury Formation is defined
for the strata bound by the underlying Peace River
and the overlying Dunvegan formations along
the Peace River in northeastern British Columbia
(McLearn and Henderson, 1944) (Figure 2). Previous studies of the Shaftesbury Formation and equivalent lower Colorado Group are mainly within Alberta (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1991; Leckie et al.,
1992, 1994; Bloch et al., 1993, 1999; Bhattacharya,
1994; Plint, 2000), with limited published data on
the Shaftesbury Formation within British Columbia
(i.e., McLearn and Henderson, 1944; Stott, 1982).
The Shaftesbury Formation was deposited in
a foreland basin resulting from the downflexing
of the western margin of the North American
craton (Leckie and Smith, 1992) during the Cretaceous. The study area has experienced maximum subsidence and sedimentation rates because
of its proximity to the Cordilleran fold and thrust
belt during the Laramide orogeny (mid-Jurassic
Tertiary; Leckie and Smith, 1992). Basin models
for the Alberta Basin suggest that as much as 3 km
(2 mi) of sediment was eroded during the subsequent uplift that followed the burial of sediments during the Laramide orogeny (Ness, 2001).
Kalkreuth and McMechan (1988) calculated that
Lower Cretaceous sediments within the foothills
of east-central British Columbia experienced as
much as 6 km (4 mi) of uplift and erosion from the
maximum depth of burial.
The thickness of the Shaftesbury Formation
ranges between 259 and 823 m (850 and 2700 ft)
within the Peace River area of northeastern British
Columbia (Stott, 1982). On a regional scale, the
thickness of the Shaftesbury Formation decreases
from the Cordilleran fold and thrust (deformation)
belt toward the east and southeast into east-central
Alberta (Bhattacharya, 1994). The study area is
proximal to the deformation belt. The Shaftesbury
Formation is composed of dark-gray noncalcareous
shale and mudstone, with the upper parts becoming sandier in a transitional zone with the overlying
Dunvegan Formation. The Shaftesbury Formation
has a sharp basal contact with the Paddy Member
of the Peace River Formation (Figure 2). Based on

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 1. Location of
study area in northeastern
British Columbia, Canada,
and the wells examined in
this study. Adsorption isotherms were measured on
wells that have either a
star or a diamond symbol.
All ranges are west of the
sixth meridian. RE = samples analyzed by Rock-Eval
pyrolysis; sorption =
methane sorption analysis;
XRD = mineralogical analysis by x-ray diffraction.

the stratigraphic names proposed by Bloch et al.

(1993, 1999), the lower section of the Shaftesbury
Formation is equivalent to the Westgate Member;
the middle section, to the Fish Scales Sandstone;
and the upper section, to the Belle Fourche Sandstone Member (Figure 2). For light volatiles and
gas shale evaluation, we have separated the Shaftesbury Formation into four units: basal organic-rich
unit (BOU), lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), basal
Fish Scale unit (BFSU), and upper Shaftesbury unit
(USU; Figure 2).
The Shaftesbury Formation is the result of a
major transgression that connected both the Boreal
and Gulfian seas within the Western Interior seaway (Williams and Stelck, 1975). During this ma-

jor transgression, periods of sea level fall caused by

tectonic activity were also observed (Bloch et al.,
1999). The basal section of the Shaftesbury Formation (equivalent to our BOU), within the township of Peace River, Alberta, is an organic-rich,
radioactive, shallow-water condensed section that
was deposited in restricted marginal-marine conditions that progressively deepened into a nearshore
open marine setting (Leckie et al., 1990). The mineralogy of the Westgate Member (equivalent to
LSU) consists of quartz, potassium feldspar, muscovite, kaolinite, mixed layer illite, and smectite,
with minor amounts of chlorite, pyrite, glauconite,
and siderite (Bloch et al., 1993). The Fish Scale
Sandstone (equivalent to the BFSU) has a similar
Chalmers and Bustin

1335

Figure 2. Stratigraphic table of the Cretaceous stratigraphy of northeastern British

Columbia and northwestern Alberta (modified from Jowett and Schroder-Adams, 2005,
used with permission from the Bulletin of
Canadian Petroleum Geology). The units
used within this study are shown. The northern British Columbia equivalent of the Shaftesbury Formation includes the shales of the
Hasler and Cruiser formations and the
sandstone-dominated Goodrich Formation.
The equivalent Colorado Group within
Alberta can be separated into the Westgate,
Fish Scale, and Belle Fourche units (Bloch
et al., 1993). The light-gray shading represents sandstone-dominated formations,
and the dark-gray shading represents shaledominated formations. FSMB = Fish Scales
marker bed.

mineralogy to the Westgate Member but contains

more pyrite and may contain dolomite and apatite
in the form of phosphatic beds. The Fish Scale
Sandstone was deposited in anoxic stratified-bottom
waters, with fish scales concentrated within coarser
sediments (Leckie et al., 1992). The unique combination of coarser sediments and high total organic
carbon (TOC) content within the Fish Scale Sandstone has created a gas shale and tight sand hybrid,
with wells being completed in southern and central
Alberta (Benteau and Faraj, 2008). Flow rates are
generally low with rates between approximately
2 and 250 mcf/day (Benteau and Faraj, 2008), with
average wells producing less than 150 mcf/day
(Dawson, 2008).
Kalkreuth and McMechan (1988) examined the
regional maturation distribution of Cretaceous coalbearing strata in northeastern British Columbia
that include this study area. The overall maturity
distribution reflects the depth of burial of the Cretaceous strata, with maturity decreasing from the
deformation front toward the northeast. The isoreflectance lines are parallel with the deformation
1336

front with the exception at Dawson Creek and the

Peace River arch where the isoreflectance lines deviate toward the northeast. The maturity deviation
is the result of the localized thickening of strata
caused by the downwarping of the Peace River
arch (Kalkreuth and McMechan, 1988).

APPROACH AND METHODS

A total of 448 samples from 27 wells have been
analyzed for Rock-Eval organic geochemistry, quantitative mineralogy, porosity, surface area analyses,
and sorbed gas and total gas capacities. A suite of
geophysical logs in conjunction with the drill
cuttings was used to define the stratigraphy and
structure of the Shaftesbury Formation within the
study area. Samples were collected as fresh drill
cuttings and in-situ reservoir properties were not
preserved. Because samples were not preserved at
reservoir conditions, the water and gas saturations
are not known.

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Chalmers and Bustin

Figure 3. Structural cross section DD showing the stratal geometries, maturity (Tmax), total organic carbon (TOC) content, quartz content, and porosity profiles of the four units of the
Shaftsbury Formation and the Dunvegan and Paddy units. Gas contents from mud logs are also shown for B-37-A-93-P-10, C-43-B-93-P-8, and 14-22-73-12W6 wells. This cross section is
oriented along the depositional strike, with the exception of well C-43-B that is positioned farther downdip than the other wells (refer to Figure 1). Reservoir pressure (MPa) and
temperatures (C) on the right side of the cross section are calculated using hydrostatic and geothermal gradients. GR = gamma ray; gas = methane gas content from mud logs.

