Reinhard Diestel

Graph Theory

Electronic Edition 2005

This is ui elecumnn vusim nt me mini Umm edmmi nt me nmve

Pr efzzce
annum nt ns das: nguvs (nlm; wim simplimd pmnlsy, ud men

me mdu nf pnsenuumn, nmpnu hy [upon: span {mm mn deuly

Gmpnu 11, (Even hue, ul me is as-nmed Innmlly is me knmvledge

ehnllenging nnis un-igv n i The nnus ue intended nh guide vhe sender
nm- minis u·i 042h
h Kshhm pmnt mn,

in Semen 1,5 (which hhs led nh same simplinnhvinns in Ihnex pmnlsy hnd

Hhhhnm (which hhs nm mhenvise heen puhlished 1,

Themem 6,1,1 (thht cr 031n
edgs {nie h TIC) seems th hhve lest its

themun in Sbctinn 6,4 is h typiehj example: it mess hjgmithmin insights

(nt whim eighty wived their su-utinyi: tn Angelns Gemghjmpnuins In

index hnd extending it suhsvhntihjly; hnd tn Tim Stelldingex In nunsing

 C0ntents

2. Mhtdming, Covering and Phddng as

3. Connentivity ss

::2 The srrurrurr or seurrrrrrrrd gi·¤phs "030

031 s1

a s Lurihrrg paris ur umr.s " 030

031 su

4. Plhnhr Graphs sa

5. Colouring 1 11

6 1 Cu·ru|.u..rrs "030
031 14a
T. Extremhi Grhph Theory 16:1

12 ir1uu.rs"" 1611

S. 1n6nite Grhphs 1us

A2 Pruhs. rms. rurd ords "030

031 2m

9. Rhmsey Theory {or Grhphs 2s1

11 2 Iurushw uuruhus "030

031 2ss

11 4 Iurusq pruprrrns rurd rurrrrrrrrrirrw " 031 26s

10. Hamilton Cydm 21s

1 1. Random Graphs 211::

12. Minors, 'lrm and WQO ::1s

12 s The grsph ruuun rhrrn·ou "030

031 ::41

A. 1n6nite sets ::s1

B. Surfaces ::61
T The Basics

Z5 nz nt integers mnduln vv s dennted hy 3.: its dements hhe written S.:

hs Z :: Z + nz, Fhr h rehJ numaer I we denhte ay {rj the grehtrst

mnthined in some Aj, By [A|· wedennte the sm nt hJI kelement suksets [4]*
 1.1 Graphs

peph A gmph sapairG : UQ El nlsets surh that E Q {VF; thus, the elements

rener iemms (nr vmies, nr pmnsy nl the graph G, the elements nl E a.re its

edre edges (er mesy, The usual an te pirture a graph is ay drawing a det ter

0306

E: ((1.2).(1.s).(2.s).(::.4).(s.1)l

Wl H l, We shhll net always distinguish strietly hetween a graph and its

than n e \'lGll, an edge e- e G, and so nn,

:2;* s ralled mimi, Semetimrs, e,g, te start an indurtien, trivial graphs ran

` he useful: at other timrs they {erm silly munterexamplrs and hemme a

 Twe vertiee 1,y elG aae ddydenx, er neighbuurs, il ry e an edge rqreeru

elG, Twe edges : _/aae ddydenz iltheyhavean end in eemmen, Mall ieirnssirr

mere lermally, a set el yertiee er el edge is mdependenx (er smiey NLE;

il ne twe elits elements are Mbaeent,

LetG : l\2El and G' Z l\",E 031l

he twe graphs, we eall G and

an mmumhim; il G : G 031,
it is ¤lled an mizamumhism, we de net *:3;

G : G' rather than G z G', spin}; el the iemplete graph en 11 vertiee,

e 4

v\esetGuG ::
031
(\'u\",EuE'l a.udG¤G z:
031(\'¤\",E¤E 031l,
and

G' s an mdiiee.1 simymph elG; we say that v' mdiies er pus G' in G,
 [I El
Ay 1 1 s A greph G wnh suhgrephs G rurd d'

s ll U e any sm el vertiee (us-ually el Gy, we write G 024

U ter

writeG 024G',
Fer asuhset F ell\'| we
031
w-rite G 024
F z: UQ E 024,
Fl and

ism, G 7 e- and G+e, me rsll G edqeemrrmmri with a given graph preperty

ISE: example, K ¢ 031

K' : K 030,
The e»mpLememG el G e the graph en V

w·ith edge set l\'| 024,

031
E, The une gmph LlGy el G e the graph en E in

Q'fj{""" whieh ey e E are arnaeent as vertiee il and enly il they are arnaeent

G s ' 6 U
1.2 The degree of h vertex

Let G : NEI he a Inenemptyl graph, The set el nnghheurs el a

vertex r in G e deneted hy Alum, er hrietly hy Alley} Mere generally Nm

ler U Q V, the neighheurs in V 024,

U elvertire in U areralled nerghbmirs

|EI¤l| el edge at e; hy eur deturitien el a graph, this

031is equal te the

my T new
I I hm

is the rremye dqme em. uearly, *1;*;

5IGl S JIGI S AIGI,

The quantitie ri and s are, el reurse, intimately related, Lndeed,

il we sum up all the vertex degree in G, we rerurt every edge exaetly

gelclFrm],
A graph enIEI
V :has
; T
gfuérdlrl
new e edge, se [dm is an even

030
l·1ere re elsewhere we drew the rrrder relerrru; u. ure urrderlyru; srruh rl the

but
031rrr.; lr.r rrrulugrrvhe, see seerrerr 1 in
 ll a graph hhs large minimum degrm, i,e, everywhere, lerally, many

Cenversely, et reurse, its average degrm may he la.rge

{jg:} prepesrtrerr rar. r·r·errgr.phc em. rr iersr are rage has . sri.

grsph H with 5IHl ~ sIHl z sIGl.

Fermally, we renstrurt a sequenre G : Ge Q Gr Q et induced

H z: G,, By the rheire et e, w·e have sIG,+rl z sIG,l ter all r, and

henre sIHl z sIGl,

1.3 Paths and cycles

N deneted hy F*, Nete that k e allewed te he rere; thus, P" : K 030,

\\e elten reter te a path hy the natural sequenre et its vertire, 031

as emeen 1e and nl,

 I 1 _ ,

G p

Ay 1s1 Ap1rrhP:P 034rnG

rn,IM
the
Fermvvmprive
ll S z S ,i S
snhpmhs
kwe w-rite
nf F, \\e u: similar intuitive netatien {er

p · 024. ke/ZT =

Gven sets .4,5 et vertire, we rall F : 1,,,,1, an A 024B

pdth it Ars pen.

Vlrl MA Z(1¤I¤-nd VIFIMB : (rr I, As haere, we w·rite a 024B

path rather than ( it l 024B

path, ete Tw 024e
er mere paths a.re mdepeadem gulf

H =v¤c 042Jl
in its030
ends, Ln phniunlu, the edge et any H-path et length 1

s never an edge nf H,
0 the ryrle et length k s ralled a keoele and deneted hy C*,

G mrming an indueed suhgraph, is ene that has ne rherds (Fig, 1,::,::l,

rndueer:ryrle
Isee1
alse
s s Fxerrise
A enele 0
1l:wrrh eher.1 ay. end

I} g {I prepesrtren 1.:.1. r·1·errgr.p11 G srrrrrs. peri. ¤ue11g1·i1 slay .11111

minimal w·ith 1,11 s EIGI. then 1, ,,,111, is a ryrle et length at least

5IGl + 1, D

Minimum degru and girth, en the ether hand, are net related lun.

lre we nx the numher et vertirel: as we shall see in Chapter 11, there

The drszimee daleyl in G et tw 024e

vertire ey s the length et a

:::2* deneted hy dia.mG, mameter and girth a.re, et reurse, related:

C has tw·e vertire w·hese disthnre in C e at least diamG+1, Ln G,

Thus, Iennally,
easilyrherhs
Iexerrisel,
radG
w·e have As ene

radG S diamG S 2radG,

imum degrm it we sq nething aheut the erder et the graph, l-lewever,

prepeertren 1.a.a. A er.1e11G 11:1.11111s.111111111 r e1111111.rr1111.111 aeeree IQ {II

ee 1..1111 1 e a hes sewer reeuees.

vernee er G at rrsnnee 1 rrem 1, when vlGl e Llfzmu., clearly

|D,| : 1 and |D1I S d, Fer 1 G 1 we have S MZ 1l|D.|, heeause

in Thus S dXd 0241l*

sr all 1 e k hy indurtien, giving

I
GI S Z
1l* Z
1+ Z
d 11 Z
1l* Z
1 e 7
**11 024
1l* .
1 14* I D

Hmilarly, we ¤n heund the erder et G {rem helew· hy heuming that

1+dZIdZ1l 030
ity :: 2r+1 is edd:
___ ityznrseven,

has at least mI5,gl vmire IFxerrise al, lnteretingiy, ene ran ehtain
 Tneererrr 1.3.4. IAlen, I-ieery 1; Linial 2m12l

1etG besgrsph. IMIGI g dz 2 ¤ndgIGl z y ifi Men IGI z lwI·i1yl·

[11 1; cnrnttrry 1.3.:. IHIGI e 3 Men yIGl < 2i¤g|G|·

031
Z] 035"
111 en
035 e en
wI3,gl Z2 +I2 Zil 2 ,

ne 3, :1 1 -1 Z ,1

As |G| g n,I3,gl1 the renilt Iellews, D

rrrlte A tink let Levtyth kl in a graph G is a nenempty alternating sr 024

every walk hetwun tw·e vertire rentains* a path hetwun thee vertire

1.4 Cbnnectivity

linhed hy a path in G, Lt U Q VIGI and GIU| is renneeted, we alse

¤ll U itselt rerureeted Iin Gl, l.nstehd et *net rerureeted we

030usually sq

enurner.rted.s.1v as ¤1,,,,,r».. sn that G, rnnnerted

Frm], Heh any vertex as ur, and aerurre indurtively that n,,,,,,n,

have heen rhesen ter seme 1 e IGI, New prt; a vertex n e G As G

et F in G 024
G1: then nm hhs a neighheur in G., The rerureetednre et

we
030
null emu rise urns derrne: mr grrvhe rhr. tr Welles rs len; rs ther
 Let G Z lil El he a graph, A maximal renneeted suhgraph et G

surhG
e ralled
5ep¤-rating
kenwteeted
sets ¤f
Ifer
edge
k ehave
m1r|G|
ne generic
» k andname,
G 024
X
hut
e rerureeted
seme heernneetee:

e lleenneeted, and the 1<erureeted graphs are preeisely the nen-trivial

is the
s
i
d
t
e
r
u
r
e
e
s
i
d emmenrrxq
er a K11IGl
andet
030, G,
»:IlC Thus,
030l 11IGl
Z nZ1hr :
all n
vv it 1,
g and enly it G
jjjgm than 1 eagrs, then G s eauea 1.1.11e.ea1.1.retr.1. The greater integer 1

eernneettrtu partirular, we have AIGI Z ll i£G e disrenneeted,

.II

Prepesitien 1.4.2. HG is nun-tdrisl then »:IGl S AIGI S EIGI.

t:IGl S IPI,

et C that are inrident w·ith an edge in F separate n {rem G Z C, Sinee

ne edge in F has heth ends in C Ihy the minimality et FI, there are at

mest |F| sum vertire, giving »:IGl S IF| as deired,

edge in F, gjvingdalul S IF|, As Nelnl separate n trem all the ether

vertire in G, this yields »:IGl S IF|Zunlre there are ne ether vertire,

asainiethat G is eeniplete, giving 11iGy Z AIGI Z IGI Z 1, ¤

IEI] -n1e11rer.1 1.4.a. ihrai1er1ml

suhgraph H siirh that sIHl » sIGlZ k.

 IG'|:7k vid I·l

Ne graph G' as in Isl ran have_erder exaetly 2k, sinee this w·euld

imply that |IG*|I ~ 1k G 2k* ~ (lj II, The minimality et H theretere

implie that 5IHl » 1 : etherw·ise we reuld delete a vertex et degrm at

a Ireper separatien (Uhm, I et erder at mest k; put H IW] Z: H., H1 H1

Sinee any vertex n e U, 024,

U, has all its tim G 5IHI 1 Righheurs

|IH1II s 1 LIH.lZ*J

IIHII S IIH1II +IIHr|I

s 1LIH1l+lH1lZ2kJ

s 1llulerI Ias Iumurl s rl,

whirh rentradirts Isl ter H, D

1.5 Trees and forests

neetedIeretis ralleda tree, (Thus, ateretisagraph w·heserempenents he

are tree,l The vertire et degsm 1 in a tree are its L1tr1es, 030
Every nen- err
 . y ' /»

ft L

v'

Irl T is a tree;

in a tree T hetween tw·e vertire 1,y (see IiiI ahevel,

( 11,,,,,rrei I.

ctrrtrliary 1.:.::. ,4 mnneetea graph with n rimees 1s a eee ii ani:

"" 030
rm], 11..1..et1e.. 1.. 1 sta.-s that the e.tgra,,t. sraatea ty the tra
eereurry 1.a.1.r1rsa eee a11dG1se11,»greeh e·m11sIGI G me 1. I§§]I

the ,,11. 1*,we sh and mm

the tintrnemstie
e
h
t
,
s
n
m
l
e et y
IPreelsil and
The the tinemstie
vertire en,
at distanee k and
{remse
r en,
haveNeve that
hetght k and tetght

the ends et every T-path in G are remparahle in the trer 024erder

et T,

Lt T spans G, this ameunts te requiring that tw·e vertire et T must he

~ I .

030 I I I

I II I~, I

IT
n
I .11.,1 11111 rereees r,
. 1_ e r are seperated rr G 11,1 me set IrI n I,,I. I 034*
03

Iiil HS Q VITI Z VIGI andSis dawn-clased. then the rnrnpdnenu

 eau:et the we they arise in remputer searrheen graphs I Exerrise 19 I,

IQQ {I rrdpaartrdri 1.a.s. nerredriaeeted graph edntarrs a ndrnraispaarirrig

he amaximal nermal tree w·ith reet r in G: we shew- that VITI Z VIGI,

Suppese net, and let C he a rempenent e£G Z T, As T e nermal,

hy shew·ing that T' e alse nermal in G,

then F e alse a T-path and T e nermal in G hy aeumptien, Ltnet,

lie in NICI, Then 1 S 1, hy the rheiee et 1, Fer eur preet that y and
1.6 Bipartite graphs

q
i
e
e
i
I
I
. rn
I Ie` ·.042 .` 1 'T 031
`.

I| I I

I · I,_
I '»,' I,

K1 1 1 : Ir:

titien rlase
IFigrueare airhaeent
1,6,1 s ralled
shew·s the emplete;
example the remplete
et the erthhedren Ioj; 1-pa.rtite
rempare

rrdpaartrdri 1.11.1. 1-I graph ra 11par1·11e 11 and 1111,11111 edntarrs 1111 Ij{;I

New
030that we r.L~t.rn r Ki t' we reulaee e.1h Verma r.: r A" ty an rrureuerurent
 er trivial, se we mq as-ume that G e renneeted, Let T he a spanning

tree in G, pirh a reet r e T, and denete the axriated trer 024erder

en V

hy Sr, Fer taeh n e V, the unique path rTn has edd er even length,

I I /; t

rTy Z rT1y and se 1 and y Ie in ditterent partitien rlaee, Lie 024;T

then CL :Z 1Ty +1- s a ryrle IFig, 1,6,3I, and hy the ra; treated

1.7 Oztntraction and minors

1.. Iwhere u. is the *new' vertex, i,e, nr f V U EI and edge set

er ,,111 n»,IeII,
 I-
,.,Z EI I V ,,Z n. eg V.

G
e
r
e
l
h "IIZZJ
generally,
it X e anether graph and (1; | 1 e VIXI I e a

1,y e X, there is a \;Z\], edge in G itand enly it 1y e EIXI1 we rall

G an MX and writei G Z MX (Fig, 1,1,2I, The sets I; are the bmneh tux

that may arise, l.n inhnite graphs, hranrh sets are allewed te he inturite,

vn
I it °

A I 1 I
4* ;ZZ4 Q4! 4*

\ r
, stx N

U Z ( 11, i1' I,

graphsG,,,,,,G,. and edgese. e G. siirh that Ge Z G. G,. z X. and

'rhris
031 h.r1r1.IIy the ewresr.11 il1xZwhere iu stands mr I1r1rnr.r 031,
see helm,
 and edge, and then rentraeting seme iurther edge, Cenversely, any

ends Ise that nene et thee paths has an inner vertex en anether path

1111. rl, ae rah the graph G ettaned a a..11.1.a11. err and 1.-rite

G Z TX, LCG
030 Z TX e the suhgraph et anether graph Y, then X e a

;j·y_I;*¤·=·I rapelanrri 11.1.1r et 1· {rig, 1,1,aI,

VA 4444` r IZI [I

G _1;

IIGZ TX,weviewVIXIasasuhsete£VIGIandralltheevertire

the tnraeh teresa at G; the ether verners nr G are its a.11.1111d11.,1

IIj§I rrepeartran 1.1.a.

I¤51I Iil Fyerr TX is alsd an MX 4Fig. 1.7.4]; thm. everr tnpdlrgiral

Iiil HAIXI S 3. then eyerr MX rnntains a TX; thm. evernninnr

S se asarn Tx denete an entree elas el graphs all these whiah rnewe: as a

 Ag 1 vg A suhdnasatn el IH nawed as an A1 IH

Lt ,o is dehned en EIGI as well as en VIGI and maps the edge 1y

e£G te independent paths in H hetween ,1I1I and #1/I, it emheds G

in H as a tepelrgiral miner', Similarly, an emhedding at ef G in H Ias

in H Irather than te single vertirey surh that H hhs an edge hetween

the sets ,oI1I and dz/I w·henever 1y e an edge et G, Further variants are

1.8 Euler tours

Thus ins-pired, let

031us rall a rlesed walh in a graph an Etihr mir it

-n1e11rern
etnyene1.a.1. Il;nler11asI
u. whern siiah insprratien seens hreieurhe: even ahnr eenternulatrns
 ·· I? -·
.1.:1.. I 'T *I I. 024-1
ms
.,-1 e share gmsase-. ·~==¤¤ 1

1a.. 030 254 042e¤·§fqf¤

laagimiryuy Itqrcqhhsqrge 4 H 034E'Yf*
;I 030·¤

ri 024
"*I
030030 '```"T
vv *4 LII
y 030
C.
1

I'
rr 15.1 .1. r.... .1..., 11... .1 1.. .1. .1.. rr

ednae et G, as in the preetet Preprsitien1,4,1,I Then the walh

1.9 Some linear algebra

Let G Z I\2EI he agraph w·ith n vmiee and nr edge, sq V Z c.ZIl et

(u1,,,,,:;. I and E Z(er,,,,,e,,,I, The 1enerpzeel'IGIe£Gethe

veeter element
V
y
r
e
v
E spaeeever the2element
ef l'IGI heldnaturally
eenepends IF, Z ( li,1
teIa
et all tunetiens
suhset e£V, the set et

repreented in l'IGI hy its indirater iunrtien, we may thus thinh et

et tw·e vertex sets U, U' Q V is their symmetrir ditterenee Iwhyll, and

U Z ZU ter all U Q V, The rere in l'IGI1 viewed in this w-eg is the

szirwtdtrrd mms, we have diml'IGI Z vv,

aprs sIGI et G1 its .i.1a.1.ts aa. th. sasets et n, Veta. .11d1tie1. W|

all F Q E, As helere, ( (er I,,,,,(e,,, I I is the smndtxrd Aims e£EIGI, 031°

and dimf IGI Z nr,

7*:Z{DeEIGI|IF1DIZl1hrallFe7}, $*

dim7+d.im7*Zm, III

l
l
a
G
I
{ The eee;. aprs
is mmetime c Zthe
ralled cIGI s the sntspaee
cocbmtme ersIGI
vttirner et G, sranned ty

030
I-rer sirnulieity
034 we shall net always dstrusueh hetween the edge sets F e um
 IiI F e {IGI:

IiiiI All vertex degrees di the graph IV, FI are even.

preervethis, Ii I ~IiiiI Iellews hy indurtien en the numher etryrleused

te generate F, The impliratien IiiiI~IiiI Iellews hy indurtien en |F|:

it F : 6 then I\Z FI eenthins a ryrle C, w·hese edge we delete {er the

et {IGI, D

I.t(\3,\, I e apartitien et V, the set EI\1,\&I el all the edge

¤iEIGI. Diis spare is generated hr rim ni the funn EInI.

IZ DZDII liein{·, SineeD+D Z 6 e {* and D+h Z D e {*1

Il1,l1I and (xy,x;I he the eeriepending parutlens et V, Then

net the ether IFig, 1,9,1I, But thee are preeisely the edge hetween

Ill MII uIl,m;I and Il; m;IuIl,mII,and hy D s DI theetwe

Our seeend aertien, that the ruts EI¤I generate all et { hllews
031,

and in EIyII: thus every partitien (\;,\,I et V satishe EIl;,l,I Z

2.... 11I1I, ¤
 ii, .ZZZ ZZZZ.)'1

D. I I t1'

II I tl

spre ter
t
e
i
l
p
x
e
i
s
a
h et {
G, It is
031IGI1net
and ditnenlt
thus te tind aaneng
te determine the ents
its dimensien may an21I,
IExerrise

its hends are lust its minimal ruts, and thee are easy te reeegnire:

alse Lemma 3,1,1,I

renneeted IFig, 1,9,2I, se the edge hetwun D and H Z D hrm a mini-

I .

11IZ ri II" Q. Z 024 042

 { Z{ 031*
and { Z{*,
031

implie{ Q { 031*,

Then IfEInI,FI Z 1, se EInI e { implie

031 F -; { 031*,
This remplete the

preet e£{ Z { 031*,

Te preve {* Z {*, it new- sitnee te shew- {* Z I{ 031*I*,

I-lere

{ Q031
I{ 031*I*
hllews direetly {rem the dehnitien et 1, But { hhs
031the

ume dimensien as I{ 031*I*,

sinee III implie

dim{ 031+dim{
Z nr Z031*
dim{ 031*
+dimI{ 031*I*,

I-lenee { Z031
I{ 031*I*
as rlaimed, III

;'Q':;' 034
in T+e
034 (Fig,
034"'
1,6,::I; theeryrle C, are thejii1».:dn1ent.rLetIeLesetGwith

;';':" 034
Thee
034
hends034"'
D, are the jimddmentdl etits etG with repeet te T,

Iermula III hr erthegenal suhs-paee,

di {IGI and ni { 031IGI.

resperdvely: HG has n urdres and nr edges.

dim{IGI Z mZn+1 and dim{ 031IGI

Z nZ1,
 1. I I
` a, I I r

1 031
·IZ·

IGerella.ry1,5,3I, Similarly, an edge e e E 024,

EITI lie en C, hut net en

dim{` z nZ1 and dim{ G mZn+1,

dim{ 031+dim{
Z m ZInZ1I+ImZn+1I

hy Theerem 1,u,s and III, se the tw-e inequalitie aheve ran held enly

as linearly independent suleets et { and

031{, and hene-e are hass, D

withV
Z The
(n,,,,,,r».
meidewueI and
mtzmr
E Z(e,,,,,,e...IisdeturedeverIF,
B Z el a graph G Z I\',EI
hy

t" ` I li etherw·ise,

As usual, let BI denete the transpese et B, Then B and BI dehne linear

maps B:EIGI ~I'IGI and BI: I'IGIAEIGI with repeet te thesthndard

IiI The kernel di B is {IGI.

IiiI Dieirnage 11iBI 1s{ 031IGI. D

:1:::*** The .r.1,.resne,, mdrrer .4 Z eIG e detmed hy

¤" 'Y I li etherw·ise,

Ida, Inu. with J., Z dIztI and ti.] Z ll etherw·ise,

1.1U Other notions of graphs

rnitlrt aeigning te every edge e an mmirl tener initIeI and a temliwnrl rener

term terIeI, The edge e s uid te he d1reetedjrnrnirritIeI tn terIeI, Nete that

Isq·Irem1 te yl, theyaae prrtrltel, I.IinitIeI ZterIeI,theedgee is ralled

lsep a Imp,

intrlttgraph A rntiL¤grtrph is a pair Il; EI et diseint sets Iei remes and edgesl

tegether w·ith a map E A V U IV| aeigning

031 te every edge either ene
n
e
w it n s
rrean a vertexn
deleting et degre
and 2 inan
adding a multigraphG,
edge hetwun then hy nnghheurs,
its tw·e stippesnhy 034

(LI its tw·e inrident edge are identiral, i,e, {erm a leep at n, we add ne

TheL e nist
I a elrrrrey ee1nL~rna¤.1-Ial paravhrase ei the muelesiaal netien ei
ExercIses

2 Ler 11 r rl and V Z (n.1) rhus.

030. V s rhe ser elall nZ1 sequtnees el

eenrarns a ehele el length ar ltnsr vE ls rhs hesr ptssrhlu

drreerlh Ihnr rhs dnntnsatn I s N Q E' Irene rhrs nnplaarntn du·errl,I
 rhe rnarrrr .l* ; Ini,I.1..1 drsplays. ter all n. rhe nurnhtr n(, el

Notes
2 Matching

Cove r1ng

and Packing

he ahle te p¤ir up all its vertiee in this wei LI net, hew· ran we he

in 'H: dearly. we need at ltnst as many vertiee Ier surh a rever as the

at mest _/IkI vmiee, w·here _/IkI may depend en 'H hut net en Gi Ln
 2.1 Matching in bipartite graphs

L. Z Il EI Fer this w·hele seetien, we let G Z I\Z EI he a hxed hipartite graph w·ith

;*;···*···¤ edge tran. n , ar ....1 tran. aria ..1 11111..11.I., ..111 .1th ..,,.11 tr ar,

an dtgmermy prrh (Fig, 2,1,1I, heeause we ran ns it te turn M inte

I
Thaererrr 2.1.1. IKenig1tl31I

path ends in tha.t vertex, and its end in A etherw-ise IFig, 2,1,2 I, we

I U U B

.1
t
e
L alt e E he antr nedge: we shew- that either 11 er lt lie in U, LI

then alt is an alternating path, and se the end et nw e M ihesen Ier

matehed, and w-as rhesen Ier U Irem the edge et M eenthining it, D

INISII G |S| hr all S Q A,

 theerem I Exerrise 4I,

ururiatehed: we shall renstrurt an augmenting path with repeet te M,

Let ¤e,b1,1t1,l>r,1tr,,,, he a maximal sequene-e et distinrt vertiee

n. e A and b. e B satisfying the Iellewing renditiens Ier all 1 G 1

IiI ne is unmatehed:

Im eIiiiI
IiiI b.isa1·Uaeenttesemevenex1t,I.I
¤.b. e M,

na |Z M

h Let bp e B he the last vertex et the sequene-e, By Ii IZIiiiI,

:Zw-ith
_/I IkI Z ll
F is an alternating path,

LI bg is matehed, say te 11, we ran indeed extend it hy setting ng :Z 11,

unlre tt Z ¤. with li e 1 a k, in whirh ras IiiiI w-euld imply lt, Z lt.

with a rentradirtien, Se be is ururiatehed, and hene-e F s an augmenting

path hetween an and bt, D

is true, New let |A| G 2, and assrurie that the marriage renditien is

LI |NISI| G |S|+1 Ier every nenempty set S Q A, we pirh an edge

setSQ A 024,
(1tI satishe

Ii\b·I$IIGIi\bISIIZ1:I$11

|A'| Ier B' :Z NIA'I, By the indurtien hypetheis, G' :Z GIAIU B'] cr

Fer eur last preef, let H he asparuring suhgraph eIG that satishe H

Third pr¤¤f. we shew- that ·inI1tI Z 1 ter every 11 e A, The edge et

H then term a matehing el A, sine-e hy the marriage renditien ne tw-e

the graphs H Z ¤l~1 and H Z nba vielate the marriage renditien, Se Ier

B. :Z Nl¤1Zr1_IArI, Sine-e br e Br and br e B1, we ehtain

|1lInIA. mtr Ialll S IB1 mzrl

Z IB1I+IBrIZ IB1 MBA

Z |Br|+|B1|Z Il\InIA1 UMII

5 |A,|Z1+|A,|Z1Z|A, UArI

Q |A,UAa ~ 024(1tI|Z1,
 s jeined te NISI hy a tethl el k |S| edge, and thee are ameng the

k |N ISI| edge el G inrident w-ith NISI, Theretere k ISIS k |NISI|, se

every edge e e 11 1 1Ir there an edge J e ar sieh that e and J

` have a remmen vertex n with e ap J, The Iellewing reult is semetime

mth M it 11 is unmatehed er its matehing edge J e M satishe J rr e

te seme lt e B, ILI ne surh 11 exists, terminate the sequene-e,I Add te M

w-ith nl Z na, \\e replaee every vertex n hy apair InZ,n*I, and every

edge e. Z nn.,, hy the edge nfng, (Fig, 2,1,4I, The renilting hipartite

every vertex pair InZ,n*I haeh inte a single vertex n, we tunr this 1.

024.`I
_ I ,. `B U

024.II 1* 1 031
I !-

2.2 Matehing in general graphs

qIGZSI S IS| hrallSQ\'IGI1 eendttarn

Thaererrr 2.2.1. I'1\rtte 1941I

A graph G Ins a 1-iartdriiand ¤nJyIiqIGZ SI S IS| fur allS Q VIGI.

 II .4
ITI1 I 1\t ~ . 1 ·.

