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Alexander-Sadiku

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits


Chapter 9
Sinusoids and Phasors
Instructor : Tan Ching Sin
Universiti Tenaga Nasional
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Chapter 9
Sinusoids and Phasors
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

Dr. Tan

Overview
Sinusoids
Phasors
Phasor Relationship for Circuit Elements
Impedance and Admittance
Impedance Combination

Read Alexander & Sadiku, Chapter 9 and Appendix B


(Complex Number).

9.1 Overview
DC Versus AC

In a direct-current (DC) circuit,


current flows in one direction only.

In an alternating-current (AC) circuit,


current periodically reverses
direction.

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The textbooks Chapters 1 through 8


cover DC circuits.

The books Chapters 9 through 14 cover


AC circuits.

The Math Used in AC Circuits

Our study of AC circuits will rely


heavily on two areas of math:

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Sine and cosine functions


Complex numbers

Well review the math after


introducing some terminology used in
discussing AC voltages and currents.
Applications of phasors and frequency
domain for passive elements
Concept of impedance and admittance

Waveforms

The graph of a current or voltage versus time


is called a waveform.
Example:

o Note that this is an AC waveform: negative


values of voltage mean the opposite polarity
(and therefore opposite direction of current
flow) from positive values.
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Periodic Waveforms

Often the graph of a voltage or current


versus time repeats itself. We call this a
periodic waveform.
Common shapes for periodic waveforms
include:

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Sinusoid
Square
Triangle
Sawtooth

Image from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoid


Sinusoids are the most important of these.

Cycle

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In a periodic signal, each repetition


is called a cycle.
How many cycles are shown in the
diagram below?

Waveform Parameters

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Important parameters associated


with periodic waveforms include:
Period T
Frequency f
Angular Frequency
Amplitude Vm (or Peak Value Vp)
Peak-to-Peak Value
Instantaneous Values

Period

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The time required for one cycle is


called the waveforms period.
The symbol for period is T.
Period is measured in seconds,
abbreviated s.
Example: If a waveform repeats
itself every 3 seconds, wed write
T=3s

Frequency

A waveforms frequency is the


number of cycles that occur in one
second.
The symbol for frequency is f.
Frequency is measured in hertz,
abbreviated Hz.

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Some old-timers say cycles per second


instead of hertz.

Example: If a signal repeats itself 20


times every second, wed write
f = 20 Hz

Period and Frequency

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Period and frequency are the


reciprocal of each other:
f=1/T
T=1/f

Radians

Recall that the radian (rad) is the SI


unit for measuring angle.

It is related to degrees by
radians = 180
Well often need to convert between
radians and degrees:

To convert radians to degrees, multiply


180
by
.

To convert degrees to radians, multiply

by
.
180

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Angular Frequency

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The quantity 2f, which appears in


many equations, is called the
angular frequency.
Its symbol is , and its unit is
rad/s:
= 2f

One Question, Three Answers

1.

So we have three ways of answering


the question, How fast is the voltage
(or current) changing?
Period, T, unit = seconds (s)

2.

Frequency, f, unit = hertz (Hz)

3.

Tells how many cycles per second.

Angular frequency, , unit = rad/s

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Tells how many seconds for one cycle.

Tells size of angle covered per second.

Relating T, f, and

If you know any one of these three


(period, frequency, angular
frequency), you can easily compute
the other two.
The key equations that you must
memorize are:

T = 1/f
= 2f = 2/T
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Amplitude (or Peak Value)

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The maximum value reached by an


ac waveform is called its amplitude
or peak value.

Peak-to-Peak Value

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A waveforms peak-to-peak value


is its total height from its lowest
value to its highest value.
Many waveforms are symmetric
about the horizontal axis. In such
cases, the peak-to-peak value is
equal to twice the amplitude.

Instantaneous Value

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The waveforms instantaneous


value is its value at a specific time.
A waveforms instantaneous value
constantly changes, unlike the
previous parameters (period,
frequency, angular frequency,
amplitude, peak-to-peak value),
which usually remain constant.