1337

Isopach and Structural Maps and

Cross Sections
Isopach maps were constructed for the Shaftesbury Formation and the four unitsUSU, BFSU,
LSU, and BOU. The Shaftesbury Formation and
informal unit tops were defined from gamma-ray
and resistivity logs for all wells in the study area
(Figure 1). Two structural cross sections illustrate
reservoir properties parallel with depositional strike
(DD) and dip (AA) (Figures 3, 4). Downhole distributions for gamma ray, maturity (Tmax), TOC
content, and mineralogy were determined for all
wells. A selection of wells also illustrates distribution for porosity, methane sorption capacity at reservoir pressure and at an arbitrary pressure of 6 MPa
(870 psi; for comparison between locations without variation in reservoir pressure), and GIP estimates on a bcf/(section meter) basis, using a
moving average of 50-m (160-ft) intervals.

Rock-Eval and Organic Geochemistry

Organic geochemistry was determined by RockEval pyrolysis and TOC content analysis. From the
Rock-Eval analysis, maturity, TOC content, hydrogen index, and S1 and S2 values were used for
this study. Thermal maturity was determined from
Tmax in degrees Celsius, which is the oven temperature at the generation peak of S2, and S1 is the
amount of free liquid hydrocarbons that is present
within the sample. The S1 data are used to calculate the volume of liquid hydrocarbons within
the Shaftesbury Formation. The S2 peak results
from the cracking of kerogen and represents the
total residual hydrocarbons that can be produced
from the source rock. The difference in S2 between
immature and mature rocks is used to calculate the
maximum volume of hydrocarbons generated.

HighPressure Methane Sorption Isotherms

The methane capacity of samples was determined
by a high-pressure (020 MPa [02900 psi]) volumetric sorption apparatus. All samples were ground
1338

to pass a 60-mesh (250-mm) sieve. Ground samples

were placed in an atmosphere of saturated solution of KCl at 30C to obtain equilibrium moisture (ASTM D 1412-04, 2004). Moisture content
was measured by oven-drying, weight-loss calculations. All analyses reported here were performed
under their respective reservoir temperatures,
and isothermal conditions were maintained (less
than 0.1C). Gas volumes are reported at standard temperature and pressure in cubic centimeters per gram of rock both at reservoir (hydrostatic)
pressure and at the arbitrary pressure of 6 MPa
(870 psi). The repeatability of analysis is less than
4% difference in the gas volumes calculated.

X-Ray Diffraction and Rietveld Analysis

Crushed samples (<250 mm) were mixed with
ethanol, hand ground in a mortar and pestle, and
then smear mounted on glass slides for x-ray diffraction analysis. A normal-focus cobalt x-ray tube
was used on a Siemens Diffraktometer D5000 at
40 kV and 40 mA. The mineral composition was
quantified by Rietveld analysis (Rietveld, 1967)
using the Bruker AXS Topas V3.0 software.
Porosity, Free Gas Capacity, Pore-Size
Distribution, and Microporous and
Mesoporous Surface Areas
Porosity, free gas capacity, and surface area are
measured on oven-dried samples (i.e., zero water
saturation) because as-received water saturations
do not represent reservoir water saturations, and
porosimetry and surface area analysis required dried
degassed samples.
Porosity and pore-size distribution were determined from mercury porosimetry. The pore-size
detection limit of this analysis is 3 nm (approximate
boundary between mesopore and micropore). The
porosity of microporous materials such as shale is
classified according to size using the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry classification
(IUPAC, 1997): micropores (<2 nm), mesopores
(250 nm), and macropores (>50 nm). Therefore,
the porosity and pore-size distribution results from

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Chalmers and Bustin

1339

Figure 4. Structural cross section AA shows stratal geometries, maturity (Tmax), total organic carbon (TOC) content, quartz content, and porosity profiles of the four units of the
Shaftesbury Formation and the Dunvegan and Paddy units. The gas content from mud logs is also shown in the B-86-H-93-P-7 well. The cross section is in the depositional dip direction.
Reservoir pressure (MPa) and temperatures (C) on the right side of the cross section are calculated using hydrostatic and geothermal gradients. GR = gamma ray; gas = the methane
gas content from mud logs.

Figure 5. Structural map to the base of

the Shaftesbury Formation. The depth to
the base of the Shaftesbury Formation increases toward the southern part of the
study area. The open diamond symbols in
all maps represent well location. All depths
are subsea.

porosimetry do not consider water saturation or

the microporosity of the sample but still provide
valuable information of the pore-size distribution
within the mesopore- and macropore-size ranges.
The total gas capacity is the measurement of
the maximum volume of sorbed, free, and solution gas within the shale. To calculate the total gas
capacity, the volume occupied by sorbed gas is
subtracted from the total porosity to yield the porosity available to free gas. The volume occupied
by moisture is not considered in these free gas calculations. Moisture within the pore system would
reduce the total gas capacity of the reservoir.
The mesoporous surface area of each sample
was determined by a Quantachrome Autosorb-1
using N2 gas adsorption at low temperature and
pressure (196C and <127 kPa) and the multipoint Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller method. Carbon dioxide (CO2) adsorption was also performed
to determine the microporous equivalent surface
1340

area using the cross sectional area of CO2 molecule

of 0.253 nm2 and at a temperature of 0C (Marsh,
1989; Unsworth et al., 1989; Clarkson and Bustin,
1996).

RESULTS
A series of maps and structural cross sections are
presented to illustrate the reservoir properties of
the Shaftesbury Formation. Reservoir properties
evaluated within this study include maturity (Tmax),
TOC content, kerogen types, quartz content, methane sorption capacity, porosity, total gas capacity, and
GIP and liquid hydrocarbon estimations. The reservoir pressure and temperature were calculated
from hydrostatic pressure and from local geothermal gradients based on bottom-hole temperatures
(0.3C/m), respectively.

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 6. Isopach maps for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units: (B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale
unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit (BOU). The thicknesses generally increase to the west.