G
IA
d gy/I
c 1I 1 ·rInre*s I
etnnirrntn IIIGZ sy 024IsI ter ., Q ::..11111 rhe

eempenents eIG Z S, and ene el thee must again he edd,

|G| is edd, in whirh ras I is had,

1I rr 7 0242

I / _ V __fh

1 030
"Za, .···1
Ctrrtrllhry 2.2.2. IPetersen16tl1I

renditien, Let S Q \'IGI he given, and rensider an edd rempenent C et

G Z S thus is atleast 34iIG Z SI, But it is alse at mest 3|S|, heeause G

s ruhir, I-tene-e qIG Z SI S IS|, as required, D

n
e
s
u
a
e
e
h A graph G
it hhs Z Il;EI
edd erder, is Islled
we ralljretareermedl il Q
a vertex set S G s mtrtehdbte
V I and G Zth inrtehattle

{us; il the I hipartite 030I

graph Gg, whirh arise Irem G hy eentraeting

inside S, eentains a matehing el S, IFermally, Gs e the graph w-ith cg

vertexsetSU{t;Zsandedgeset( aC | Be e C: se e EI;seeFig,2,2,1,I

IiI S 1s rnatehable tn {tas:

ISI Z I{¤ZsI·

eaeevt
030 mr theZ¤erin1tte:Aasethat 5 rr crsss s ern;-ty
 qIGZ SI S |S| implie |S| Z |{g;ss|, and the existene-e et a 1-laeter

theeren lellews at enee lrem the aertiens IiI and IiiI: il G has a

1-Iaeter, w-e have qIG ZSI S ISI and hene-e |S| Z I{t;ZsI as aheve;

eenverselyil|S| Z |{t1ZsI1 then the existeneeela 1-laeterlellews straight

lrem IiI and IiiI,

me new- preve the existene-e et a set S satisfying IiI and IiiI, hy

indurtien en |G|, Fer |G| Z ll we me- tahe S Z 6, New let G he given

d t1ITI:Z ·iGITI:Z qIGZTIZ|T|

qIGZ1'I G qIGZSI+1 w-hile |T| Z |S|+1,

S' Q VIGI with

GIG Z $ `
031I
ISI,

are either heth even er heth edd, se they raruret dhter hy exaetly 1, we

qIG'ZS'I G |S'|+2,

giving ·io·IS'I G 2, Then ler T :Z SU ( eI US' we have

dITI GdISIZ1Z1+·ie··IS'I G dISI1

 Lt remains te shew- that S is matehahle te {t;Z s, LI net, then hy

eempenents et GZ ISI SI, the set T Z SIS' satishe dITI » dISI1

denete hy ks the numher el edge in M with at least ene end in S, and

reelsl and ¤ee;IlIIIZlslZlclI, I1I

eheese ISI edge hetween S and Us aeeerdingte IiI, and then ng IiiI te

hnd a suitahle set el Z 1I edge in every rempenent C e {, This

matehing Mn thus hhs exaetly

lMtIZlsl+I(lIIlZls1Zlrl) Ia

New I1 I and I2I tegetherimply that everrmatehing M elmaximum

and I2I, M has a.t least |S|Z |{|I edge, whirh implie hy

ks Z ISI, everyvertex s e Sistheendetanedge st e M witht e GZS,

and hy Ip Z eraetly ;IIC|Z1I edge el M Ie in C,

 2.3 Packing and covering

edge hy Iewer than k vutiee Iin whirh ra; it s ehvieusly impeeihleI,

et graphs Irem 'H Inet neexerily distinrtI that we ran paeh digeintly

elG, we say thatn has the Erdssrnsrprnper-rv, IThns,lern1ally,2·1has

this preperty il there exists an rt AIR iunrtien k »A JIkI surh that, Ier

every k and G, either G eentains k diseint suhgraphs eaeh isemerphir

te a graph in 'H, er there is a set U Q \'IGI et a.t mest JIkI vertiee

Iaheut 4klegkI surh that every graph rentains either k dineint ryrle

er a set el at mest JI kl vmiee revering all its ryrle,

_W ,
1
n
e
h
t H r, elagraleglagrra
tnntains k cisuint ryrles. ...d

C and H ZC, Sine-e H is ruhir and dICI Z 2, we have m S |C|, we

new- rensider hipa.rtitiens( l3,l, I eIVIHI, hegiruringwithlk :Z VICI,

H IW] hhs at mest nrZ n vmiee eldegree he than 3, heeau: eheh et

in HIM], sinee we reuld net meve them te l;, Let HI he the ruhir

multigraph ehthined hem H I lr] hy snppneing thee vertine Then

|H'I G IHIZ ICIZnZ In1ZnI G IHIZ2IG|,

and |H| G at G G, w-ehave

|H'| G IHIZ2I 254'I

G |H|Z·*l¤gIHI G at Z4lega,,

Ier 1 G 6,I

dear, se we aerurie that k G 3, Then rt S 4legk Iw-hich s ehvieus ler

k G 4, w-hile the ca; et k Z 3 has te he calculatedlt and hence

sg Z4legs, Z4IkZ1Irt +4legk+4leglegk+1G

G aps, +4hglegk +6 Z 4hgI4legkI

Thaererrr 2.3.2. IErdesl1 Ptsa1t165I

There is a ittnrdnn J:l·1AIR surh that. given any k e H. eierrgrnph

Frm/, me shew- the renilt ler JIkI :Z st +kZ 1, Let k he gven, and

let G he any graph, we me- as-ume that G eenthins a cycle, and se it

hhs a maximal suhgraph H in w-hich every vertex has degrm 2 nr 3, Det

ene vertex, Let Z Q \'IHI = U he the set el these vertiee, Fer eheh z

1 eZIichacycleC, e{thatmeetsHina,andput{':Z(C,|a eZI,

dee net lie in {, and it dee net centhin an H-path hetween distinct

vmiee eutside U I hy the maximality et H I, Se this cycle meets U,

2.4 Tree-packing and arboricity

them, h1enger's theeruri I3,3,G IiiII in the next chapter w-ill tell us that

tnsily sen te he lalse It.ry k Z 2I; indeed it is net even clear at that any

edga 024cennectivity
w-ill imply the existence et k edgediseint spanning

tree, IBut see Cerellary 2,4,2 helew-,I

tree, it hhs at least k IrZ 1 I creeedge, This cenditien is alse mrtlicient:

Thaererrr 2.4.1. INash-williams 1tlG1:'l\rtte1tl61I

everrparriddn F dim vertexset It has at least k I|F| Z 1I ards-edges.

a.t least Z kr creeedge, The aertien thus Iellews Irem

edge, i,e, such that |IP|I :Z IEIPIIw-ith HIP] :Z EIFI IIFII

LIP Z efandee E 024,EIP|,theneveryr;+eeen-

we se- that FI has heen ehthined lrem F hy the eptrernent el the mmlwjgflf

\\e new- censider a nxed k-tuple P" Z e 7, The set ¤·

et all k-tuple in 7 tha.t can he ehthined Irem P" hy a serie et edge

replae-ements will he deneted hy T", Finally, we let J"

E 034¤Z
U IE 024,EIPII 1**

andG 034:ZIV,l:. 030I, 0*

Ierrrrrrh 2.4.3. Far evarye- e

034
E 024,
EI P"] there ejsts aset U Q V that

is rdnnerted in every ET I1 Z 1,, , , , k] and rdntains the ends die".

Frm], As P" e ,'F 034,

we have e" e E"; let ( he
034
the cempenent el G 034 0*

eenthining e", \\e shall preve the aertien Ier U :Z VIC 034I, LI

in H, Te this end, we hrst preve the Iellewing:

1etPZIPr,,,,,PtIeI 034.andletIP{,,,,,r;Ihaveheen

1,y are the ends niapath in PjU 254

then 034.
aJs¤1E;y Q ( 034.

1EQy Z 1Ejy and nethingte shew-, lt srtliee te shew- that nE;1n Q C 034:

then I1l1yZeI U ann is a cennected suhgraph el li mC" that centains

n,1n e 1FQ 031y

Q 254
This 034,
preve I1I,
 Ln erder te preve that U Z VIC"I s eennected in if w-e shew- that,

hr every edge 1y e C", the path 1Pfy exists and lie in C", As C" is

ehthined Irem P'Z hy

030edge replacement and e e E 024,
E IP"], Setting

P :Z P" in I1I, we me- thinh ele as apa.th etlength 1 in EjU(",

Sucereive applicatiens el I1I te P Z P 035,,,,,E"

then give 1F?!! Q C"

F 030* Hchak-tupleP"ZIPf,,,,,PfIe7,LIeveryE;"eatree,weare

IIf"II Z ZIIFTII < kIIGIZ1I

hy Cerellary 1,s,3, On the ether hand, we have |IGII G kI|G| Z 1I hy

rI* exists an edge e" e E 024,

EIP"], By Lemma 2,4,3, there exists a set

least kI|F| Z 1I creeedge w-ith repect te any partitien F, By the

spanning tree if U GI U] el G I U], we ehtain k edgedigeint spanning

Sfnnn Let us say that suhgraphs G,,,,,,G, el a graph G pdr-mean G il

dual Icl, Theerem 1,s,1I: inte hew- tew aeyelie IspanningI suhgraphs

induee at mest k I|U| Z 1I edge, ne mere than |U| Z 1 hr eheh Ieret,

see
031Chamr 1 in en eentraetien tn rnnltisravhs
Thaererrr 2.4.4. INash-williams 1964I

¤nJyIi|IGIUIII S kI|U|Z1I iirr everynnn-ernptyset U Q V.

|IG IUIII 1I, centrar-y te eur as-umptien, D

its inturite versien, This is haed net en erdinary spanning tree Iter

2.5 Path covers

Let us retunr ence mere te I»{enig 030s

duality theerem Ier hipartite graphs,

Ot ceurse, the ceuld he ashed just as well Ier undirected graphs, As it

the undirected case Iexercisel, and the directed ca; w-ill alse have an

1,,,,,,1, and edge such that e. s an edge directed {rem

Thaererrr 2.:.1. IGallai lr hLiIgram1tlGl1I

(nn I F e 'PI11£verI·iress11rh that n,. e F iirr everrr e 'P.

LI terI'FI Z (n,,,,,,n,,,I s independent there is nething mere te

s again a path, the minimality el terI'PI implie that n, s net the

hypetheis te 'P', lt thus remains te shew- that terI'P'I Z ( n,1,,,,,1t,, I

Suppese then that GI has a path cever 'P" w-ith terI'P"I Q terI'P'I,

a path cever eIG w-hese set el last vertiee is a preper suhset et terI'PI1

eentradicting the cheice eI'P, LIapath F e P" ends in zu Ihut nene in nl.

the minimality el terI'PI, D

In everr tinite parually drdered set IF,SI. die rninirnurn nurnber ni

F Isruret he cevered hy fewer than |A| chains, The Iaet that |A| chains

Fwiththeedgeset(I11yII1eyI, D

Exercises

A Ler A he a hnrre ser wrrh sulsers A,. ..\.1. and ler ·l,. .·l.1 r rl

shew rhar rhtre are dspnnr sulsers Lit Q At. wtrh Ilia] Z rlt air all

I I_I AI G Z .1.
IIIGZ SI 024I5I+IGI Z2k lerall sers S Q VIGI

degree G ::. lm hndtng a lunerntn I, rl Arl suth rhar erIta·,Irnuhrgraph el

No tes
3 Connectivity

3.1 2-Cbnnected graphs and subgraphs

 rernrnr a.1.1.

jx, tanned ty the edges as nrth 11 e 1;, This net graph at G s sheen in

I 042

I _ 042
x I EI

U °
Z
Z
?
II 042
Li' I..?

042,.
zi ri eI

IQ I. oy. ~

eZ` s+ · 030 I
 I I I I I
I I I
/*4 *

I " I

G s 2eerurected, G Z w eentains a 1 024ZH

path F, Then 1nnF s an H-path

in G, and H U 1nnF is a censtructihle suhgraph et G larger than H, This

3.2 The structure of 3connected graphs

Iand ¤ 030cleI1
w-him are again erganired in a trea 024lihe
w-en This nen-

emit it here, 030

tained Irem a K* hy a srcereien et elementary eperatiens preerving

The
030 era-tens reader may talee a slanee at tzrerese zu ei Chacm iz
 h:IGI G 3, the centraeted vertex n,,, et GI1y Isee Chapter 1,1I lie

a
thatL
in S and G,
separate |S| ev¤;y
Z 2, vertex
i,e, G has
in Tahas
vertex
a neighheur
1 g (1,yI
in every
such cempenent C

I IIEI `I

D U (11HI Z I Then every neighheur et n in D lie in C Isince n e CI,

se DUC and hence D Q C hy the cheice el D, This centradicts the

Thaererrr 3.2.2. I'1\rtte 1961I

IiI Gn Z K* andG,. ZG;

IiiI G.,, has an edge 1y with dI1I,dIyI G 3 and G. Z fur

as-ume that (1,,1 I U VIC,I Z I (Fig, 3,2,2I, Then C, eentains neither

I
I, 030I'I I

CTZZ ZZ 035s"ZZ'
031ZZ
931

separated Irem C1 in G. hy a.t mest tw-e vertite, a centradictien, But

new- C) eentains enly ene vertex: either 1 er y, The centradicts eur

as 024umptien
el dI1I,dIyI G 3, III

t1Ih1seI thaumm? Lihe Prepesitien 3,1,3 ler 2eerurected graphs, it enahle

depending enly en lecal intermatien: starting w-ith K we

030,
Iieh a vertex

and jein thee te the Iermer neighheurs et n as we pleas 024previded

enly

that n' and n" theh aequire at least 3 incident edge, and that every

Thaererrr 3.2.3. I'1\rtte 1963I I1szI

Ln K 030,
ev¤;y cycle is a triangle er Iin terms el edgeI the symmetric

G' :Z GIe s again 3eennected: cI, Lemma 3,2,1, Then every edge 0

e' e EIG -
031I
EIGI e et the {erm e' Z 11n.,w-here at least ene et the

and identity it netatienally w-ith the edge e'; thus e' new- denete heth

Graphs
031 ei the h.r1n 0* tw are aalle: aheeh, thas 11* s the srnallet wheel rvtel
 regard EIG as
031I
asulset el EIGI, and EIG as
031I
a suhs-pace eIEIGI; thus

that centhin the edge 1-, me mall call thee the jiinddnlentdl rrtdhyles

` eIG: they are clearly Iinduced andI neneeparating, as etherw-ise ( 11, n, I

viewed as a suleet el EIGI rnd net ceincide w-ith EICI, er even term

a eyele at all; an example is shew-n in Figure 3,2,3,

1 1- 1 _ .·,:I' 1.

I It I A I 030I I " It I

P+P+De (h,(eII,
erate a set C e {IGI smilar te C:

1£C1ssrn1iiar t11C e {IGI andC1sas1trn aihase eyaies In

Fer il D s a sum et iundamental triangle srreh that C +C + D e

(W,(eI I, then C+C+D Z 6, hecau: C+C+D lie in {IGI hut

IeI me net, I-lence, as 0 s a sim el hasie eyele, se is C Z C+ 0,

C' s sdrnilar td C. I2I

Lndeed, it e e C er neither 1 ner y lie en C, then C' ditters Irem C

exaetly in e er net at all, Otherwise, C eentains ene et the vertiee 1,y

hut net the ether, Then n, e C': let 11,1n he the tw-e neighheurs el n,

en C', and e' Z nn. and e" Z me its incident edge Ias in Fig, 3,2,3I, LI

Then C +CI+ D,. + Dt. e ( I, ( e I I, eempleting the preelel I2I,

in G', Let us lilt thee haeh te G, as Iellews:

Te preve I3I1 we shall cheese the C, se that C.Ie Z Cj; thee w-ill he

smilar te the CQ as in I2I, LI n, -; Cj then this helds w-ith C. :Z Cj, se

1. 1.-

\\e hrst as-ume that (111,11y,1n1,wyI Q EIGI, and censider Ias

candidate ler GI the cycle C, :Z 11.F1n111 and C, :Z 11F1ny11, Beth are cr L.,

induced cycle in G Ihecau: Cj is induced in G 031I,

and clearly CrIe Z

elG Z IVIFI U (1,11 II in G, since (Q dee net separate such vertite

in G', Thus, il Cr Ise-I is a separating eyele in G, then ene el the

 eempenents el GZ C} censists just el y, Lihewise, il C, separate G

happen ler heth C, and C, a.t ence: etherw-ise I\bI( 1,y II Q VIFI and

h:IGI G 3, I-ienee, at least ene et C,, C, s a hasic cycle in G, and we

cheese this as G,

By I3I, C :Z Cr +,,,+C, e similar te Cj Z w-hich

Menger 031s
theorem

Ittz 5] Thaerern 3.3.1. Ihlenger 1921I

I 030j, 030,
Let G Z030I,
IlI,t1I he a graph andA,s Q lz men the nrininntrn rntrntrer
 G mntains aset ni IF'|+1 diqnint AZB paths exeeeding'P.

Keeping G and A hxed, we let B vary and apply induetien en |II'P|,

exceds 'P, as deired, IThis w-ill happen w-hen 'P Z 9, se the induetien

BI :Z BUVI1FU1HI and'P :Z
034I'P 024-
( F I) U( F1I (Fig, 3,3,1I, Then

|'P 031|
Z |'P| Ihut |II'P 031|
e |II'P|I and kIG,A,B'I G kIG,A,BI, se hy

exceding 'P', Then I3 eentains apath Q ending in 1, and aunique path

Lty g 1F, we let Q he ehthined Irem Q' hy adding 1F te Q, and adding

I, I' I

I I

I 1> I I

I 1 ZZ . re I I

I I I

_, I| rn I I I g.

Applied te a hipartite graph, hlenger's theerem specialire te the

 vw] ¤: U(v1r·y|r* e ry

Lnuujk W Z with s, ¢sj tm j he md

m amnme wm; ns-pen vn 'P (Fig, 3,3,2) it in starts in A 024

V [P] and

;ff;···*···¤ u.. mm.-a..g u.... mnmunu md em an I Q » men L, ¤: Em an mm:

lm nz. ::1 with j. then 1, e VFP]:

(im w
1>wher
itz,
n s svhsj
e
m \'['P|, s E['P|a.nd ever; t EVP]

Frm], mmm W ms muy iu msn vemx in A VW] and

edgesem is mes;-umneuin djtfuenuent E W] wim Ln H,

Im-umd dmevjnn wm; ns-pen vn 'P m W. 4F¤nm1ly: it A- e F' with

Smiluly. fm evuw b e (BU \' {'Ply u ( 1,. ) mus is an A 024B

pun in

VU']. as mma-mss n wmud he an neu-Mun; mn; umm; in B,

sem \'['P nt
031|

w P K ; y W

.a
 V(W'mVW] Q VW'] and \'(1/PV¤\']'P'] :6.

VW']. (W" mjsms mndmnn (iii] n y in me ssmnd my wen it

(U Hub e E. than me minimum number uivmius s 4,b sepsxsdng

Frm/. (iw App1yTn¤m»m s.:s.1 wm. A ¤: may and B :: Mb].

lm Apply Tnzmsm s.:s.1 an me uns gupn nt G, nam A :: Em

and B z: Bib]. D
s
n
m
n
u
p
]
m
r
F uy .AKimp:. is keummd
I Lt 1 z¥1vh is k
G mnujns my uny .1 in
independenm p1ms hemeen 1ny um

3.3.51iW, ne can sep1r1 042e

1 and b in G' hy 1 sem X nt 1m nuns; k 024
2 x

(ii] Inllnws smjgm {mm Cnmlluy 3.3.5 (ii 1. D

Mndefs theorem

cen: given 1 gupn G nm. in sndneed snngupn H, np an new F

 Cp

J J"JJ
C
J ` J J J ~ ,J

J J , 030

ac 1t least twn venins in BG hr same G s fs-, where denmes the set nl

vmins in G with 1 neighheur in G 024

X 024
G (Fig. 3.4.1l. The numher

.¤¤J¤» Mm Q mn. (ww Z [glam).

VJG 024Hl
and F Q EJG 024H sn¤hth1tever;y
024Xl H-p1thinGh1s1

Tnmrern 3.4.1. Jhlmer 191éJ

Given ¤ sfnph G wizh sn indrieed sritgnph H. there are siwsrs MAH]

set X Q VJG 024

HJ th1t meets ever-y H-p1th in G. Sinriluly, we let

sieQ
:
s
s
e
l
X sn lem
VJG independent
024HJ1nd
F Q EJG H-psnhs
024H snd
with
024Xl sn

k Z m+ Z li Mal
BG :6, let ip ::6. Then ]g|3G|J g g|i;·| hr all G e fr-. hlereever,

ler Y :: LJCEG ir every H·p1th has 1 vertex in X u Y. l-lenee y

IXI+graph
elG JExerrise
ka IEJ. D

are Inst pesihle Jas general henndsJ: ene ran nnd examplrs ler G and

H where G rentains ne mere than gnu HJ independent H-paths er ne

mere than gA¤JHJ edgediseint H-paths Jtxerrisrs 1a and my.

3.5 Linking pairs of vertices

ll IGI g ik and every set el1t mest ik venirrs is linhed in G, then

J] j Q rm;. Fer v s 2, the asertieii helds with hm :1;we new asiiiiiethat

iii edge; ter iii : tg; this iiiipiirsthe aseieii with hm : NJ.

ellength at least sJGJ+1; T" +1 g r+1, and theaxrtien lellews

New let r 1 m S G), und axnme the axrtien helds ler smaller ni.

Let G with dJGJ g T" he given; thus, sJGJ 3 1**. Sinee G has 1

rempenent G with sJCJ z sJGJ, we mq as-nme that G s rennerted.

U Censider 1 maximal set U Q VJGJ snrh that U s rennerted in G and

:JGJUJ snrh 1 set U exists, heran: G itsellhas the term GJU

with |U| : 1. Sinee G s rennerted, we have NJUJ 6.

H LetH::GJ1\ 031JL*J].l.tHhasavertex
eeldegr¤dHJeJ1T'*",we

we rentrart the edge ery in GJ U, we lese ene vertex and ·ip;J¤J +1 S

edgrs, se s will still he at least Therelere JJHJ z 5JHJ z

By the indnrtien hypethrsis, H rentains 1 TY with |Y| : r

nen-aahaeent in Y. Sinee 1 and y lie in NJUJ and U s rennerted in G,

Thmrern 3.:.2. Jlnng 1910; Larman lr hlani191tlJ

There is .1 Ainedun siieh rhar evmr ·/JkJ-cunneered graph is

L. hinrtien as in Lemma 3.5.1. Let G he an _/JkJ<ennerted graph. Then

ic JJGJ z 5JGJ z »:JGJ z h(3kJ:cheesek :1'K 031*

Q Gasin Lemm13.s.1.

and 1,,...,1, he gven. By dennitien el_/(kJ, we have »:JGJ z ik.

l-lenee hyhlenzeis theerem J3.3.1 J, G rentains diseint paths Fi,. . . , Ft;

F; such that earh FQ starts in r,, earh Q, starts in 2,, and all
suhdividededge elthe k 031*J
lrem ir, te the end el F; in U, and let e, he

path in 'P, then this path is Q,. Then the mths are

e
e
h
T preelel Theerem 3.5.2 yields enly 1n expnnenvkl uvvu ¤¤¤¤d

ler the iunrtien _/JkJ. As 2.sJGJ z 5JGJ z »:JGJ, the lellewing rrsult

implirs the linear heund eI_/JkJ : 16k:

Thmrern 3.:.3. JThemas ir wellan 2tl¤5J [rz ry

Lernrna 3.:.4. if 5JGJ z ék and |G| 5 16k. rhen G has .1 k-linked

given Fl s 'P: il it had leur, then replaring the segment mw hetween

r, and 1, whenever 'P, hy the maximalityel'P. Thus il |'P| :: lr,

then e has at mest 3lr+J2k:2hJJ2 5 3k neighheurs in J. As 5JGJ g ék

st el vertirrs at distanee at mest 2 (measured in HJ {rem 1 neighheur

el si in H, and let T Q \'(HJ he the rerrrspending set ler 1,. Sinee

G : LW centains ne .ri 0241i

p-tth ellength at mest 1, we have SU T :6

sutiirrs tie shew that \'(HJ : Su T. Heh aneighheur r e S el r,, and

rentradirting (1 J.

25(GJ 5 25(HJ 5 ik +3k g g|H|+3k g I 254'|+3k. (2J

we have |G| z 2k. Let Y he 1 at el at mest 2k vertirrs in G. By (2J,

X 024L
paths hy hlenger's theerem (3.3.1J. Then X reuld he linhed via

5(HJ 5 sk and IHI S 16k (in whirh L reuld he leund hy Lemma 3.5.4J;

suhset el \'(H J, and Lemma 3.5.4 previdrs us with 1 linhed suhgraph L

tie L hy |X| diieint paths in H.

withX Q A and L Q B and surh that |A¤ B] 1 |X|. llue rheese this

with |A M BI minimum, then hy hlengers theerem we ran linh A M B

preelinside H J A], whese value el s is st.ill as hig as helere, heraug the

¤n he revlaeed hr puh: threugh B and L. This helps ensure that ue

parts 1w1y frem X:held ler H J A] heraug they did in H. This will

Gven k s ri, 1 graph G, and A, B,X Q V(GJ, call the erdered umm.;;

pair (A, BJ an X-repdrrrnmi elG il( A, B ] s 1 preper separatien elG

Crll aset Li Q VJGJ ughr inG il|JLJ|J*s sk|Li|, where |J¤|J*denetrs JJ JJ 042

1,erG:(V,EJbesgr.rph.rnuXQV.rser¤i.rrm¤s12k x

men (A, BJ rhe ser B 024.

A is light. rhen X islinired in G.

Te see that (¢J implirs the theerem, assiurre that »;(GJ g 2k and

| 024
JJG
e
\
\ |Jv 024x|J*
preve (¢J e
hy indurtien en |G|, and ler earh value el |G| hy indur-

tien en |JV 024.

XIJ*. LC |G| : 1 then X s linhed in G. Fer the indurtien

Fer e¤¤ Preel el (1J, suppese that G has 1 linhed X-separatien JA Bt

(A, BJ. Let us rheese ene with A minimal, and put S ;: Am B. s

ing the preel el (¢J. llnet, then hy hlenger's theerem (3.3.1J G J A] has

|A* m B'I minimum, ue ran linh AJ m BJ te S in GJBJ] hy |A* U B']

diseint mths, again hy hlenger's theerem. But then ( A', B' U BJ is 1

l.tS Q A' then B'UB Q S Q A', se (A'UB,B'J is1smallX.

B' ~ 024
(A'UBJ : B' 024.
A';

and ne edge el G' : E is inrident with this set (Fig 3.5.2J. Our as.

ei J

J J

J. ~ 024:
xx LV

l-lenee S Q B'. By eur rheiee el (A', BJJ, the graph G" :: G' J B']

satishrs the premise ef (cJ ler X" :: A' U B'. By the indurtien hype-
el A in the rheiee el (A, BJ.

J Q J 034

J J `J J

J J J J

Ay sys its Q H. rhru J.\'.L*ULiJ islurlad ur G

tie X. Sinee ( A. B J s apreper sepa.r1tien,G' has lewer vertirrs than G.

Te preve (2J, let e : ne he sum an edge, let Jr denete the numher el e : he

alm el V' :: V(G 031J,

replaring ii er e in X with the rentraeted vertex e, t '
 and |VJ 024.
X| : IV 024.
X| 024
1, it sutlirrs te shew that the rentraetien el e

rn reunted tewards |Jv 024.

X|J*, the edge rn, lis in GJ JX] and dere net

reunt tewards |JvJ 024.

X|J*. il r n and r s net 1 eemmen neighheur

XJ is linhed in G' J B']: il e, ereurs en ene el the linking paths ler X',

the premise el (¢J with rrspert tie X", m that X" is linhed inGJB] hy

pletas the preel that X" is linhed in GJ B], and henee the preel ef (2J.

d· Since (cJ helds il V : X, we may am-ume that V 024.

X : 6; let tt denete

3kSd 031S1Gk:1. (3J

The leuer heund in (3J lellews {rem (2J il ue amrurie that G has ne
X-mparatien (A,BJ surh that B 024.
A is heavy. ll the latter happens

then e mist he an (A AJ edge: etherwise, (A, BJ weuld he 1

mntradirtien tie eur amumvtiens in (¢J. But ile is sum an edge then

|X| 5 2k surh ndghheurs. Ths rentradirts (7J»

|Jv sk|v 024.

X|+1. (4J

rstimate the numher _/(1J eledgrs that 1 vertex 1 e X sends tie V 024.
X. rJr>

There must he at least ene surh edge, 11/ ww as etherwise (X, V 024.
(1 JJ

at mest 2k:1elwhirhliein X. l-len¤e_/(1J: Gk. As

2(ékIV 024 XI+1J

024 z 2IJV ~ 024XIJ+:16kIV
· 024
XHGHXIJ

Te mmplete eur preel el (cJ. vid: 1 vertex rh e V 024.

X el degru ti',

and rensider the suhgraph H indueed in G hy en and its neighheurs.

By (2J we have 5(HJ z sk. and hy (3J and the rheiee el rh we have

|H| 5 16k. By Lemma 3.5.4, then, H has 1 klinhed suhgraph; let L he

its vertex set. lay dennitien el ·k-linhedJ, we have JL] 2k e JXI. i.tG

hy hlenger's theerem (3.3.1 J. But then (A, BJ is 1 linhed X-separatien

that rentradirts (1 J. D
Exercises

md 11. : JXnéf,JUJXnX'JUJX'nC..J

ki : J.YnCiJU JXnX'JUJ.Y'nCtJ

J J. r j .J J
he inhsrrurrrd lrinu 1 IU lm surrimiur applrrarrnns nl rhe lnllnwnrg
Notes

rhise haue ininuuum degree ar liarsr k. hud km a lundruuehrsl risuh nl i-lslut

seared rurd l>rnued km \J\Jhnue»J J1¤32J

herh green km A srhrnnr, A shun prnnlnl htadrrs separhs rheurem. .J Gene

4 Planar Graphs
 4.1 Topological prerequisites

laets needed later. All thrse laets have (hy newJ easy and well-knewn

preefs: see the netes ler murrrs. Sinee these preels rentain ne graph

(and he zuided hy hut net rely en geemetrir intuitienJ, m the material

A smrighr me sqimem in the Eurlidean plane is asulset elW that

has the {erm (p+A(q:pJ |tl 5 A s1Jtrdistinrtpeintsp,q e W.

pdlignn A pelqgmi is 1 suhset el W which is the unien el nnitely many straight

tepelegiral spaeeis amumed tie rar-ry the suhs-paee tiepelegy. A pelqgmml

Let 0 Q W he an epen set. Being linhed hy an arr in 0 dennrs

iegnrn again epen; they are the mgimis el 0. A desed set X Q W is mid tie

rnrntei X Q W s the set Y el all peints y e W sirh that every neighheurheed

ely nuts heth X and W 024.

X. Nete that il X s epen then its lrentier

lirs in W 024.
X.

The lrentier el 1 regien 0 el W 024.

X, where X s 1 nnite unien el

interier lirs in 0 (whyi'J. The serend netahle preperty el the lrentier el

0sthatitsepar1tes0£remtherrstellR l.ndeed,il,¤:
031. QW

0 at least in the peint ,=<yJ ler y::int(1| ,r(1J -;0J,thehrs1pnm

UH] elFinW 024.0.

Jizgl Theerem 4.1.1. (lerdan Curve Theerem ler PelygensJ

J]j JJ nr erm rnriygrin r g iw. me set nv 024.

r· tes exrruytnni regirins. rrr:.
rernrnr 4.1.2. Let r,, n,, F, he uiree arrs. hetween me sarne rmi ena. J]; §J

pan err meegise iisuinr. Jn r .J

(iJ W = (FK U F, U HJ Ins exactly rhree regians. wirh hinders

mreriar lies in rhe regian ¤iW 024.

(F3 U F,J rhar eanrains F,. rhen

F U Fi 6.

I 7

erJ J J 034

rernrnr 4.1.:e. Let X,,X, g nv he uisriint ses eaeh me nnirin rr JJQJ

X, and une in Xa uhase inreriar F ues in aregian 0 ai W 024.

(X, UX,J.

Then 0 024.
F is axgiun ai W 024.
(X, UFUX,J.

As us-ual, ue denete hy S" the ndimensienal sphere, the set el 5**

peints in lR 035*
at distanee
030 1 {rem the erigin. The 2·sphere minus its

*nerth pele' (11,11, 1J is hemeemerphir tie the plane; let us rheese 1 nxed

ir prejertienJ. ll F Q W s 1 pelygen and 0 s the heunded regien el

W 024.
F, let us rall G 1 male nn S and
031,the sets and

S 024.
031
r"(F UOJ the nqrans el G.

iireles an S 031.
ler 0, be a regian ¤iG,. and ler 0, be a regian ai Q.

4.2 Plane graphs

A pnrne ynrph s 1 pair (ip EJ el tuiite sets with the lellewing prepertirs

(iJ V Q W:

(iiJ every edge is an arr hetween twe vertirrs;

(iiiJ ditferent edgrs have ditferent sets el endpeints;

(ivJ the interier el an edge rentains ne vertex and ne peint el any

alm ler the plane graph (V,EJ, er ler the peint set V U LJE: smilar

suhgraphs, and m en. 030

Fer every plane graph G, the set W 024.

G s epen; its regiens are the

W 024.
D. This laee is the eurarjrrm el G; the ether {ans are its inner

Ierrrrrrn 4.2.1. Ler G be aplane graph. J e F(GJ araee. and H Q G

(iiJ iirhedrinrier ai] ues in H. rhen _!' : _/.

t·ir.wer·er
030 we shan eantrnne 1. use mr drtreruieg rirprnne sets and : mr graph
Frm]. (iJ Clearly, the peints in J are equivalent alm in W 024.
H; let J'

he the equivalenee rlam el W 024.

H mntaining them.

the lrentier X el J. Lt J' J : 6 then there s surh an arr inside J'.

preve what smms entirely ehvieus: that

031 the lrentier el 1 laee el 1 plane

re....... eee. me ee .si....gr.pi. me ... ng. na. J};2J

(iJ nr sdiedeneernssisre nm. den eidiere g X rrxee : 6. "" "

(iiiJ lie lies an na eyele. rhen e ues an rhe drinrier ai exaerly une iaee

rm;. we peveall threeamrrienstegether. ret nssrarthyeensidering J} gg]

me sans er exactly ene, aererding as e lits en 1 eyele in G er net. we

enly these (ene er tweJ straight line segments that rentain 1.

en their lrentier, and they mv ceinride (Fig. 4.2.1 J.

rem 4.1.1 J. Sinee A and Ji are rentained in lads elG hy Lemma 4.2.1,

this implits _A Ji. Lt e dets net lie en any ryrle, then e is 1 hridge

New
031that even the heat tntnitirn can enly euer he Jneeurnte ie ernneide with
 A Urn

fi

X, UX, : G 024.
e. Clearly, A UeUJ, is the suhset elalaee J elG:e.

By Lemma 4.1.3, J = e s 1 laee el G. But J 024.

e mntains A and Ji hy

detuiitien efJ, se A :J 024.

e : Ji sinee A, fi and J are all laers elG.

ne my asume 042h1t
De : De, and D,. : D,,. By induetien en n, ene

equivalent in W = G. I-lenee, every peint el D,, 024.

e lits in A er in J,, m

and De.J. ue turd that 1i lits en the lrentier el heth A and Ji. D

. Ji; __ V:| _ 433

v J J

p,,` ee J · J P n,,

Lemma 4.2.1 (iiJ, every laee elG s alm 1 laee el its heunda.ry; we shall

me rhen rhe graph is a eyele.

distinctlads AA el G. Since A and Ji arealm lads elH, Prepesitien

are centained in dilferent lads el C. Since A and Ji heth have all el H

ether. Thus, A and Ji are distinct lads el C. As C has enly twe lads,

it lellews that A UCUJi : W and hence G : C. D

Prapaaititin 4.2.s. in a zeanneetedpianegraph. ererrsaeeishannded J J; JJ

[qv a crcle. ]is z]

induetien en ]G] that G JJ] s a eyele. it G s itseil a eyele, this helds J} gg:

net, then thelrentier elJmeets F 024.