Lead and Lag

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Generally, phase shift/angle is


introduce to account for relative timing
of one wave versus another.
Consider the two sinusoids below
v1 t Vm sin t and v2 t Vm sin t

v2 leads v1 by

Phase Angle

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To quantify the idea of how far a


waveform is shifted left or right
relative to a reference point, we
assign each waveform a phase
angle .
A positive phase angle causes the
waveform to shift left along the xaxis.
A negative phase angle causes it to
shift right.

9.2 Sinusoids

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A sinusoid is a sine wave or a cosine


wave or any wave with the same shape,
shifted to the left or right.
Sinusoids arise in many areas of
engineering and science. They are the
waveform used most frequently in
electrical circuit theory.
The waveform weve been looking at is a
sinusoid.

Mathematical Expression For a


Sinusoid

The mathematical expression for a


sinusoid looks like this:
v(t) = Vmcos(t + )

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where Vm is the amplitude, is the


angular frequency, and is the
phase angle.
Example:
v(t) = 20 cos(180t + 30) V

Calculators Radian Mode and


Degree Mode

Recall that when using


your calculators trig
buttons (such as cos),
you must pay attention
to whether the calculator is in radian
mode or degree mode.

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Example: If the calculator is in radian


mode, then cos(90) returns 0.448,
which is the cosine of 90 radians.
But if the calculator is in degree mode,
then cos(90) returns 0, which is the
cosine of 90 degrees.

Caution: Radians and Degrees

In the expression for a sinusoid,

v(t) = Vmcos(t + )

is usually given in degrees, but is


always given in radians per second.

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Schematic Symbols for


Independent Voltage Sources

Several different symbols are


commonly used for voltage sources:

Type of Voltage
Source
Generic voltage source
(may be DC or AC)
DC voltage source

AC sinusoidal voltage
source
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Symbol Used in Our Symbol Used in


Textbook
Multisim Software

Sine or Cosine?

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A sinusoidal waveform can be


expressed mathematically using
either the sine function or the
cosine function.
Example: these two expressions
describe the same waveform:
v(t) = 20 sin(300t + 30)
v(t) = 20 cos(300t 60)
In a problem where youre given a
mixture of sines and cosines, your
first step should be to convert all of
the sines to cosines.

Trigonometric Identities Relating


Sine and Cosine

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You can convert from sine to cosine


(or vice versa) using the trig
identities
sin(x + 90) = cos(x)
sin(x 90) = cos(x)
cos(x + 90) = sin(x)
cos (x 90) = sin(x)

These identities reflect the fact that


the cosine function leads the sine
function by 90.

A Graphical Method Instead of Trig


Identities

Remembering and applying trig


identities may be difficult.
The book describes a graphical
method that relies on the following
diagram:
sin(x + 90) = cos(x)
sin(x 90) = cos(x)
cos(x + 90) = sin(x)
cos (x 90) = sin(x)

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To use it, we measure positive angles


counterclockwise, and negative
angles clockwise.

Mathematical Review: Complex


Numbers

The system of complex numbers is based


on the so-called imaginary unit, which is
equal to the square root of 1.
Mathematicians use the symbol i for this
number, but electrical engineers use j:

i 1

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or

j 1

Rectangular versus Polar Form

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Any complex number can be expressed in


three forms:

Rectangular form; z x jy

Example: 3 + j 4
j

Polar or Exponential form; z r re

Example: 5 53.1

Example: 5e j 53.1 or 5e j 0.927

Rectangular Form

In rectangular form, a complex number z is


written as the sum of a real part x and an
imaginary part y:

z x jy

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The Complex Plane

Polar Form

In polar form, a complex number z is


written as a magnitude r at an angle :
z = r

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The angle is
measured from the
positive real axis.

Converting from Rectangular Form


to Polar Form

Given a complex number z with real part x


and imaginary part y, its magnitude is
given by
r

x2 y2

and its angle is given by


y
tan
x
1

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Inverse Tangent Button on Your


Calculator
When using your calculators
tan1 (inverse tangent) button,
pay attention to whether the
calculator is in degree mode or radian mode.
Also recall that the calculators answer may
be in the wrong quadrant, and that you may
need to adjust the answer by 180.