Reservoir Depths, Structure, Thickness, and

Gas Contents of the Shaftesbury Formation
Within the study area, the depths range between
500 and 2100 m (1640 and 6890 ft), with reser-

voir pressures between 5 and 21.6 MPa (725 and

3132.8 psi) and reservoir temperatures between 16
and 72C (cross sections DD and AA; Figures 3, 4,
respectively). The depth to the base of the Shaftesbury Formation increases to the south from 21 to
Chalmers and Bustin

1341

Figure 7. Maturity distribution using maturity (Tmax) averages for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units: (B) upper
Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit (BOU). The
black solid line demarks the 445C isotherm that is the average for all samples in the Shaftesbury Formation. The black dashed line
represents the 455C isotherm that represents the initiation of thermal gas generation (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Leckie et al., 1988;
Schimmelmann et al., 2006).
1342

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 8. Average total organic carbon (TOC) content distribution across the study area for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four
units: (B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit
(BOU). The lowest TOC contents are found in areas that have experienced the highest maturity levels.
Chalmers and Bustin

1343

Figure 9. The relationship between S2

and total organic carbon (TOC) content
(Langford and Blanc-Valleron, 1990) provides information on the kerogen types
within the Shaftesbury Formation. The blackfilled circles are mature samples (Tmax,
>430C), whereas the open triangles are
considered immature samples (<430C).
Majority of the samples are type II-III and
type III, with little change occurring between the immature and mature samples.

1422 m (694665 ft) below sea level (Figure 5).

All units increase in thickness toward the west,
with the greatest cumulative thickness (>416 m
[>1365 ft]) in the western one third of the study
area (Figure 6). The average thickness of the BOU
is 29 m (95 ft), 179 m (587 ft) for the LSU, and
181 m (594 ft) for the USU (Figure 6). The BFSU
(with an average thickness of 27 m [89 ft]) also
shows a thickness increase toward the west, with
the exception of the A-29-B-93-P-7 well in the
southwestern part of the study area (Figure 6).
Where available, downhole gas profiles from
mud logs have been included within both cross sections (Figures 3, 4). Gas volumes increase within
the lower parts of the USU and into the BFSU as
well as within the lower parts of the LSU and into
the BOU. The Tmax, TOC content, quartz content, and porosity profiles are also shown in cross
sections DD and AA. The downhole profiles are
illustrated within the following sections on the distribution of reservoir properties within the study
area.

Maturity and Organic Geochemistry

The average Tmax for the Shaftesbury Formation
within the study area is 445C and ranges between
429 and 486C (Figure 7). Maturity consistently
1344

increases from the top to the bottom of the Shaftesbury Formation (Figures 3, 4), with an overall increase in maturity from north to south, consistent
with the current stratal depths. An anomalous low
is centered near the A-29-B-93-P-7 well because of
the lower Tmax values in the USU (Figure 4). When
considering all of the Shaftesbury Formation, almost one-third of the study area is within or greater
than the initial generation of thermogenic gas (Tmax,
455C), with the rest of the study area within the
oil generation window (Tmax, >435C; Tissot and
Welte, 1984; Leckie et al., 1988; Schimmelmann
et al., 2006).
The average TOC content for the Shaftesbury
Formation is 2.2 wt. % and ranges between 0.64
and 8.0 wt. %. The TOC content mapped for the
Shaftesbury Formation and each unit (Figure 8) are
averaged over the respective interval in each well.
The averaged TOC content between units ranges
between 1.25 and 4.3 wt. %. The BSFU has the
highest average TOC content of 2.9 wt. %, with the
BOU having the second highest average of 2.5%.
Gamma-ray profiles peak within these two units,
for instance, hottest shale (Figures 3, 4). The USU
and LSU have TOC content averages of approximately 2 wt. %. The TOC content decreases toward the southwestern corner of the study area for
all units. A northeastern-southwestern trough of
low values that extends through the center of the

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 10. The hydrogen index (HI; well averages) trend across the study area for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units:
(B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit
(BOU). Lower HI is found within the more mature parts of the study area (southwestern corner) as more hydrocarbons are generated.
The highest HI is associated with the immature kerogen in the northwestern part of the study area and more closely resembles the
original organic geochemistry of the kerogen compared with the mature kerogen. The thicker black line represents the overall average HI
value for the Shaftesbury Formation, which is 130 mg HC/g rock.

study area is also observed (Figure 8). Downhole

profiles for the TOC contents are similar between
wells, with higher TOC contents within the BOU

and a low TOC content within LSU that increases

toward and peaks within the BFSU and then declines toward the top of USU. These profiles are
Chalmers and Bustin

1345

Figure 11. Mineral ternary plot

for all samples analyzed within
the Shaftesbury Formation.
Samples are separated into the
upper Shaftesbury unit (USU),
basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU),
lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU),
and the basal organic-rich unit
(BOU). Mineralogical data are
normalized to 100% quartz,
clay, and carbonate (calcite)
and averaged for each unit. All
samples have a carbonate content less than 13%, with one
exception from the BOU. Most of
the samples are clay rich when
compared with the quartz content, and only the BOU contains
samples that have a higher
quartz content compared with
their clay content.

pronounced within wells B-51-F-93-P-9 and A-29B-93-P-7 in cross section AA (Figure 4).
Kerogen types have been interpreted from the
crossplot of S2 and the TOC content (Langford and
Blanc-Valleron, 1990) and most plot within the
fields of type II-III and type III, with the remainder
in types II and IV (Figure 9). The hydrogen index
(HI) ranges between 13 and 399 mg HC/g TOC,
with an average of 123 mg HC/g TOC (Figure 10).
Most of the samples have an HI less than 200 mg
HC/g TOC (90%). The HI decreases from the
northeastern toward the southwestern part of the
study area. The oxygen index ranges between 0 and
78 mg CO2/g TOC, with a mean value of 17 mg
CO2/g TOC.
Mineralogical Composition of the
Shaftesbury Formation
Mineralogy is similar between wells and plots within
a relatively small field, with carbonate content averaging less than 13% (most of the samples have
<1%) and both clay and quartz contents between
33 and 66% (Figure 11). The BOU increases the
range of clay and quartz. The mineralogical composition of the Shaftesbury Formation is dominated
by quartz and illite, typically greater than 67%
1346

combined. Other minerals include calcite, kaolinite, chlorite, pyrite, siderite, albite, and gypsum,
with minor amounts of fluorapatite.
Downhole quartz content distributions are
shown for both cross sections (Figures 3, 4) and are
also mapped across the study area (Figure 12). The
average quartz content for the Shaftesbury Formation is 37%. Above average quartz contents occur in the west and southwest, with well D-17-C93-P-10 being an exception. Because no other
minerals make such a large contribution to the shale
composition as quartz and clays, the clay content
more or less mirrors the quartz content distributions. Quartz content profiles from both cross sections show low quartz content in BOU and LSU,
peaking within the BSFM and then decreasing
within the USU toward the overlying Dunvegan
Formation (Figures 3, 4).
Porosity, Pore-Size Distribution, and
Microporous and Mesoporous Surface Area
The average porosity of the Shaftesbury Formation
is 7.9%, with a minimum of 4.5% and a maximum
of 14.6% (Figure 13). A low-porosity trough occurs in the center left part of the study area and
trends in a north-south direction (Figure 13). Higher