H, m J Q J' and GJJ] Q CUP.

By Lemma 4.2.1 (iiJ, then, J is 1 lace el CU F and hence heunded hy 1

cycle (Lemma 4.1.2 (iJJ. D

Prapaaititin 4.2.1. rhe saee hanndanes in a seanneeted piane graph JJ; QJ

nenseparating induced cycle, then hy the lerdan curve theerem its twe JJ 2*03

1 mntradictien tie Lemma 4.1.2 (iiJ.

independent mths. Clearly, J lits inside 1 lace el their unien, and hy

Lemma 4.1 .2 (iJ this lace is heunded hy enly twe el the paths. The third
p":;":;" A plane graph G s called rndnrndllq phrni er just rndnrndl, il ae

J J JgJ Prapaaititin 4.2.a. .·x pane graph asnrderatieasaa isrnadrnaiiypiane

arhacent in G, m G Ue cannet satisly cenditien (iiiJ in the detuiitien el

in G ceuld he linled hy an a.rc threugh J, extending G te 1la.rger plane

JU H : W hy Prepesitien 4.2.4 and hence G : H, 1 centradictien.

Since H mntainsacycle, it srtlidstie shew that n 5 3: then H : K'

(: lC 030J.
By C Q G, eur lace J is centained in 1 lace A· el C: let JJ.

el J, they can he linhed hy an a.rc wheseinterier lits in A· and aveids G.

JJ. rather than Je· (Fig. 4.2.3J. Analegeusly, since age, e GJJ], the

ths centradicts Lemma 4.1.2 (iiJ. D

graph, and this numher dilfers ler distinct (erientahle clesedJ sirlads.

invariant el the graphs emhedded in them!-J

Thdrrerrr 4.2.9. (EulerJs Fermul1J

rrd].
e
e
r
t
d
n
a vn we
: n hx
: 1n and apply
(whyi'J, induetien
m the axrtienenlellews
rn. rerlrem
rn s Prepesitien
n : 1, G is4.2.4.
1

lads J,,Jg el G, and as the peints in e are all equivalent in W 024.

GJ, J, J,

there is 1 lace A el GJ mntaining e. we shew that 1,

(cl

Fer 1preelel(¢J let nrst J e F(GJ (A,Jal he given. By Lemma

4.2.2 (iJ ue haveGJJ] Q G 024.e

: G', and hence J e F(GJJ hy Lemma

4.2.1 (iiJ. As clearly J J., this tstahlishts the lerwad inclusmn in (gJ.

Cenversely, censider any lace JJ s F(GJJ 024.

( A J. Clearly JJ :J,,J,,

and JJ Ue : 6. l-lence every twe peints el JJ lie in W 024.

G and are

equivalent there, se G has 1 lace J centaining JJ. By Lemma 4.2.1 (iJ.

hewever, J lits inside 1 lace JJJ el G'. Thus J' Q J Q J" and hence

J' : J: J", since heth JJ and JJJ are lads el GJ. D

edges. Fvery plane tdanguiarian with n yimees has 3n : 6 edges. ll! 51

The
031hindarrenm er.nneetir.n hetween graphs and surues hs at the heart r.:
 eccur as plane graphs. The graph K ler
030,example, has 10 » 3 5:6

every lace el 1 plane K, , weuld he heunded hy 1 cycle el length z 4

But Kii has! ~ 2 6:4edges.

Uearly, aleng with K and

030K, , themselves, their suhdivisiens can.

JJ JjJ carauaey 4.2.11. .-1 piane graph eanrains nemier K5 nar ie,, as a

graph can he drawn in the plane il and enly il it has ne (tiepelrgicalJ K 030

Drawings

An emhedding in the plane, er phrnirrernisddiny,elan (ahs-t.ractJ graph

censider the canenical immerphism c :: ,i ep" hetween H and HJ

H, t F F hetween twe plane graphs H : (\ZEJ and H' U (VJ,EJJ, with lace

HJ,\ JFJFJ sets F(HJ :: F and F(H'J :: FJ sq; and try tie meas-ure tie what

degrm is respects er preserves the leatures el H and HJ as plane gr1phs.

l.n what lellews we shall prepese three criteria ler this in decreasing

erder el strictnem (and increasing erder el eam el handlingJ, and then

1 hemeemerphism lrem the plane W te itsell. Te aveid having tie grant

via the hemeemerphism r:S 024.

031
( (tl,t1,1J J AW ihesen in Sectien 4.1: n

il
s there exists
e
d
u
d
n
i ir en V1U
hemeemerphism ,o:Swe
E. (hlere lermally: ~S
031
ash such
031
that that
4- 4- ::
agree nr
with ir en V,

el S mapping
031 the ela peint el mme iruter lace el H tie the

nerth pele (tl,tl, 1J el S then

031, 4- maps the rest el this lace tie the euter

mr 1 pair el miming peints where 4- er 4-UJ is undenned:4- maps the

lads el H entie these el H' (preeli 031J.

l.n this way, ir extends naturally

isnrnarphisrn el the plane graphs H and HJ il it can he extended tie a

 J¤(HJ./IJ :Je FJ :JH'JJ']:J' e FJ].

J} g Q: rm]. ret u : (rg EJ and HJ : (rJ, 1sJJ he twe plane graphs,

Jiztit put F(HJ :: F and F(H'J :: F', and let ¤:V AVJ he an immer.

(iJ l.l H s 1 cycle, the axrtien lellews lrem the lerdan curve thee.
 (iiJ Let us assrurre that H s 2cennected, and that is is a cemhina- er

terial immerphistrr. we have tie cerrstrrrct 1 hemeemerphistrr ,t:S ~S

031 031

which,
tiepreserving
ler every
hijectien
vertex
lrem
erthe
plane
vertis,
edge 1edges
e H, a.nd
maps las* el H :: rr*(HJ

tie the vertis, edges and lads el HJ:: H HJ

sA ; ri L HJ ; a¤

l1 Q
030
H T HJQ lr

hemeemerphistrr hetween V(HJ and \'(HJJ.

_ As the secend step, we new extend ,v tp 1 hemeemerphism hetrrun

H and HJ that indus B en \'(HJ U [:Y(HJ. We may de this edge hy

edge, as lellews. F.ve;y edge 114 el H s hemeemerphic tie the edge

,, te -:011. Then the unien el all these hemeemerphisms, ene ler every

all el S 031.
This catr he dene analegeusly tie the secend step, lace hy lace.

Jis1laceelH and C its heunda.r-y, then B(CJ r: LJ(»Z*(eJ | e e E(CJJ

heunds the lace B(JJ el HJ. ByTheerem 4.1.4, we may therelere extend

lrem CUJ tie Lr(CJ UL·(JJ. We trnally tahe the utrien el all these hemee.

merphisms, ene ler every lace J el H, as eur desired hemeemerphism

,t: S 031as hrrlere, centinrrity is easily cheched. D

* Bt the ~r·er·t.es edgs and aes r.r H .nd ir we nean the rnrags under n:·
 G rnpnhryrcrrllt (respectively, ennrmndrarrirttw sqrrrrrrlenr il { e pf s 1

semerphism { ep" he 1 tepelegical er cemhinatierial ene.

and By Theerem 4.3.1 it sulFrs tie shew that { epU is

030

Planar graphs: KuratowskiJs theorem

JQ fg, rm;. Apply rrepesitien 4.2.a and cereuaay 4.2.1r1. U

graph centairrs K er
030
Ki , as atiepelegical rrriner. Our aim in this sectien

graph witheut 1 tepelegical K er

030
K, , rrriner is planar.

Ierrrrrra 4.4.2. .-1 graph cdnrains K dr

030
K,, as amindrii and dniyii

ir cdnrains K dr
030
Kii as a nrrpdlagieai minar.

with 1 K rrriner
030centairrs either K as
030
1 tiepelrgical rrriner er K, , as

1 rrriner. Se srrppese that G Q K 030,

and let K Q G he rrrirrimal such

that K : MK? Then every hranch set elK indus atrm in K, and

· J KQ)

JJ JJ J ::,~

J `~ i:' I J

i Burr]- .\1K erirrrarrrs

031 a 1 030K
rrr i\1K11
031

ileach elthetrvetaees T, is 1 TKr 1 then K s 1 TK a.trd

030, weaae

dene. Ll ene el the T, s net 1 TKr 1 then it has exactly twe vertis

el degrm 3. Centracting \, entre these twe vertids, and every nther

1Kii.Thus,G : Kiiasdesired. D

Ierrrrrra 4.4.3. Fverr 3-cdnnecred graph G wirhaur a K dr

030
K,, mindr
JJ Q QJ rm;. tre apply induetien en ]G]. rer ]G] : 4 we have G : :0, and

K er
030
Ki, rrriner either. Thrrs, hy the inductien hypethesis, GJ1y has

ct 1 drawing G in the plane. Let J he the lace el G : a,, eentaining the

I L peint e,,, and let C he the heundary elJ. Let X :: l\Je;(1J = (I1 l and

X y Y:: l\u(yJ ~ 024

(z J: then XUY QV(GJ,hec1use a,, e J. Clea.rly,

LJ G::G:(a,,a]aeY 024.XJ

hy the peint e,, (Fig. 4.4.2J. Our aim is tie add y tie this d.r1wing tie

J? ~ 024ere.
_1.

J
"
g
A U 2 . A
GJ asa drawrrrg 1ilG J 024
J1 rhe rrarea ars reprrserrred

since G s saennected, G : a,, s kennected, se G s a eyele

rr re (Prnpnsitinrr 4.2.GJ. Let 1,,. . . ,1t he an enutneratien aleng this cycle el

eentradictien, since G eentains neither 1 TK mr

0301 TKi i.

New trx r m that Y Q F1. The set C ~ 024

FX s centained in ene elthe

1, hy A. Since A mntains peints el J (clese tie 1J hut ne peints el C, we

enly in 1 and end eutside A in C ~ 024

FX, se A meets nene el these edges.

Hence A Q W 024.
GJ, that is, A s centained in (and hence equal tieJ1lace

el me may therelere extend G' tie 1 drawing elG hy pacing y and

las eenvex (examplei 031J,
altheugh it alwqs has 1 straight-line d.r1wing

( Exercise 12J.

G :G,UG, with V(G1 UGaJ : (1,yJ, arrdilG hasne TK* er TK,,

srrhgraph, then neither G, +1y ner G, +1y has srrch 1 suhgraph, and

Fer »:(GJ S 1, things heceme even simpler. Herrever, the geemetric

il all the plane edges eccurring are asumed tie he straight.

with »:(GJ S 2. and let Gr,Ga be prrrper induced srrtgraphs ¤iG such

that G : Gr UGa and ]G, UG,| : »r(GJ. HG is edge-maximal withdut

a mpalagicai mindr in I. then sa are Gr and Ga. and Gr UGa : K 031.

heur in every cempenent el G, : S, r : 1,2: etherwise S = ( u J weuld

sepa.r1te G, centradicting |S| : »r( GJ. By the maximality el G, every

ene end in Gr and the ether in Ga. Ll S : (eJ s 1 singletien, let e

jein 1 neighheur e, el e in Gr :S tie 1 neighheur e, el e in G, :S

1 eentradictien. Hence 1y e G, and GJS] : K as

031
claimed.

l.t remains tie shew that Gr and Ga are edge 024maximal

witheut 1
 JJ e e `J
J J

J J rx J JJ J J J

J J

in Gr +e* (which shew·s the edge 024maximality

el G,, as desiredJ er in G,

(which centradicts Gr Q GJ. D

Lerrrrrra 4.4.:. HIGI g 4 andG is edge-maximal with TK 030,TKi

i Q G.

Jrz ur Frm]. \\e apply inductien en ]G|. Fer |G| : 4, we have G : K*

L., L, w·itheut 1 TK er
030
TKi ,. Suppese »r(GJ 5 2, and cheese G, and G, as

in Lemma 4.4.4. Fer .t :: ( K5, Ki i l, the lerrrma says that G, UG, is

r 1 1 IC'. with vertis 1.14 sun By Lemmas 4.4.4, 4.4.3 a.nd the inductien

hypethesis, Gr and Ga are planar. Fer each r : 1,2 separately, cheese 1

s. J, : 1,y en the heundaay el A. Let K he 1 TK er

030TK,, in the

J J ir J . J ._ J

JJK 042,J
,rkr*'''V i_J J

Ag U4 A 1*K* rrr 1 030K11rrr

G+:r:1

l.lall the hranch vertis el K lie in the mme G., then either G. +1:.

er G. +ya, (er G, itsell, il a, is already achacent tie 1 er y, rs-pectivelyJ

eentains 1 TK er
030
TKii; ths centradicts Cerellary 4.2.11, since these

cannet heth centain 1 hranch vertex ela TK a.trd

030, caruret heth centain
rhsarenr 4.4.s. (xnratawsla 11111; wagner 1r1atJ [Qi JJ

(iJ G is planar;

(iiJ G mntains neither K nar

030Kii as a rninari

(iiiJ G mntains neither K nar

030Ki, as a tapdlrgicai minar.

4.5 Algebraic planarity criteria

cycles,
y
h
e
e
s
( the cycles
helew·J. that
On the heund
ether 1 lace.
hand, the Ll G scycles
lacial 2cennected it is cevered
enly cever G *thinlyJ,

Let G Z (V, EJ he a.ny graph. we call 1 srrhset 7 ri its edge space

the cut space f' (GJ has asimple hasis: accerdingtie Prepesitien 1.9.3 it

Thdrrerrr 4.:.1. (hlacLane1937J ]1t.i]

eensider a graph G elerder at least a. it a(GJ s 1, then G s the unien J} § QJ

s the direct srrtrr el f(G,J and f(G,J, and hence h1s 1 simple hasis il JJHJ

and enly il heth c(G,J and c(G,J de (preem. hrereever, G s planar il J} { QJ

the preel, we new- assrrtrre that G s 2cennected.

el f(G J. We shall shew- that the lace heunda.ries generate all the cycles

in G: then f(GJ has 1 simple hasis hy Lerrrtrra 4.2.2. Let C Q G he any

e Q J lies en exactly tw-e lace heundaries G JJ'] w-ith J' Q J, and every

edge el C lies en exactly ene srrch lace heunda.ry. Hence the srrm in f(GJ

in just ene el the sets C,, sq- in C,, then J s 1 simple

hasis el f(G : e-J: il e lies in tw-e el the C, sw in C, and C,, then

(C, + 254,,(y,...,Ct
J is srrch 1 hasis. (Nete that the tw-e has are

indeed srrhsets el f(G : e·J hy Prepesitien 1.9.2.J Thrrs every srrhgraph

it thus sulFrs tie shew- that the cycle spas el K and

030K, , (and hence

centain 1 TK er
030
TKi,, and m is planar hy l·{uratiewskiJs theerem.

s still simple. But this implies that K sherrld

030 have mere edges than it

21: 1 3 { |Cn|+...+|(;| 5 2|JK 030|J

:20.

he 1 simple hasis, and put C, :: C, +...+C,. As K,, has girth 4,

rach C centairrs at least leur edges. we then ehtain the centradictien

S
r
r
e
r
r
d
h
T ZF :5
4.:.2. 4
(Kelmans1tl1éJ

The lerward implieatien lellews lrem Prepesitiens 4.2.1 and

4.6 Plane duality

A phrne rnriiegrrrph s 1 pair G : (l;EJ el turite sets (el rat-rims mdilxéf

and edges, rs-pectivalyJ satislying the lellew-ing cenditiens: '

(iJ V Q W:

(iiJ every edge s either an a.rc hmween tw-e vertis er 1 pelygen

(iiiJ apart lrem its ew-n endpeint(sJ, an edge centairrs ne vertex and

very similar tie G: in lact, G itmllmay he reehtained lrem G' in this way.

all (V 031,la"J1pLzne
dint er G, and write (rJ·,¤·J : G», irthere ue
 (iJ a'(./J e J hr all J e F:

(iiiJ a e J 031(aJ
mr all n e V.

cenditien (iJ we start hy picking lrem each lace J elG 1 peint e'(JJ

Plane dual G' elG.

e 031(./ ::
031(¤JJ
e and J 031(¤'(./JJ
:: J hr J 031(¤J
e F' and ¤ 031(JJ
e V', we

see that cenditierrs (iJ and (iiiJ ler G' translerm intie (iiiJ and (iJ ler G,

w-hile cenditien (iiJ is symmetrical in G and G'. As duals are easily seen

tie he cennected (ExerciseZGJ, this symmetry implies that cennectedness

lay eenditiens (iJ and (iiJ in the deturitien el Gr, tw·e vertids

e'(J,J and ¤ 031(.ArJ

el G' Ie in the mme cempenent el G': Ia" il and

enly il A and J, Ie in the mme regien el W 024.

LJ E: every e'(A J:e'(J,J

path in G': E' is an a.rc hetween A and J, in W 024.

LJ E, and cenversely

every srrch a.rc F (w-ith FU V(GJ : 6J detures awalk in G': Ia" hetween

a'(AJ and a'(.AiJ.

New il C Q G s 1 cycle and E : E(CJ then, hy the lerdan curve

ela cycle C Q G. Ll E' s rrrirrimal as 1 cut, then E cannet centain any

lrrrther edges (hy the implicatien shew-n helereJ, se E : E(CJ. D

 Prepesitien 4.6.1 suggests the lellew-ing generaliratien el plane du.

ality tie ahstract mrrltigraphs. Call 1 mrrltigraph G' an dnsrrrret dual el 030 0

1 mrrltigraph G il E(G'J : E(GJ and the hends in G' are precisely the

edge sets el cycles in G. (Neither G ner G' need he centrected new-.J

f 031(G
: f(GJ.
031J

f(GJ they generate in E(GJ : E(G 031J

s the mme as the suhspace gener.

ated rdated
spaceand
hy the hends
sets el
inedges.
G'. By
lt Lemm11.9.4,
w-errld net have
ths
030
heen
is the
unthinlahle tie ask

hends (and vice vers1Ji' Put in this we-, it seerrrs surprising that this

graphs as all planar graphs.

shew- that the planar graphs are precisely these ler w-hich ths catr he

Thdrrerrr 4.6.3. (Whitney 1933J

Althrnrgh
030the lerrana was staud mr graphs r.nly its prraiirernaars the sane mr
J] E {J rm;. Let G he a planar graph, and eensider any drawing. lsvery

eempenent C
030
el this d.r1w-ing has 1 plane dual C'. Censider thse

Cenversely, srrppese that G has an 1hst.ract dual G'. Fer 1 preel

shew- that f 031(G

has 1 simple
031J hasis. By Prepesitien 1.9.3, it des. D

Exercises

hir.re
030 elegantly but les srrarghth.1-wardly use birds rnsaad rx ernrrprinents and
leasr ts alwats prrrduers lairh a 1*K* arrd a TK,, srrhgraph

rlarrd rirrly rlrr erirrrarrrs rrrnher K rr1ir·

030 K1 1 as a rnrrrrir
rl JV'. E: I-`J rs a rr·ee
Notes

rirdra ar lrarsr 6J prrrduers rrrir rnrly a rriprilrigaal K er

031K1 1. liur lairh |.rr

rurire rharr arr : 6 edgrs erirrrarrrs a 1*K* arrd. wrrh rirre rsrsrln drserrlred elam
5 COIOl11`11lg

Sllfltthat
A
<(¤J
rst-ter
s c(enmrrnng
1cJ w-henever
elaegraph
and ie
G are
: ai-hacent.
(\ZEJ is 1The
mapelements el the `

its sire: typically, we shall he asking ler the strrallst integer k srrch that

G has 1 kcabrrnng,
ehmrtrrmc nrrttrsr
1 vmex el
celeuring
G; it is deneted hy1,...,kJ.
\(GJ. A graph
This k
G swith
the rJL.>

\(GJ : k s called kshramdec; il \(GJ 5 k, we call G kwamrlrrrtle.

J
J J

isa

independent sets, new- rslled culprit cbrssss; the nen-trivial 2celeur1hle

jfmu An edge enmrirrng elG : (lp EJ is amap c: E :S with c(e-J : c(JJ

rndee rhrattrrrtrc nrrrtrsr, er rhmttrrrtrc rnder, el G; it s deneted hy \'(GJ.

\ JLJJ The third el eur int.reduct1ery questierrs ca.n he medalled as an edge

5.1 Cblouring maps and planar graphs

Thdrrerrr :.1.1. (Feur Celeur TheeremJ

Prtrptraititm :.1.2. (Five Celeur TheeremJ

ret G he aplane graph w·ith n g 6 vertids and nr edgs. we

generality we mn- assrrtrre that <(¤.J : 1 hr each r.

__ J*·
J " n p

a, in D. Then in D: (ar U.uJ Q W = C every peint can he linhed hy

alm ru and ¤1J Ie in dilferent las el C: etherw-ise D w-errld meet enly

the lrentier el heth thse lacs (Theerem 4.1.1 J.

1 and 3 at all the vertis el Cr, we ehtain anether 5celeuring el H;

As shew-n aheve, F separats en lrem e, in H. Since F U H,, : 6,

Thdrrerrr :.1.3. (Cretssch 1959J

 5.2 Cblouring vertices

s
.
]
m
r
F Let c r(GJ
he 1 vertex celerrring elG with k : \(GJ eeleuas. Then

have used the mme celeur ler heth class. Thrrs, nr g gk(k :1J. Selving

One ehvierrs way tie celeur 1 graph G with net tree many celeuas is

fxfgm the lellew-inggnssig dugarrthrn: startinglrem 1 trxed vertex enumeratien

way, we rever use mere than A(GJ +1 releurs, even ler unlaveurahle

cheids el the enumeratien e,,. . . , e,,. LlG s cemplete er an ndd cycle,

r1thertha.trdG(¤.J +1 eeleurstie precdd; recall that, at this stage, the al-

gerithm igners any neighheurs aj el u, with j r 1. Hence in mnst gr1phs,

el la.rge degrm early (w-hen mest neighheurs are igneredJ and vertis

reqrrired will he strrallst ile, has rrrirrimum degrm in G J ur, . . . , et ]. But

ths is easily achieved: we just cheese ec, trrst, w-ith d(¤,,J : 5(GJ, then

ndrnpei the cabrrnng nrrttrter cel(GJ el G. The enumeratien wejust discused

034·JJ*·J shew·s that cel(GJ 5 rrraxJri;e1i5(HJ +1. But ler H Q G drarly alm

cel(GJ Q- cel(HJ and cel(HJ z 5(HJ +1, since the *hackdegieeJ el the

whirh is at least 5( H J. Se we have preved the lellew-ing:

y
e
a
u
d
r
n
c
J
G
(
\ a.2.a. mere graph G has a siitgraph asnrinirnnrndegree a1 JJ; jJ

least\(GJ:1. D ]rr2i]

As w-e have smn, every graph G mtistrs \(GJ S A(GJ +1, w-ith

Thdrrerrr :.2.4. (Breeks 1941J

\(GJ S A( GJ.

A(GJ g 3, and that the asrtien helds ler graphs el strraller erder.

Suppese that \(GJ A.

the neighbaurs di 1; in parucuiar. ·i(¤J : A·

eured 1 hy 1,, 1 : 1,...,A. Fer all 1 e .i, let H,J denete the srrhgraph 1, 1,

el H spantred hy all the vertis celeured 1 nr j. in J

pdnent C, di H., J J L. ,

Otherwise we cerrld interchange the celeurs 1 and j in ene el these cem-

penents: then et and aj w-errld he celeured the mme, centrary tie (1 J.

C,J s aiwats a evej path. (3J

Ltrdeed, let F he 1 path in C. J. AsdH(¤.J S A : 1, theneighheurs

srrch vertex en F (Fig. 5.2.1J. Since at mest A : 2 releurs are rrsed

cempenent el H, J, centradicting (2J.

v
e
r
a pairw-ise aa-hacent, then each has A neighheurs in N(¤J U( 1 J already,

m G : GJAJ(1JU(1J] : K·** 030.

As Gs cemplete, thereis nethingtie

with respect te 1* in the ehvierrs we-. As 1 neighheur el 1, : eg, eur

vertex 11 new- lies in Cgi, since e'(11J : c(1iJ : 2. By (4J ler c, hewever,

Hence 11 e Cgi UCJ g, centradicting (4J ler 1*. D

One ehvierrs pesihle carrse ler \(GJ g k s the prsence el 1 K*

el giehal inva.ria.nts srrch as e and »r. Hence, the asrrmptien el \(GJ z k

large: hy Cerellary 5.2.3, G has 1 srrhgraph H w-ith 5(HJ Q k :1, and

hence hy Theerem 1.4.3 1 suhgraph H' w-ith »r(H'J z J§(k :1JJ.

sq- at least J(kJ ler mme lunctien J: rt A rt tending te inturity (hewever

hut are enly 2chrem1tic. Thrrs, the mrt el la.rge (censtant J 030
1v¤1ge er

G te centain 1 cepy el H Just hy making \ (GJ large eneugh:

Thdrrerrr :.2.:. (E.rdes1959J

ehrdrnaue numher \ (GJ ~ k.

rach
recursively(iJ
kK*
e rt,
is let
kcenstructihle.
us detrne the clas el k-cansmrcnnle graphs

(iiJ LlG is kcenstructihle and 1, g e V(GJ arenen-aiiacent, then alm

that G1 UGa : (1 J and 1y, e E(G,J and 1g, e E(G,J, then alm

(G, UG,J :1,1, : 1y, +yrL/1 is kcenstructihle (Fig. 5.2.2J.

 iiJTy,
. J! J J rr J

the graph cerrstructed in (iiiJ, the vertis g, and p, de net heth have

er Ga and hence rrses at least k celeurs.

Thdrrerrr :.2.6. (Hajts 1961J

kcdrisrrnetihle srrlzraph.

graph ler any r: ler then \(GJ g k w-errld imply r Q k, and G w-euld

eentain the kcenstrrrctihle graph K*.

H, H, srrhgraph H, elG+1y. (1 :1,2J.

H : Ju. 1 uiJ:r11:r11L+11i1L

(Hr Q G:
5.3 Cblouring edges

Prtrptraititm :.3.1. (Kenig 1916J ]s1s]

New- asrrme that |JGIJ g 1, and that the asrtien helds ler graphs w·ith

lewer edgs. Let A :: A(GJ, pick an edge 1,1 e G, and cheese 1 A- A rg

Thdrrerrr :.3.2. (\'ir.ing 1964J

AJGJ S r'(GJ s a(GJ+1.

Ltrstead el 030(A
+1J<dge 024celeuringJ
let us just sq- *celeuringJ. An edge drlrnnrng

1 use1tmestd(¤J S A celeurs, m mmeceleur :1 e (1,...,A+1 J is

(pesihly trivialJ starting at 1, w-hese edgs are celeured altertrately cr

 srrch that <a(1yrJ h mising in c, at 14.:1 hr each 1 :1,...,k. Fereach

withj e (ll,»»»,tell

1 030
[ c1(e-J etherw·ise:

1 nn}- re. 1 re 1 .1.... ...isi..g at J,. in 1 is snr ...isi..g

1 c1(:y.J : :1. (2J

1
s
A :1 034
" , 030r
this is the edge 114.:1. Ltr c1, hewever, and

hence alm in is s rrrissing at y.:r (hy (2J and the cheice ely.J: let
5.4 List colouring

hetween the clasical (vertex and edgeJ chrematic nutrrhers el 1 graph

Suppese we are given 1 graph G : (V, EJ, and ler each vertex el

celeur G (in the rrsual senmJ m that sch vertex receivs 1 celeur lrem

eeleuring c el G w-ith e(¤J e S1 hr all 1 e V 1 eeleuring jmttr the

the ustechmttrrrtrc nrrttrber, er chars nrrrtrsrrh(GJ el G. ndrntiei

Listceleurings el edgs are detured analrgeusly. The least integer °"J*·J

is the List-chmttrrmc rnder rh'(GJ el G: hrmally, wejust set ch'(GJ :: dhJJL.l

ch(L(GJJ, w-here L(GJ is the line graph elG.

el the lermer w·here all lists are equal tie (1,...,k J. Thrrs,

ch(GJ s \(GJ and ch'(GJ z \'(GJ

Thdrrerrr :.4.1. (Alen 1993J

G with average degree d(GJ z ./(kJ sadstyrh(GJ g k.

trve celeur theerem (er even EulerJs lertrrrrla, en w-hich the preel el the

Thdrrerrr :.4.2. (Themasn 1994J

Let us check trrst that (¢J implis the asrtien el the theerem.

vstex. Add edgs tie this graph until it is 1 maximal plane graph G.

G and the asrtien is trivial. New let IGI z 4, and asarnre (eJ ler

C,,(, Q C+eie w-ith urea e Cr and ¤1¤agC,. Fer 1 :1,2,let G,

irrtrer lace (Fig. 5.4.1J. Applying the inductien hypethsis trrst tie G,
 l.lC has ne cherd, let ur, 111, . . . , 11..., e,,, he the ndghheuas el 1, in in tr,.

their natural cyclic erder erder areutrd 1,;* hy detrnitien el C, all these

CJ ::FU(C:¤:J aeycle. LJ

1.

J
e
\
\ new- cheese tw-e dillerent celeurs j,L e 1 lrem the list el 1, and

1 vertex en C' sill has at least 3 celeurs, m hy inductien we mn-celeur

.i,isnetumdler wemn-asignthatceleurte 1,. D

As is elten the cam w-ith inductien preels, the hey tn the prnnlahnve

lis in its delicately halanced strengthening elthe asrtien preved. Cem-

s031
rn the hrst prr.r.i r.i the hee er.lr.r1r thernsrr
list versien, i.e. tie preve an asrtien el the lertrr ch(GJ S k instead el

List Ctrltrrrrirrg Ctrnjectrrre. Fverrgraph Gsadstiesch'(GJ : \'(GJ.

these tie w-hich 1, sends 1 directed edge. Ltr particular, il d*(eJ 1 k ler

this ensrrrs that 1 d§(¤J hr all 1 e G: U, m we sn celeur

el nenempty directed graphs are thems-lvs nenempty.

has an mentadan D with d*(¤J 1 |S,| rirr every 1. and srrch that every

lim S,.
The vertis 1 with cr e S, span 1 nen-empty srrhgraph D' in D; hy DJ

d*(eJ 1 |SQ| in D : U. Since D : U s an erientatien el H : U, we

Thdrrerrr :.4.4. (Calvin 1995J

Frm]. Let G :: (X U Y, EJ, w-here (X, Y J is 1 vertex hipartitien elG. J2 1 rr

Uearly, ch'(GJ Q- k; we preve that ch'(GJ S k. Our plan is tie use

the lemma, it sutFrs tie trnd an erientatien D el H with d*(eJ 1 k ler

and e' meet in Y, we erient it lrem e tie e' (Fig 5.4.3J.

1 J J '

Let us cempute d 030*(e-J

tr given e e E : V(DJ. Ll de-J : 1, say,

and every { e 1\J*(eJ meeting e in Y has its celeur in (1 +1,...,kJ.

 Y are thems·lvs ardacent and hence celeured ditlerently, this implis

d*(eJ 1 kas dsired.

graph (X U Y, V(D'JJ ler this set el prelerens is 1 kertrel in D'. D

.
5
G
(
'
h
r Perfect
Ctrrtrllary
J :.4.:.graphs
Every liparute graph G sadsties

and the greatest integer r srrch that Q G (inducedJ is the rndepen.

1rJL.r dans ntrttrter ¤r(GJ elG. Clearly, d(GJ :.1(GJ and .1(GJ : d(GJ.

chrematic numher \(HJ : rd(HJ, i.e. il the trivial lews heutrd el rd(HJ

an asrtinn nl the lnrm \(GJ r k may in general he dillicult, even

graph simply hy exhihiting mme K*+J srrhgraph as 1 *certitrcateJ ler

mmew-hat centrived: altheugh it is clesed under induced srrhgraphs (il

supertrcial indistien el this.'

l.tr erder te study at least ene surh exarrrple in mme detail, we

rrurngtll1rtedJ ilsut el its cycles el length at least 4 has 1 cherd, i.e. il

it centairrs ne induced Lycls ether than triarrgls.

srrch that G :Gr UG, arrdS :Gr UGa, we say thatG arises lrem G,

and Ga hy prrsnng thse graphs tiegether aleng S. pasting

put Gr ::GJV(CJUX] and G,:: G:C. Then G arises lrem G, and L., Le

Since Gr and Ga are heth cherdal (heing induced srrhgraphs elGJ

el X : \'(SJ as an 1t:b separatier, heth a and 1 have 1 neighheur in C.