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The tan1 button always returns an angle in


Quadrants I or IV, even if you want an answer in
Quadrants II or III.

Converting from Polar Form to


Rectangular Form

Given a complex number z with


magnitude r and angle , its real part is
given by

x r cos
and its imaginary part is
given by

y r sin
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Exponential Form

Complex numbers may also be written in


exponential form. Think of this as a
mathematically respectable version of polar
form.
Polar form

r
Example: 330

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Exponential Form

rej

3ej/6

In exponential form, should be in radians.

Mathematical Operations

You must be able to perform the following


operations on complex numbers:

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Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Complex Conjugate

Addition

Adding complex numbers is easiest if the


numbers are in rectangular form.
Suppose z1 = x1+jy1 and z2 = x2+jy2

Then z1 + z2 = (x1+x2) + j(y1+y2)

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In words: to add two complex numbers in


rectangular form, add their real parts to get
the real part of the sum, and add their
imaginary parts to get the imaginary part of
the sum.

Subtraction

Subtracting complex numbers is also easiest


if the numbers are in rectangular form.
Suppose z1 = x1+jy1 and z2 = x2+jy2

Then z1 z2 = (x1x2) + j(y1y2)

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In words: to subtract two complex numbers


in rectangular form, subtract their real parts
to get the real part of the result, and subtract
their imaginary parts to get the imaginary
part of the result.

Multiplication

Multiplying complex numbers is easiest if the


numbers are in polar form.
Suppose z1 = r1 1 and z2 = r2 2

Then z1 z2 = (r1r2) (1+ 2)

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In words: to multiply two complex numbers


in polar form, multiply their magnitudes to
get the magnitude of the result, and add
their angles to get the angle of the result.

Division

Dividing complex numbers is also easiest if


the numbers are in polar form.
Suppose z1 = r1 1 and z2 = r2 2

Then z1 z2 = (r1 r2) (1 2)

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In words: to divide two complex numbers in


polar form, divide their magnitudes to get the
magnitude of the result, and subtract their
angles to get the angle of the result.

Complex Conjugate

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Given a complex number in rectangular


form,
z = x + jy
its complex conjugate is simply
z* = x jy
Given a complex number in polar form,
z = r
its complex conjugate is simply
z* = r

Scientific Calculator
Casio Fx-991ms/Fx-570ms
Example : (4+3i) (5 -20)=?
1. Set your calculator and display it in CMPLX
MODE
, and Deg Mode
2. Then press
key a number of times until
you reach the setup screen
press
3. Toggle to select r setting (i.e., all solutions
will be presented in polar)

Disp r = 25
Disp = 16.87

To get convert polar form Rec Form


Disp x = 23.924
Disp y = 7.255i
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Performing Complicated Operations


on Complex Numbers
Solving a problem may require us to
perform many operations on complex
numbers.

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630+53
Example:
2+4

Using Scientific Calculator, you can do this


quickly and easily. With normal calculator
its more tedious, since you must
repeatedly convert between rectangular
and polar forms.
Another option is to use MATLAB.

Useful Properties of j
j is the only number whose reciprocal is
equal to its negation: 1

Also,

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Therefore, for example,

1
j

jC
C

Therefore multiplication by j is equivalent to a


counterclockwise rotation of 90 in the complex
plane.

Kirchhoffs Laws in AC Circuits

KCL and KVL hold in AC circuits.


But to apply these laws, we must add
(or subtract) sinusoids instead of
adding (or subtracting) numbers.

Example: In the
circuit shown,
KVL tells us that
v = v1 + v2.
But suppose
v1 = 10 cos(200t + 30) V and
v2 = 12 cos(200t + 45) V

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How can we add those to find v?

Adding Sinusoids (Continued)

For example, if we add

v1 = 10 cos(200t + 30) V and


v2 = 12 cos(200t + 45) V
well get another sinusoid of the same
angular frequency, 200 rad/s:
v1 + v2 = Vm cos(200t + ) V

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But how do we figure out the resulting


sinusoids amplitude Vm and phase
angle ?