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 12. The distribution of the average quartz content for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units: (B) upper Shaftesbury
unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit (BOU). Higher quartz
contents overlay the higher maturity areas of the study area and suggest that silicification of clays occurred during diagenetic processes
(see text for details). The thicker line represents an average quartz content of 37%.
Chalmers and Bustin

1347

Figure 13. Average porosity (%) distribution for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units: (B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU),
(C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit (BOU). Porosity is lowest in areas of
higher maturity and higher quartz contents, indicating that porosity is possibly lost because of both compaction and cementation by
quartz. The black solid line represents an average porosity of 8%.
1348

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 14. The interrelationship between porosity, total organic carbon (TOC) content, and maturity. (A) A positive trend exists
between the TOC content and porosity. (B) This relationship exists because the porosity is destroyed with increasing burial and maturity,
and (C) simultaneously, the TOC content decreases because of hydrocarbon generation. Samples that are more mature have low
porosity and TOC content compared with immature samples. The porosity that is created during hydrocarbon generation caused by TOC
shrinkage is not as significant as the porosity that is destroyed by diagenesis.

porosity is found in the shallower wells and within

the BSFU. The BOU contains the lowest porosity,
with the exception of D-17-C-93-P-10 and 4-1978-10. The D-17-C-93-P-10 well has consistently
high porosity in all units. A positive trend exists
between TOC content and porosity (Figure 14A),
with a negative trend between porosity and maturity (Figure 14B) caused by the negative relationship between maturity and TOC content
(Figure 14C).
To compare the pore-size distribution between
samples and with the TOC content, quartz content, and maturity, five BFSU samples from five
wells were selected for detailed analyses (Table 1;
Figure 15). Greater porosity is found within samples that contain many more macropores than
mesopores (i.e., D-10-C-1330; Figure 15). The

lower porosity samples have approximately an

equal proportion of mesoporosity and macroporosity (Table 1), with most of the pores ranging
from 40 to 100 mm and 6 to 20 nm.
Using the samples from the C-4-J-93-P-1 well,
the relationship between the pore-size distribution
and depth is illustrated in Table 2 and Figure 16.
Porosity decreases with depth from 11.6 to 4.1%,
with the samples showing a reduction in the macropore range and a relative increase in the mesopores,
particularly, in the 3- to 10-nm range (Figure 16).
The contribution of macroporosity and mesoporosity to the total porosity is shown in Table 2. Mesopores increase from 5 to 26% of the total porosity,
with increasing depth from 1905 to 2115 m (6250
6939 ft). A general trend of increasing microporosity (microporous surface area) and mesoporosity
Chalmers and Bustin

1349

Table 1. Five Basal Fish Scale Unit Samples Chosen to Compare Total Porosity to Pore-Size Distribution, Surface Area, Maturity, and
with Total Organic Carbon Content and Quartz Content*

Sample ID
B-37-A-1390
D-A90-B-1550
C-43-B-1625
D-17-C-1330
4-19-78-755

Macropore
(% of Hg Porosity)

Mesopore
(% of Hg Porosity)

DR**
Micropore
Surface Area

BJH**
Surface
Area

Total
Porosity
(Hg)

TOC**
Content
(wt. %)

Quartz
Content
(%)

Tmax
(C)

Calculated
Ro (%)

45
58
72
92
78

55
42
28
8
22

7.14
62.5
17.56
8.23
12.63

4.36
5.04
12.31
11.81
8.36

4.0
5.4
8.5
11.9
14.6

1.7
1.7
5.2
4.2
5.1

40.2
42.4
34.4
31.6
41.0

451
451
437
432
428

0.98
0.98
0.71
0.61
0.54

*Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) is calculated from the relationship between maturity (Tmax) and Ro in Teichmuller and Durand (1983). The Hg porosity data are from the mercury
porosimeter.
**TOC = total organic carbon; DR = Dubinin-Radushkevich equation; BJH = Barrett, Johner and Halenda equation.

Data collected from gas adsorption analysis (units in square meters per gram).

with increasing maturity and depth is observed for

the samples in both Tables 1 and 2.
Sorption and Total Gas Capacity
Methane sorption capacity was determined for
representative samples across both the study area
and the stratigraphy. For comparative purposes,
all sorption capacities are compared at a pressure of 6 MPa (870 psi; Figure 17). The average
methane sorption capacity at 6 MPa (870 psi) is

0.9 cm3/g (29 SCF/ton) and ranges between 0.13

and 2.28 cm3/g (2.973 SCF/ton). Wells that have
a below-average capacity occur in the northwestern corner of the study area (Figure 17), with aboveaverage capacities (>1.1 cm3/g) in the southern
part of the study area.
No trend exists between methane capacity at
6 MPa (870 psi) and TOC content (Figure 18; diamonds). Shaftesbury samples have a higher sorption capacity compared with Cretaceous Buckinghorse shale samples (open squares; Chalmers and

Figure 15. Pore-size distribution by percent cumulative intrusion volume for the five selected
samples in Table 1. The cumulative percentage of pore volumes illustrates that the higher
porosity samples contain greater
than 80% macropores, and lower
porosity samples contain a
greater proportion of mesopores.
indicates porosity. The sample
name is a combination of the
well name and depth, for instance, 4-19-78-755 is from the
4-19-78-10W6 well at a depth
of 755 m (2477 ft).

1350

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Table 2. Pore-Size Distribution, Surface Area Maturity, Total Organic Carbon Content, and Mineralogical Properties of Four Samples in
the C-4-J-93-P-1 Well*

Sample ID

Macropore
(% of Hg Porosity)

Mesopore
(% of Hg Porosity)

DR**
Micropore
Surface Area

BJH**
Surface
Area

Total
Porosity
(Hg)

TOC**
Content
(wt. %)

Quartz
Content
(%)

Tmax
(C)

Calculated
Ro (%)

C-4-J-1905
C-4-J-1995
C-4-J-2030
C-4-J-2115

95
80
80
74

5
20
20
26

7.12
6.71
8.55
12.24

7.2
4.15
5.77
4.85

11.6
7.6
6.0
4.1

2.27
1.67
1.96
2.56

41.0
42.9
38.7
44.1

442
463
440
460

0.81
1.22
0.77
1.16

*Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) is calculated from the relationship between Tmax and Ro in Teichmuller and Durand (1983). The Hg porosity data are from the mercury
porosimeter.
**TOC = total organic carbon; DR = Dubinin-Radushkevich equation; BJH = Barrett, Johner and Halenda equation.

Data collected from gas adsorption analysis (units in square meters per gram).

Bustin, 2008) at the same TOC content (Figure 18).