Hence, there is an X-mth lrem a tie 1in Gr: we let Fl hea shertast such

path. Analegeusly, G, eentains 1 shertst X-path H, lrem a tie 1. But

then Fl U Fi is 1 cherdles cycle el length Q- 4 (Fig. 5.5.1 J, centradicting

The
031alas r.i perieet graphs has duality prapertrs wrth deep er.rureetrr.ns 1.
 J
01/ J ,: `J·
JJ 254J'
.. J ·
JG1

J P1 J J I J J P1 J

J . J. Ji.J J J

Frm/. Sinee cemplete graphs are perlect, it srtliees hy Prepesitien

let H Q G he an induced srrhgraph; we shew- that \(HJ S .d(HJ.

el graph: the edd cycles el length Q- 5 and their cemplements. (Neither

fjf:,f 030
Thsdrern a.:.::. Jchudnevsky, rrehertmn, se,-nreur lr Thenras2r1r12J

ltsnein .-1 graph G is perieet ii and dnlyiineitherG ndrG mntains an ddd eyele
Thdrrerrr :.:.4. (Lievasr. 1912J pinch

.-1 graph is perteet ii and anlyiiisearnphanent is perieet. *'¤·"*"·

prehlem it cenveys. Orrr secend preel, due t1e Cas-parian (1996J, is an

5.5.6J, w-hich easily implis Theerem 5.5.4.

J
sa, that
m
e
r
l G hytyexpanding
s attained1tran. 1
G1
vertex ,,
rs,
ee.,.dnd.ng the 11J.
G te an edge vertex . eur
Fer ta an edgethat
preel ..1 r rJ

cam, H h perlect hy as-umptien and the inductien hypethsis, and can

hence he celeured w-ith .d(HJ celeurs.

Let.d(GJ::.d:then.d(G'Je(.1,.1+1J.Ll.d(G 031J:.d+1,then .1

\(G'J S \(GJ+1:.1+1:.1(GJ

and we are dene. Se let us asume that .d(G'J : .1. Then 1 lis in ne

K' Q
034
G: tegether w-ith 1', this w-errld yield 1 K·" in
030
G'. Let us celeur

net 1 itsell, thegraph H ::G : (X ~. (1 JJ has cliquenumher.d(HJ 1 .1 H

rs |G| : 1 this is trivial, m let |G| e- 2 ler the inductien step. LetK denete

Every preper induced srrhgraph el G s the cemplement el 1 preper

induced srrhgraph el G, and is hence perlect hy inductien. Fer the per-

ictien el G it thrrs srtlis tie preve \(GJ S .1(GJ (: 1rJ. Te this end,

weshalltrndasetKeisuchthatKUA:6trallAe.4:then

.d(G:KJ :¤r(G:KJ 1 er :.d(GJ,

\(GJ S \(G:KJ+1:.d(G:KJ+1S.1(GJ

Ag set Aw e .4 with KUA:1 : 6. Let us replace in G every vertex1 hy 1

rJrJ r(.J::JJirec].e.4nlJ,

mining all the vertis elG, te all the vertis elG,w-henever 1 and y are

and tw-e vertis 1 e G, and ie e G, are aa-hacent in GJ iland enly il

srrhgraph el G, this latter graph is perlect hy as-umptien, m G' s perlect

\(GJ S.d(G'J. (1J

lnerdertie ehtainacentradictientie (1 J, we new- cempute in tunr the

actual valus el .d(G'J and \(G 031J.

By cerrstrrrctien el G', evray ma.ximal

k(1J

]XUA:rI

S IKIr1: (TJ
(since Aw is independent hut G JX ] is eempleteJ, and |X UAy| :9 (hy

the cheice el Axl. On the ether hand,

IGJI : Z k(1J

:J((1,KJ:1e\Z KeE,1eArrIJ

As d(G 031J
S rr hy cerrstrrrctien el G', ths implis

I IGJI .
\(<·' J z nm,) z sA Z IAI. (KJ

\(GJJ z IKI r IKIZ1: ¤(<YJ,

1 centradictien tie (1 J. D

K U An : 6. Te shew- that this centradicts eur assutrrptien that G is

the An has 1 chrematic numher that is tree large, larger than its clique

nurrrher. And, as alwn-s w-hen we try tieiheund the chrematic numher

|G| : |K| rr and \(GJ : |K|, with the A., as celeur class. Olceurse,

the sets Aw will net in general he diseint. But we can make them m:

el sets Aw it livs in! This is the idea hehind GJ. What remains is tie
 G and G, it dearly implies Theerem 5.5.4. As eur preel el Theerem

Thdrrerrr :.:.6. (L1evasa1912J

IHIS¤¤(HJ »¤(HJ (·J

I1, n Frm]. Let us w-rite V(GJ :: V :: (¤r,...,¤..J, and put er :: d(GJ

.r .1 and .1 :: .d(GJ. The nedsity el (eJ is irrrmediate: ilG is perlect, then

every induced srrhgraph H elG sn he partitiened int1e at mest .d(HJ

\(G:UJ:.d(G:UJZ.d. (1J

Ltrdeed, w-hile thetrastequality is irrrtrrediate lrem the perlectien el G: U,

\(GJ S .1, se G w-errld he perlect centrary tie eur assrrmptien.

rfa f KthenKnee¤ everycalrrrtr clas ¤iG:i1; (2J

Au Let A1 Z (11,,...,m.I he an independent set in G el sire rr.

Let Ar,...,A.a he the celeur class el an .1celeuring el G : 11,, let

KUA.Z6ri1rexacdy¤ne1e(9,...,d.1J. (4J

Ltrdeed, ilKUA1 Z 6 then KUA. :6 hr all 1 e 9, hy detrnitien el A,

and (2J. Sirrrilarly ilKUAa e 6, then |KUA1| :1, m KUA, : 6 ler

tie all the ether vertis 11 e A1.

Let J he the real (¤ud+1J>t(¤ad +1J rrratrix w-ith rere entris in I

matrix w-hese rew-s are the incidence vectiers el the srrhsets A. Q V: il

¤.r,. . . ,¤.,. denetetheentris elthe 1th rew- elA, then 11,1 :1il 11 e A,,

matrix w-hese celumtrs are the incidence vectiers el the suhsets IQ Q V.

and hence Jlg U AJ] : 1 w·henever 1 e .i, hy (4J. Thus,

lar,ttzcud+1,w-hichcentradicts(¢JhrH::G. D

Exercises

5 TW rr. rurrr rhe prratl rtl rhe hre e1.l1.ur· rhertrrni rrrrtt rtrre rtl rhe lrtur

¤|:1tr·rrhrr1 whrrh s l.errer·J

an Z Lruts entry uranred graph harJe a larrnl J ll nur. duts erJrr»J :r¤l>h
No tes
arrd ertrreers a rrurulter rtl rrruts Je 1: lm addrrr: ruure ertrrhguraratrrs tt. rhe
6 Flows

pass threugh e lrem 1 tie g, er asigrr :k tie(1,yJt1e exprss that k

asigrrment J: l'¤ A; we w-euld thrrs have J(1, yl : :J(y, 1J w-henever

er leavs the netw-erk: at all ether neds, the tietal arrreunt el llew intie

:9. lrrr-

l.tr ths chapter, we call any map J: V A

031
Z with the aheve tw-e

greup, and as 1 rrrle we censider mrrltigraphs rather than gr1phs. 030

As

J l=r.r earrssurrey we shall phrase srnre r.i r.ur prr.pr.srtrr.n h.r graphs r.nly thr.se
 6.1 Circulations

E Thrrs, an edge e- : 1g with 1 e g has the tw·e drseeans (e-,1,gJ and

F Q E el edge directierrs we Pu!

F E :Z ( E I e e F l.

Nete that E itmll is sytrrmetrical: E : E. Fer X,Y Q V and F Q IT,

FJXyt P(X,YJ::((e,1,i1JePI1eX:14eY;1eyl,

FJr yr ahhreviate F((1 J,YJ te F(1, YJ nc., and w-rite

:
e
l
i
rn.
X Here, as helew, X denets the cemplement V 024.
X el 1 vertex set X Q li

tierrs el F(X, YJ and F(1J.

r1 Let H he an aheliarr semigreup, written_additivaly

031 w-ith rere 9.

r
y
{JX
r
J
{ hl Ltrstead elJ(( 1 J, YJ we again w-rite J(1, YJ, etc.

en G (w-ith valus in HJ, er an Heerrctrlartian, il J satistrs the lellew-ing

(F1J ./(e-,1,yJ Z ZJ(e-,11,1Jmr all (s1,yJ e H with 1 e 11;

(F2J ./(1,VJ : 9 mr all 1 e V.

'nrs
031utapter er.nta.ns nr. grrtup thedry The r.nly serrugrrnrw we ever er.nsrder
 l.lJs1tistrs (F1J, then

J(X,X J : ti

mr all X Q V. l.lJs1tistrs (F2J, then

.r(X,rJJ : Z .r(.,rJJ : J1.

Prtrptraititrn 6.1.1. HJ is a cirertiadrrn. then J(X,XJ : 9 iirr every ]t.s 2]

setXQV. J°° 030

Frm/. J(X,XJZJ(X,VJZJ(X,XJ:9:9:9. D

6.2 Flows in networks

Ltr this sectien we give 1 hriel intreductien tie the kind el netw-erk llew

trculty (Exercise SJ, w-hich indicats mme el the natural pewer lying in

i Let G Z (V,EJ he 1 mrrltigraph, a,1 e V tw·e trxed vertis, and L. : Jr er

AJ :Z (G, .r,1,cJ 1 neruwrk. Nete that c is detrned independently ler nsrurnle

 (F1J ./(e-,1,yJ Z ZJ(e-,11,1Jmr all (s1,yJ e H with 1 e 11;

(F2'J ./(1,VJ : 9 mr all 1 e V 024 (

024 .r,1l:

(F3J ./(HJ S c(eJ mr all ee E.

1I
LetJheatlewinAJ.l.lSQVissrrchthataeSand1eS,wesll
JE

edt tn N the pair (S,SJ 1 edt in AJ, and c(S,SJ the crrprrcrrv elthis cut.

have J(X,XJ :9 ler all X Q V (as in Prepesitien 6.1.1J. Hewever, the

Prtrptraititrn 6.2.1. Every rut (S,SJ in AJ saus-tiesJ(S,SJ :J(.t,VJ.

./(S,SJ Z 11

The cerrrtrren value elJ(S,SJ in Prepesitien 6.2.1 w-ill he called the tatrrl

J7J 030J
"J"* rrrltle el J and deneted hy |J|;' the tlew shew-n in Figure 6.2.1 has t1etal

By (F3 J, w-e have

IJI Z ./(S,SJ S c(S,SJ

mr every cut (S, SJ in AJ. l-lence the tietal value el 1 llew in AJ is never

Thus
031 h.rrrrally JIJ may he negative in praetree hr.wever we can rrtange the
spaeitydi a rut. *'¤·*·¤···

Frm]. Let AJ Z (G, a, 1,cJ he anetw-erk, arrdG :: (ly EJ. weshall detrne

1 sequence A,A,.A1,...el
integral tlews in AJ el strictly increasing tietal

z |A.|+1 hr all lr1I

tt. 1 IAI
Since 1 thse
all IAI 1numhers are heunded aheve

llew A.. Cerrespending tie this llew, we shall trnd 1 cut el capacity

c.. Z IA.I. Since ne tiew aan have a tetal value greater than 1,, and ne

cut can have 1 capacity lss than IA. I, this nrrrrrher is simrrltaneerrslythe

Fer A, w·e set A(eJ :: 0 mr all E e E. Having detured an integral

llew A. in AJ ler mme tt e rl, we denete hy S,, the set el all vertis 1 s,,

A.( 254J
1 Mil

mr all 1 1 L: here, ei :: (e-.,1.,1.+rJ (and, elceurse, 11 Z aand1t : ul.

l.l 1 e S.., let W : 11:-1...:1:111 he the cerrespending a:1 walk; lr

witheut les el generality we mn- asume that W des net repeat any

e::min(c(5JZA.( 254JI11zl. .

Then e S 0, and since A. (like cJ is integral hy assrurrptien, esan integer.

ler EZE, 1 :0,...,L:1:

A.+1:e... J..(eJ:e ler e:é, 1 :0,...,e:1:

J,.(eZJ ler eg W.

aleng W lrem a tie 1 (Fig. 6.2.2J.

1
 value ]/..+rI Z A.+r(a, VJ. Since W rentains the vertex a enly ence, :2

clrarrged. This value, and hence that el A.+r(.r, VJ was raised. Therelere
IA.1rI IA.]
030
as dsired.

l.l 1 -; S,,, then is 1 errt in AJ. By (F3J ler A,, and the

A.(EJ Z 4 EJ

er all ee t§(s.,§J,s1

lr.! Z AJSWEJ : dsmil

6.3 Group 024va.lued

Hows

Let G Z (l2EJ he 1 mrrltigraph and H an aheliarr greup. Ll J and

I+; g are tw-e Hcirculatiens then, clearly, (J +gJ:e »A J(EJ +g(eZJ and

sg :J: E t-t :J(eZJ are again Hcirculatiens. The Hcirculatiens en G thus

3;*** .r t.....tian_1.s A ti is wnhes ...1 it _1JeJ s .1 er all e e ta. an

Hcirculatien that is new-here rere s called an Hejiatrtf Nete that the

their existene» 024s\lrprisingly

depends enly en the erder el H, rmt en H

Thdrrerrr 6.3.1. ('1\rtte 1954J

Far eviry rnrtlugraph G there mm a pdlpncnrlsl F such that. fur any

Ths
030ur-rrunr.lr.gy seerrs simplest he r.ur prrrprrss but s nr.t standard, see the
w-hen all edgs are leeps, there are (]H]:1J" srrch
030 maps, and F :: 1JJ~

G,H-llews
en G. s Fl(kJ.
G,:: We
G:e1
shall and
preve that the numher el H-llews en

G equals r¤i(kJ : Fr(kJ: then F :: Fi : F1 is the dsired pelynerrrial.

IFIZr¤1(kJ:Fr(kJ. (1J

The H-tlews en G, are precisely the restrictierrs tie I5 el these Hciren.

Fl(kJ Z IHI.

Fr(kJ Z IF1I,

and F, is the diseint utrien el E] and F. This will preve (1 J, and hence

l.tr Ga, let me :: ue, he the vertex centracted lrem e1 (Fig. 6.3.1: rr.
and th; setml H-llews en Ga. Given J, let g he the restrictien el

they have enly the ene directien (e-,11,erJ there: as its g-value, we

cheeseJ(e, 1, yJ.J Then g is indeed an H-llew en G,; rnte that (F2J helds

at ue hy Prepesitien 6.1.1 ler G, with X :: (1,1/ I.

lurther haveJ(eJ Z Z./(EJ tr all E e EY(y,1J. Thrrseur map J 042A

gis

hqective il and enly il ler given g there is always 1 unique wn- tie detrne

the remairringvalus el_/(QJ and m that J satistrs (F1 J in e, and

(F2J in 1 and g.

New- J(QJ h alreadydetertrrined hy (F2J ler 1 and the krrew-n valus

el J(EJ ler edgs e at 1, w-hile is already determined hy (F2J ler y

and the krrewn valus el J(EJ hr edgs e at g. Ltrdeed, w-ith

it : Z .1JeJ (Z Z r1Je,11,.rJ)

00 Z J(y,VJ ZJ(e1JZh+J(y,V'J,

J(e1J=Z ZJ(1,V'JZh and ./(RJ =Z ZJ(y,V'J +h.

Fertrrrrately, deturing _/(RJ and _/(RJ in this way alm satistrs (F1 J ler J,

J(@J+./(RJ Z Z./(z,V'JZ./(y,V'J Z Zy(11,V'J Z ll

The pelynerrrial F el Theerem 6.3.1 is krrewn as thejute pnltnratnurl

 me call this least k the jbta ntltnsr elG and denete it hy ,1(GJ; nm";

tr, denete the natural hememerphistrr 1 042A

1 lrem Z te Z,. By eempe- er.

-1-hsdren. aaa. (·n.tte 1r1rr1J JQ ]jJ

ne leeps. Let F he the set el all lurrctierrs J: H A; that satisly (F1 J, F

|J(EJ| 1 khr all E e IY, and 1:,eJ :g; netethat, likeg, anyJ e F is

y(ej e Z, as1with]1]1 k and then put gw :: 1, there is clearly 1 map

J: E Azsuch that |J(eZJ| 1 kler all E e E and ir, eJ : g. Frr each edge

may then detrne J': E A; hy settingJ'(eZJ :: J(eZJ and J'(eZJ :: :J(eZJ

ler every e e E. Then J' is 1 lunctien satislying (F1 J and w-ith valus in

(lr: ¤./ 030J(FJ

Z -r:(Z./(FJJ Z :(¤, ¤JJ(PJ Z Zy(FJ Z yJFJ»
 Orrr aim is tie trnd an J e F that satistrs Kirclrhel¥Js law (F2J, and

rr tcm : Z |.r(.,rJJl

el all deviatierrs lrem Kirchhel¥Js law is least pesihle. we shall preve

that K(./J Z 0: then, clearly, J(1, VJ : 0 ler every 1, as dsired.

Suppese K(JJ :0. SinceJs1tistrs (F1 J, and hence VJ Z

r J(\', \'J Z 0, there exists 1 vertex 1 with

./(1,VJ *0. (1J

11:-1...:1:111 lrem 1 tie 1' srrch that 0 hr all 1 1 A:

\\e trrst shew- that X' centairrs 1 vertex 1' with J(1',VJ 1 0. By

detrnitien el X, w-e have J(e,1',L/J S 0 hr all edgs e : 1Jg srrch that

1' e X and g e X. Ltr particular, this helds ler 1' : 1. Thrrs, (1J implis

0. Then J(X',1J 1 0 hy (F1J, as well as J(X',X'J : 0.

ZJ(X',VJ ZJ(X',XJ+J(X',1J+J(X',XJJ 1 0,

./(1',VJ10. (2J

0 mr all 15 1. \\e new- medily J hy sending mme llew

./(EJ Zk ler E Z (e-.,1.,1.+rJ, 1 : 0,...,A: 1:

./ 030:eZ,-t
J(B+k lerE:(e-.,1.+r,1.J, 1:0,...,t:1:
_/(B lere 4 W.

By detrnitien el W, we have |J'(eJ| 1 k hr all E e IY. Hence J', like J,

J'(¤,VJZJ(¤,VJ hralleeV 024.(1,1 031J.

(3J
Fer 1 and 1', en the ether hand, w-e have

./'(1,VJ Z J(1,\'J Zk and J'(1',VJ ZJ(1',VJ +k. (4J

tr:(J(1,VJJ Z l1(1,VJ Z0 e Z:

Z l1(1',VJ Z 0 e 2,,

|J 030(1,VJ|1]J(1,VJ|
and |J'(1',VJ|1|J(1',VJ|.

Trgether w-ith (3J, this givs K(J'J 1 K(JJ,1centradictien tie the cheice

el J.

Therelere K(JJ Z 0 s claimed, and J s indeed 1 k-llew. D

Z,-llews are elten easier tie cerrstrrrct (hy srrmtrring ever srritahle partial

1 k-llew (as-uming we knew- the value el its llew-pelynemial ler k :1J,

resnrlt el Kechel, this nutrrher is alm 1 pelytrerrrial in k, w-hese valus can

6.4 k-Flows for sn1a.ll k

it has 1 L,-llew, i.e. iland enly il the censtarrt map E AL, with value?

satistrrs (F2J. This is the cam il and enly il all degrs are even. D
j};;,, rer the remainderel this ehapter, let ns eall 1 graph eren ilall its vertex

JQQQJ rjrmj. Let G : (l;¤J he 1 euhie graph. Let us asume trrst that

erientatien el C, i.e. il Z J(e-,,1,,1.+rJ, then J ceuld

Therelere J asigrrs the valus T and 2 tie the edgs el C altertrately, and

Since G s cuhic, the map E A z, detured hy J(e;1,yJ :: T and

J(e,y,1J :: 2tr all edgse :1y with 1 e X andy e Yis1Z,-

tt » 1, w-ehave ,i(K 030J

: 2 hy Preprsitien 6.4.1. hlereever, ,1(K 031J
: s,

and ,1(K 030J

: 4; this is easy tie see directly (and it lellew-s lrem Prepesi.

tierrs 6.4.2 and 6.4.5J. l.trterestingly, K* s the enly cemplete graph w-ith

el thrm graphs G,, G,, G,, with G,,G, : K' and G, : K,,. Clearly

G, and G, sch have 1 2-llew, w-hile G, has 1 3-llew hy Prepesitien 6.4.2.

let J. he 1 Z1-llew en the triangle ary; Q GJ, w-here e : 1y s the edge

el the K* in GJ. Let J: E Az, he the srrrrr el these tlews. Clearly, J is

new-here rere, except pesihly in (e,1,yJ and (e,y,1J. LlJ(e;1,yJ : 0,

then J is the dsired Z,-tlew en GJ. Ll J(s1,yJ : 0, then J +J. (ler

C, , he me unique cycle in 1} + e, ud let A , he 1 Z,-alm- nt value E 1, , rl 4.

ummd C · 024mm¤
precisely: 1Z,<imumm mn
042G with wjus E and 024Z

nn me edgs nf C, , and um nmmvise,

inmnely, In e : {1, J, uns muy me wjus Tum 024T

(zi) mnside 1;,

BUN Imswzib

und J, :: [6,.},,, As 1h¤v¤,_L,(sy : 5 : :2 hx all e s F, New- {J

J z: A +A s me sum nt Zlcimummm, ud hence mm 1 Zxdmum- I

umn, Mmenvu, J is nnwnue um: mn edgs in F n mus me value 2, mn

edgs nf IK 024
F in ques wim _A (ud is hence nm;-um hy me amine

nt F J, ud nn all edgs nuuide 13 n mus mm nt me wjus T m 5, Hence,

J mn G, ud me axnjnn minus hy Tnemem 6.3.3. D

(iw A gnph has .1 J-Haw if md muy iii: is zh; mmm ui awp even

rm], m :5 Z r,, r,, (Thus,me enemem me [Q j j[

dj ue
udiii:
msmepms
1 dj-alm-,
mb) wim 4,b s L,,

im Let G Z UZ EW he 1 mm: graph. we assume msn that G ms 1

dj-alm- J, ud dame un edge winning E (0 J. As A : 0244

Im

all A s dj, ue have _/(E1: _/(E1 hx every E ei; n us mlm.: me edge

e with this mlmn _/(EW, New- il mn edgs wm; 1 mmmmn end ¤ nm

demmjmn nf _/, nm edge winning is nm-nu.

_/(E7:_/(E1:c(sWhmJlEsIY, D
 6.5 Flow-ccvlouring duality

winning: nvnigv k-vlnw nn A plane nnuvigupn gms ns! vn n bvnnnx-

k-vlnns nppnms as 1 nnvnal g¤n¤n1iu.vinn nt mn mnilin nup nnlnning

c. : n m LnvG : NEW ¤ni·1G Z

031
<\'*,E 030w
hn dn] pun nnuvigupns, Fnx

F· F 031::(s 031eE 031IseF},

sns vnnvy4X,Yy : 0 ni ui X g P, By Pinpnsivinn ·1,6,1,vJvnmininm

uivs in G' mms-pnnd ppnisely vn me [yells in G, Tins it ne

vn mine mn hijnnvinn A- »-· s· invn nnn nnni E vn 5, in, nsign vn nvnigv

2 e E mnnnimiy nnn nt mn mn dipnvinns nt sx This nin hn vm

F nm. mv ns .1.1...mm. nm .1.,,...is m. vv..

Cnnvnisniy, nnnnsn, Gun nnpnniis-v.¤n¤vi¤i·1t·ini¤ivJvns»vG, Lnpmnvinn,

ne sm} mnmnp spin nnnv C mniy nvnn wnnn, ini-nmiy, nniy G ms

uninn 6.:.1. Dim mm s mpmun wi »-· 5* mini E nu 13* nm.

(iiy HC Q G s .1 sym. F :: EKCW. .vidiiX Q \'* is siidi dis:

P Z E*<X,Tw. men mm mm sn mnnnsuun G ni C nm.

(E 031|EsG)
:L. 034(X,Ty.
( (s 031,1,y1,(s } 031,y,1y
simply hy vuming s 1nd ivs ends dnshwise nnvn s·

(Fig, 6,5,1 1, then vhe nquving n·i1p E 042P

024s1vishss
042 vhe vwn 1¤ninns

Gyen 1n 1he1i1n gxnnp H, iev _r¤ EZH 1ni·1 y: 13* ZH he vn 024n

n»1ps { E

J1 iw : yf FW

nmse E,Fn¤FQ Enesev

_/(F1 :Z ENE), lrfvevs

lm The ni.? y 1s s simususn ¤n_G* 1T snd sniy ii] smsvies JF1)

snd _/(CW Z 0 bx svsgr sym G with smnnsdsn.

rm], meeusn mevsase 11,y hymn,. uy vnnnns nnvn nemm16,s,1m [QQ Q;

|1vinn nn G', 1nd snnsidex 1 sysle G Q G n-ivh snnme given nxienv1vinn,

Lev F :Z EKQ, By Pxnpnsivinn 4,6,1, E" s 1 niinin·i1J suv in G', i,e,

Lenni1 6,5,1 (ii) 1nd Pxnpnsihinn 6,1,1 give

A01 Z Z my Z Z v<1wZ mxiw Z ¤

nv nne nt vhe vvvn n¤ienv1vinnsG nt G, Then, hy _/(Gy Z Z_/(G 1, 1Jsn

 1 1

Then 6 Z \'(B Z 11 Q X, hy vhe n·i1xin»i1Jivy nt B 1s 1 snvverhex-he

P Z H'4X,X1 411

hy dehnvinnnt X, i,e, P is 1 suv in G', As 1 dn1LG' s snnnesvzd,

G'1X| nnving B, Sinse 1 dns nnv sep1x1v»e B, vhis shnws vh1v G'1X|

Thns, X 1nd Xue hnvh snnnesvied in G', sn P s even 1 niinin·i1J

P¤npnsivinn_4,6,1, gy Lemm1 6,5,1 (ii 1, C h1s 1nnxienv1vinnGsnsh vh1v

(E' | Es G1 Z Z yfX,X1 Z _/(G1 Z 0

hy dehnivinn nt j 1nd J U

edgs s, Z num lz n A1, ne sev (depending nn nn veivves ennne¤1vinn

nt F1

and call F 1 un Zn; pmh, Again, F nm he giwn iniplisivjy hy F,

Thmmnv 6.:.3. ('1\ivv»e 10541

\<G1 Z ,¢4G 0311»

\iG1 Z \<G1¤1 Z Z¤ 0311

Z ,¢<G 0311:

vn G 1nd G', Lev E 042 P

024 he
042 vhe hijesvinn hevneen IT 1nd Is? txnm

As hetnve, 1ev _!: EZ:: he dehned hy _r1eZ1 :Z y1?' 1, we sh1l1nse _! vn 1

Lev T he 1 nnn¤1J sp1nning vvee n£G, n-ivh xnnv s, s1y, Pnv s1s1:Z 0,

Fni ev¤-y nvhei venex s s V iev sm :Z _r1F1, wheie F s vhe y Zn

sn sm s s1»n1sinse y11nd hense _r1 is nnwheve nein, Lt sg 1*,1ev F

<(w1Zs(¤1 Z _/(F1 Z Z_/(s,vn,¤1Z0

hy Lenni1 6,5,2 (ii1,

_/: E Z z hy

./(s,s,w1:Zc(w1Zs(¤1, I

1nd gé Z; hy y(E'1 :Z _r1E1, C|e1¤|y,_rs1vishs1F111nd ms E

wins in (11,,,,,11kZ111, sn hy Len·in·i1 6,5,2(i1vhe mme hnlds

tn; y, By dehniunn nt _r, ne invhex h1ve _r1G1 Z 0 tn; eveiy sysie G

6.6 'Iutte 031s
How conjectures

sh1x1nvie¤ine vhe guvhs 1d.mivving 1 k-vlnw, In; given ki

Five-Flaw Cunjccmurc. (Tutu 19541

vhe nvhex h1nd, s 1n ex1mple nt 1 hxidgeks gx1ph wivhnuv 1 4-vlnw:

Psnpnsivinn 6,4,5 (ii 1,

 Even it vnie, vhe 4-vlnw sniqesvne will nnv he hsv pnsihle: 1 K",

diviisulv vn ieduse vhe 5-vlnw snnjesvne vn vhe sm nt sn1xhs, 030

I-innevex,

pxnhlnns nienvinned smms vn hesnnie mush e1sie¤ hy vhis sedusvinnf

By nn dnlivy vheniem (6,5,31, 1ll vhvee vlnw sniqesvns 1ve vnie

vn Gxnvzsshs vheniem (5,1,31, vhe 4-vlnw sniqesvne vn vhe Inn snlnn

vhensem lsinse vhe Pevlevsen gx1ph is nnv pl1n1x, iv is nnv 1 niinnx nt 1

pl1n1x z¥1vh1, vhe 5-vlnw snnjesvne vn vhe hve snlnn vheniem,

Thmmnv 6.6.1. (Sb;-mnn 10611

pm], 1.. G Z 1.;... .. 1 ....1....s ..1,,.., s..... 6..1...-. ... .... Ziiil

snnipnnenvs nt G nill 1ldd up vn 1 6-vlnw nn G, ne ni1y 1s-nne vh1v '° *1

030

G s snnnesvzd: 1s G is hxidgelss, iv is vhen iedgssnnnesvled, Nnvle

The
030shine enum menevhee weuZ1.ne.wn s.n;<¤ne vhe were news seveesen
\. L: vn·n edgs, hevneen H. 1nd Hnu,,,u H.Zi, we vnivle H. Z: 1\{,E.1,

H: H 030:Z1Hnu,,,uH.1+1Fiu,,,uF11

\· F 1nd H Z:
0301\",L·."1, Nnvlevh1ve1sh H Z
030
1H 030Z
uH.1+F1
030 issnniesved

1indnsvinn nn .1, On 1snmpvinn vh1v H. s even implis hr Pxnpnsivinn

6,4,1 1nx diiesvly hy Pxnpnsivinn 1,2,11 vh1v H, h1s nn hxidge,

As H, neshnnse1ny k in
030
G, Nnn· 1ssnme vh1v 1nd

F.,, , , , F},. h1ve heen dehned Inxsnme . Z 0, l.tV 030Z

Z V, n·evlei-min1vle
030

X. minim1l snsh vh1v X, Z 1 1nd

111

is 2<dgs 024snniesvled,
111 implis vh1v E1X,,V 030Z
Z 6,0301
By vhe mini-

A snniesvled nx 1 K 030,
As vhe elemenvs nf F1 ne yish nne nx vn·n edgs

txnm As H, ne shnnse 1ny snniesvled even

ZZZGZZQ |X,

R 1 `Z X,

y' E Z EKH1, By dehnivinn nt vv, H is 1 sp1nning snnnesvled snhgx1ph

I, ne lev _L he 1 Z1<ixsnl1vinn nn G snsh vh1v _L"101 Z E ~ 024

KCUG1,

I,. Lev J,. he vhe snm nt 1ll vhse J,, Sinse e1sh e' s E." ls nn jnsv nne nt

vhe sysls G, 1n1mely, nn G,·1,ne h1ve J,,1E1 Z 0 hx 1ll E s E',

 As-nne nnn· vh1v Z1<ixsnl1vinns J., , , , J nn G h1ve heen denied I.