Complex Numbers to the Rescue!

One method for adding sinusoids


relies on trig identities.
But well use a simpler method, which
relies on complex numbers.

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In fact, the main reason were interested


in complex numbers (in this course) is
that they give us a simple way to add
sinusoids.

9.3 Phasors

A phasor is a complex number that


represents the amplitude and phase
angle of a sinusoidal voltage or
current.
The phasors magnitude r is equal
to the sinusoids amplitude.
The phasors angle is equal to the
sinusoids phase angle.

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Example: We use the phasor


10

V = 30 V to represent the sinusoid


2
v(t) = 10 cos(200t + 30) V.

Time Domain and Phasor Domain

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Some fancy terms:


We call an expression like
10 cos(200t + 30) V the timedomain representation of a
sinusoid.
10
30
2

We call
V the phasordomain representation of the
same sinusoid. (Its also called the
frequency-domain representation.)

Using Phasors to Add Sinusoids


To add sinusoids of the same
frequency:
1. If any of your sinusoids are
expressed using sine, convert them
all to cosine.
2. Write the phasor-domain version of
each sinusoid.
3. Add the phasors (which are just
complex numbers).
4. Write the time-domain version of
the resulting phasor.

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Example of Using Phasors to Add


Sinusoids

v1 = 10 cos(200t + 30) V and


v2 = 12 cos(200t + 45) V:
Transform from time domain to phasor
domain:
10
12
V1 = 30 V and V2 = 45 V .
2

Add the phasors:


10
12
30 V + 45 V =
2

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21.8
38.2
2

Transform from phasor domain back


to time domain:
v1 + v2 = 21.8 cos(200t + 38.2) V

9.4 Phasor Relationships for


Circuit Elements

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Weve seen how we can use phasors


to add sinusoids.
Next well revisit the voltagecurrent relationships for resistors,
inductors, and capacitors, assuming
that their voltages and current are
sinusoids.

Phasor Relationship for Resistors

For resistors we have, in the time


domain: v = iR

Example:
If i = 2 cos(200t + 30) A and R = 5 ,
then v = 10 cos(200t + 30) V
For this same example, in the phasor
domain we have:
2
If I = 30 A and R = 5 , then
V=

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2
10
30
2

So we can write V = IR.

Summary for Resistors

In the time domain:

In the phasor domain:

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Phasor Relationship for Inductors

For inductors we have, in the time

domain: =

Example:
If i = 2 cos(200t + 30) A and L = 5 H,
then v = 2000 cos(200t + 120) V
For this same example, in the phasor
domain we have:
2
If I = 30 A and L = 5 H, then
V=

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2
12
120
2

So we can write V = jLI.

Summary for Inductors

In the time domain:

In the phasor domain:

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Phasor Relationship for Capacitors

For capacitors we have, in the time

domain: =

Example:
If v = 2 cos(200t + 30) V and C = 5 F,
then i = 2000 cos(200t + 120) A
For this same example, in the phasor
domain we have:
2
If V = 30 V and C = 5 F, then
I=

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2
2000
120
2

So we can write I = jCV.

Summary for Capacitors

In the time domain:

In the phasor domain:

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Summary: Textbooks Table 9.2

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9.5 Impedance and Admittance


Impedance

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The impedance Z of an element or a


circuit is the ratio of its phasor
voltage V to its phasor current I:

Impedance is measured in ohms.


Like resistance, impedance
represents opposition to current: for
a fixed voltage, greater impedance
results in less current.

A Resistors Impedance
For resistors, V = IR, so a resistors
impedance is:

= =

So a resistors impedance is a pure


real number (no imaginary part), and
is simply equal to its resistance.
To emphasize this, we could write
= + 0
or
= 0

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Resistors and Frequency

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A resistors impedance does not


depend on frequency, since Z=R for
a resistor.
Therefore, a resistor doesnt oppose
high-frequency current any more or
less than it opposes low-frequency
current.