Methane sorption capacity increases with maturity
for samples with capacities below 0.6 cm3/g/TOC
(diamond symbol; Figure 19A) Samples with capacities greater than 0.6 cm3/g/TOC have a high S1
(circle symbols; Figure 19B). High S1 is commonly
found in lower maturity samples (420440C),
with the S1 decreasing with increasing maturity
(Figure 19C). The downhole profiles for the methane sorption capacity at 6 MPa (870 psi) for a se-

lection of wells are shown in cross sections DD

(Figure 20) and AA (Figure 21). No significant
trends between the units are observed because the
downhole variation is too low in comparison with
the methane sorption capacity at reservoir pressure.
The average methane sorption capacity at reservoir pressure is 1.8 cm3/g (58 SCF/ton), and the
capacities range between 0.14 and 6.15 cm3/g (4.5
and 197 SCF/ton) across the study area (Figure 22).
The methane capacity at reservoir pressure shows

Figure 16. Comparison between pore-size distribution by

incremental pore volume and
depth (from surface). Pore-size
distribution is shown by the incremental pore volume that
intruded at a given pressure
(converted to pore size). Macroporosity destruction occurs with
increasing depth and relative
increase in mesoporosity, particularly toward the mesoporemicropore boundary. No relationship exists between the quartz
content and pore-size distribution
because of the small variation in
quartz content between selected
samples (Tables 1, 2). The sample
name is a combination of the
well name and depth, for instance,
C-4-J-2115 is from the C-4-J-93P-1 well at a depth of 2115 m
(6939 ft).

Chalmers and Bustin

1351

Figure 17. The distribution of average methane sorption capacities at 6 MPa (870 psi) for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four
units: (B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit
(BOU). The arbitrary pressure of 6 MPa (870 psi) was selected to allow comparison between locations without the variation in reservoir
pressure. The black line represents an average methane sorption capacity (at 6 MPa [870 psi]) of 0.9 cm3/g. See Figure 22 for average
methane capacities at reservoir pressure.
1352

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 18. The relationship

between total organic carbon
(TOC) content and methane
sorption capacity for the Shaftesbury and Buckinghorse formations. No correlation between the
methane sorption capacity (at 6
MPa [870 psi]) and the TOC content for the Shaftesbury Formation (solid diamonds) is observed
compared with the positive trend
found in the Cretaceous Buckinghorse shale (open squares)
(Chalmers and Bustin, 2008, used
with permission from the Canadian Petroleum Geology). Lower
variation in the TOC content
compared with the Buckinghorse
Formation may be a factor in
the poor correlation. The higher
methane capacities in the Shaftesbury Formation are caused by
natural bitumen (i.e., high S1).
See text for details.

a similar distribution as the methane capacity at

6 MPa (870 psi) with, in most cases, a shift toward higher values (Figures 17, 22). Wells within
the southern half of the study area have aboveaverage methane capacities in all units. Downhole
profiles for methane sorption capacity at reservoir
pressure in cross sections DD (Figure 20) and AA
(Figure 21) show higher capacities within the BOU
and BFSU (the 4-19-78-10 well is an exception).
Methane sorption capacity increases from the BOU
and LSU into the USU in the 4-19-78-10 well.
The average total gas capacity (free + sorbed
gas) for the Shaftesbury Formation is 11 cm3/g
(352 SCF/ton), with a minimum capacity of
4.5 cm3/g (144 SCF/ton) and a maximum capacity of 24.8 cm3/g (794 SCF/ton). The southern
two-thirds of the study area have above-average
total gas capacity (Figure 23).

Gas-in-Place Estimates
Gas-in-place estimates are shown based on either
the unit thickness (bcf/section) or a 1-m (3-ft)
thickness (bcf/[section meter]). The average

GIP estimates based on stratal thickness for the

Shaftesbury Formation are 317 bcf/section and range
between 115 and 726 bcf/section (Figure 24).
Higher than average GIP occurs in the south and
southwest. Two wells with the highest GIP estimates (>600 bcf/section) are B-86-H-93-P-7 and
C-4-J-93-P-1.
The GIP has been estimated for each unit of
the Shaftesbury Formation. Similar GIP distributions occur between the units with the exception
of the BFSU. The average GIP value for the BOU is
18 bcf/section and ranges between 9 and 49 bcf/
section (Figure 24). The LSU has the highest GIP
average compared with the other units (143 bcf/
section), with estimates ranging between 50 and
265 bcf/section. The average GIP for the BFSU is
20 bcf/section and ranges between 7 and 40 bcf/
section. The general trend has changed within the
BFSU from a north-south to an east-west direction, with above-average GIP in the west and estimates decreasing toward the east. The average
GIP for USU is 121 bcf/section within a range of
79 to 217 bcf/section. The USU has limited data
but still shows an above-average GIP in the southwestern and western parts of the study area.
Chalmers and Bustin

1353

Figure 19. The interrelationship between methane sorption capacity, S1, and maturity. (A) A positive relationship exists between
maturity and methane sorption capacity at 6 MPa (870 psi) on a per-unit total organic carbon (TOC) content basis, with the exclusion of
samples with a high S1 (circles). (B) Increasing organic maturation increases the ability for kerogen to sorb methane. Higher sorption
capacity (>0.8 cm3/g TOC) in the maturity (Tmax) of 435 to 450 is caused by the presence of bitumen-high S1. (C) S1 decreases with
maturity, indicating that S1 is from natural bitumen and not an invert drilling mud contaminant.

Gas-in-place estimates have also been calculated as downhole profiles for selected wells in
DD (Figure 20) and AA (Figure 21), with estimates
ranging between 0.98 and 3.39 bcf/(section meter). In these calculations, the GIP is estimated on a
rock volume of 1 m (3 ft) 1 section using a moving
average of 50 m (160 ft). No similar downhole
profiles exist between wells in cross sections AA
and DD. The GIP peaks vary stratigraphically between wells and can be located in the basal part of
the USU, in the middle to upper intervals of the
LSU, or within the BOU. The average GIP per section meter for each analyzed well increases toward
the southern part of the study area (Figure 25). A
low GIP trough extends to the south, in the western
part of the study area.
1354

Calculations of Volume of
Hydrocarbon Generated
Gas capacity calculations are based on the maximum sorbed and free gas capacities and do not give
an indication on the current amount of GIP, which
requires a sample suite with preserved reservoir
conditions. Mass balance calculations from the difference in organic geochemistry of immature and
mature organic matter provide an estimation of the
volume of hydrocarbons generated within the
most mature areas of the study area. For this study,
the amount of hydrocarbons generated from the
kerogen is estimated using the crossplot of S2 and
maturity (Jarvie et al., 2007). A crossplot of maturity and S2 shows the most immature samples

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Chalmers and Bustin

Figure 20. Downhole profiles of methane sorption capacity at both 6 MPa (870 psi) and reservoir pressure, gas-in-place (GIP) estimates (bcf/[section meter]), and porosity for cross
section DD. The GIP is calculated as a moving average over 50-m (160-ft) intervals. Gas = methane gas content from mud logs; sorption capacity = methane sorption capacity; GR =
gamma ray.