.L1eZ1Z0 n1l1eZe§*uUP, 121

n·he¤eP:Z(eZeE|eeP1,0n1imisvnde1nve_J,,iivsivsh1n·n~ 5

vh1v1211lsn hnlds tn; .Z1,

lev _AZi :Z J, 1nd vhns h1ve vn shnn· vh1v J is nnn-nexn nn 1vhe vn·n

P vh1v G snnvnins nn X,ZV 030Z

edge nvhex
030 vh1n e-, Sinse G s 2<dge 024

snniesvled, iv vhesetnse h1s 1v le1svZ1nd vhns, hy 11 1, ex1svlyZnne edge

J hevneen X, 1nd X,, we shnn· vh1v J s nnn-nein nn J: 1s s

Tn shnn· vh1v J is nnn-nexn nn e 031,

ne nse 121: ne shnn· vh1v e' s

1ndinnn P n-ivhj S z, Sinsee'

h1s hnvh ends in V*Z*, iv ueuly lis in nn P with j in nn H1

I-xense, LZ, dns indeed s1visty 121 tn; .Z 1 in vhe ss snnsideied,

Sinse H, 1nd H 030Z

me hnvh
030snniesvled, ne s1n 1nid 1sysle G in H Z
030 L

1H, u H" 1 +R
030vh1v snnvninse-. 1nd ee, LLL is nnn-neinnn hnvhvhse

edgs, ne 1g1in lev JQ, :Z J, Ovhenvise, vhese 1ve diiesvinns 5 and

eq nt si 1nd ee snsh vh1v, n·ivhnnv Ins nt genenlivy, J151 Z 0 1nd

.A1s;1 s (0,11, Lev G he vhe n¤ienv1vinn ntGn1vh Q e G, 1nd 1ev y he

1 vlnn· nt vnlne 1 1xnnnd G 1£nrm1lly: lev y he 1 ;,(ixsnl1vinn nn G snsh

vh1v 11191 Z11nd {*101 Z E 0241GuG11,wevhen1ev

Je, :Z J +1;,

By shnise nt vhe diiesvinns ei 1nd 5, LZ. s nnn-nein nn hnvh edgs,

Sinse JZ. ques n·ivh J nn 111 nt B u P 1nd 121 hnlds ini ., ne

1g1in h1ve1211lsn In; .Z 1,

Evenvnnlly, J, n-ill he 1 Z1<ixsnl1vinn nn G vh1v is nnn·he¤e nexn

evsepv pnsihly nn edgs nt H, u ,, , u H,,, Cnmpnsing J, wivh vhe m1p

H ZE hnm Z1 vn TZ 1h e (1,211,ne nhvnin 1reei¤snl1vinn J nn G 1

n·ivh vnlns in (0,2,41 hx 1lI edgs lying in snme H,, 1nd n·ivh vnlns

in (2,41 hx 1ll nvhex edgs, Adding vn J 1 2-vlnn· nn e1sh H, 1£nrm1lly:

1 T,-si¤snl1vinn nn G n-ivh vnlns in (1, Z11 nn vhe edgs nt H, 1nd 0

Exercises

1 Z Wen: nn vhe hnw iininm nr IH dneevlw. wnhnn using new nsnhs

 14 Z Luemnn vhe hnw iininm ..rc* e IP. vhe when wnh s sp..|:.s

in E1X.X1 nn. X ¤.w.n·ds X

Nu tes
vn
031
vhe humnie vhe mn. new s ehen nsed u. nun wh.v we h.ne uued 1e.,
7 Extremal

Graph Theory

in Sbsvinn 7,2, Gx1phs n·hnse nnmhex nt edgs is 1hnnv linen

030 in vheix

G' n·ivh 2s1G'1 z 51G 0311

z k 1Cnxnll1ry 5,2,31, The qnsvinn hese is

nx whevhex 1n nssnmpvinn nf \ z k +1 ¤.n Inxse higgex minnss vh1n

 J11:1 edgs nn 1: vmies Inxse 1n H snhgx1ph mnsm gxnn· qn1d.x1vis1lly

n·ivh 1:: sinse snmplevle hip1nive gx1phs s1n h1ve edgs, J11:1 mnsm

exssd 1: , 031

M vsvies ue nsnnllysued dense: vhe nnvnhee 11611111;*11, vhe nnpnninn

def;"` nt ivs pnvenvinl edgs vh1v G 1svn1lly h1s, is vhe edge de1:s.z1 nt G, The

7. 1 Subgrhphs
1
s
1
e
e
s
n
i
y
1
m 1
vhe nnmhex nt edgs in nn snmpleve 1rZ 11-p1nivle gx1ph

ne dennvle vhem hy 1"Z 03011:11nd

vheix nnnhex nt edgs hy 2,,,11:1 1*1411:1

(Fig, 1,1,21, Fnx 1: 1 1 Z 1 ne sh1l1 rn:-mzlly snnvinne vn nse vhs v,_,11::

vhe p1nivinn sevs m1y nnn· he empvy; vhen, sleuly, 1"Z 03011:1
Z IP In;

1ll 1: S 1Z 1,

/ 031
`
1 024ZZ,._ Z,

1_
y
AV '1 1 2 me 'rnm: greph 1*1111

The £nllnn·ing vheneem vlells ns vh1v 1"Z 03011:1

is indeed exuemnl In;

Thmmm 7.1.1. 1'lndn 10411 10221

ex11:,1C 1 edges is s 1"Z 03011:1.

 K Z
030
1"Z 03011:1
1s d1imed, Fnx vheindnsvinn snep, lev nnn· 1: ,1 1,

ic gx1ph K Z K*Z 030,

By vhe indnsvinn hypnvhsis, G Z K h1s 1v mnsm

111

vhe eqn1livy nn vhe xighv £nllnn·s hy ins-pesvinn ntvhe '1\n1n gx1ph 1* Z 11:1
030

1 1<B

1 |T 1

Sinse G s exuemnl Inx IC 11nd 1"Z 03011:1

Q K 1,030
ne h1ve eqn1livy

11 ¤.,.jns1lihevhevenies 11,,,,,1.Zi nIK isli, Fnx 1 Z1,,,,,rZ1lev

1. 1.,1 \; :Z(se\'1G1|¤1,gE1G11

vmies nvhex vh1n 1,, Sinse K Q

030
G, mh nf me sevs \{ s independent,

1nd vhey p1nivinn V1G1, 1-1ense,Gis11Z11-p1niv1e, As 1* Z 03011:1

is vhe

nniqne1r Z 11-p1nive gx1ph n·ivh 1: vmies 1nd vhe m1.vimnm nnnhex nt

edgs, nn slum vh1v G Z 1* Z 11:1

030hllnns rxnm vhe 1snmed exveem1livy

fjl';jn_m ¤J1ed rene; dnpuedevnn, By dnptvednng 1 venex s e G ne ne1n ndding

g¤1phs nn 1: veniss vhe Tndn ge1phs 1**11:1 h1ve vhe mnsm edgs, a.nd

vheie degens shnn 024

vh1v 1**Z 03011:1
has mnee edgs vh1n any 1**11:1 navh

H nnv, vhen nnn-arqasensy is nnv an eqnivalense eel1vinn nn V1G1,

E1G1, 114111,1 ~ 4111, when deleving1 and dnplis1ving y, yields annvhex

Sn 411111 S 4111, and simil1¤ly 411111 S 4111, Bnv vhen deleving hnvh y,

vh1n G, again snnvradisving vhe shnise nt G, D

The Tn1n gx1phs 1**Z 03011:1

ane deis: in nxdex nt m1gnivnde, vhey

h1ve 1hnnv 1:* edgs, hinee exanvly, {ne evexy 1: and 1 ne h1ve

eemannhle vh1v jus; e1: mnee

031 edgs 1Inx a.ny hxed e Z 0 and 1: la.rge1

Thmmm 7.1.2. 1E.rdns S: Svnne104G1

¢1Z111:1 +e1: 031

ex11:, H 11 Gjr Une maximum edge densivy vh1v 1n 1:-venlex gx1ph san
L
x
e
v
e
n deviavs mush txnm vhe value iv vahs when 1 Z 1 divids 1: 1see

ahnve1, and vh1v ¢,Z111:11(;1 mnvexgs aesnxdingly, The pxnnt nt vhe

. '1: 1Z2

Z
h
v
i
w 1Z1snlnns,weh1ve H Q 1**Z 03011:1n
all 1: e ri, and hense

LZ111:1 S ex11:,H1,

On vhe nvhex hand, H Q KY, hx all miviisienvly laxge .1, sn

ex11:,H1 S ex11:,1q_1

ex11:,lG1< z,Z111:1+e1: 031,

¢.Z.11·1112J S ex11:,H1112J

e ex11,r~11112J

< t,Z111:111§ 0301+¤: 03511Yj1

Z ,:11:11121 +1,11 Z;1

s ,:11:11121 +4e 1ass....e 1: e 11,

Therefnre, since ¢,Z111:11(Y;1 mnvergs tn (bemmm 7,1,41, sc dns

ex11:,n11l21, ¤
e
s
i 1£nrsv, vhen H ..1**
Q G as snnn as s1G1 is large ennngh, sn ex11:, H1 is 1v

mnsv linear in 1: (Exersise 131, Erdns and Sts sniqesvned in 1063 vh1v

es11:,1*1 S $1kZ111: mr all vees wivh k g 2 edgs; as 1general hn.n.d

hr all 1:, vhs is hsv pnsihle {nr every T 1Exersiss MZ161,

sniqesvnre nf Gyirfds 110151, vhere exists {nr every 1 e rv and every

and .n1G1 1 r rnnvains 1* s an indnsed snhgr1ph,

7.2 Minors

already trnm Ch1vver 3,5 vh1v vnpnlngisal IC minnes ¤.n he Inrsed in

e, .1.1. ..e .n....d 1.. .he M1: .1. .ss~1e..e.

hnnnd is §r 1Exersise
031 251,

1v was nnly in 1006 vh1v vhis Inner hnn.d was shnwn vn he nt vhe

everrgrsph G ¤f.wer.:ge degree 41G1 ,1 s1 snnnsins

031 K as
030.1 nspnhgissl

see
031Chesm u
jj Q j[ rm], we preve .he .hen.e... ..-1... s Z 10, re. G he 1 mph ns 1ve..

age degsm 1v leasv 101*, By Thenrem 1,4,3 wivh k :Z 1*, G has an

1*(nrniesved snhgr1ph H wivh s1H1 Z s1G1Zr* ,1 41*, Tn and 1

are 1* verues in vnval, sn as 51H1 z .:1H1: r* vhey san he shnsen

disninsv, Nnw all vh1v remains is vn linh up me suhdividing venins in

;1*Jinhed hy Thenrem 3,5,3, D

21: Z2; see Gnrnlln-rw 1,3,2, Fnr 1 Z 5, pla.ne v.i1ngnl1.inr.syield 1lnner

hnnnd nt 31: Z 5 1Cnrnlla.ry 4,2,101, The snnves, vh1v 31: Z5 edgs

11.1ad¤ 10031,

Thnmamn 1211111 devermined, asympvnvisally, vhe smallsv snns-11nv s

Thmrern 7.2.2. Uinmshm 10321

degrm nt needed vn tnrse 1 K minnr,

030 tnllnws trnm snnsid-
degree 51G1 ,1 4 and girth g1G1: 3k+3. Dien G has .1 miner H si

n.inin...1n degree.51H1, 414Z 11*.

Frm], [1evX Q \'1G1 hemaximal wivh 411,1,1 Z 2k hr all1,ye X, Fnr X

ssh 1 e X pnv IQ :Z (11, Gven 1 1 2k, as-nme vh1v ne h1ve detnied

dinninv vres T, Q G 1nne {nr eash 1 e X1 whnse vertiss vngevher are

1 smilar sev nt dinninv vres 1*,**, As every vertex nt G has distanse 1v

mnst 2k trnm X (hy the maximalivy n£X1, vhe vres 1*, :Z 1*** nhvained Tr

Tn prnvevh1v51H1: 414Z 11*, nnve tnsv vh1v the 1} are indnsed

snhgr1phs nt G, hee1nse dia.m1', S 4k and y1G1 ~ 4k+1, Similarly.

vhere is 1v mnst nne edge in G hevneen any vwn vres 1*, and 1*,: vwn

1*;*, all ivs 4¤1n1,~ 4 ndghhnnrs n alsn lie in 1,: sinse 41n,11s k

and 411,111 Z 2k hr every nvher y e X, ne h1ve 41n,y1 Z k ,1 4Xn,11,

Theretnre 1*;, and hense alsn 1,, has 1v least 414Z11*Z le1vs,
030 Bnv

leasv 414Z 11* edgs vn 1distinsv1nvher vaes 1*,, D

Thmrern 7.2.4. 1'1'hnmasn 10331

snn.esnnst1nv s e 111,Lev k Z k111e r1 hen.ir.imal wivh 3 2* , dv,/E5,

51G1 ,1 1Z1.v.dy1G1Z 11.

7.3 Hhdwigens conjecture

an arhivrary gr1ph vn h1ve 1 IC minnr, and an 1ver1ge degrm nt s1*

Alvhnngh hnvh innsvinns 1hnve, s 1,1145 and a*, are hst pnsihle

\1G1Z1 Z GZK 030,

l1.-y 7,3,01, Rephrasd as G Z K¤' 034

iv s v..-..e
031, {nr almnsv all gr1phs, 031

sae
031Chesm u he vhe ......1.. ..1:...me. .11*
¤.n he 1rZ11<nlnned,

vhe Inrsts 1why.'1, and vhs are indeed 2(nlnn1hle, Fnr 1 Z 4, vhere

rm], nesall hrs. .ha. every 1110 .er..a1r.s 1 1·K*,hee1..se A11<*1 Z a 1} ff:

1Prnpnsivinn 1,7,21; vhe gr1phs wivhnnv 1 K* minnr vhns sninside wivh

vhnse wivhnnv 1 vnpnlngisal K minnr,

030 The prnnt vh1v a.ny gr1ph snn.

strnsvihle as dserihed is edg. 024maximal

wivhnnv 1 K minnr
030 is lelv as an

Lev G he given, edg. 024maximal

wivhnnv 1 K* minnr, ll |G| Z 3 vhen

nnv snmvleve: lev S Q V1G1 he 1 ¤pa.r1vnr nt sire »:1G1, and lev G., 254'z

vertex in S has 1 neighhnn in G, and annvher in C), Lt |S| ,1 3, vhis

vertex nr e G. and 1vertex rn e Ge, Sinse .:1G1 Z ISI Z 3, vhe gr1ph

G Z( n,, n, 1 is snrniesved and snnvains 11shnrtst1 p1vh F hevneen vwn

divferenv F1, Then Fu FK U Fe U Fr Z 1'K*, 1 snnvradisvinn,

1-lense .:1G1 S 2, a.nd vhe asrtinn Inllnws trnm Lemm1 4,4,4* and

vhe edg. 024maximal

gr1phs wivhnnv 1 K minnr
030 h1ve vhe mme numher nt

Cqmllary 7.3.2. Every edge-rnndrnsl grsph G umisnn .1 K* miner

The
030wee dehned h..-....11.: ... Chevm s s

The
030:1.....1 ..1 me 1e....... s e1e..e..ury end ser. be reed .r.de¤e..de..ur· ..1.he
vhen \1G1 Z vhe prnnt nt Prnpnsivinn 5,5,21,

mal 11nd hense all1 gr1phs wivhnnv 1 K* minnr san he 3(nlnnred, D

1Exersise M 1,

Theerern 7.3.4. 1\.\1gner 10371

G mn be sensrusted resnrsively [gy pssding sieng tdengles and K*s.

1 Z 1 Z (5%) Z · ~
11 ITL: Z'
035

vhs errmmdt gr1phs wivhnnv 1 K minnr

030 h1ve nn mnre edgs vh1n vhnse

vh1v are exvremal wivh rspesv vn (n1K*,niKrr 1, i,e, .he maximal

Cerellnry 7.3.:. A greph with 1: veruses end ne K miner

030 hes et mess:
Theerern 7.3.7. 1Rnhertmn, Seymnn S: Thnmas 10031

\ Z rvhanjnst nsingivs snnseqnense n£.5 ,1 1 Z1 in 1sniv1hle snhgr1ph,

whish nehnnw sa.1mnv£nrse1 K n·.innr1Thenrem

030 7,2,21, Sn {ar, nn snsh

Theerern 7.3.8. 1Knhn is Osthns 20051

he1dsiersllgr.rphsG Q K,,,, and r Z r,,.

The st.rengther.ing nv 1-1adwiger 030s

snrqesvnre vh1t zuvhs nv shrn-

cerettrry 7.3.0. There is s senstent y snsh that all graphs G eigrrth

rm], rv .1.:1 , 1 .her., hy cnrnnary s,2,a, G has 1 snrgrnph H nr [ig;

n.ir.in.nn. degree .51H1, 1 Z 1, As y1H1 Z y1G1 Z 11, Thenren. 1,2,5

implis vh1v G Q H Q TIC, D

7.4 Szemerédi 031s

regularity lemma
 r.ivinr.s, Lev G Z 1\', E1 he 1 gr1ph, and lev X, Y Q V he dinninv, Then

..1.. x s .1 1.... .· s B 1-....

IXI Z <I··\I Md IYI Z <|B|

141X,Y1Z41A,B11 S e,

The edgs in a.n eeegnlar pair are vhns disvrihnved Iairly nniinrmly, vhe

n... 1. 1.. 11s,....... ..., 1-..... ....,,..n..1. ... .. ...1.

...:.1.
Z 1·1 I· hl S <I· 'I=

1ii1 I\iI Z»»» Z I\LI=

1iii1 all hnv 1v mnst ek* nt vhe pairs wivh 1 5 . 1 j S kaae

vhe mme sire, Sinse snndivinn 1iii1 ahesvs nr.ly vhe sevs 13,,,,,1;, ne

.he nnivnr-...ivy nv vhe partivinn is assd, hnv there are nnly few such

snsh that evntv graph ef erder at leas1 11. admiu an e-regular parutien

(\L,\i,,,,,\l1 with 11. 5 kg M.

sz.
0301.. may be rr. e»se¤....n .1s.. u. ..... .e.-........1¤s.s.. ....e ..... em....... ee.s
gr1phs:1 {nr sparse gr1phs iv heenms vrivial, hes1.s all der.sivis nt

pairsZa.nd hense vheir div¥erenesZvend vn rern 1Exersise 401,

1,,

·-· .1. Zh.

This Inllnws trnm vhe C1nshy-Smnan ineqnalivy Z uf Z b* Z 1Z ¤,t\ 1*

hr ¤J=i¤z¤. =Z VE Md A =Z ¤.1,1E»

LevG Z1\ZE1he1gr1pha.nd 1: :Z |V|, Fnrdisninvsevs .4,5 Q V c. Z 1. E.

IAIIBI 1 |1··\, B|1 035

.11.4 2.

51

.11*1 Z Z..1<:,<·,1, nm

1 sense .·e.e...r.s d.. ess. .......1h, see .he new

 1-innever, i£'P Z 1 partivinn nt V with exsepdenal

set Cn, ne vre1v CL s 1 sev nt singlevnr.s and dehne

41'P1 :Z 41'F1 ,

F where'F:Z{G.,,,,,G:}u{(n1:neGn1,

lemm1, On vhe nne hand, iv measns vhe niiinrmivy nt vhe partivinn 'P:

iI'Phas vnn many irregular pairs 1.4, B1, nem1y vahe vhepairs 1X, Y1 nt

*snhs·ta.nvial' means vh1v vhe insreas nf 41'P1 h hnnnded helnw- hy snme

..11·1 Z I e Z. Z.
Z 4 1e. , e, 1

e F Z |<1| tc'.!

S 1,

alsn hnnided hy 1 snns·ta.nvZin nvher wnrds, alter snme hnnnded numher

nv retn.en.en.s nn partivinn will he e-regular! Tn snn.ple.e .he prnnv nv

1i1 Let GD Q V be diqeint. iff is aparuden eiG and D is a

prruuen ei D. then q1C,D1 Z 410,171.

1ii1i£'P,'P areparudens
031 eiV and'P re1ines'P.
031 then 41'P 0311
Z 41'P1.

.1:,n. Z §.1<:,¤.1

_ 1 uc-., ¤. .1*
4 1-*
 1 1:.. .1<·..¤..11 031

111 1-* Z..| 254'.I|¤.|

_ 1 .1<·,¤.1*
035
lZ.I 254'.IJlZ.|¤.|J
034

Z 41G,D1,

1ii1Lev'P Z: (G,,,,,,G. 1,and£nr. Z 1,,,,,klevf, hevheparvi.

vinn nt C indnsed hy 'P 034,

Then

.1¢·1 Z {elem;.

s Za1c.,c,1

S 41'F'1.

1
"
7
1
4
¤i¤¤=
n
r
e
I 7.4.3. Lete Z 0. andlet G, D Q V be diqeint. i£1G,D1isnete.

regular. then there are parudensf Z (C.,Ge 1 eiG and D Z ( D., D,1

. Z. 1 I `II I

Frm], Snppnse 1G, D1 is nnv e-regular, Then vhere are sevs G. Q G and

IHI 171

where C) :Z G ZG. and De :Z DZ D.,

shall wrive s. :Z |G.I. 4. :Z s:Z ICI, 4:Z |D| .1. ...

.1: n1 Z l Z-
1:* T s.4.

1 ' ¤¥. E?.

Z
 1 'J. 1

By detmivinn nl 11, we h1ve sr. Z ¤.4.¤1¤4+ -1<.·i., ¤¤

1 _ 1 'c.4.e 1

1: ..1.,1-1 Z E1}? +11s.4.1

1 I ..1 r ...1. *

+|.1-.....1,|...
z

Z +-1 4*.4.

Z|e. *|.......1.

ZZ 5 ae.

.1. ... *

sinse ci Z es a.nd 4. Z e4 hy the shnise nf C', and D1, III

Hnally, ne shnw vh1v if 1 pa.rtiv.inn has ennugh inegtlk-Y pairs nl

partitinn sevs vn vall shnrt nv vhe detnrivinn nv an esegulu pa.rti.inn,

Iernrnn
Zbea pnrU¤en
7.4.4.
eiLet
\'. tl
with
1 e
exsep¤enal
S 114. and
set let
C, 'P
efsize ICLI S e1: and

'P' Z (C',,C'{,, , , ,C'[1 ¤f\' with exsepdenalset C',. where k S L S k4*.

snsh that |C',| S |Ch| + -:12*. all ether ses C'; have equal size. and

41'F'1 Z 41'F 0301+e 03012,

c,, Frm], Fnr all 1 S z 2 j S k, lev. us detme 1 paxtivinn {,1 nf C', and

1 ynxtivinn C1. nf C], as hllnws, Lf vhe pair 1C1,C]1 is eaegnlar, ne lev.

f.1:Z(C'.1a.nd f1. :Z l.{nnv.,vhen hy [emm1 7,4,3 vhere a.re

paru.inr.s C., nv G and C,. nv q w..h Fel Z If..| Z 2 and

Z. Z. 131

c, Fnr meh 1 Z 1,,,,,k, lev f. he vhe ntique minimal pa.rt.itinn nf C', vh1v.
elemenvs nl C1 s equivalenv whenever vhey lie in vhe mme partivinn sev

nl C., hr eve¤* ,i Z ., vhen C, s vhe sev nt equivalense slass,1 Thus,

|c.| S 2*Z 030,

Nnw ennsader .he paruunn

C :Z ( cn I u U f. c

k S |f| S k2*, 141

Lev f,:Z{(n1:n e C'n1, Nnw it 'P s nnv eeegular, vhen {nr mnre C..

vha.n ek* nlvhe pairs wivh 1 S . 1 ,i S kvhe partivinn {,1 is

nnn-vrivial, 1-lense, h1* nn dehnitinn nl q {nr partivinns wivh exsepvinnal

sev, and Lemm1 7,4,21i1,

.1c. Z Z 41c.,C.1+Z41cn,f.1+Za1c.1

Z .1 +.1r..

Z
Z q1¢=1+ 511

(Fnr vhelasv inequalivy, resall vh1v IC'nI S e1: S sn ks Z {1:,1

jninv sevs nv sire 4 :Z 1s14*1 s..sh .h1v eash Cj s snnvained in snme 4

41'P'1 Z 41f1 Z 41'P1+e 03012

hy Lemm1 7,4,21ii1, Sinse eash sev Cj Z C'; is alsn snnvained in nne

nl vhe sevs C'.,,,,,C'», hnv nn mnre vha.n 4* sevs Cj ¤.n lie inside vhe

mme C] 1hy vhe shnise nt 41, ne alsn h1ve k S A S k4* as reqnred,

Finally, vhe sevs Cj, , , , ,C'[ is all hnv 1v mnst 4 vmies lrnm eash sev
 C' Z CL nl C, 1-lense,

IGI S IChI+·i FI

Z |(,| +sk12*

S |C,| +1:12*,

e nl generalivy, e S 114, Lev .1 :Z 21e*, This numher .1 is an upper hnrmd

grnw hy up vn 1:12*, 11.1nre presisely, hy up vn 1:12*, where A is vhe

sn 1:12* s sertair.ly an upper hnnnd {nr vhe insreas,1 we vhns nanv

vn shnnse k hrge ennugh vh1v even .1 insremenvs nl 1:12* add up vn 1v

mnst éen, and 1: hrge ennugh vh1v, {nr any inivial value nl |C'nI 1 k, we

h1ve |CnI S im, (Lv ne give nn starting parminn k nnnersepvinnal

sevs C'., , , , ,C':, ne shnuld allnw an iruvial sire nl up vn k hr C,, vn he

k Sn lev k ,~ 11. he large ennugh vh1v 2*Z* ,» .11e, Then .112* S e12,

.1 $1. S .1. 1s1

whenever k1- S e1?. i,e, {nr all 1: Z 2k1e,

numher nl1nnnexsepvinnal1 sevs in nn partivinn ajter up vn .1 iter1vinns

7.5 Applying the regularity lemma

tu-¤i*i¤¤ ZE. Med vesitiveedge densivy 1hnueversmall1 and 1 .u.ivnr-...

disvrihuvinn nl edgs will rnnvain any given hipartive snhgr1ph 030Zvhis

pair 1.4, B 1, Fnr any suksv Y Q B vh1v is nnv vnn small, mnst verties

S rtendere ..re.dr· e¤n......ed w.... re..d.e.. graphs may hud .. ....1.-..e...·eu. s....:
 Iernrnn 7.:.1. Let 1.4,51 be an e-regular pair. el density4 sry: and

let Y Q B have sire |Y| ,» e|B|. Then all but lewer than e|.4| el the

, , I1 2 'I1
41.1,1 1 Z 14Ze Z41.4,s1Z.,

:f;',f"" lz 1 reynhrrrrv yrdph nv G nivh paran.e 042ers

e, A and 4, Given .1 e rt, lev

030 edge hy 1 snmpleve hipartive gr1ph hevneen vhe snrrspnnding r.se.s,

ne h1ve ll. Z K]_,1

14 and1 vhe maximum degree nl vhe snhgr1ph:

A ,» 2.114-* and 4. then

14Z41*Zee,Z;.1=: 111

c. 1.1 1. 1.. sum 1 shnise is pnsihle,sinse14Ze1 024*

Z Ae Z4 024*
as eZ0, 1(nw lev

and |.3| Z Z |\;| Zz Z 2.114-*, Levusassrune .h1v H sasvually

vhe indusvinn, ue shall h1ve 1 *vargev sev' 1.; Q \L1.1 asigned vn eash .1,;

gev smaller and smaller 1n.viI iv snll11ss vn (1, 1 when n, s shnsen1:

whenever ne shnnse 1 vertex nj wivh j 1 1 and ..1 .1. e E1H1, we deleve

vhe rsnlvingdele.inn nvverties rrnn. 121

is still relarively large: smaller vhan 1yZ hy

030nn mnre vhan 1 snnstanv

laevnr snsh as 14Z e1, Nnw vhis san he dnne hy Lemm1 7,5,1 1wivh

.4 Z \Z,1,,, B Z \.L1., and Y Z 1;**1: prnvided vh1v 1yZ still

030 hassire

a.v leasv el 1whish indusvinn will ens-ne1, all hnv 1v mnsv el mnies nl nj

will he snsh vh1v vhe nen- sev 1.;* s in 121 s1vishs

|11 031|Z14Ze1|11"|· 131

in partisular rrnm Y*Z Q

030
1;,,1,, misty 131 lnr all.,

lv remair.s vn shnw .h1v vhe sevs 1;*Z snnsidered

030 1hnve as Y vnr

selesv n1 e 1jZ ne
030h1ve 1shni.env1v leasv .1 sui.1hlesa.udid1vs: sinse

helnre ..1 a.v mnsv .1Z 1 verties .1 nue given an in·.1ge in \.L1.1, ne san

Biv all vhis lnllnws lrnm nn shnise nl en, Ltrdeed, vhe iruvial vargev

sevs 11," h1ve sire A, and eash 1., shrinhs 1v mnst A vims hy 1 laevnr nl

14Ze1 when snme nj wivh j 1 1 a...d ..1... e E1H1s dehned, Thus,

Z 14Ze1· 030LZ
Ast Z 14Ze,1Z 030lZ
Aent Z $4% Z a

s .,1.. 1.1........., ae have 11;**1 Z er rnd |1jZ 030|Zad

Z .as
[Q }[ Pmqr qs rnmmm 1.1.2. 2 gsm is an me

Q 030 memem, s¤ ne mme um i Z 2, 0 he wen; mss q nm pnny

UGH HGH z main) +*1n*

|¤-my guph H den: ennugh vn cnnuin n IC hy 0351\ni.n

memem,
030sTnen

e < 'W2 a 1 . (1V

im Q ew 031

n g kz, 421

k 031
M 7 M d 031
024*

IQ, Q G¤dsi¤edi£lC Q H (and nenee rq Q R,,),

un pun n-is ve snm`- IC Q H bv Turin': memem, wemn; nnyem

ms nm
minimumms
lislem
snksunvizily
main) +m nnve
042
edgs,
me nppmxinme
i,e,
031 an edgedensity
densnynt nt me 'lmdn

gupn 1* *1 kv. and nenee nnveany denmy me G mnld

dexive {mm twxlkw dense pains ainne, even it ul mise md density 1,

ne enessde esegnlu pmss in mes; (ll}; edgs ne inside xg, and ny

mndivinn (il in vhe dennivinn nl e-legnluimy vhnse ue nm nuns; gen?