An Inductors Impedance
For inductors, V = jLI, so an
inductors impedance is:

= =

So an inductors impedance is a pure


imaginary number (no real part).
To emphasize this, we could write
= 0 +
or
= 90

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Inductors and Frequency

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The magnitude of an inductors


impedance is directly proportional
to frequency, since Z=jL for an
inductor.
As , Z, inductors act like
open circuit.
Also, as 0, Z0, which is why
inductors act like short circuits in dc
circuits.

A Capacitors Impedance
For capacitors, I = jCV, so an
inductors impedance is:

= =
=

So a capacitors impedance is a pure


imaginary number (no real part).
To emphasize this, we could write

=0

or
1
=
90

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Capacitors and Frequency

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The magnitude of a capacitors


impedance is inversely proportional

to frequency, since =
for a

capacitor.
As , Z0, inductors act like
short circuit.
Also, as 0, Z, which is why
capacitors act like open circuits in dc
circuits.

Impedance, Resistance, and


Reactance

Since impedance Z is a complex


number, we can write it in
rectangular form:

= +

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We call the real part (R) the


resistance.
We call the imaginary part (X) the
reactance.
Impedance, resistance, and
reactance are measured in ohms.

Admittance

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Conductance, measured in siemens


(S), is the reciprocal of resistance:
G=1/R
The reciprocal of impedance is called
admittance, abbreviated Y:
Y=1/Z
The unit of admittance is the
siemens.

Admittance, Conductance, and


Susceptance

Since admittance Y is a complex


number, we can write it in
rectangular form:

= +

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We call the real part (G) the


conductance.
We call the imaginary part (B) the
susceptance.
Admittance, conductance, and
susceptance are measured in
siemens.

9.6 Impedance Combinations


Combining Impedances in Series

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The equivalent
impedance of
series-connected
impedances is the
sum of the
individual impedances:
= 1 + 2 + +
Thus, series-connected impedances
combine like series-connected
resistors.

Combining Impedances in Parallel


The equivalent impedance
of parallel-connected
impedances is given by
the reciprocal formula:
1
=
1
1
1
+ + +
1 2

For two impedances in parallel we can also


use the product-over-sum formula:
1 2
=
1 + 2
Thus, parallel-connected impedances
combine like parallel-connected resistors.

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Voltage-Divider Rule

As in dc circuits, the
voltage-divider rule
lets us find the
voltage across an
element in a series
combination if we
know the voltage across the
entire series combination.
Example: In the circuit shown,
1 =

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1 +2

and

2 =

1 +2

Current-Divider Rule

As in dc circuits, the
current-divider rule
lets us find the
current through an
element in a parallel
combination if we
know the current through the entire
parallel combination.
Example: In the circuit shown,
1 =

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1 +2

and

2 =

1 +2

Impedance Transformation

The Delta-Wye transformation is:


Wye-Delta

Delta-Wye

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Z1Z 2 Z 2 Z 3 Z 3 Z1
Z1

Z1

Zb Zc
Z a Zb Zc

Za

Z2

Zc Za
Z a Zb Zc

Z1Z 2 Z 2 Z 3 Z 3 Z1
Zb
Z2

Z3

Z a Zb
Z a Zb Zc

Zc

Z1Z 2 Z 2 Z 3 Z 3 Z1
Z3

Summary of Chapter 9

Weve seen that we can apply these


familiar techniques to sinusoidal ac
circuits in the phasor domain:

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Ohms law ( = )
Kirchhoffs laws (KVL and KCL)
Series and parallel combinations
Voltage-divider rule
Current-divider rule
Impedance Transformation

In each case, we must use complex


numbers (phasors) instead of real
numbers.

Steps to Analyze AC Circuits


1.

2.

3.

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Transform the circuit from the time


domain to the phasor domain.
Solve the problem using circuit
techniques (Ohms law, Kirchhoffs
laws, voltage-divider rule, etc.)
Transform the resulting phasor to
the time domain.

Whats Next?

In Chapter 10 well see that we can


also apply these other familiar
techniques in the phasor domain:

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Nodal analysis
Mesh analysis
Superposition
Source transformation
Thevenins theorem
Nortons theorem

Thank You

Q&A

Dr. Tan

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