1355

1356
Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada
Figure 21. Downhole profiles of methane sorption capacity at both 6 MPa (870 psi) and reservoir pressure, gas-in-place (GIP) estimates (bcf/[section meter]), and porosity for cross
section AA. The GIP is calculated as a moving average over 50-m (160-ft) intervals. Gas = methane gas content from mud logs; sorption capacity = methane sorption capacity; GR =
gamma ray.

Figure 22. The distribution of methane sorption (average) capacities at reservoir pressure for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the
four units: (B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organicrich unit (BOU). The similar distribution between the methane sorption capacity at reservoir pressure and at 6 MPa (870 psi) indicates
that the reservoir pressure does not affect the distribution pattern; only the absolute numbers. The thick black line represents an average
methane sorption capacity of 1.8 cm3/g for all analyzed samples.
Chalmers and Bustin

1357

Figure 23. The distribution of total gas (average) capacities for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units: (B) upper Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit (BOU). The total gas
capacity is the sorbed gas with the calculated free gas component, assuming all pores are accessible to methane and no water saturation
(Sw = 0). The porosity distribution shows that porosity is not the major control on the total gas capacity because capacity is high in lowporosity samples (i.e., C-4-J-93-P-1 well). Reservoir pressure is a major factor in the distribution of total gas capacity.
1358

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 24. Gas-in-place (GIP) estimates using stratal thicknesses for (A) the Shaftesbury Formation, and the four units: (B) upper
Shaftesbury unit (USU), (C) basal Fish Scale unit (BFSU), (D) lower Shaftesbury unit (LSU), and (E) basal organic-rich unit (BOU). The GIP
estimates increase toward the southern part of the study area, particularly toward the southwestern corner. Gas-in-place estimates are also
higher in the western part of the study area because of the increase in the thickness of the Shaftesbury Formation. The black line represents
the average GIP value for each informal unit and the Shaftesbury Formation. See text for the average value for each unit.

to have an S2 of 13.35 mg HC/g rock whereas the

most mature samples have an average S2 value of
0.31 mg HC/g rock (Figure 26). Assuming that the
mature samples had a similar S2 when they were

at the similar maturity level as the immature samples, these samples have generated 13.04 mg HC/g
rock. Using the calculations from Jarvie et al.
(2007), 13.04 mg HC/g of rock is equivalent to
Chalmers and Bustin

1359

Figure 25. The average gas-in-place (GIP)

estimates for each well calculated on a persection meter basis using a 50-m (160-ft)
moving average. The bulk density and total
gas measurements are used in the calculations. The average GIP is 2.44 bcf/(section
meter) and is highlighted by a thicker
black line.

1.7 mmcf/ac-ft or 3.6 bcf/(section meter). To convert S2 (mg HC/g rock) to the volume of methane
(mcf/ac-ft), multiply S2 by 131.34 (Btu basis).
Based on this calculation, the gas generation ex-

ceeded the gas capacity of the shale in most of the

study area (C-4-J-93-P-1 is an exception; Figure 25).
The calculations to determine the volume of
liquid hydrocarbons present within the Shaftsbury

Figure 26. Crossplot of S2 and

maturity (Tmax [C]) showing the
amount of hydrocarbons that
could have been generated by
comparing the S2 value of immature and mature samples.
From this crossplot, 13.04 mg
HC/g rock was estimated from
samples with maturity greater
than a Tmax of 475C, which is
equivalent to 3.6 bcf/(section
meter) of hydrocarbons generated using an average bulk
density of 2.39 g/cm3. This is the
maximum amount of hydrocarbons generated at the highest
maturity levels measured within
the study area. TOC = total organic carbon.
1360

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

Figure 27. The distribution of liquid hydrocarbons (oil in place) for the Shaftesbury Formation (entire Shaftesbury strata)
in MMBO on a per-section basis. Liquid
hydrocarbon volumes are calculated from
the S1 value of the Rock-Eval analysis and
averaged bulk density value for the Shaftesbury Formation.

Formation are based on the S1 from the Rock-Eval

analysis. The S1 value ranges between 0.01 and
66.12 mg HC/g rock for the Shaftesbury Formation.
The average S1 for each well is used to calculate the
volume of liquid hydrocarbons on a section per
total thickness of the Shaftesbury Formation. The
volumes range between 3.7 and 516.2 MMBO
(Figure 27). The highest volume of liquids is found
within the lower maturity parts of the study area
in the northeastern and northwestern flanks of the
study area (i.e., the C-48-C-93-P-10 and 4-19-7810W6 wells), and the volumes decrease to the
center and the southern part of the study area as
maturity increases.

DISCUSSION
Strata in the study area vary markedly in thickness
and depth of burial, resulting in a large variation in
reservoir pressure and temperature. Pressures and

temperatures increase toward the southwest as the

depth to the base of the Shaftsbury Formation increases toward the southern and southwestern parts
of the study area to a maximum depth of 2300 m
(7500 ft) below the surface (<1500 m [<4921 ft]
subsea). Shale thickness depends on the tectonic
activity (i.e., accommodation space, sedimentation, and subsidence rates) and the evolution of the
basin, with the thickness of the Shaftesbury Formation increasing toward the Cordilleran fold and
thrust belt in the western part of the study area.
Higher sedimentation rates and higher accommodation space occur in proximity to the deformation
front. Lithospheric thrusting and loading from the
west induced greater subsidence, resulting in higher
accommodation levels and sediment supply (Leckie
and Smith, 1992).
Maturity and structural distributions within the
study area are similar and consistent with the vitrinite reflectance data of Kalkreuth and McMechan
(1988). The location of the study area is within the
Chalmers and Bustin

1361

outer foothills where strata have greater maturities

than the inner foothills to the west (Kalkreuth and
McMechan, 1988). The Cretaceous Shaftesbury
Formation is at sufficient maturities within the
study area to have generated hydrocarbons (light
volatile oil and gas). Thermogenic gas (>455C;
Tissot and Welte, 1984) would have been generated in the southern one-third of the study area.
S1 indicates the presence of free hydrocarbons in
lower maturity samples (420440C) and the
possibility for light volatile oil resources in the
northern part of the study area (Figure 27). Invert
drilling mud contamination is not the cause of
high S1 values because the S1 decreases with maturity. Liquid hydrocarbons have the additional
benefit of increasing the methane sorption capacity of the shale. Chalmers and Bustin (2007) show
that bitumen has a high methane sorption capacity
and that the presence of free hydrocarbons (bitumen) increases the methane sorption capacity of
the Shaftesbury Formation (Figure 19), although
the presence of free liquid hydrocarbons has a
negative impact on the shale pore system by reducing the volume of porosity available for free gas.
The TOC content distribution by well average
is affected by the degree of organic maturation
and the depth of burial, with clastic sedimentation
rates having a minimal effect on the TOC content
distribution (contrasting distribution between the
TOC content and stratal thickness; Figures 6, 8).
The TOC content is, in part, controlled by organic
maturation because TOC is reduced by the transformation to hydrocarbons (i.e., areas with higher
than average Tmax coincide with the areas of low
TOC content; Figures 7, 8). The more mature
south contains higher quartz contents, which may
be caused by diagenetic processes, and results in
the negative relationship between quartz content
and TOC content (Figures 12, 8; discussed in detail below). The high TOC content in the western
part of the study area where clastic sedimentation
rates were high indicates that organic sedimentation was at high enough rates to overcome any
dilution effects. Preservation of organic matter is
also enhanced by the higher sedimentation rates
caused by the abrupt burial and reduced exposure
to degradation (see review by Hedges and Keil,
1362