H edgs euh, mgevhex nm nuns: ek 031I

The e-negnlu
030, piss nl inmnlieienm

densimy iq dy mh mnuin nn mme vhnn JN edgs, almgevhex nm nuns;

Finally, vhene ue nm mms: (L) edgs inside euh nl the

p¤.ni 042i¤n
sevs \l, , , , , \1, mgevhex nm nuns; ;A 031k
edgis, All mln edgs

edgs nl R, Sinee euh edge nl R mms-pnnds m nm mms; I' edgs nl G,

|\G|\ Q I',

. |\G|\ 024
§e 031n
024
mkz 031
024
4k*U 024
MHP 024
MU

HHH 1

nl . 1

W7 M

_, r 024
1 1

z ¢, 024l1kl,

deuil, lem ns nm- step mh and uy m sepunme vhe when {mm vhe

The ush n-is m shew me »,»n nne

031 edgs vhnn ¤.n he ummme.

dnved nn n vmius wivhnnm ueming n IC {mee n iq snhguph, pmvided

mpynlli : K; in G, im is ueu me ne mus; ehnnse A z: Allql, we

uasss have sine an leasn 2.wi 024*,
as neqnined hy Lemma 1,5,2, (The n

eenainly he hig ennngh, Lnnnn ease, we san ng vhe s {mm nn: H Z All

mnghly, i,e, disnegaading xg, an asnmpnan nl IGI z 2M.n,,1 024*

snlnnns,

il nnly d is small ennngh, nn: »,»n 031

*addiu¤nal edgns {mee an *addi 042i¤nal

den: e-negnlaa pain' nl pa.ni 042i¤n

sevs, giving us mme than dense

enegnlaa pains in meal (whene *den¤' means ml densimy an leasm J'), vhns

Lee ns examine why this is se, Snppnse we have an mms; 1,,,1ky

a
,
s
n
g
d
e even il we ng » ij
mhnse pains m vhein hill eapapimy nl I' edgns eaph

what kz s neaaly ny, Thns, we have almnsm exanly ann »,n addivinnal
031

IMM é gif,

vhe nemaining gy n ndgns,

031 ane mane 042ha.n
san he apmmmndaved in ex-
Exercises

rl-lun nn
usnllrs ns lu, s·¤k·:r¤l>*·¤
newly

EU'?') ~ MC)

sinh nhnn nhe hnm gmphs H Q G wnh ·.n hnve hnnnded

 N1 , mann enn he eunnsnrnened mnnsnnlv tmp nnmnnlal plnnnr graphs

and eupns ul IP hy pasnnng slung l{*sy

nnnunnnnl wnhunn nn ld nnnnnn

a1 Pmn nhe nnplninnnn MGI a e. G Q TIN

rmpnnhngnnly ld nnnnnn

qnnmnnnnn uhm INI IAI Md IYI ¢ WV

030

as Y shaw shan nm, emznlnr pan: nn G ns ns. enegnlu nn G

seqnnine rG.,I.,sn ul gmphs G,, ul nmlni n sinh n ns

Nu tes

nhennw, nnn nhs nnnrmwni snnse ul seennnnn 1 1 ns umn lm M snnunnwnns nn

nm. 1:. e nn nhl nhelmin ennn he kmnughx damn nl. anhu {.

nnlpns nn an/U5. wnh n s sv 2+ my hn snnnsn sn H mh » nanms nn.1

'l>* 024l>n·nnn
zmsy, wheie nhey nerpnenne nhen nhenmin wnnh I, 02421 see nse.

elamlvnnu nhe nnphs wnnhennn nn IP nnnnnen l-ls henpe wns ne. he nhle ne. shenw

en IP nnnnen nnehnele nhe plennnnn gnnphs, nhs wennld nnnennnnn ne. nn pm.: ent nhe

sneeeeds nn elamlvnn: nhe unnphs wnnhennn en IP nnnnnen nn snnnennnnl neinns.

pennnn ent view. nn s nnsnn·nennn,e ne. eennnlpenne \\ 031.ngnnei·

IP 030s
nheemin wnnh snnnnlenn

elasnhennnnn nheemnns, sneh ns hs nnnnlengne hn ld rr·n.pesnnne.nn 1 a 1,, wheie

Lnespnne nns lnnhnne ne. nesenlnne nhe hnnn eenlennn pnnnhlenn. \\ 031.ngnnei·`s
IP sune,
hns nn lv nnnnnen hn p s ML.: Wl

Ths wns nnnswened hn nn·hnnn·¤n·», H kn, Ln Kuhn and Ln osnhns. lindneenl snhdn,
8 I11fh11te Graphs

and same nnhe depnh what vhis neld has m ¤l¥en, 030
Onn nvenall vheme will

The
030 seenmns wm nlmnnoe nn dnmenlzy whnle seenmns n 1 n i end n s nne ensnen
 8.1 Basic notions, facts and techniques

mmmnnly enmnnnvened in gnaph ahem-y, 031

wivh vhe mmhinamnial dennininn nl an end; vnpnlngisal as-pens will he

::2* h mph as he.1u,,h,,.1s ml hs vemens have hhh.neges, hh nh.

nnive gnaph NEW nl vhe {erm

I E:(a,a,,a,a,,s,a,,,,,I

Ilc

paxh is 042.nivial,
whim we allnw, vhen ivs nnniqnne venex lins nn R and alsn

mums as a mmh: see Fignnne 6,1,1,y

1.|,
1, in

rhs
031nnnnnnmieun-y seenmn s delnhennmy leech nnnmnnnnnl wnhh nhe emuhnss 1.n
 An lnnnlne sen nnlnns .n linlne snlsen is mil lnlinlne. (1l

nl K", vhe mmpleve gnaph nl nnden |r1|, we emhed K"¤ in G (as a yew

vnpnlngisal minnny in nne innnive seqnnen¤e nl

031sneps, as lnllnws, we

ll G, mn, is mnnnvahle, san we vhen alsn nnd a 1'K"¤ as a spanning

snhgnaph nl G! Alnhmngh emhedding K"¤ in G mpnlngieally as aheve

nalnns innnively many steps, ih is hy nn means gnnananveed what vhe TK"¤

nl K", we ¤n shnnse vhis as vhe nexn nnnnnxd venex {mm same nxed

ennnmenavinn nl \'(G 1, l.n this nn-ng even-y venex nl G gens ehnsen evennnn.

ally, nnnlns ih hemmns pan nl vhe 1'K"* hdnne ivs nime, as a snhdividing

ning uens, (Nave what vhe mnvense implieaninn is 042.nivial,y

The hnieh is

we nnsn nse (il an pa.ni 042i¤n

rl inm innnively many innnine snksevs N,

ennnmenaninn nl \'(Gl amnng vhe veniexs nm yeh in 1;, and jnin n hn 1}

we
031
men-he me mm unnhnnnu seniennee mn eexniennea nndesed by me sen 1.:
what vhe innenseninn nl an innnive nnsned seqnnenee Aa Q An Q ,,, nl

nnnmnnnnahle sevs mnnsn svill he nnnmnnnvahle, lh need nm he: in lan ih

lemma and 042.nansanni

indnnninn,
042e Ravhen nhan dnsenihing vhnse lm-mally,*

Pmpqemqn s.1.1. Eveev ennneened gr-1;-h cunmns s spannsngnee.

vhnse is a snnhgnaph el the mhen, R. Q 1;, Then 1; mnneainns a pahh

edges nl C lhs in same nee in C, These uens lnrm a nnive snnhehain ntf,

dnsined nhjecm (such as a spanning ueey snep hy snep, navhen vhan stan-

'nne
030nvvennds mens hn-ner nnunalnenmnns u. uhhh enenish u. ennhle nhe nenden u.
ing {nne whnse ehains have nppen hmnndsl in whish vhe dnsined nhjens

Semnd vmqf 4 hy 042.nansannihe

indnnuinn l,

nndinal in ~ 0, Ltd is a limih, we pnnh 11,:: LI, I_ 11;, Ltd is a snensn,

and put IZ; :: T, ll nm, vhen G 024

T.; has a venex n,, what sends an

edge e,, na a venues in 11;, Let IZ. he nhnained {mm II; hy adding n,,

and e,,, This neunnsinn ven-minaus, since if ¤.;+n (whene ns +1 denmas hhe

\\e new pnnve hy indnnninn nn in nhah evengy gnaph 11. wedenned is a

lem n, n he any hwn nl ivs veniexs, Sinee 1j, : LI, I_ 11;, vhene exism
 as ehmpneensss 1see helnw can whyy, mens a mmalined ww he mahe nhe

will, when G' Q G" ane mwn nnive snhgnaphs and n, n ane veniexs nl G'

{ji QI 11....... ...1.1. 1n...1g·s 1......1.. 1........1

[**5 UI and len G be .n graph un nheln ninlun. 1·Ls1inne than evenqr vernen n in .n

* 034"'
se. 1; sm. ,1 nene .....1..1.,s....»

, 1 030 1 1 1 030 1

1 L

1. 0312nn¤ss
1*|
K
I'A
" Il I)
Tknmnennn 8.1.3. (de Bn-nijn in Endis, 19511

Len G :1\',E1be sgxsph and k e r1.1£e.·ee1-nnnesnlgnspln ¤iG has

and E e is vhennsuininn new I, Dem hea

Cansiden the pmdlrft U Q \' 042»¤(1,,,,,kI,

Fm even-y nnive sem U Q \', lem Ay he vhe sem nl all j s X whnse

nne ane nellened in hhe mhen ld, Eneneise wl,

 (Ll., VH1 i IL., nne Inn even-y vn e rl, snsh what eau. is indnneed hy the

indnee panivinns in 12.+ 1; hum sinee, hy lneal nnihenns, even-y venex has

vhis pmpeny evenunally (Inn lange enmngh vn 1, nhe wealnen as-nmpvinn

end vhe nminn nl an end, An snd nl

030a gnaph G s an eqnnivalenee [las nl

sem S Q WG 1, hmh have a nail in vhe ume mmpnnenh nl G 024

S, This

manly nne snsh mmpnnenh Inn eaph an ll hwn as ane eqnnivalenh 024

N..n
030 u. he e..nrn1sed wah nhe ..1... edge in hhe mnmn ..1
hy !l1G1, and we wnive G Z 1\ZE,!l1 042¤
expnns what G has venex, edge mm

have nnnmnnnvahly many ends, The pnmntype example 1 see Eseneise 211

is vhe mmm. me 11,, vhe named 042.nee

in whim eveny venes has esaevly IL";

inndkaned in Fignnne 6,1,4, The ends nl IL when cnmspnnd hijecvively vn

ivs nys s1a.ning at 6, and henee he hhe innnine 11 0241

seqnnenexs,

11 ,1 11 11*11 1,"11 ,1 1, ,1 ,,*.1 11

1 1
mained: il an end mnvains a sem nl k (edgn 0241
disninh nays lm even-y inhn 024

gen k, ih alsn mnvains an innnihe sem nl (edgn 0241

disninh nays 1Esen¤ise 3.11,

S. 2 Paths, trees, and ends

sepanavinn pnnpenins nl vhe gnaph vhey span? hinnenven, vhein namdt

Frm], [eh .a e QKG1 he given, Apply vhe s1a.n(¤mh lemma in T wihh 11 5 51

(Lemma 1,5,51, This mnhnadievs ann shniseat U,

Tnsqnennn 8.2.4. 1lnnng19611 I¤5¤I

nemm.
030 1 5 5 e..nn.nni¤ u. h..1d n.. ...h..1¤ snnvhs wah nhe sane un....:
qnnenee H Q H Q ,,,¤l nnive nm-mal vneas in G, all wivh vhe mme mm,

Tn ensnne vhav T spans G, we hx an ennnmenavinn nh, u., , ,, nl V1G1

and see va iv vhav T,. mnvains nh., lv is dean vhav T will he a vaee lsinee

Thsqrennn 8.2.5. (I-lalin19651

1i1 Ii an invinine graph G mnnains k dqainn rans far everr k s ri.

vhe nays R{ 030*

, , , , RQ;}
030,m as vn exnend vhnse inivial segmenvs, i,e, se

vhav Ryay s a pmpen inivial segmenv nl R{ 030* hn

030a{
1 Z 1,,
030*
, , , vn, 030,
|R,a, u , , , U R,.:,.| + 11* +1 disninv nys (which exists hy as-nmpvi¤n1,

l·1.a,,,,,,H,.:,.;vhen T: sill mnvains ah leas1 11*+1 nays,

vhene exisvs a.n 1 e (1,,,,,11 I snsh vhah 12;*** has nah yev heen denned

nays tram 1:, pna 12;*** 1Z M., and ehaase as r{ 030*

1he snneenssan
030 at r.

vhe see at vhnse 1 e (1,,,,,11 I sn whish :1;*** s s1illnnnde1nned,andpna

|1|Z:11n, ThenT¢sillmnvainsahleasm11 031+1Z111Z11n111:111*+1 111

nuvs av m¤s1 111* nl vhe nys in Tc; we mleve all hhe nvher nys tram Tc,

ehaasingane al vhem as :1:;} 1wivh rx} anhiv.nan-y1,

ivslasmvenexin z, and pna 1* :Z (1111*11 | H e T: I, [eh H hevhennnian

T: vhav meev Inn vhis 1, Sn hy Nzngeis Ummm 13311 UMR

lev 1; denave vhe nay tram T: vham mnvains 1., chncse as H{ 030*
vhe my
030

H.1.F1y.l*(, and pm 1;* :Z 1,,,

1ii1 is analegmns, D

Dans Theanem 6,2,5 genenaline vn nvher graphs than nys! let us

¤ll a graph H nmqmmis wivh nnspeev vn a nelavinn 5 hevween graphs

1h1.11.,1h.11 ¤lled shuts: ends nl nnive venexdegreeane zh111,

The r1 >. r1 gnd, hn example, vhe graph an l·1 in

031
which vwn veniexs

grid s aminnn nl H 0341cl,Ex,A1,Ch,12,1

;1__ ¤1=ZH1(1¤,m1I1<ml|

Ll.=ZH1(11·,m1I1·< ml} K1-: 11

111 a 111', an il111 Z 111' and 11 a 11* (Fig, 6,2,11,

Thsqrennn 8.2.6. (I-lalin19651

e wnive 'P g 'P if

034'P cnnsisvs
031 nl nnal segmenvs nl pavhs in 'P, 1Th11s,il 'P

nys in .a vhav can sene as *venical' 1s11hdivided1 nays U,. in ann dcsined

'PKQ.1 hetween vhe Q. and snivahle Q,,., wivh p(11 a 1 (hmm which we
 111anay0.. e a dssaanv cram Qnu,..u0..+1:

121il11 ;1,aninvegenp1111a 11;

1:11 lan eveny 1 111vh 1 5 1 5 11, a.11 innnive sev 7%.10.1 al diaainv

pavhs, snsh vhav

U1 L17%.10.1¤L17%.10.1 ZW in disuncv 1,,i S vv, ud

1ii1L17%.10.1¤0, ZW lan disuncv 1,15 11 ndvhj s p(11;

141 an innnive sev T¢..+1 5 R,. al disainv nas vhav ane diaainv tram

Qnu,,,uQ,. and tram I17%.10.1wheneven15 1 5 11,

Thns, while vhe ms 0. and vhe pnedeensn map 1 »-· p(11 nemain

nnchanged anne denned lan same 1, vhe pavh sysvem 7%.10.1 hevween Q.

151 7%.10.1 Q 1 a 11,

1nta1-mally, we vhink al 7%.10.1 as a11n hnsv candidave av vime 11 sn a

sysvem alhanizanval pavhs linking Q. va Q,,.,, B11v,as new ms Q,,. wivh

111 s 11 pv selecved, nne mw have va ehange ann mind ahanv 7%.10.1 and,

again a.11d again, pnnne iv va a smaller sysvem 7%,.10.1, This mw leave ns

pavhs hevnneen Q. and Q,,., {nam vhs pnavisianal sevs 7%. (Q. 1, nav ham

vhein Kpasihly emv¢y1 invensecvian ave. all 11,

 pnv R. 1+ Rm (0a 1, Then candivians111+151hald lan 11 + 11,

H 7%.+110.1,

By vhechaiee alm and 141, we knaw vhav 11;; e .a, As alsa Q, e .a,

vhene exists an innnive sev 7* al disainv H§Q+H pavhs, 1.1 pasihle, we

chaase 7* sa vhav I17*¤I17%.+110.1Z W in all 1 5 11+1,we may

111 vhe Q. ane disainv lan divfenenv 1, \\e denne p(111 as vhis 1, and put

7%.10.1 =Z 7%.+11011tn all ,i 5 11+ 1,

vmiexs in H lie in lan vhe mme 1, sinee hy 131 vhe graphs

[17%.+110.1 ane disainv lan divfenenv 1, \.\e can vhen 11nd inhnive disainv

s111sevs7*..10.1al7*,.+110.1a.11d 7** al 7*, me canvinneinv1niveh~ ma.11y al

vhe pavhs in 7* alangpavhs l·nam7%.+.1Q.1\7%.1Q.1 042¤¤

Q. an vn 0,1.,, vn

ahvain an intnnive sev 7*" al disainv AQJQ. an @4211-1 mths, and dehne

lan all ,i 5 11 +11wivh 7%.10.1 1+ 7%.+110,11anj s 11an1d QJ in all

, ,i s p(111, we nename 7*" as 7*, va simplify navavian,

1.. enhe. es, ne have nan- denned 7·.1Q.1 an 111 1 a 11 s as va

1.1111 7* disainv l{I4Q,1,., pavhs vhav avaid all avhen QI and all vhe sevs 7%.1011,

All vhav can pnevenv 11s tram chaasing 1;; as Q,. and 7* as 7%.10-.1 and

TQ,.+1 5 TQ,. \ (HQQ I s candivian 141: il 7* neevs all hnv hnively many

nys in Tc,. innnively, we cannav 11nd an inhnive sev Tt..+1 5 TQ,. al nays

\\hene1·er R s R,. and7* 5

031
7* ns an intininesen ui 1*142,1..1 U,

Fan il 1:1 failed, we cannld chaase R as Q,. and 7*' as 7%.10111, and selecv

wannld savisiy candivians 111Z151 lan 11,

vhein sta.1·ting vertiexs an BQ, This indnnexs an andening an even-y 7* 5

031
7*,

Using asnnmpvian 1:1, lev 11s chaase vwa seqnnenexs RQ, MIK, , ,, and

7* 11
0347** s11ch vhav even-y Rf, s a vail al a nay in R,. annd each

7** is a.11 invnnive sev al pavhs whase andening is campavihle

w·ith nj., The nnsv path al 7** in this ardering will he denated hy F,, its A

starting vertex an nj. hy n,, and the path in 7*** eantaining F, hy Fg he

(Fig, 5,2,21, Clearly, 7*n :Z 7* is as neqnined lar k Z 11; pnv F; :Z ry, lr;

Far k g 1, we may nse 1.1 with lz 9 :1;* a.11d 7** Z 7*** ta tnnd in 1:,.

a rw nl Q 11;* thav meets 7*** innnitely hnv has a tail lz; avaiding

the nnite snhgraph Fg u u 7;., Lev Fg he a Iath in 7*** thav

meets 11* and lev n he its ·high1sv vertex

030 an nf., thav is, the lasv vertex

al 11* in l'1F,1, Replaeing 11* with its tail auf., we ca.11 a.rrange thav sq

Fg has anly vhe vertex n an nj., Then F, ;Z nr; s an @43.,,1 pavh

starting av n, Z n, we may naw selecv an invnnite sev 7** 5 7*·* al

paths eampatihle w·ith nf. and eantaining F, s its nnsv pavh,

, Q,.

$1,., H: RJ

* EE|

In . 11
l
I
'
I I`. I'. 111

II, 1.,

Ay s c c c..nsnr.1en11na Q,. lr..n1 e..n.1nn.n 1..1

Sinee rg eantains a, e nj. hnv H$.mF,+1 ZW, we have Pg s F,+1,

al Fg,. an nj., a.11d pnv 15,*,, ;Z Then lev ng,.

Z
1
.
.
0
1
.
%
7 Q. :Z ( Fn,F1,¤1,,,,I

n.+.1+(¤:+.11e1·11,

and 1:11, neeall thav Q,. and 7%.10..1 cansisv al segments al paths in 1:,.

a.11d 7*; ths ane diaainv tram Q. and 7%.10.1lar all 1 a 11 hy dennitian

al 7* a.11d 1.11 lar 11 + 1 ltagether with 151 lar 111, Far the diaaintnnss

neqninennenv in 1.11 nate thav 11*+. dans nav meev Q,. an 7%.10..1 inside
as paths in 7**. Since n:,. das nat, hy d-nnitian, met Q.

ar 7%. (01.1 inside any pavh F; with j 5 k+1,canditian1·11halds lar 11,

1v nemains ta useaurrns Q,., path systems 7%.10. 1, and supplysets

Tc,. al rays ta canst.n·ucv vhe dcsimi grid. By the infinity lemrrn 16.1.71,

theneisasequenee 11, a 11. a 11, s11ch vhav either 1-111.1 Z 11.+1 lar

mr all 1, i.e. discard any Q,. with 11 e ( 11n, 11.,...I, Then lar every 1 1 1

Our aim is ta maase tails Q. al a11n nys Q,. vhav will carnnspand ta vhe

paths S1,S1, , ,, inductively, chaasing the QQ. as needed as we ga alang

lhuv alsa in the arder alincneasing 11, sarting w·ith Q; :Z 0n1, Av every

Lev k and 11 he minimal s11ch vhav S, annd QL. ane still undenned,

we dnscrihe haw ta chaase S,, and QL. it the detunitian al S, nequinns iv,

alneady heen detuned, and sa has Q[_., Naw chaase S, e 7%.1Q.1 030high

ta avaid
r
e
h
t
a
d
n
a QI1, S1 U Q;.
the ,,,uS,+1,
and S, By
ane l31lii1, S,
pairwise will alsa
dinainv laravaid
all every
11,k e rl, exeepv

nenan1eQ,.. asQ,and 11. as 1+1 mr 1 ;1,"1·henanrsets7*.10.1eansisv

sgmenv lram 7'..l0.+11, lallawed hy a middle segmenv tram Q, and a

nnal segmenv lram 7%.1011, Such S, ¤n again he laund, sinee av every

8.3 Homogeneous and universal graphs

we ¤ll acaunrtahle gnph G' 11111eerarLin7* (lar 51 ilG' e 7* andG 5 G' nnnesl

there emm a vernex n e R + U + W dna: rs alhaeenn in H 1:1

Tkrserrerrn 8.3.1. (Fades and Rriryi 19631 111151

inductively, Lev Ha :Z K 030,

Far all 11 e rl, lev R,.,, he ahtained 1-ram

R,. hy adding lar every sev U Q \'lH..1 a new- vertex n pined ta all vhe

vmiexs in U huv ta nane autside U, (ln pa.1·ticula.n, the new- vertiexs {arm

Ta praveunuquens, lev R Z ll; E1 and H Z ll", EF1 he vwngrlphs

svrncv a hijectian ,1:v Z1" in a.n inturitesequeneealsteps, denning1¢1n1

1*1 nl Z n' lar a vertex n thav matches the ai-uaeencinsa.11d nan-ai-Uaeencins

al a' amang the vertiexslar w-hich ,1 (resp, ,r 1 has

030already heen detrned,
1****** 1.r111n111 ynrph,

1FxereiseA11,

ather than K"¤ and KM sneh that. na rnatter h¤w\'1G11s parudaned

Ta shaw uniqueness, lev G Z 1\Z E1 he a cauntahle graph w-ivh the

all ather vertiexs, then G Z K",

U, W hr w-hich 1:1 fails in G: chaase vhs w-ith |U U W| mirrimunrr,

Asume trnsv vhav U s W, and pick 11 s U, Lev 13 carnsisv al 11 and all

the remaining vertices, As 11 is isalated in G1\l I, nv hzv¤G 1 @1*1]

nsn easilyshaw thav the Rada graph is hnmngensnns; everyisamarphism (fm";

st.1-ucted as lallaws, Lev H; :Z K and

030,lev BLM heahtained 1-ram R;. hy

pining, lar every suhgraph H 1 K al B;., a new- vertex ap; ta every

Tkrserrerrn 8.3.3. llachlan $1 \.\ 030aad.naw

19601

mrnplernent aisneh a graph;

Tkrserrerrr 8.3.4. (Dicstel $1 l»{11hn19991

8.4 Cbnnectivity and matching

and il k Z HG, A, B1 is the minimum numher al vertiexs separating A

1-ram B in G, then G eantains k disainv A+B paths, (Clearly, iv cannav

Pr¤p¤a1v1¤n 8.4.1. Let G he anygraph. k e rt. and let A.B be twe

unrian al L17* with all vhs paths Rv, This is a turite graph in w-hich na

|7'I Inths ham A va B hy hlenger 030s

theanem (3,3,11, w-hich canvradicts
111 Z 11111 , 1 11s..... .1+11 pans, as .1.s1.e.1,

a theanem, invlueneed much al the develapmenv al invurite carurectivivy °·*"¤°* 034

Tkreerrerrr 8.4.2. (Aharani it Berger 2111151

Let G be any graph. and let A,B Q \'(G1. Then G mntains a set7* ai

Lemmas 3,3,2 and 3,3,3 (whase praals w-ark lar invrnite graphs t1aa1

it w-ill nav da just va apply vhs lemmas invuritely alten, l.ndeed, al-

we graw simultaneausly as many dinainv paths tawards B s passihle,

\'(G 1, lev 11s w-rite Gx-11 in vhe srrhgraph alG indueed hy X and all c.n-¤

Lev W Z ( W; |11 e A1 hea lamily al diaainv paths such thav every

vmiexs al plths in W separates A 1-ram B in G, (Nate vhav lv may

 1 ZZ __ ,1-1 Q

I.1 1 , 1

1 ZZ 1 M

X the Annndnrq
',.' alw,
7 and alten use (\v,X11
as shartha.11d lar the wave

G Z K and
030 B althne
034 avher vertiexs, there is na praper AAB wave,1

ll (L1,X1 is an AAB wave in G and (l',l1'1 is an X AB wave

1:+ V in Gx-11, then the lamily lv Z L1 + l' ahtained tram L1 hy appending

[fsf'"' zarns lemma implies thav G has a maximal AZ B wave uv; lev X he
 By the maximalivy allv, there is na praper X AB wave in Gxea,

premiset1aGZ FK,andwecauldprac-gdtla turd r¤,inG+n intheunre

it (as well as a lew mane vertiexs autside A1 leavcs a graph vhav has

paths W}. Z ¤+. ,,,11L. (11 1* 21 al vhis wave as initial segments lar vhe

paths F,., By the maximalivy al lv, there is na praper A' A B wave in

Gang,

lar(G,A,B1ilG+A cantains a.11 11+5 path F a.11d asev X 9 l'(F1

(a1,ar,,,, I,1

Iernrnn 8.4.4. Let 11* e A and A :Z A 024,

(11* I. and asnrne that G has

na praper AZ B wane. Dren 11* rs linlrable far (G, A, B1.

Pmqf ¤f Lerrrrrrn 8.4.3 (asuming Lemma 3,4,41, Lev G he as in

canstrrrcv srrhgraphs G.,G1, , ,, al G stisiying the lallawing statemenv

 11.1:1
11.·1ZZ Z ZZ,,
+ , , , Z ZI'1 1 1*1

1 ( w :· 1 1 4,. 1 , 1

TZZZ-Z|-ZZZZFZZZZ-ZZZZ-ZZZ;

A! U i` G,. Ms nu pr1·p·i·A Z1
034
Li wn.1e

Puv A" :Z A" 024,

(4 I, By Lemma 3,4,4 applied ta G,., w-e can turd in

G,.+A anq+B
035 path F and asev X.. Q \'(F1such vhav G,. ZX.. has

a large maximal A" A B wave (lv, A 035*

1, Lev F,.
030he the path W}; U F,

Far 1 g 11 +1, lev he WT sllawed hy the pavh at nv starting

av 11;*, and call its last vertex 11;***, By the maximalivy at uv there is na

praper A 035*
AB wave
030in G,.,. :Z (G,. Z X,.1_...1-p, sa (:1 is satistned

rm], snppase G+ r has a small A As w-ave (11*,,11, 1>nv sr 1+

eantains an A+B' separaviar S an 7*, then replacing in W every F i 'F

snxrir ,,+, _Q H,

1 1 ++, B ' ,,.+ 030

030 042L ++,.
, 1 1* 1

·, ,_,, ,Z+,,_,, +1 1.1

1 Z ( 1.1
1 1 @-11, ,1
14++ ZZ ++-ZZ 1·1 1-1

+ s
paths any vertiexs al A L daes nav caver, As a lies an 7** huv nav in A,

in GZ (AUB1 a.11d path systems up 5 uv. 5|inG sa thaveaeh nl;. 11;.

Lev HL :Z (( aI |11 e A1, Clearly, In is an AA B wave in G +11*,

and iv is lange and maximal: il nav, vhen G Z 11* has a praper AA B

praper AAB w-ave (w-hich hy as-umptian daes nav exist1, 1.111* e B,

the existene-e al HL makes 11* linlahle lar (G, A, B1, Sa we ass11nr1e vhav

11* e B, Naw In :Z (11* I and up areas desired,

A,. AB wave (Fig, 3,4,41,

Z 1:1

1 1,, ZL, ZZ _ ZZ1_1 Z1~1

11
-
I
J
T
K
V 1 Z 1 1 11· 1 1 U,. 1 1 1 ,1

.1,. G,. .1,. 11 031ZZZAZ`

(lv,., A..1 is a wave in GZ T,., Lev F,. he srrch a pavh F, masen sa vhav F:.

trxed enumeratian al \'(G1, Nate vhav p.F,. Q G,. Z A,., hy deturitian

G Z 11. huv alsa in G Z T,. Z;·..F,., and 11* s linlahle lar (G, A, B1 wivh

11*+B path F;. and X Z \'(T,. U p,.F,. 1, we mn- therelare as-ume vhav

wave huv GL. Z 1,. daes, sa hy Lemma 3,4,5 every A,. A B wave in

maximal A A B wave in G Z T,.,., lla,. e B, vhen T,.,. eantains a pavh

we may therelare assrurre vhav a,. g B, giving 1'..+r Q G Z (A U B1 as

(\v*, A 0311
he their lirrriv, Our aim is ta shaw vhav A* separates A 1-ram

pree-edes p,. ir arrr trxed enunrreravian al \'(G1, The laev vhav F w-as nav

jains A va q; this path taa avaids A*, Buv vhen WqQ eantains an AZB
Tkreerrerrr 8.4.7. (Pym19691

Let G be a graph. and let A, B Q \'(G1. Snppase that G euntains twe

Far la¤lly trrrite graphs, they all have straighvlarward extensians hy

extensian al l·{anig's thearem (2,1,11 is naw a carallaryal Thearem 3,4,2:

Tkreerrerrr 8.4.8. (Aharani 19341

nav matehahle ta N(S1 huv N(S1 is matchahle ta SZhy the marriage

thearem! (l.ndeed, hy the mirrimalivy al S and the marriage thearem, any

Il\'(S1I» this matehing cavens N(S1,1 Thus, il there is any ahstructian S

 S is larger vharr N (S1 in this ather sers: vhav S s nav matehahle ta

N(S1 huv N(S1 is matehahle ta S,

ta N (S1 brit N(S1is rnatehable ta S.

U U B Q N(A 024,
U1 is matehahle t1aA 024,
U, hy the edges al M, Anrd il

A 024,
U s matehahle ta N(A 024,
U1, then adding this matehing ta the edges

thearem: il N(S1 is matehahle ta S huv nav eanvensely, then clearly

|S| s |N(S1|,

*;,2:M laetar, then thesev atvertiens cavered hy anyp.r1-a1rL111.rteh111y+anethav

:f;" 034""
paths he
034
turite, as
030lang as vhey have a trnst vertex, Then, startingav any

Tkreerrerrr 8.4.10. (Stetfens 19171

alten (in w-him cs its stavus will he undetured av the limivZexa.mple1 0311,
er 1 ce.rrrreeen·1vyan1·1 memhrns 725

Tkreerrerrr 8.4.11. (Aharani 19331

thearun (2,2,11: il QQ; s nav matehahle va S in Q, then hy vhe

Callai-Fdmands thearem (2,2,31;

S QS' Q \' 024+

U(\'(C1|C e {LSI

and M Q M', Sine-e QP; Q QJ, hr any such Sand S', 7arn 030s
lemma

Thearem 3,4,11 there is asev T Q \'(C1srrch vhavCg1_, is nav matehahle

w-hile T' s matehahle ta C; lev M' he srch a matehing, Then (S, M1 s

(S U T, MU M'1, cantradicting the maximalivy al (S, M1,

and vie-e versa (hy the chaie-e al S1, sa Prapesitian 3,4,6 yields vhav
ms 1 mmpmp smqgupn K nt mdu wu1, ud mmytq pujw it K

svmngjy pmznq Cm G wmkzq pujw st me ¤nmmm¤ nmnkm nt

8.5 The topological end space

G Z U; E, [ly ud iu ends? By emuidumg mpnlngjuj vusimns nt

S ne mmm nr my mma sw. ¤.¤¤.k.;y nm mam mm nu mmm my me

spending pninm sem \'IHl U EIHI,

snksevs nf In,¤l me mrnspnnd, hy nur nxed hijeninn hemeen In,¤l

and I¤,1l, hn an nven sem in ID, 1 I, Fm every vernex n and e ~ ll, deelue

mnuins n my {mm .i, [em !lIS,.¤l :: (J e Q I,

Fm every r ~ 0, wrive {nr the sem nl all inner pninvs nl S 024

C'.IS,.¤l:: CIS,.¤lu!lIS,.¤luE.IS,.¤l. Lrsm

This mmpleus vhe dennnien nf IGI. whnse epen sevs ue vhe nnsens el

qnive independenuy nl whevher they mnuin any rnys {mm snsh ends:

my ue jus; msec me me penn sel Icp A s.m.m1 shspm me |c| 3;:;

s nne me mnuins every edge (including ivs endverunsl nl whish im

i The emsm el n see X Q |G| nill he denmed hy X, Fer example, el.¤l.eT

X Q V s me sem nl veevh nummh vhen Xmnuins me end mins spine,

while mnversely {nr everyend .n e X and every my R e .n vhere is n wml:

vhe snhguph CIS,.nl mnsidered nnve is me sem CIS,.¤l U !lIS,.nl,

bully nnive, vhen |G| s use mmpumzw

snhmver, Pink n vernex np s G, n-me D,, hr me Inninel sem nl venins

lem (`lvl denme me mnmpnnenm MG 024

S,, mnuining n, and lem Cm he

030
rnpelngsu
034an Im me memnunrr mnpmqrunwn nrc.
irs rlnsnre mgevher wivh all inner pninvs nl CI¤l 024S,,
edgs, Then G IS,.]

and whase (`lvl mgevher pa.ni 042i¤n

|G|,

\\e wish hn prnve mam, {nr same n, nh nl me sevs Gm wivh u e D,.

s snnvained in same Olul s CL Fm when we ran vane a nnive snhmver

vminsl. and add hn im whasennively many sevs Ulm an nhvain me desired

n e D,. smh what ne see lrem cl mneains Gm is nenempey, hlmeever,

S,,,, Q S,,, and henee n s lem _/(ul he snsh a vernex n, By the

snsh what C.IS,.¤l Q 0. Nnw shnnse n huge ennugh what S,, mnvains

(`INI Q CIS,.¤l Q 0 e Cl.

mnuadining me lan what z;. i \C.» U

(why null Bn; QIGI ¤n he mmpan; see Exerrise 61 {nr when im is,

nm every mnnened zuvh has a nermal spanning nee, and im is nm

Tune (Theerem 2,4,1l: referenns {nr mnre snrh rrsmlvs a.re given in me

and Aa Q Xa.

1]nnplaranan
mere as enly
asane
lalse
arrenrnpanenr,
an general, even
men
larX
mans
s .¤¤.¤»nnn»r.1,
X Q IGI nam sanre
G larally
In,

have .n as meir mmmnn endpninm and a.re nmerwise diininm, men k is

e
h
T
me
,
e
r
m mpnlnglmtl
Fm X : |G|lenendeyne nlm
and G lnrally ln X,
nnive, me Impnlrgicall end degrees in
dun ¤i\'IGI. and F :: EIX,Yl.

