P i t f a l l s

3LWIDOOVLQVHLVPLFDPSOLWXGHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ/HVVRQVIURP
2OLJRFHQHFKDQQHOVDQGVWRQHV
HARILAL and S. K. BISWAL, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, India

high-amplitude anomaly was identified in the Upper

Oligocene Daman Formation clastic sequence during
initial interpretation of newly acquired 3D seismic data in the
Tapti-Daman sub-basin offshore western India. This anomaly
exhibited the depositional signature of a channel and was
interpreted as bright spots associated with gas sands, consistent
with the occurrence of thin gas pays in the sandstone reservoirs
of Daman Formation in the area. Considering thickness and
areal extent, thick gas sands were predicted, upon drilling;
however, thick water-bearing sands were found. The predrill
interpretation was mainly based on windowed amplitudes
without validation through character of reflection events and
other supporting evidence such as frequency, velocity, and
AVO.
To analyze the failure and develop a geologic model consistent with well results, the seismic and new well data were reevaluated. Log motifs show a thick channel filled with 15-m,
high-impedance, porous sands embedded in low-impedance
shale. Character matching of a synthetic seismogram to the
seismic data shows that the highest amplitude is caused by
the basal interface (sand-shale) of the channel. Windowed and
horizon attributes reconfirm the channel geometry. Impedance characteristics of sands with respect to embedding shales
vary laterally and vertically in the area; gas sands have higher
impedance in some wells and lower impedance in others with
respect to encasing shales. Variability in impedance is attributed to variation in depositional environment. Fluvial-toestuarine channels in the upper delta plain are inferred from
analysis of log motifs, seismic characteristics, and attributes.
The bright spots were produced by thick, high-impedance porous sandstones. The failure of the well to find hydrocarbons
was probably due to lack of vertical seal because channel sands
are well compartmentalized with faults and positive relief is
present. The validation of bright spots was done through AVO
modeling. The water-bearing sands in the new well did not
show an AVO anomaly, whereas gas-bearing sands in an old
well showed a good class 2 AVO anomaly.
Introduction
A local increase in P-wave amplitude (i.e., a bright spot) in
association with a mappable trap geometry extent is considered a robust (but not foolproof) direct hydrocarbon indictor
(DHI) in Tertiary clastic sequences. DHIs are mostly related
to gas rather than oil because gas has a greater impact on the
acoustic properties of reservoirs than oil. Water sands have
lower acoustic impedance than embedding media and, in the
case of gas saturation, the acoustic impedance of a sandstone
reservoir decreases further; so the gas-filled portion of the reservoir gives rise to a high-amplitude reflection.
Knowledge of the phase and polarity of seismic data is
essential before interpreting a high-amplitude reflection as a
valid DHI. Amplitude may or may not be associated with
384

The Leading Edge

Figure 1. The study area with rms amplitude map over multi 3D
surveys and well locations. Amplitude map shows imprints of channels
mapped during predrill interpretation. Wells A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I,
and J were drilled before 3D interpretation. H indicates the location
proposed on the basis of 3D interpretation. TWT contours of reflector
M1 are superimposed on the amplitude map.

frequency, phase, and polarity changes depending on reservoir properties, thickness, and data quality. Flat spots (reflections from fluid contacts), AVO, velocity variation, and
shear-wave information may help in positive identification
of DHIs (Brown, 2004). 3D visualization, automatic spatial tracking, and seismic attribute analyses facilitate precise
mapping of anomalous amplitude features. Based on local
geological knowledge and the geometry of mapped anomalies, anomalous amplitudes may be assigned to some geological features such as channels or shelf sand ridges.
DHIs are successful in many cases, but they may fail
because a given geophysical response is not uniquely associated with a single geological model either with or without hydrocarbon saturation (Houck, 1999). Fizz water and
low gas-saturated reservoirs may also give rise to amplitude
anomalies not related to commercial hydrocarbon accumulations (Han and Batzle, 2002). Inadequate understanding of
polarity conventions, tuning effects, high amplitudes related
to lithologic contacts, and reflections from geologic contacts
resembling flat spots are reasons for pitfalls in relating high
amplitudes to DHIs. In addition, there may be complex geological situations where sands have greater impedance than
embedding media, contrary to the known or expected geology of the area. In such cases, the sands always generate

April 2010

Downloaded 12 May 2010 to 200.1.118.115. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://segdl.org/