1995). The variation in the TOC content between

units observed in both cross sections and maps
may reflect the changes in the rate of sea level rise,
bioproductivity, preservation, or sediment supply,
or a combination of all four to the study area.
We assume that maturity has not significantly
altered the geochemistry of the kerogen because
of the similar plots for mature samples (Tmax,
>430C) and immature samples (Tmax, <430C;
Figure 9). The differences in kerogen geochemistry are caused by their origins (kerogen type).
The higher content of terrestrial type III kerogen
within the study area (Figure 9) compared with
other source rocks is caused by the close proximity of the emergent land of the Cordilleran fold
and thrust belt to the west. This emergent land is
a source for humic kerogen derived from higher
land plants. The hydrogen content of the kerogen (Figure 10) is less than 200 mg of HC/g TOC
including the immature samples (oil-prone source
rocks have an HI <900 mg of HC/g TOC), which is
characteristic of gas-prone kerogen (Dow, 1977;
Tissot and Welte, 1984). With the onset of gas
generation during pyrolysis for type III being between 445 and 470C (Dow, 1977; Teichmuller
and Durand, 1983; Espitalie et al., 1985; Leckie
et al., 1988), the greatest generation of gas would
have occurred in the southwestern corner because
of higher maturities (Tmax, >445C) coupled with
low TOC and HI content (assuming that the TOC
content of the mature samples was similar to the
present-day immature samples). Types II and II-III
kerogen with the higher S1 and HI (i.e., 4-19-7810W6 and 8-4-78-16W6) have the potential of
producing light liquid hydrocarbons within the less
mature regions of the study area. Liquid hydrocarbon calculations for the entire Shaftesbury Formation using the S1 indicate that these wells contain between 3.7 and 516.2 MMBO per section.
Maturation and burial history models developed by
Kalkreuth and McMechan (1988) for the Lower
Cretaceous strata within northeastern British Columbia indicate that hydrocarbon generation initiated between 60 and 85 Ma, depending on the
location with respect to the deformation front.
The shale of the Shaftesbury Formation is, in
most parts, noncalcareous and is both clay and

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

quartz rich, with most of the clay minerals being

illite. Above-average quartz content occurs in the
southern part of the study area and extends into the
middle part of the study area. Similar distribution
exists for the TOC content and maturity. The increase in quartz content within the center of the study
area could be caused by free silica gel being released from the silicates during diagenesis (Foscolos,
1990), which is either expelled or becomes quartz
cement in pores or quartz overgrowths within the
shale. Another possibility for the variation in the
quartz content could be related to sedimentologic
differences across the study area. The increase in
silica content in these areas could enhance the
brittleness and the ability to increase reservoir access through hydraulic fracturing. General downhole distribution shows a higher quartz content in
the BOU and BFSU and a lower quartz content
within the LSU and USU. Differences in the quartz
content between units and the downhole distributions are not consistent between wells, which may
reflect the large sampling intervals (510 m [20
30 ft]) or the change in the sedimentology and
depositional environment across the study area or
the combination of both. Observations made at
the outcrop exposures of the BFSU found that the
unit is both sand and silt rich (Bloch et al., 1993),
which would increase the quartz content. The
greater range in mineralogy for the BOU may be
caused by sediment reworking during the transgression, which incorporates some of the sediment
from the underlying sands of the Paddy Member.
Similar distributions between porosity, maturity, TOC content, and quartz content indicate that
both organic and inorganic diageneses are the most
important controls on the porosity within the study
area. Porosity distributions are expected to be similar
to the structure of the study area, decreasing toward the south and southwest with increasing effective stress. A positive trend exists between porosity and TOC content (Figure 14A), with the
lowest TOC content occurring in the same areas
as the lowest porosity (Figures 8, 13). Negative
relationships exist between maturity and TOC
content (Figure 14C) and porosity (Figure 14B),
with high Tmax (Figure 7) located in the same
areas of the study area as the lowest porosity and

TOC content. The positive trend between TOC

content and porosity is, in part, an artifact of the
negative relationship that exists between maturity
and porosity (Figure 14B) because mature samples
have lower TOC content and porosity. Porosity
increases within kerogen with increasing maturity
as the volume of kerogen reduces because of thermal decomposition, but intergranular porosity destruction is greater than the creation of kerogen
porosity because of kerogen shrinkage. Destruction
of porosity with increasing depth of burial is primarily caused by the loss of macropores, as shown
by the four samples in the C-4-J well. Destruction
of porosity is caused by silica cementation and
mechanical compaction of pores during diagenetic
processes. Porosity in immature samples is more
variable because of the differences in the primary
texture of the shale, and the variation in porosity
reduces with increasing maturity (Figure 14B) as
the texture evolves because of compaction. As the
shale loses macropores because of compaction, a
concomitant increase in the microporous surface
area is observed. The increase in micropores is associated with increasing maturity and shrinkage
of the kerogen and the increase in illite crystallinity (Chalmers and Bustin, 2008). Although an
overall loss in the volume of porosity (i.e., macropores) is observed, the increase in the surface area
associated with mesopores and micropores results
in an increase in the sorbed gas component (associated with mesopores and micropores) but a reduction in the free gas component (associated with
macropores).
The above-average methane capacity within
the southern half of the study area is caused by the
maturity and the current depth of the reservoir.
Wells that are at greater depths have higher methane sorption capacities normalized to 6 MPa
(870 psi) and at their respective reservoir pressures. Having similar distributions between a constant arbitrary pressure (6 MPa [870 psi]; Figure 17)
and changing pressure (reservoir; Figure 22) indicates that samples that have experienced greater
diagenesis (maturity and depth of burial) have the
ability to store more methane than immature samples although immature samples have a greater volume of kerogen. This is confirmed by the positive
Chalmers and Bustin