(il F islinlnelhnd ¤nJyliX¤Y : 6.

Iiiil 1H" ls lnnnsne and X and Y ere bmi eenneened ln G, mere ls

16,2,2l. mere is a eamh in G arm veem in X': lem a he me end alias

spine, Then every hasie epen neighhnnrhnnd C',IS,.al at .a meevs X'

innnively and henee alsn meevs Y, giving .a e XUY,

hasie npen sem at me {arm C)IS,.al misxs X nr Y, nn end .a Irs in me

Iiil Clearly |G| 024

F : GIX| uGIY|, and hy (il mis nnian is dis.

Iiiil By lil, mere is an end a e XMY, Apply me snareamh lemma

eirele S Q
030
W, Far example, il G is me 2-way innnive ladder shnwn

nhvained hy adding me mwn ends at G, is a drele, Similarly, me dnnhle

mey dn IExereise Till:

 o u Ll; I I 3 I 3 v

|I I| |U

spaee at |G| mam eanvains every vernex and every end hn; eanvains ne 'N

jnndrzmenmt umm C. nl e wim ns-pen he X, Similarly, lar every edge

inndamenval ems are nnive IExereise Nl,

ure mighe exper; mam me elesnre T at an erdinary spanning 042.ree

tail in awe ways: il T has a vernex at innnive degrm men T mq tail he

he areennnened Ialmnngh im rjll he mpnlngieally mnnened, heeanse

T sl; if T s lneally nnive, men T will he areennnened hn; may mnvain

a drele (Figure 6,5,2l, On me nmer hand, a srrhgraph whnse elnsnre is

rm], rei T he a rnrrnal spanning 042ree
el G, lay nernrna eu, every

.a me me ram at T, sn T s areeanneeved,

lr remains he eheeh mam T eenvains ne eirele, Snppese im dns, and

eempnnenm C ¤lG 024S,

Thns, VICI : VULI and \'IG 024Cl
: \'I1'.,l»

se me sem EIGSI nl edges hemeen mise sevs mnvains nn edge at A,

Bn; G and panivinn |G| 024

EIGSI inm mwn npen se 042s,
As 034

A Q |G| 024e
EIGSI. mis mnuadievs me lan mam A is mpnlegically mn-

graphs G, haxd an mei: Ipnssihly innnihel eirenivs,

at all edges mae lie in D, sr an edd nnmher alindiers r, New denne

me 1¥ap»L»gie·rL,l rode srrm {IGI elG as me snhspaee alias edge spaee

" men n me nineeeee ¤.¤··lr.er nie me s» .n Im

at {IGI is a snm nl elemenvs at E, Far example, me eyele spaee at me

nnine graphs wim vnpnlngisal eyele spans,

Thmrerrr 8.:.8. IDirs-nel is Kuhn NMI

Len G Z Ill E, III be a lainllyxinlne eirnneeneu graph.

IiI {IGI errnnains preelsely zhirse siilseu airs dia: mee: every linine

IiiI Every elernenn iri{IGI is a diqirln: sdm ai elreniu.

IiiiI The Aindarnennal elreniu ai any nirpirlirgreal spanning nee iriG

generane {IGI.

lnrward, pan IiiI s nm mam easy, This s heeanx im is nn lnnger suaighm-

alemenm at {IGI inm *din¤inm eireni 042s

me prnnl
030, at IiiI has nn, snmehnw,

pm: sr rneerenr aaa. In Ler u e may he even, and eensider {Iii;

D CL, I cI
where (L denmas me inndamenval eirenim at e- wim ras-pen hn T, Tn

IiiI Lee D e {IGI he gven, Gnnsider a maximal sem at dinninm

henee Z' z: D 024

Z e {IGI, We wish ha shaw mam Z' : 6,

X :Z I\'u!zuUZ'I=e 024,

dnsed in |G|, s¤H Q X,, and Q Xu, l.npa.nienla.r, WNW : 6,

se hy Lemma 6,5,5IiI me ene F :: EI\i..\LI ¤fG is nnihe, hlnrenver.

r m z' Z Ie I. snee every emer edge el z' lirs in X, and henee in X.,

nr in X,. As Z' e {IGI. mis mnuadievs IiI,

IiiiI ln nur prnnl nl IiI we already prnved me mrs; impnnanm ea;

at IiiiI. where me mpalagieal spanning 042.ree

in rrnrsrian is me elasrrre at

a mrmal spanning uee, The prnnl lar a.rhi 042.ra.ry

vnpnlngisal spanning

aae nnive IExereise 14I, D

C¤r¤lI¤fy 8.:.9. {IGI is generaned lgylinine eimiirs. and is elirsed rin.

nrndamenval eirenivs at T eeineide wim mase at T. and aae merelnre

nnine, By Thenrem 8,5,6 IiiiI. mey generahe {IGI,

,
H
semrennnseesd
G in G 024
Ins an leas1 kIA il
1Ievery hniveene
mm-edges. ¤lG
zhen G eenvains an edge atsenrieirn.
has k edge-dlqirinn

edgs mam arise in me mnuaninn, Then GI¤n.,,,.¤..| is an indneed

srrhmnlvigraph at G,,, Lee 1;, denme me see at all k-enplrs IH),,,,,,H;I

edges aae alse ernsedgrs at F, Thenrem 2,4,1 implies mam 1;, e 6,

Sinee every IH),,,,,,up e 1;, indners an elemenm IH},_,,,,,,H,f_,I

nf k-mplrs,
aseqneneeat
1;,sr, meane
inhnizy
tramlemma
eaeh 1;,,
Ié,1,2I,
wim ayields
limi; IH 030,,,,,WI
dehned hy me
Naw mnsider me k-tnple IH}, ,, , , , H: I whieh me innnity lemma piehed

{mm IL., Eaph nl mise H;, s a mnneeted spanning srrhgraph at G,,, se

at me zuvhs Hi, at meir limit H 030 024and

mis, na dmrht, s why '1\rtte

and anlyiim elirsrrre H in |G| is naprrligreally eanneened.

Frm], ll H s dismnneeted, it is mntained in me nninn nl twn elnsed

srrhsets 0r.0r nl |G| mat ham meet H and satisiy 0, ¤0,¤H : 6,

Sinee H s a standard snhspaee mntaining VIGI, me sets 0, partitinn

Xr ¤Tr Q 0r¤0r¤QIGI Q 0r¤0r¤H:¤,

By Lemma 6,5,5 IiI. mis implies that G has nnly nnitely many X, 024X,

dennis a partitinn at H inm nnnempty npen srrhsets, shnwing that H

than eirnnains \'IGI alsir eminains a nirprrligieal spanning tree iriG.

{mm T, By Lemma é,s,5IiiI. me edges in snm a ent mnld nat all he

mee lemmas, Fm Ii I~IiiI, let G have edgedinaint tapnlrgieal spanning

mere aae nnly nnitaly many, Far eaph r s (1,,,,,kI, let TY he the

Tn rstahlish that G has at least kIL 024

1I emssedgrs, we shaw mat

edges, mis ent is trrrite, By Lemma 8,5,5 Iii I, mis mntradiets me are-

Ezaercises
11 shaw rhar a graph G errnrains a 1 030l&"*
rl and rrrrl,. rl srrrne end rrr G s
25 ' shaw rhar rhe arrrrnnrrrphrsrns rrr a graph G : IV. EI arr narrrrall,. an
`
and ane in r.-' Isrhe saine rrrre lrrr all graphs rhar are nrrr lrreally hnirei

1 < J rhar Cr Q C, and G. : GI AGC.] errnrains Is,I dspniu

sa ' Ler G he a errnneered graph Assnninrg rhar G has a nrrrnral spanning

Call snm a seqnenee eqrrnalerrl nr anrrrher snm seqnenee rlenry ser rrr

ss Ler F he a ser nr edgesrn a lrrealln nnne graph and ler .t he

ss Ler 1* he a spannnrg rree rrr a graph G Nrrre rhar T s a errnneered

hnne rhen T s areerrnneered Fnrd an eraniple where T s nrrr are,

In I 1* s edgeenrarnnal snm rhar T errnranrs nr. earrle.

Nu tes
~1l>l> 024
¤*I
errnreernre mr all sers .\,£i Q VIGIGHIGI sarslyrng .mH ; N ; Rnli.

tail rlT\n`E ¢ W Hrnrerrr rl we agnnie rhar TUIF : tv. rhen rhe separarrrr X
lerr IIG [u,. ¤.r]II when VIGI ; (n,. ur. ). srahen In J carpsar. P Erdaes
9 Ramsey Theory

for Graphs

mer a IC ar an indneed Dars evay la.rge enangh ranneeted graph

9.1 Ramsey 031s
original theorems

r G tl, every large ennugh graph G centains either IC ¤rTas an indnced

ahnnt Ir 0242IIIr
1I nlall
024 pnsihle edges te lnrce a IC srrhgraph in G

IG¤r¤lla.ry 7,1 ,3 I, hnt neimer G nar G ran he expected te have mnre than

strnctnre an G, which may help ns nnd an indnced K1,

n, e 1; z: VIGI, l.t|G| slarge, mere will heala.rge set 1; Q 13 ur I

nmer vertiers all lie in \5, Let ns men chaase annmer vertex rh s W

hr mir K1 nr F, Since W s large, it will have a srrhset 1;, sill lairly

sarch {nr vertiers inside \}, and sa an IFig, 9,1,1I,

T
V
I
s
r
e
i
t
r
e
v u, mrtlicrs te nnd amang them me vertiers ala K1 nr F,

leasn n rrwinains einher K1 rrr? as an indreeed srrhgraph.

Ir e: 2***, and let G he a graph er erder at least vv, we shall denne

a seqnenee nf sets and chaase vertiers u, s \§ wim the

mllewing v¤¤v¤¤i¤=

IiI Iz Z 1,»»»,7rZ7I:
 2
:
z
I
i
i
I mer h arbacent eimer te all vertiers in 1; ar te ne vertex in 1,

I t : 2,,,,,2y» 2I,

Let 13 Q 1'IGI he any st nl 2"" vmiers, and pich n, e 13 arhitrarily,

Then IiI hnlds ler r : 1, while IiiI and IiiiI held trivially, Suppese new

mat Her and mer e \{er have heen chnsen sa as te satisty IiIrIiiiI {nr

hier · 024
I ver ll Z?""" Z1

is edd, 1Lr has asnkset 1L stisiying Ii I 024IiiiI;

w·epich n, e 1; arhitrarily,

shew me mme hehavinnr when viewed as mer in IiiiI, heing aeqacent

and mer induce eimer a IC ar aF in G, heeanse e 12

neinmr HIrI nl r; nur preel shews mat I1IrI 5 2* l.n Chapter 11 we nerrnher

shall nse a simple prahahilistic a.rgnment te shew that l~zIyI s hnnnded "" 0

helnw hy 2*** (The¤rem11,1,3I,

errrirements as in Chapter 5, Given a eeelenring at IX|*, me set at all IxI*

as
s Irr at
n
e
i
t
i
t
r
a
p
r
s
a
u have me Smilarly,
IX|*, nnre ealerrri
il G re, heleng
: I1; te
EI is ame nnre
graph as
and me
all r
me edges at

every 2<¤l¤nring at IX[ yields

030amenechrematic yset Y Q X, lnterrst-

irrgly, mis asrtien remains trrre lar ceelarrrings at IX|* wim a.rhitra.ry

IX|* is errlrrrered with c rrrlrrrers, zhen X has an innnine rnrrnrrehrerrnade

New
030 mat y s sailed rrr.nr.mrr.rrr.trc brit rt s me elements r.: [11* nr.; r.: y
 Let IX]* he eelerrred w·im c eelenrs, we shall censtrrrct an inhrrite

IiI X.+r Q X, 024 024(1.I:

IiiI all ksets (1, I u z w·im z e have me mme eelenr,

Xe s inhnite, Having chesen an intrnite set X, and 1, e X, hr seme z,

we ccelenr IX, 024,

(Ir II hy
035giving each
030 set Z me celenr el (1, I U Z

lrem enr ccelenring el IX]*, By me indnctien hypemesis, X, 024,

(1, I

¤iIX]*.

a ccelenring In]* Ac srrch mat n centairrs ne menechrematic r-set, Let

Zim", ers ran aren eelerrrrngs era; ree are mers asarrrrrng mat ser every n G k

` mere exists a had celerrringel In]*, Orrr aim is te cemhine mese inte a

had celerrringel n~1]*, w-hich w-ill centradict Theerem 11,1,2,

Fer every n G k let 1;, x I he me set el had celenrings el In]*, Fer

n » k, menstrictien _/IgIelany y e 1;, te In 024

1]* is still had, and hence

el had celenrings g,, e 1;, srrch mat fm all

n » k, Fer every nr G k, all celenrings;,, w-im n G nr agreeen Inr]*, se

hr each Y e Il·1]* me valne el y,,IYI ceincidcs ler all n » max Y, Let

el Ir1]*: every yset S Q rl is eentained in seme srtiiciently la.rge n,

se S rannet he menechrematic since y eeincids en In]* w·im me had

9.2 Ramsey numbers

cemplement G centairrs a cepy el H as a srrhgraph, Clea.rly, the mme is

trrre ler a.ny graph H, smply hecanse H Q k'· ler h es |H|,

me aheve ernstienmans sense isH has enly sew edgs, it sherrld emhed 031
I

mere easily in G er G, and we wenld expect IZIHI te he srraller than

me Ramseynnmher I1IhI : I1II('·I,

mat Hr Q G er Hr Q G hr every graph G el erder n, Fer mest graphs

elten sharper man even me hest hennds previded hy explicit censtrnc-

Irrderz. Then HI1',K 035I

Z Ia 024
1II¢ 0241I+1.

rm],
,
T
]
'
I
K The mtcentain
des dineint nnien erThis
IC', r 71prevs
graphs KM eentains
I1I1;IC'I G Ia ne
024 cepy
1IIz er
0241I+1,

elG Iin me sen: el Chapter 5I at mest a 024

1 vertiers can have me mme

celeur, Hence, \IGI z InIIa 024

1I] : 2, By Cerellary 5,2,3, G has a
 Theerrerrr 9.2.2. IChva.tal, Red], Sremeredi ir Tretter 1933I

RI H I S c|H|

II I I] rrmj, The hasic idea er me preer is as renews, ue re-ish te shew- mat

Is 1 11 H Q G er H Q Gil |G| s large eneugh Imeugh net tee largeI, Censider

te nnd H in G, Let H, I1 and I1' he me regularity graphs elG w·hese

edgs cerrrspend te me pairs el density G tl: G 1I2: e 1I2 rrspectively, 031

New te ehtain H Q G er H Q G, it srtliers hy Lemma 1,5,2 te

er RQ, Since \IHI S AIHI+1 S A+1,miswillhemecasei1a G ¤eIHI

and we can nnd a I( 024*+*

in I1' er in I1", But mat is easy te ensure: we

.1 A Fer me lermal preel let new- A G 1 he given, On input d :: 1I2

·..nr and A, Lemma 1,5,2 retunrsanee, Letn1:: RIA+1I he me Ramsy

. numher el A +1, Let e S ee he prsitive hut small eneugh mat ler k : m

Iarrd hence ler all k G ml

1~ I"

regularity lemma I1,4,1I en input e and nr,

e Let H w·im AIHI S A he giv¤1, and let a :: |H|, LetG heanarhitrary

an graphelerdernGc|H|:weshewmatHQGerHQG,

hr
031
rnir n.r-rrr.1crr.r.rI. 042er
we shan dehne if . time drnererruy sem.; rt eemclrs
 1 024e ,2 I2I

IIHII G
r .e _ * G

G in I1 F 2e)

G ¢..._1IkI

cerrrspends te apair I1;, 1) I eldensity at least 1I2, and grmn emerw·ise,

r :: \IHI S A +1, Cerrrspendingly, H Q IZ, er H Q M, Since

e 5 en and A G 2aId 024*

hy I2I, hemg and r1' satisty me redrrirements

elLemma1,5,2,seHQGerHQGasdesired, D

relatien, Given a graph H, let ns call a graph G mrrnseei-menemert ler H

'5 2 5* erder at least n mat is Ramsey-minimal ler T,

\IGI » y and
031 girth yIGI » n, ll we celeur the edgs el G red and

ehtain a centradictien te \ IGI » r 031,

Se let G' Q G he menechrematic

el T, (Here we use mat Ts net astar, and hence centairrs a F* 030,I

Se G'

9.3 Induced Ramsey Lheorems

yields a menechrematic H Q G: as it tunrs eut, mis is w·imssed hy

graph,

; 030f_':f
srrch
030a graph a Ramsay ynrph ler H,

IriEIGI. Iss an indreced srrhgraph H with EIHI Q E, rrr EIHI Q E,.

repeatedly replace vertiers el a graph G G I1', EI already censtructed

cepis HI¤I el H and jeining each HInI eempletely te all HIn'I with Hm

nr! e Eandtleallvertiers n e1' 024,

U with rrr e E IFig,9,3,1I, Fermally,

II G i I

IU>.1'IHIIUII1' 024,UI>.(¤II

in w-hich tw·e vertiers In, reI and Ie', ren are aeuacent itand enly il eimer

en' e E,eralsen G n' e Uandrerd e EIHI, 031

Far any twc graphs H,,H, there mm a graph G G

|H,| +|Ha|, as hllews,

men I¢I helds w·im G : Fler large eneugh n, Fer me inductien step,

I·I helds ler all pairs IHI, HII wim smaller |HI| + |H;|,

The
031reclaeerrerrt r.r1 U by It UI v (u) s nin . n.rrrr.1der·ree 1. ennrre
 \\e mall censtruct asequence G",, , , ,G ddineint
035 graphs; G" will

shall denne suhsts1" Q 1'IG and

030Iamap

I1I

r ler all 1 G 1, writing _/ 030

:G je ,,,e_I hr me 1·£eld cempesitien el],

and _I ler
034me identity map en 1' 034
G 1'IG 034I,
we thrrs have _/'InI e 1' 034

errrgrn hr all n e 1", \e\e ¤ll _/ 030I¤I

me mgen el n,

Asrtien I2I w-ill net he usd lermally in me preel helew-, Hewever,

crrcr G,:GGIH,,HII and Gr:GGIHI,H,I,

0*1** Let G" he a cepy elG,, and st 1' :G

0341'I6*I, Let 11},,,,,11;,, hethe

ttj srrhsets el1' spanning

034 an HI in 6*, Thus, n s denned as me numher

n el induced cepis el HI in 6*, and we shall censtruct a graph G ler

030

ttf every set HYG1, 1 G1,,,,,n, Fer 1 G 11,,,,,nG 1, let HY he meimage

el1'IH{I under seme isemerphism HI ~6* IHQ],

As-ume new- mat and have heen denned

ler seme 1 G 1, and mat _I has heen denned en 1" and

satishrs I1I ler all ,i S 1, \\e censtruct G lrem

030 G" in
030
tw-e steps, Fer

u·y¤ me nrst step, censider me set url el all me verticxs e e 1"" whese

erigin lics in Ill, IFer 1 G 1, mis givcs nd G HQKI Expand

G-r 1 In 1 nerr- graph GZ I Idigeint {rem G" I 030

hy replacing every vertex

crm 11 e U" w-im

030 acepyG,InI elG,, i,e, let
 er 1. U

1` '"` Z ·I I **-32* · ` 042

·I "

re.; re; "

Isee Figurrs 9,3,2 and 9,3,3I, Set _II11'I :G 11 hr all 11 e U" and
030

u'
n(Recall
e GrI¤I,
mat I¤,WI
and _II¤'I
s simply
:G u the
hr unexpanded
all n' G I¤,¤I
cepy
w-im
el a vqtex n e G" 030

in Let1" he me st el mes vertiers n' er r1' el GH mr w-hich 1·

J has mus heen denned, i,e, me vertiers mat eimer cerrrspend directly

te a vertex n in 1"" rr else heleng te an expansien G,InI el srrch a

vertex 11, Then I1I helds ler 1, Alse, il we assume I2I inductively ler

1 G 1, men I2I helds again ler 1 Iin GHI, The graph GH is already

me csntial part el G 030:

the part mat leehs like an intlated cepy el 6*,

l.rr me secend step we new- extend G" te

030
me dcsired graph G hy
030

stach
GrIr1I exactly ene
F induced
G IHII11I
cepy
| 11el HI,I Fer each F e 7, add a

vertex 1IFI te G" andjein

030 it, ler every 11 e te all me vertiers in rIF1

me HII¤I Q GaI11Islected hy F IFig,9,3,2I, Denete merrsnrltinggraph

hy G 030,
This cempletes me inductive dennitien el me graphs 6*, , , , ,6 030 035,
cs

Let us new- shew- mat G :G 6 030

satishcs
035
IeI, Te mis end, we preve

me lellewing asrtien I¤I aheut G ler

0301 G tl., , , , n:

1'IHI Q \" and the remcmrn 1ri_/' t1r\'IHIkanis1rrn¤r.

phisrn between H and6*IW]]i1rrs1rrnek e(1,,,,,nG1 I.

 Nete mat the mird el me aheve cass cannet aris ler 1 G n, sc I¤I ler

n is equivalent te I¢I w-im G :G G",

Fer 1 G 11, I¤I hllews lrem me cheice el 6* as a cepy el G, G

GIHr,HLI and me dennitien el the sts W], New let 1 S 1 S n, and

as-ume I¤I hr smaller valus el 1,

Let an edge celeuring el G he

030given, Fer each 11 e U" mere
030 is a

cepy el Gr in G 030:

G Q
030
GrI11Is GIHI.HrI,

l.tGrI11I centairrs an induced Hr celeured 2 ler seme 11 e we are

r 11 e and let 1:G 1IFI, Lt, ler seme 11 e all me 1GHI'I11I

el J te

DM U" :G
030
(y,, | rr e U" I 030
Q 1**

e
e
t and GG
eur ILM
se edge e IIn,uI el
celeuring I rG induers
030 an edge celerrring

el llmis celeuring yields an induced H, Q G" celeured

030 1 er an

induced Hr Q G" celeured

030 2, we have msealse in G" Q030
G* and are

By I¤I ler 1G1 we may merelere assume mat G" has

030an induced

H' srrhgraph H' celeured 2, w-im 1'IH'I Q and srrch mat the rrstric.

tien te 1'IH'I s an semerphism lrem H' te 6*IW]] G HI

srrhgraph Q G Ialse
030 celeured 2I: men \'IH'I Q 1".

J 030I\'IH'II
Z G WL.

and J': H' G6* I WI] s an semerphism,

as-ume mat k s 1, and hence k G 1G1 (Fig, 9,3,3I, By dennitien

el U" and
030 me inverse image el H1, under me isemerphism

s a suhset el Since 1 s jeined te precisly

mese vertiersel H' mat lie in and all mcse edgs 1y,, have celeur 2,

me preel el I¤I is cemplete, D

 Ir I id?} I
I I I»lI-I II-III VIITI "

" I ,3|
|"" T II I
I I,`· 024·I*,;I
:11eGaIG I I| ,G{/ I

. I VCI I` II I GGG1
I Ges |._| G IGI
031

I`II.IIII
I
I I ·~ II I I I

I I I HI · I II
H I,

$ VI ` ` 4> H {

man mese in H, i,e, mat .aIGI G raIHI. me prehlem again hecemcs

e- e
e
r
h
p
a
r
g shan denne an emhedding G F GIX. IX|"* EI,
030,

Let us start hy stting ¢I¤.I :G 1, mr all 1 G 1,,,,,n, which

In +1I-sets Y Q X are suitahle candidates ler me cheice et ,rIb,I ler

a given vertex A I Clearly mese aa-yacent exactly te me imags el the

neighheurs el A, i,e, mese satisiying

I1I

Since »lIb.I S n, me requirement el I1I leavs at least ene el me n +1

include in each Y G ,vIAI the vertex e, s an ·index'; this ensurs mat

,rIb,I G ,oIbII ler 1 G j. even w-hen b, and bl have me sme neighheurs

Ir 1 i1 Frm], we may as 024ume

hy Lemma 11,3,2 mat F has me term IX, IX]*,EI

I¤·' x' h' IX', IX']* ,E' I, w·here k' :G 2kG 1, X' s any st et cardinality

G
'
r WI E':G(1'Y'|1'eY'I,
|Y'| G 2k G 1 edgs incident w·im a vertex Y' e IX'|*', at least k must

The sts z' ran liewithin meir srpersts 1** in I;) wes, as renews,

e1IjI pesihleimags, V V

me rew- celeur IX'|* wim me 2II I elements er me st

I(1,,,,,k'I]* >. (er,¤I

as celeurs, giving each Y' e IX'|* s its celeur me pair Ir.·,··Iz'I,yI,

as me nanrsy numher wim paranreters k', 2IjI and k|X| + k G 1, we

All Z' w-im Y' Q W mrrs lie w-imin meir Y' in me sme way, i,e, there

exists an S e I(1,,,,,k' I]* srch that rr,··Iz'I G S sr all Y' e IW]*',

and all Y' e IW]*' are asrrated w·im me sme celeur, say w·im er, rr

me new- detrne .1 en IX]*, Given Y e IX]*, w·e wish te chees ¤IIxI.

,vIYI G: Y' s se mat me neighheurs el Y' anreng me vertiers

Ithcse are k vmiees el type urI and men extend Z' hy H G k iurther

vertiers rr e W 024,
,rIXI te a st Y' e IW]*', in srrch a we- mat z' lis

Y'¤·:IXI Z Z' ZI¢I¤I I: i YI,

and Y' is asciated w·im dI, Finally, ,1 s irnectiveen IX]*: me imags

ȢIXI ditfer, Hence, eur map ais indeed an emheddingel F in F', EI

 1 G 1I =

rr G. 1-,I;I __ 'I 031j 024I

I. _ .·

I I IiI

HI
III
II
·
..
I·I 030

I·I I-I

r G 1I rv

v n and let n :G HITI he me Ramsy numher el r :G |H|, Then, ler every

\\e start hy cerrstrrrcting a graph G", as hllews, l.magine me ver.

l.rr erder tie detrne G" hrmall1 030,

ue as-ume mat 1'IKI G ( 1,,,,,nI

sts, IThus, en each I-st in'l'IKI we have ene trxed cepy HI el H,I

vIc 034I:GII1,,iI|1G1,,,,,I·:,iG1,»»»,IUI
 I?)

I' Ia

1I II I me I I I

I I I I 1

I UI

EIG 034I
:G U II1,,iII1',,iI I 11' e EIHIII,

Applying me lemma iteratively- tie all me pairs el rew-s el 6*, w-e een.

G Q
034
G te (1,,,,,nI [hy centracting its rew-sI men detrncs an edge

celeuring in the jm celumn el eur 6*, w-here it is an induced srrhgraph

e1G 034,
and hence er G,

Fermally, we shall denne a sequence G",, , , ,G"* el n-partite graphs

G*, wim n-partitien (1;*,,,,,1;f I and men let G :G G"*, The

graph 6* has heen detrned aheve; let 1;*,, , , , 1;f he its rew-s:

\T=Z II¤.,iII,iZ1.»»».II 030JI» IJ'

11,,,,,nr G 1, censtrrrct G** lrem

030 G* as lellews, ll ere, G 1,1,, say, Ir I1

let F Z I12I,12l,EI he me hipartite srrhgraph et G* induced hy its Iv

F" G IW,, W,, E7 I, wew-ish tie detrne G** Q

030
F" in srrch a waymat every ur 11;

G* rrspecting meir n-partitiens, Let ( ,oI,, , , , ,o, I hethe set el a, rr

1'IG** 030I:G1;**
u,,,u1;**
030 030,
 II;,;I1;*>~ (pII q
irdmeirrt
1 cepis el1;*,I We

new- detrne me edge st elG*+* se mat me ehvierrs extensiens el ,1,, te

all et 1'IG*I heceme emheddings nl G* in G** 030=

lm p Z 1,,,.,q, let

he detrned hy

WI I* IIn,pI hregF

¤IG** G
030I
I_II¢=1I¤I¢=1I¤'I|¤¤'< ¤IG*II»

New ter every 2eeleuring el its edgs, G** centairrs

030 an induced wpy

¢·,IG*I el G* w-hes edgs in F, i,e, mese hetween its 1Im and 1,m rew-,

have me sme celeur: just cheese p se mat e¢rrIFI is me menechrematic

GII~ {rem GIIZI, we isn nnd in G"* an induced cepy el such mat

cepy el w-hes edgs hetwun the 1m and me 1'm rew- have the

sme celeur alse ler 11' G Centinuing in mis way, we trnally arrive

at an induced cepy el 6* in G srrch mat, ler each pair I1,1'I, all the

edgs hetwun 1;* and 1;* have me sme celeur, As shew-n earlier, this

G* centairrs a menechrematic induced cepy HI el H, D

9.4 Ramsey properties and connectivity

derrs er a very sparse induced srrhgraph el given erder, a IC er F, ll

we assrrme mat G s cennected, we can say a little mere:

rm], Let 4+1 he me aanrsy numher et 1, let n G Irrir

il AIGI S el, men hy Prepesitien 1,3,3 G has radirrs ~ r, and hence

rrmj, Let ri heme Ir asciated rr-im I ir 1>repesitien¤,4,1, and let G he I] j j]

a reennected graph wim at least ,5IdG 1I' vsties, lay rrepesitien

Theerrerrr 9.4.3. I0perew-ski, Oxley lr Themas 1993I

Let us call a graph elme term C" 1F In G 4I a dame rrrheel, the

 Theerrerrr 9.4.4. IOperew-ski, Oxley lr Themas 1993I

write'PS 'P 034iilereveryGe

'PmereisaG e'P'suchmatG
031 SG',

Lt 'P S 'P' as well as 'P G 'P 031,

we call 'P and 'P eqrreerrlent
031 and w-rite

srrhdivisierrs elstaas, men 'P ~ 'P' S 5 ( 'P,

;I···~··=*· In,,,,,,e, I er e 1 11.111.sa sr re. e Ir.-1.1. spe. re eI rr 11..

7; are incemparahle Ii,e,, 7; ( 'P; w-henever 1 G ,iI and ler every 'P e {

rrnrqrre mere is an 1 srrch mat 'P, S 'P, We rsll mis Kuratiew-shi set rrneqrre il

every Kuratew-shi st tert ran he w-ritten as ( Q1,,,,,Qt I wim gl, G 'P.

Prehensively as lellews Icl, Exercise ISI,

IivI The drrrehle wheels, the crrrrvns, the Airrtirs crrrrvns, and the

graphs K, , In e l~1I irrrrn the rrnirrree I4-element} Kreratrrrvslri set

Exercises

r1n\' G [Xp wrrh Is G (Ir.IiIIr'.I/I| r < Ii G r' <I/I

No tes

Lure rrr rnerrrrsed nrreraerrrrn wnh rrserrreh ern randrnrr and Iserrdrerarrdrrrrf

Frrr rhe nrrrre elasteal apprrareh, rhe nrrrrrdrrerrrry ren lm I1 L Grahanr.

cenrreu
030 graphs whase arrrrenrre reremhls me srrrrenrre ereeeted r.: . rerrdem
I2m:iI. 621+11. wher prrrrred rhar RIHI 024
IHI"~ 034 031
I 0 Hem11t0h Cycles

x
r
r
e
v
,
1
1
,
n
e
t
l
i
r
n
a
H
n
i
t
a
i
r
e
t er G
is is
men anysum a r·i1n11r1..
walh
knew-n is el
a cycle:
030 a Hermeltan
me graphs mat de,erlele
we elG, l.tG
shall has
hegin a
mis chapter

1U.1 Simple suliicient conditions

030
rr rrrdeed erpeeted tr. erst, see the new mr deurls
Theerrerrr 10.1.1. IDirac1952I

Frm/, Let G G I1', EI he a graph w-im |G| G n G 3 and 15IGI G nI2,

r|.'P |1̀
X"` |rr

el nI2 wim InI2I: il n is edd and G s me rrrrien eltwe cepis el KI'"]

high IcerrstantI value ler 1; ramer man ler 5 stands a hetter chance el
 By itsll, me asumptien el erIGI S k already guarantns a cycle el

an{ 030lan7ZIFlI1eIIinG,whereI
Qr,,andeachr;endsinn,,

,i I, and

l7IG¤¤i¤Ik.I 254'II I1I

1 a

e e·\___ A/f

weuld heacyclelenger man C (Fig, 111,1,2, le|tI, Thus |T| s |G|, and

hence |I| G IT] G khy I1I, Furthennere, e EIGIhrall 1,j el,

as emerw-ise ICU Fl U G meter G eimer w-errld he a cycle

k +1 er mere independent vertiers in G, centradicting ¤eI GI S k, D

Untertunately, it is net ditlicult te trnd even small graphs mat are

 Theerrerrr 10.1.3. I'1'utte 195GI

eerele in an innnite graph G s a hemeemerphiccepy el me unit circle S 030

gfx""" A Hermeltan eerele elG s a circle mat centairrs every vertex el G,

1U.2 Hamilton cycles and degree sequences

n-tuple Id,,,,,,d,,I s ralled me deyns saqrrens el G, Nete mat this

Il1,,,,,,¤,,I is pnentrmse grr1extermar1I11,,,,,,¤,,Iilri,
hezmeltanerrn it every graph w-ith n vmiers G rr,
andhr a
all 1,I
degrs "'mm_

Theerrerrr 10.2.1. IChva.tal1912I

Idr,,,,,dal stishs Id, d,rI

de G ¤e hr all 1 I1I

quenceIdr,,,,,¤L1IelG:mus,

in G, w-im 1r G 1 and 1,. Z y say,

ThenIuJQ (1,,,,,nG1I,andI¤J G9 hecarrsGhasne Hamiltien

·IX:I+·iIyI:IlI+IJI<II, IZI

se I1 :G dI1I a nI2 hy me cheice et 1, 11

cheice el 1 Itlezemer w-im yl, Orrr cheice el (1,yI 11-im dI1I +»lII!I
 dI1I+dI:I Gh+InGhI G n.

an S I1 and ¤G.GI1 S nGhG1

sequence man hut ne Hamiltien cycle, As me sequence

Ih,,,,,h, nGhG1,,,,,nGI1G1,nG1,,,,,nG1I

rr `T I 1,.