P i t f a l l s

high amplitudes irrespective of saturating fluids (water or gas)

anddue to inadequate knowledge of polarity, phase, and
impedancehigh amplitudes are mistakenly assumed to represent hydrocarbon reservoirs. Dim spots are recognized in a
lateral sense but, in the case of narrow channels with highimpedance sands, insignificant dimming of amplitude due to
gas saturation may be unnoticed.
The present study is related to a deceptive high-amplitude
anomaly associated with Upper Oligocene channel sandstones
in Indias offshore Tapti-Daman sub-basin (Figure 1). The
anomaly was mapped as part of interpretation of 3D data,
newly acquired in 2005. Before 3D, nine wells (A-G, I and J)
were drilled, mostly based on structural considerations; a few
of these wells encountered multiple thin (17 m) sand pays in
Daman Formation. High amplitudes associated with low-impedance gas sands are known to occur in several wells. Taking
the lead from prior knowledge of area, the high amplitudes
were assumed to have been generated from oil/gas sands, but
were found to be water-bearing upon drilling.
The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the pitfalls in
interpreting an anomalous seismic amplitude as a DHI and
to assess the rock properties of the channel sandstone which
generated the amplitude anomaly.
3D seismic interpretation
The channel in Figure 1 was mapped during integrated interpretation of newly acquired 3D data and is mainly based
on the geometry of the anomalous amplitudes. On vertical
sections, stacked high amplitudes were observed between
2000 to 2100 ms (Figure 2); the gross thickness of this highamplitude zone is about 70 m at an average depth of 2180
m. The top of the high-amplitude zone (yellow reflector)
was autotracked and time structure maps, horizon slices,
and rms amplitude maps were generated. The rms amplitude
map is overlaid on the time structure map in Figure 1. The
channel geometry was also validated by other attributes and
techniques such as spectral decomposition and seismic facies
maps, but investigation of the anomalies as DHIs using velocity, AVO, and shear-wave methods was not done. No flat
spots and/or polarity reversals were seen on vertical seismic
sections.
Because Daman Formation consists mainly of sand and
shale in the study area, the amplitude anomaly was assumed
to have been generated from a sand-filled channel. In nearby
areas, many wells based on DHIs produce gas from Daman.
After integrating amplitude, structure, and background information, well H was drilled to explore the channel. The well
penetrated a sand-filled channel as predicted but found no
hydrocarbons; however, gas was encountered at lower levels
where there was no amplitude anomaly (Figure 3). After this
study, multilevel isolated high-amplitude anomalies at lower
stratigraphic levels were found to be gas-bearing (Harilal et
al., 2008).
To investigate the well failure and develop an accurate
geologic model consistent with well results, seismic and new
well data were re-evaluated. Logs and an interpreted lithologic
column for the new well (H) are shown in Figure 3. The top

Figure 2. Portion of seismic section showing stacked high-amplitude

zone between 2000 and 2100 ms two-way traveltime.

Figure 3. Log signatures and interpreted lithologic column in well H.

The predicted sands are embedded in shales at depths of 2170-2185
m. The sand is water-bearing. Gas was found in lower-level (2300 m)
sands.

contact of the target sand (thickness = 15 m) is gradational

and the bottom contact is sharp. The porosity of this sand is
good (>20%) and its velocity and impedance are higher than
those of its encasing shales.
Well-to-seismic matching and analysis
Synthetic seismograms were generated using two types of
wavelets: (1) extracted from the seismic and (2) constant 64Hz Ricker wavelet (Figure 4). The polarity convention for
April 2010

The Leading Edge

Downloaded 12 May 2010 to 200.1.118.115. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://segdl.org/

385

P i t f a l l s

Figure 4. Synthetic seismogram of well H. Panel 1 uses wavelet

extracted from seismic data. Panel 2 uses 64-Hz Ricker wavelet. For
display polarity, a positive impedance contrast is a trough. Seismic
traces are blue. Reflections are indicated by arrows.

Figure 5. NW-SE line across the channel sand that passes through
wells C and D. Location is shown in Figure 1.

these synthetics is that a low-to-high impedance contrast is

displayed as a trough (red). The extracted wavelet shows a
peak frequency of about 24 Hz with bandwidth of 1050
Hz. The average interval velocity of the sandy interval is 2800
m/s. At this frequency and velocity, the limit of resolution
(tuning thickness) is about 30 m and the top and base of a
15-m thick sand are not resolved, so the synthetic using the
extracted wavelet does not have distinct events corresponding to the top and base of sand. The top (shale-sand) and
base (sand-shale) of the channel fill give rise to a composite
trough-over-peak response. The bottom peak has higher amplitude than the overlying trough, and the log motifs (Figure 3) and synthetic response show this higher amplitude is
caused by the sharp contrast between the properties of the
channel sands and underlying shales. This may happen if the
shales were scoured (incised) and subsequently coarser clastics were deposited. In contrast to the synthetic using the extracted wavelet, the 64-Hz synthetic resolves the 15-m thick
sand as expected.
Horizon correlation and attribute extraction
An arbitrary profile across the mapped channel and passing
through dry wells C and D (Figure 1) is shown in Figure
5. In general, sandstones have higher impedance than shales
(Figure 3 and 4) and onsets of sandstone tops are represented
by troughs (red) at well C. Onsets of low-impedance shales
are represented by peaks (blue). GR, LLD, and impedance
logs and geologic markers Daman Top, Daman1, and Daman2 are overlaid on the seismic section; seismic marker M1
corresponds to Oligocene Top (Daman Top), and seismic
markers M2 and M3 correspond to the Daman1 and Daman2 geologic markers, respectively. The increase in seismic
amplitude is seen within the marked yellow ellipse. The composite reflection (red event) representing the top of sand is
just below the M1 marker and base of sand corresponds to
the M2 marker (Figure 5).
Top and base of sand reflections were correlated using a
spatial auto-tracking method and horizon slices were generated. Although the top of sand event apparently has high
386