1363

relationship between maturity and methane sorption capacity calculated on a per-TOC basis (diamond symbols in Figure 19A), indicating that higher
maturity samples have a higher methane sorption
capacity on a per-TOC basis compared with lower
maturity samples. The increase in capacity with increasing reservoir pressure according to their current depths makes the shale at greater depths a more
favorable target, although permeability is anticipated to be reduced. This relationship is opposite
to the observations made in the Buckinghorse Formation, where shallower samples had a greater
sorption capacity because of a higher TOC content
(Chalmers and Bustin, 2008). In the Shaftesbury
Formation, samples that are at shallower depths
have a higher TOC content but not higher methane sorption capacities. Maturity has a stronger
control on the capacities of these shales than the
variation in TOC content. The reason for such a
poor trend between TOC content and methane
sorption capacity could be related to the narrower
range of TOC content compared with the Buckinghorse shale (Figure 18). The difference could also
be caused by the presence of bitumen (high S1;
circle symbols in Figure 19A, B) in the Shaftesbury
Formation samples, which would increase the sorption capacity because gas would move into solution
(Chalmers and Bustin, 2007). The bitumen is natural and not an invert drilling mud contaminant
because the S1 (bitumen) decreases with maturity
(Figure 19C).
Total gas capacity at reservoir pressure considers the increase in sorption capacity with pressure
and the increase in free gas density within the pores
of the sample. Wells with higher-than-average total
gas content have higher sorption capacity, higherthan-average porosity or reservoir pressure, or a
combination of all three. High porosity volumes
generally increase the total gas capacity of the reservoir, assuming that all pores are accessible to
methane. High pressure is more important than
high porosity as illustrated by the deepest well C4-J-93-P-1, which has low to moderate porosity
but the highest total gas capacity caused by the
highest reservoir pressures.
The GIP distribution based on stratal thicknesses (bcf/section) is influenced by the sorption
1364

capacity of the shale, maturity, depth (reservoir

pressure), and thickness of the unit. Higher GIP
estimates are along the western border and within
the southern part of the study area. High GIP
along the western border is caused by the increase
in the thickness of the Shaftesbury Formation
(Figure 6), whereas high GIP in the southern part
of the study area is caused by the greater depths
and maturity. The distribution of GIP averages on
a per-meter basis (i.e., gas density; bcf/[section
meter]) is similar to the GIP distribution calculated using the stratal thickness (Figure 24) outlined above, with an increase in GIP toward the
south (Figure 25). The similarity between the
GIP distributions indicates that the stratal thickness changes the absolute number but not the distribution pattern across the study area. The low GIP
trough in Figure 25 and within the LSU in B-86-H93-P-7 (Figure 21) is caused by below-average porosity (Figure 13) and total gas content (Figure 23).
The GIP downhole distributions from cross sections DD (Figure 20) and AA (Figure 21) show
that the zone of highest gas density shifts between
units and is influenced by porosity and total gas
capacity. The variation in the stratigraphic location
of the high gas density zone needs to be considered
during exploration of the Shaftesbury Formation.
The amount of hydrocarbons generated from
the Shaftesbury Formation is assessed from the
crossplot between S2 and Tmax for both mature
and immature samples (Figure 26). Because the
kerogen is dominated by gas-prone type III, the
hydrocarbons generated would be dominated by
methane (Tissot and Welte, 1984). The value of
3.6 bcf/(section meter) was calculated as the maximum amount of methane generated within the
mature parts (i.e., Tmax, >475C; Figure 26) of the
study area assuming that the amount of hydrocarbons available for conversion is represented by
the immature samples (i.e., their present day S2)
and that the TOC content and S2 are constant
across a section. The maximum GIP capacity ranges
between 0.98 and 3.39 bcf/(section meter), which
indicates that the Shaftesbury Formation shale reservoir has the capacity to store at least one-third
of the generated hydrocarbons. Gas content measurements are needed to ascertain how much gas

Liquid and Gas Shale Potential of the Shaftesbury Formation, Canada

has been retained within the self-sourcing reservoir. For this study, water saturation is assumed as
zero for all gas capacity calculations and capacity
would reduce if recalculated using the in-situ water
saturations (i.e., Sw = 3050%). Direct gas measurements in the field would determine the gas
saturation.

6.

CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions from the evaluation of the Cretaceous Shaftesbury Formation in northeastern
British Columbia are as follows:
1. No clear correlation exists between the TOC
content and the methane sorption capacity, and
no significant relationships are observed between the distributions of the TOC content and
the methane sorption capacity. The lack of any
relationships is caused by the narrow range within
the averaged TOC contents, the presence of bitumen within some samples, and the changes in
gas capacity and maturity overshadowing the
low variation in TOC abundance.
2. Maturity has a strong influence on the sorbed
gas capacity as highlighted by the similar distributions of Tmax and sorbed gas capacities at
6 MPa (870 psi) and reservoir pressure. If pressure had a stronger influence than maturity, a
little difference in the sorption capacity at 6 MPa
(870 psi) across the study area would be observed and capacities would only increase with
depth when measured at the reservoir pressure.
3. Greater depth of burial of the sediments (higher
maturity and diagenesis) has reduced porosity
by mechanical compaction and chemical precipitation of free silica caused by clay diagenesis,
which results in a higher quartz content in more
mature, lower porosity samples.
4. Total gas capacity is controlled by the reservoir
pressure and the present-day depths and less so
by the volume of porosity.
5. The GIP estimates on a per-section basis are
greatly influenced by the stratal thicknesses and
the total gas capacity. The GIP on a per-meter
basis shows similar distribution to GIP on a per-

7.

8.

9.

section basis, indicating that the stratal thickness changes the GIP estimation but not the
distribution across the study area.
Downhole GIP distributions on a 50-m (164-ft)
moving average illustrate that the GIP peaks shift
stratigraphically across the study area. Having
GIP calculated on a constant volume of rock (i.e.,
1 m 1 section) allows simple calculations of the
GIP on a variety of stratal thickness, depending
on the volume of rock that is proposed to be
stimulated during well completions.
The comparison between the S2 of immature
and mature samples illustrates that a significant
amount of hydrocarbon was generated since
the Cretaceous and that the Shaftesbury Formation has the necessary surface area within
the pore structure to retain a part of the hydrocarbon generated. How much of these hydrocarbons are retained can only be determined by
direct gas measurement in the field.
From the data presented, the greatest gas shale
potential is within the southwestern part of the
study area because of high maturities, moderate porosities, and higher reservoir pressures. The
access to the reservoir still needs to be assessed
particularly at greater depths because permeability could be reduced and fracture stimulation
is necessary. The higher quartz content and possible silica cementation could enhance the ability
to fracture the reservoir in the southwestern part
of the study area.
Lower maturity (oil window) areas have lower
gas capacities but the potential for volatile light
liquid plays a development with S1-based calculations indicating resources between 3.7 and
516.2 MMBO.

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