The Leading Edge

Figure 6. Horizon slices from (a) top of sand reflector, (b) bottom of
sand reflector, and (c) composite.

April 2010

Downloaded 12 May 2010 to 200.1.118.115. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://segdl.org/

P i t f a l l s

amplitude, its horizon slice does not show any recognizable

anomaly pattern (Figure 6a). An anomalous high-amplitude
channel pattern is seen on a horizon slice of the base of sand
event (Figure 6b), consistent with evidence from the synthetic
seismograms and log motifs. The composite slice (absolute
sum of top and bottom amplitude) also shows the channel
pattern (Figure 6c).
Lithology versus impedance
Crossplots between impedance and gamma-ray logs of five
wells (G, B, A, E, I) and log tracks consisting of impedance,
gamma-ray and resistivity logs within Daman are shown in
Figures 7 and 8, respectively, color-coded by resistivity, which
can be divided into three zones representing shales (low resistivity = blue), water-bearing sands (medium resistivity = yellow) and gas-bearing sands (high resistivity = red). The relationship between impedance and lithology is: (1) shales have
lower impedance; (2) sands have higher impedance; and (3)
few water-bearing sands have lower impedance and few gasbearing sands have higher impedance than encasing shales.
Depositional model of the sands
Acoustic properties of sandstone in Daman are very inconsistent with respect to depositional age and depth of burial.

Figure 7. Crossplot of gamma ray and impedance.

Figure 8. Log data from wells G, B, A, E, and I. Intervals with sands

are shown in yellow and red.

Figure 9. Log correlation profile across the study area, flattened at Daman Top (M1). Log motifs and lithologic interpretation indicate two
depositional environments.

Figure 10. Arbitrary line passing through wells in Figure 9.

388

The Leading Edge

April 2010

Downloaded 12 May 2010 to 200.1.118.115. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://segdl.org/

P i t f a l l s

Figure 11. Arbitrary line across the channel, passing through wells C,
H, and D and flattened at M1.
Figure 13. 3D map of M1 with +40-ms shift.

Figure 12. Log profile showing evidence of channel in well H.

Generally, shallow Tertiary sands have lower impedance than

encasing shales in the Tapti-Daman sub-basin, where many
bright spots have been mapped and produced gas from lowimpedance sands. But in this part of the basin, sands have
both higher and lower impedance than encasing shales, irrespective of saturating fluids. These acoustic properties may
be understood by analyzing variations in depositional process/environments of sands. The depositional processes and
environments can be interpeted from log motifs, lithologic
interpretation, and seismic character.
The log correlation profile (Figure 9) passing through wells
G, B, A, E, J, and I shows sand dominance between Daman
Top and Daman1 and shale dominance with occasional limestone streaks between Daman1 and Daman2. These differences in lithologic assemblages may be attributed to differences
in depositional processes/environments. The M2 reflector
(Daman1) is at the base of the channel in well J. The section
(Figure 10) along the log profile of Figure 9 shows a highamplitude reflection above M3. Thin pay zones are known
to occur below M3 (Figure 10, red arrows). Reflections between M1 and M3 and below M3 are not conformable, and
an unconformity surface (black arrows) is inferred between
M2 and M3 (base of bright trough). Shales, minor sands/silts,
and occasional limestone streaks below Daman1 (M2) were
deposited in the lower delta plain and estuarine environments
under the influence of tidal waves. In this environment, many
small tidal bars also occur with low-impedance sands generating bright spots and producing gas. Sand dominance and
channel signatures between Daman Top and Daman1 may be
caused in upper delta plain environments in which the main
depositional process is fluvial, and braided and meandering
channels are common (see example of channel in Figure 1).

Figure 14. Similar seismic and log signatures were noted at wells H
and I which were separated by 20 km. One-to-one correlation is not
seen, but high-impedance, water-wet sands have a high-amplitude
response. Both wells penetrated the same channel (Figure 1).

Figure 15. Crossplot between impedance and gamma ray.

The existence of a channel is further supported by detailed

seismic character and log motifs. An arbitrary line passing
through wells C, H and D, flattened at M1, shows thickening
of bright amplitudes between M1 and M3 at well H (Figure
11). The log motifs of well H, drilled in the middle of the
anomaly, suggest a channel by sharp contact at base and a
fining-upward pattern (Figure 12). Similar channel sands are
April 2010

The Leading Edge

Downloaded 12 May 2010 to 200.1.118.115. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://segdl.org/

389

P i t f a l l s

Lithology

Density

Velocity

Impedance

Impedance
constrast

Water-well (shallower)

Figure 16. AVO curve at (a) top of gas sand in well G and (b) top of
water sand in well H.

absent in wells C and D. The mapped channel in Figure 1 may

be braided or incised valley fill, and is very extensive (length
= 35 km, width = 12 km, and sand thickness = 1520 m). It
may be that lower strata (lower delta plain) were incised during transition from the lower delta plain to upper delta plain
environment during a normal regression (fall of sea level). Incised valleys may be filled by fluvial systems of all types, but
it is also possible that sands were deposited simply by braided
streams in an upper delta plain environment. Whatever the
channel type, the upper delta plain channel sands are relatively thick and have higher impedance than background and
appear as high-amplitude anomalies. These sands have limited
lateral continuity and are well compartmentalized by faults.
Amplitude, faults, and channel geometry are simultaneously
visualized on a 3D map of the M1 surface (Figure 13). This
channel is penetrated by only two wells, H and J, both dry
and with similar log and seismic signatures (Figure 14).
The pitfall
Anomalous high-amplitude reflections within an interpreted
channel on the flank of anticline were attributed to gas sands
that were found to be water-bearing when drilled. The amplitudes, channel sandstones, and structure in and of themselves
are not diagnostic of gas because several other factors can
cause a similar amplitude response. In this case, asymmetric
high-impedance contrasts at top (+2683) and bottom (-3031)
(in g/cm3*m/s) generated high amplitudes (Table 1). Plots of
gamma ray versus impedance and impedance versus porosity
show that water sands have high impedance (Figure 15a) and
also high porosity (Figure 15b). Gas sands at deeper levels in
well G have higher impedance than shales (Figure 15c). This
pay zone cannot be recognized based on stacked seismic amplitudes alone (Figure 10), and the amplitude anomaly has to
be validated by other studies.
AVO modeling at wells G (Figure 16a) and H (Figure
16b) shows significant difference in response. Gas sands in
well G show a class II anomaly. There is no AVO anomaly
in well H. The model responses suggest that drilling well H
might have been avoided on the basis of AVO or similar rock
properties analysis.

shale

2.37

2485

5889.45

2683.35

w-sand

2.35

3648

8572.8

3031.28

shale

2.26

2452

5541.52

Table 1.

Conclusions
We used seismic amplitude and depositional signatures to
map a large channel in the Upper Oligocene Daman sequence, interpreting the observed high amplitudes to represent gas-bearing channel sands. Although the sandstones that
we drilled were channel deposits, they were water-bearing.
We learned that there is a complex relationship between impedance and lithology in our study area; the channel sands
are porous and have high acoustic impedance, and even
some gas sands have higher impedance than encasing shales.
Anomalous high seismic amplitudes are caused by the highimpedance contrast between brine sand and shales, and we
attribute the variability in acoustic properties to variations in
depositional environments/process. AVO modeling has not
shown an anomaly at the well, and predrill AVO analysis may
have validated the anomaly and avoided the dry hole. Our
pitfall is that we based our predrill interpretation on stacked
seismic amplitudes alone without having incorporated AVO
analysis coupled with good rock properties/lithology calibration into our prospect evaluation and risking.
References
Brown, A, 2004, Interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data:
SEG Investigations in Geophysics, 9.
Han, D-H, and M. Batzle, 2002, Fizz water and low-gas saturated reservoirs: The Leading Edge, 21, 395398.
Harilal, S. K. Biswal, and V. Rangachari, 2008, Mapping incised
valley fill systems: Application of sequence stratigraphy and 3-D
seismic attribute: 7th International Conference and Exposition on
Petroleum Geophysics.
Houck, R., 1999, Estimating uncertainty in interpreting seismic indicators: The Leading Edge, 18, 320325.

Acknowledgments: Our sincere gratitude to the director (E),

ONGC, India, for permission for publication of this paper. The authors thank S. K. Das, ED-HOI GEOPIC, for his guidance during
this study and Don Herron for his critical review and suggestions
to improve the manuscript. The views expressed in this paper are
exclusively those of the authors and need not necessarily match with
official views of ONGC.
Corresponding author: hariaru@gmail.com

390

The Leading Edge

April 2010

Downloaded 12 May 2010 to 200.1.118.115. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://segdl.org/