I
t
i 1; |GZG
is me unien el a IC=Z'* en me verticxs ¤I,e,,, , , , n,, and a Iq,I, with

parlivien sevs Ivr,»»»,ve. I and EI

By applying Theerem 111,2,1 te G e K 030,

ene ran easily preve the
 D

10.3 Hamilton cycles in the square of a graph

Given a graph G and a pesitive integer d, we denete hy 6* me graph en c.·*

at mest din G, Clearly, G GG Q

030
G Q031Orr gral in mis sectien is

Theerrerrr 10.3.1. Il-`leischner1914I

IIG is a 1-crrnnected graph, then G has

031a Hanriitrrn cycle.

\\e hegin w-ith mrs simple lemmas, Let us say mat an edge e- e G 031

Ierrrrrra 10.3.2. Let F G be apath Ik G 1]. and IetG be the

IiI F errntains
031 a path Q darn ra trr n, with 1'IQI G 1'IFI and

e EIQI. srrch that each ci the veruces ¤r,,,,,¤»Gr is

GI.s~ sl

edd, :GIiiI
letQ
ll k s even, let Q :G 1a¤r,,,¤eGr¤»: il k is edd, let Q :G

vmiers el G 031, D
 Ierrrrrra 10.3.3. LetG G I1', EI be a crelic rnreidgraph with aHanriItrrn

cycIeC. Let e- e EICI andJ e E 024,

EICI be edges with a crrnrnrrrn end n

e- in the drrecmrn rri n and then Ieaves n try the edge J.

I I I I

I]j Q] rm], lay 1>repesitien 1,1,1, G has even lengm, neplace every- emer

edgs at n (Fig, 111,3,2I, By Theerem 1,3,1 mis mrrltigraph has an Errler

Ierrrrrra 10.3.4. Far every H-crrnnectedgraph G and1 e 1'IGI. thereis a

Frm/, Ll G has a Hanrilten cycle, mere is neming mere te shew-, ll

net, let C" Q G he any cyde centairring 1; srrch a cycle exists, since G

I
030 I
I

I il/I
y had a neighheur J in G GC, men J w-errld lie in a cempenent U Q D

elG G C, centradicting me cheice et C" and D, Hence all me neighheurs

ely lie en C, and C satishes me asrtien el me lemma, D

any vertex 1* e G, mere is a Hamiltien cycle H in G w-im

031 me Iellewing

prev*¤1 030=

Fer |G| G 3 we have G G K', and me asrtien is trivial, Se

let IGI G 4, asarme me asrtien ler graphs el smaller erder, and let

2eennected, Hence, hy me inductien h1 030Pemesis,

D has
031arHa.miltien

mat have ne eemmen neighheur in G Iand are merrrslvs nen-aa-yacent

in GI, Let E deneteme st rg mese edges, and let 'PIDI denete me st rmt

el cempenents el IC; 1I G E; this is a st el paths in G w-hes

031 ends

aaeae-Uacent tie 1 in GG GG%Z Li

\ /
2 /

Let 'P denete me unien et me sts 'PIDI ever all cempenents D ri

The elernenu rri'P are pairwise diqrrint paths in G aveid.

031

1ngC. and 1'IGI G \'I 254'IULI,.Gp\'IF'I·

F1'e¤ 031¤¤dL/
LIN I1]
 rired under I1I: ne preperties el'P emer than mese w-ill he used later in

atye Fandat;/ e F',meny;/sarredgearrdF;;;/F'isapaminG 031;

Nc vertex 1riC is a irrrrt rri twIrr dimnct paths in 'P. I2I

ri, ry Fer 1 G 1,2 let 'FL Q 'P denete me st el all pams in 'P w-im exactly 1

x, x, leet, and let X, Q 1'ICI knete me st el all leet el paths in 1;, Then

Xr ¤Xr Z I h1' I2I, and if ·$Xr uXr,

in G and
031satisncs Isl hr me medined versien el G, it will de se alse

feet. I1£|F| G 1. these twIrr edges crrincide.] The rrniy edges

Our geal is tie censtrrrct me desired Hamiltien cycle H el G 1-rem

031

me pams in 'P and srritahle pams in C? As a trrst appreximatien, we

ez G G G G U Pr ,

Wm in 'Pr exactly ence, Later, we shall mediiy W se mat it passes

pams 1-rem 'Pr, Fer me cerrstrrrctien el W we as-ume mat P1 x 9: the

cas el 'Pr Z I s much simpler and w-ill he treated later,

neighheur nf :G 1,+, and a Lejr reighheur nf :G n,G,, Accerdingly, the an rrghr

edge ern lies tie me Lejt el e, me edge ew lcs en its right, and se en, ec, len

:G Faswellas and In rcI etc

me unique interval I¤,1e] with 1* e I¤,rc] as 1*, the pam in 11, with 1- r¤··

eet as endsI, By I2I, ni is cuhic, se we may apply Lerrrma 111,3,3 with

me pams 1-rem 'Pr hy detrning a map n 042e-IeI

024 042
mat is irqective en X, em

ntter case. e-I¤I e G and eI¤I x e1·.

a st that includs Xr hy I2I, Te errsrrre irqectivity en X,, we enly

as e-I1eI, l.ndeed, since IX1I G 2 iiirdectivity is aprehlem, and P, x W

hy asumptien, we have ICZ YI G IXr| +2 IMI G 4 and hence IGI G 5:

mrrs, ne edge el G can

031hridge mere man ene vertex el C, er hridge a

Fer eur intendedarhustmentsel W at me vertices et G, we censider

ajterwards Ilermally: W centairrs a triple Ie;1,e-I w-im 1 e X,

and e- e EI! II:

Type J: W traverses I tw-ice, en sparate eccasiens Ii,e,, mere is ne

LU :1* wecheesas c-Iul, lereach n e I, meedgetie meleit ele, As

I' G I* hy I4I, and hence 1r x 1*, mcse cheices ele-Iul stisiy I»I, Ll

I G I*, wedetrnee-Iul as meedgeleiteln ile e I1,,1*]¤I, and asthe

edge right el n it n c I1*,1rl, These cheices el e-Iul are again cempatihle

wim I esl,

end el I, Then W centains me walh y,1,I1,I1rI Ipesihly

031 in reverse

in W me suhwalh y,1,I1,I1, hy me y,G1, pam Q Q G el

031me lemma

n e I1r,1,I are each hridged hy an edge el Q, w-hich we chees as e-InI,

As e-Iajl we meese me edge tie me lelt el 1] Iunlcs 1, G 1,I, This

edge, tree, lies en Q, hy me lemma, hlereever, hy I4l it is net inci-

dent w-im 1* Isince 1, is me dead end et I, hy as-umptienl and hence

satishcs Inl, The cas mat 1r is me drad end el! ren he treated in

me sme we-: rrsing Lerrrma 1t1,3,2Iil, we replace in W me suhwalh

yr1rI1rI1r hy ayrG1, path Q Q G with

0311'IQI G 1'III, chees as e-Iel

ler n e I1},1rl an edge elQ hridging n, and detrne e-I1}l as me edge

tie the right el 1} Iunlcs 1} G 1,I,

l-lence, w-hen e-Iul was detrned ler me vertices n e IZ, me rightmest edge

1}1, elr w-as net chesn as c-Iul ler any n, se we mn- new- replace this
Lemma1t1,3,2Iiil, and me ether vertex in (211,1; I as ra; mereever, st

srrhpams el W hetween (211,1; I and (11,yrI hy diseint pams in G 031

el ene el mese pams, hridging e,

Fellewing me aheve meditrcatiens, W is new- a clesd walh in G?

Let us chech mat, mereever, W centairrs every vertex el G exactly ence,

1-rem Lerrrma 1t1,3,2IiiI: as mcse pams were diseint hy me asrtien el

in G centairring
031 every vertexelG exactly ence, se Hldetrncs a Hamiltien

cycle H el G 031,
Since W still centairrs me pam Q*, H satishcs Iel, H

up until new, w-e have as 024umed

mat 'P, s nenempty, Ll 'P1 G I,

let us st H :G G G C: men, again, H satishcs Iel, lt remains tie turn H

H inte a Hamiltien cycle H el G hy

031irrcerperating me paths I-rem 'P,,

l.rr erder tie he ahle tie treat the cas el P1 Z I aleng w-im me cas el

P1 e 6, we detrne a map n »- e-Iel

042 alse w-hen P, G 6, as hllews: ler

II [err
031 it e e Iy*,1*l,
 legerrsly tie intervals,l As helere, mis map n 042e-Inl
024 042
is irqective, satis

tres Inl, and is detrned en a srrperst e1X,, recall mat Ip rannet lie

in Xr h1' detrnitien, i

arejeined tie mese ele- hy srritahle edgs el G 031,_

replace e- hy me path ny,Fy,1, Q G (Fig,

031 10,3,1I, ll n s net incident

/ x

Fry in s *1 keplarrng rhe edge e rn H

hy me path 1,y,Fy,1, Q G (Fig,

031 10,3,3I, Since n 042e-Iel
024 042
is irqective

en Xr. asrtien I2I implies mat all mcse meditrcatiens el H Iene ler

H Hamiltien cycle H el G 031,

*7 E s

Fry in s s keplarrng rhe edge e rn H

Let us trnally chech mat H satishcs Isl. i,e, mat hem edgs el H

at 1* lie inrG, Since Isl helds ler H, it sutlis tie shew- mat any edge

e a e- G 1*J el H mat is net in H Iand hence has me {erm e- G e-Iul ler seme

w-im e-, llnet men P1 e 6, and e- hridgcs e, New- F, e I and e e X,

tegemer imply that |C 024y*|

G |Xr|+2lP1I G 3, s¤ IGI G 4 M e e G

preserves I cl, Therelere H des indeed satisiy I el, and eur inductien is
 lust lihe '1\rtte's meerem I1t1,1,3l. 1-`leischner's meerem rrright ex-

crrrrjecture. The sqreare af every H-clrnnectedllrcally linite graph cun-

1i\e ries me chapter w-im a lar-reaching cmdectnre generalilihz

Let G be a graph ci arder n G 3. and let k be aplrddre integer. HG

then G has a iianrrltrrn cycle H srrch that H* Q G.

Fer k G 1, ms is precisely Dirac's meerem, The cenjecture was preved

mr large eneugh n Idepending en kl hy Kmnlts, Sarhny and Sremeredi

I1t1113l,

Exercises
 11 Fnrd a errnneered graph G whrse square G has
030ner Harurlrrrn eyele

No tes

as a ganre nrrrerrred lm W Ir Harurhern rn 1ss1Gnr xrhreh ·Harurhr1n e,Ieles 030

rrarrarrrrns rel rhrs algrrnrhlu prvhkln

,
.
,
,
1
,
11.....I....I...1..
r
r
r
0 ,1.1....1.,
prrrrrlrrl Flr.sehner 030s 1,....
rherrrenr 024
, ..1..1.
s leased .1 1.1.....
ern :4 luha.11 new prererlrrlrhe
I I Random Graphs
 11.1 The notion of a random graph

c tie turn me set Q r-I all graphs en 1' inte a prehahility space, and men

what is me prehahility mat a graph G e IJ has mis er mat prepertyl

Fer tach e- e I1'] we

031
decide hy seme rarrdem experiment w-hemer er net

.1 prehahility et p·I~qI2IZ"* Iw-here q :G 1 G pI: w-im mis prehahility, eur

s me entire prehahility measrrre el eur desired space Q, Hence all mat

indeed exist, 031

l.rr erder tie censtrrrct srrch a measure en Q trmally, we start hy

detrning ler every petential edge e- e I1']' its ew-n little prehahility space

Q. :G (11,,1, I, meesing F.II 1, II :G p and F.II¤, II :G q as the

gln nl Sp¤¤e Q G §In,pl we men talre me preduct space

e rt 1G ]'I sz.,

eel1 030l 031

omrr
030 rheralrre rdnwrll depend r.n me cardrrralrty n r.l me ser 1 rar whrah r.ur

any
031reader ready u. helrerre rhs may slerp ahead new re. me end r.l Prr.pr.ar,
Thrrs, lermally, an element el Q is a map re asigrring tie every e- e I1'] 031

EIGI ZI¤I·¤I¤l Z1·I,

and
,
p
t
s call
el G a nrndnm
graphs en 1' anynrph
scenten
in 1' wim edge
IJIn,pI, prehahility-
l.rr particrrlar, ler every e- e I1'] 031 erent

··L:GIwIrdIelG1.I .4..

el all graphs G en 1' wim e- e EIGI s an event: me event mat e- is an

Pnrpaaitirrrr 11.1.1. The evens A, are independent and rrccrer w·ith

Similarly-, il ( e-,, , , , ,e-1 I s any suhset el I1']', then

r'IA,,m,,,¤A,,l G FI(1·r I >.,,,>.(1.e I >. H Q,)

Zprehahilitis
in eJIn,l·l, it merelere generally-srtlis tre werh w-im thse

me prehahilitis A, ever all me edgs e- e H, se FIH Q G] G p 030,

l.n
 eentrasr,el
s
e
r
r
s
a
e
m me prehahility-that
me li s events,
unien el all mese an rrrrrrreerrsrhgraphetG
Fer exarrrple, il H G I(*, we

]]]j I] remmr 11.1.2. me all rntegers Ir,k with Ir G k G 1. me prerzazrlrty

that G e §In,pI has a set erik independent veruces is at rnrrst

rIeeIGI G kl S (EIM,

G s qIeI, The asrtien mrrs lellews lrem me tact that mere are enly-

Arralegerrsly-, me prehahility- mat G e eJIn,pI centairrs a K* s at

FI aI<.I031·
G -
, II e "
e weI El,

New il k is trxed, and n is small eneugh mat mese heunds ler me preh-

mer a K* rer a K* induced, But men any- srrch n is a lewer heund ler

me upper heund el 2**** irrrplied hy the preel el Theerem 9,1,1:

Thedrerrr 11.1.3. IE.rdrs1941I

klmat,
ler all n S 2*I`* and G HI
e me prehahilitis FIerIGI G k]

and FI.eIGI
k]arehemlesmanSincep
G G
q G G, Lemma 11,1,2 and mearralegerrs asrtien ler.aIGI

imply- me lellewing ler all n S 2*I`* Ius mat k! » 2* ter k G 4I:

 eIeIGI G II, FI»¤IGl G kl S IQIIIIIII

G 2****

enI me- he interpreted

IJIn,pI,EIXI
as
:Ga nen-negative
FI(GII nrndum
XIGI,rrrrerrrlle en

EIXI + EIYI and EIAXI G AEIXI hr any tw-e rarrdem variahls X, Y

hr seme trxed 11 » 11 and, mereever, G has seme desired preperty 'P,

l.ndeed, ilme expected value elX s small, men XIGI rsnnet he large ler

Hence X must he small ler many- graphs in IJIn,pl, and it is reasnahle

presented in me next sectien, Quantined, it tahes me {erm el me lel-

Ierrrrrrr 11.1.4. Ih1arhev's lnequality-I I11 11]

LetXGt1bearand¤mra1iabIe¤nI7In,pl and11~t1. Then WUI

FIX G -1IS EIXIIL1,

EIXI Z FI(GII XIGI

 G FI(GIl XIGI

G Z FI I G ll 11

G r' IX G el er,

en \', men EIXI. hy det1nitien,ceunts me numher el pairs IG, HI such

mat H e 'H and H Q G, ram weighted w-im the prehahility- el (G I,

Algerimmicalli`, we cempute EIXI hy geing threugh me graphs G e

mat runs mreugh me graphs H e 'H and ceunts *FI(G II' w-henever

Te illustrate mis ence in detail, let us cempute me expected numher

x let X:QIn,pI Grt he me rarrdem variahle mat asigrrs tie every rarrdem

tie C*, Let us w-rite

Inte InI»:GnInG1lInG2l InGk+1I

II] { j] remmr 11.1.:. The expected nrrrrrher crkeycles rn G e IJIII,1-I rs

, _ I rtl: A

EIAI G1ilCQG:

M I- I1 ..1.....,,
Since Xe- tales enly 1 as a pesitive value, its expectatien EIXe·l equals

EIXc·IZFI 254'QGI 031p*, I1I

 I-1ewrr»rany srrm cy-cls G G are mere! There are IIIIA

sequens 1e,,,nAG, el distinct vertis in 1', and each cy-cle is identined

hy 2k el mese sequensse there are exactly- I I:lAI2k srrch cy-cls,

cycles, Clearly'. mis is the srrrrr el all me valus Xe·IGl, w-here C varies

ever me InIAI2k cycles el length k with vertis in 1':

X G EXC,

, , , IIIIA A

EIAI - :1];.1.) - gaexcl G G1-

11.2 The probabilistic method

girth and chrematic numher ITheerem 5,2,5l,

Fly S k] e |and large eneugh ler FIer G nIk] Lis, men

 we shall hx p aheve n", at n" ler
030seme e » 11, Fertrrrrately-, meugh,

even cempared w-im n Iramer man, mere ty-pically-, w-im n* I, ll we men

el G, Since H is net much smaller man G, its chrematic numher w-ill

mat an edge prehahility- el p G n" is

030
indeed alw-qs large eneugh tie

erin srech thanp G IGklnnIn" rirr n nrge. Then

lim] FIer G G 0,

I11 121 Frm], Fer all integers n,r wim n G r G 2. and all G e IJII 042,pI,
Lemma

me G II S IIINI

Shere,
me last inequality- lellews lrem me fact mat 1 Gp S e" hr
030all p,

ilp G IGklnnln" and r G awk, men me term under me expenent

G 11,
Sinner G (Gk|nnyvV In
030
n large, ne mu; num;. tm r :: [évwkl

G pw] G G r|:¤,

Tnmmm 11.2.2. (E.n·hs1959W [uz;]

Fm npr integer k there gym .1 graph H with girth k md

ummm: munbn \(Hy ~ k.

Frm], Axunnemmk G 3,nxeu-nnv Let 'U *5*

* my *
nw Z {js S éfn- S 030
w 0242w»*p*:

nm; me (npr g1»py*,k¤¤m¤¤ up G n' G 1. By [umm 11,1,4,

FIX G M7] S EKXWMZY

S
Fmm mn nt mme [yds delete 1 vertex, ud let H he me graph

IHI M7

su ma wmmm 1.4;, ¤ [Q Q j[
11.3 Properties of almost a.l1 graphs

tm abnnsz ·zLL1¤r duns:¤1swyG e Q1n,py,¤r tm1t G s 'P ·zLm»sz Smit;

nn G s Gimp) ms 1 set ntnmme tn1n gmk independent venjnsy

is 1 nxed set nt k vertjrxs nt G, men GW] is smnm-pnir tn H with

nn vv (why nntsy. Nm- G mnujns 1 mllertjnn nt {wk] dmnint snrn

smnmpmr tn H s (1 024
vyl*·~`*1, snee tnrse events 1te independent hy

me dmnintnrs nt me edgs sets [U]? '1'nns

mu g Gsndnsed] u,

dnne 1 numher nt n1tn¤1J gr1ph pmpenjs (including tn1t nt Pmpnsi-

vertex sets LUV wim |U| 5 t 1nd |W| S J, 1vertex ¤ g UMV tn1t is

Iernrnn 11.3.2. Fur nerr mnstsnn p e (11,1) and z,j s H. almost evegr

ne
031
ward *.mr.er s used u. tndtme me nnly me snmrunsn twe nr H s
(ter wv z t +11, sinue me rnrrrspendjng events 1re independent tm

ditferent r. As mere 1re nn mnre m1n #*1 p11rs nt snm sets UJV

in WG) (enmde sets U nt Iener m1n t pnints 1s n¤n-irqertjve m1ps

me pr¤h1hi|ity m1t some snm

n·mrntrendstr¤rrer¤1sn~xsin¤e1 024;vq»¤11. D

is krnnnertred. But mis is e1sy: 1ny gr1ph in Pr kr has nrder 1t |e1st

n-1s 1sked {nr: r1mer m1n nnding, {nr 1ny twe venjns 1,11 ! W, some

(r1mer m1n nver sets nr seqnenns nt venjrxsf s eimer 1Jm¤st surely

trne nr 1Jm¤st mnrdy fuse, A11 snm st1t»en¤ents, nr meir neg1t1¤ns,

tn
030
me ¤¤n.n·.1·.;y4 mrs my nm emer senunre tn me unsuge nr srrm.
 ._ Z I¤g(1#q7 n

~ rr s
- M024 <
s (Jr
V" 421

Z ,,5,121

k
Z rz
Z |¤zUM7
1 1*

By 1 rrsnut nt Bnllnhh (NQ), Pmpnsitjnn 11.3.4 is sn1r·p in me

gr1ph in Qin, gw Ind me preperty rnnsidered, men me mnre rr-1s trrre

sr unrest every gr1ptr rn Q1 rr, mrs n1ppenr*

nnt intended: 1|t¤ 1Jl, 1n·r¤ng 111 me gr1phs wim 1 eemjn prnpeny 'P
t.rers,1nd 1r¤und p : n" me trrst ryrlrs 1re hnrn. Snnn, smrre nl mrse

1r¤und p : ilngnyn", nruing me gr1plr rmurerted. 1-l1rd.Iy l1ter, 1t

p gr1plr 1ln·r¤st surely ms 1 1-l1nriIten ryrle!

g
r
-
1
r
1
r
rr 111
P
C
L ms rr 11mrrstrrld
rrrmtrrrr jrarmz,rr
tunrtirn 1 rleuly
men 111,11 pr1p.r·r,~ ¢= rr
1ny pesitive ur.
nrultiple 41 rn

sense 1re nnly ever unique up te 1 nrultiplir1tive r¤nst1nt. 030

dms ter srrrrr prrpenirs 1re mmzsrng mrs, pmpenis rinsed under me

And indeed, Bnllnhk S: '1'lr¤n»r1mn (19671 h1ve shnwn m1t 1ll inrre1sing

l.n me next sertinn ue stt1Il study 1 general n·rem¤d te rmrrpute

1l¤¤ut inturite r1nd¤nr gr1phs, LetQlNr»Pl he detrned ex1rtlylikeQ(n,py

{nr vv Z Nr, 1s me lprndurty sp1ee nl r1nd¤n·r gr1phs nn rt whnse edgrs

 dennted 1s (cl mere. Cmrrhirring mrse nets, ue get me lnllnwing r1mer

Tkrmreru 11.3.:. (Erdts 1nd Raryi 1963)

mth prrrksbulty 1. s rsndrwn grsplr G e Qlmpw with tl Q p Q 1 is

Gh1pter 6.3 (ie, is nntjninedte 1ll ¤lU¤risj¤inedte senre vertex in Wy

m1t nene rl k given vertirrs r s jrined te Um W 1s in (ry is r*, wtrirlr

vmins nutside U U W lzil te witrus (cl hr mrse sets U 1nd W s tl.

G s1tistus (cl u-im pr¤h1hility 1. By Theerem 6.3.1 mis n·re1ns m1t,

1lnr¤st surely, G z R, D

v1rietywhen me gr1phsG e Q1 Nr, pl 1re vieued enlyup te isqnrrrplrisnr.

11.4 Threshold ftmctions and second moments

7':<GIX1Gw:1l,

x s rr where X g tl is 1 r1nd¤nr v1ri1tle rn Qimpy. 1r11ny prrpertirs r1n he

 031P
n·hen rr s snrul renrnued n·im t, urd ene sheningth1t unrest every

1nd ler unrest ne G it 1s n A x, Brsidrs, me expert1tien is

lrenr helen-: sinr-e X is net heunded 1heve, EKX I m1y he l1rge sinrply

ler mest G e Q(rv,pl. 030

l.n erder te preve m1t HX mus

rr :: EKX I u

¤ 031::
E((X 024py 031). ee

This qu1ntity ¤ s
031
ruled me rrrrrrmm er secend nrunrenx el X: hy

deturitien, it is 1 (qu1d.r1tiry nre1sure el hen- nrurh X &vi1tes I-renr its

nre1n. Sinr-e E s line1r, the deturing ternr ler ¤ exp1nds

031 te

*
1
e
t
e
N m1t rr 1nd ¤ un-1ys
031 reler te 1 r1ndenr v1ri1hle en senre trxed

nn
030
sener betweerr tw rnd rle;»w* in esenrule .rnr..n eeeryc. z Gm rn
 Ierurun 11.4.1. (Ghehyshev 030s
Lnequuityy

F[lXZr»I e 1] s Mw.

ru 1 rr N
Z
n
r
e
I
Frm]. By
11.4.2.1ip
Lenrnr111.1.4
~ tl
1nd
{rrr Z MX
deturitien
n large, end ss n Ax, then

X1Gy s tu rin unrest silG s Qlmpy.

S
X
e
-
r
n
i
S zNX ZW]
D, mis S m1t X
nre1ns s M]
0 unrest srrrely, i.e. m1t X(Gy s tl

sr unrest ulGe§1n,py. D

Thearem 11.4.3. (Erdes S; Raryi 196tly

k e HH is .1 bslsneed graph with k verdees sndz g 1 edges, then www ::

r rr* 024"
is s threshrrld irrnemrn irrr 'Prr.

Frm]. Let X1Gy denete the nrrrrrher elsrrhgr1phs elG isenrerphir te H.

Y ` Given vv e H, let 'H mnete me set el ul gr1phs isenrerphie te H n-hese

Given H' e H 1nd G e eJ4n,1·l, ne shul n·rite H' g G te expres m1t

rrr
 pZyrr* 024". lil

weh1ve te shen· thu unrest ne G e Qlmpy lirs inn., ily An 1s rr Ax,

1ndth1tunrestulG s Qlmpy lieinm, ityAx 1s nAx,

¤1xwZ Eritrea}. zu

Z MWQGI
|n|r-* s EKXV S *11 an

ulGe §1n,pyliein'PH ityAx 1snAx. Nete1ustth1t,ler rr g k,

<_r)~ ~ rr <_. . )

1 wr Z rr
k )

1mus,
M exeeeds (jj) hy ne nrere 1
thur031
1 lneter
kZ independent el rr,

(EKXH r i» 030J#rr
lxenr 1heve,
030 As in (sy ne h1ve

(Tl
r Sinee H s h1I1n¤ed, s(H'mH"l S elH] Z Lik. wim |H'¤H"| Z: r

ms yields |]H'mH"I\ S Mk, sc hy tl S rn- S 1,

\\e h1ve nen- rstinr1ted me individuu srrnrnr1nds in (Tl: n-h1t ders

mis inrply ler me srrrrr 1s 1 n-hele! Sinee (6] depends en me p¤J1meter

115 'Hf:Z{(H',H"7e'H 031:|H'¤H"|Z1],

rZt1,...,k,

1nd eueul1te ler e1eh Hf the eerrrs-pending srrrrr

,1, .·L:ZZF{H'uH"QG]

Z] hy itsell. (Here, 1s helen-, ne use Z, te denete sunrs ever ul purs

(HRH"] s Hf.]

Ar Z ZNHHMH" g G]

Q G] F]H" Q G]

S Z NW Q GI FW" Q GI

Z ( Z mw g 0]] ( Z mu" gG]]

rr . (9]

Let us nen- rs-tinr1te A, sr r g 1. writing Z' ler [HZ,] 1nd Z"

Z' ler ZHHZK, ne nete m1t Z] ¤.n he n-ritten 1s Fer

trxed H' irerns-pending te me trrst sunr Z'], me seeend sunr rurgrs

<r Z. >~
 .4, Z Z r·]u*uu"gG]

Z Y-' '*) **7*),, Prr P

Z I (r-. PM ¤

S
Z P (r) P

rre" 030

S
Z s 1+1,1****

3 Z |M
Lit e rr.

ryelrs el ul (¤enst1ntl lengths 1ppe1r 1t 1heut me mnre time!

Zis
crrrrrliur-y
.1 threshrrld
11.4.:.
irurstimr
iiris
fur the
s nee
pmperty
rrirrrderk
uf runtninirrg
Z 1 then -1
ttm
MAY ¤f T·

\\e trnuly h1ve me lellen-ing rrsnrlt ler eenrplete suhgrlvhif

Cerellary 11.4.6. iik Z 1 then any Z is s threshrrld Arne-

rirrn irrr the preperty rrierrntsinings k*.

Frm]. K* s hu1need, hee1u: sUr 030l

Z $1zZ 1] Z all?] ler

r Q k. withz :Z |]k*|] Z ehtun rr* 024Z̀ D

m1t H s unhuureed. The mrrsheld mer heeenrrs any Z rr 030 ' 024`Z
035 031,

n-here EKHW :Z nr1x( sir`] | F Q H ]; see Exereiseil.

Exercises
 rrr] Fnrd rr prrrhrrtrrhry P Z pm] surh thru rrlrursr rrrry G e 4Irrr.M s

|>¤·|>· 024*¤»*
¤|¤¤¤ S mn nverussnug bur has rr rhrrshrrld nrrrrrrrrrr

o
N
Z tes
trrry
ery.spr·rugu· G 0301 030lr1sa.
1¤m.rurd lm lrt Kru·rrrtsl:r. Hrrrribeelr eifehrbrnuxerrs

rdgrs rhrn rsrrh rrlrhrsr graphs rrrrurs wnh rhe sruur prrrtrrrtrrhry rrr (jj],

rhe lrrllrrwurg nrnrhrrn yr-rrph pnreerr sirunrng wnh rr ss surge zrrrr. rrru
1 2 M11101`S

Trees

and W QO

emer rrsnrlt in gr1ph meery 1nd nru- deuhtles he reunted 1nreng me

mrner thsemm (er mrner thsemm hr shert], ineenspirueus meugh it

nru- leeh 1t tust siuree, h1s nr1de 1 lundnnrentu inrpnet hem eutside

(4.4.6] er w1gner's meerem 41.3.4], n-hieh drserihe me str-urture el me

preve ene surh meerem in full (excluding 1 gjven pl1n1r gr1ph] 1nd st1te

1nemer (excluding IW]; hem 1re eentru rrsnrlts 1nd treels in me meery
 12.1 Well-quasi-ordering

erdering S en X is 1 rreiieqrreseerderrny, 1nd me elenrents el X 1re

el mis sequenee. A sequence mnuining 1 g¤¤d mir is 1 y¤·i ¤¤·1¤= 035*¤¢

ggjjf mrrs, 1 qrr1sr.err1errrrgerr x s 1 1errqrr1srerr1errrrgrr 11..1 em rr every

Prqpqeitiqrr 12.1.1. A quasi-¤rdedngS un X 13 -1 ¤*eII 024q¤¤-Mdring

he 1ny intrnite sequenee in X. Let K he me cemplete gr1ph nn H Z

(t1,1,... ]. Geleur me edgrs :1 K: Q1]¤l K n-im mree releurs: gran

il 1. S 1, red il 1, ~ 11, 1nd 1nrher ue inrenrp1r1hle. By

R1nr¤y 030s
meerem (9.1.2], K h1s 1n intrnite indueed srrhgr1ph n-hese

J: AA B surh m1t L: S _/4::] hr ul rt e A. This rr1turuly extends S te

rerrrrrrr 12.1.:e. xix

(This srs we::1rrrss1rruereuer
rle1rly true ler n Z tl:e.
hyaren sr is
1s-unrptien,
n-im Ae, . . . , A,. and |A,,| s as snrul as pessihle.

Clearly, UL, ],,er·r s 1 had sequence in in pa.rti¤ula.r, A,, Z 6

By Cerellary 12.1.2, me sequence has an inturite inrreasing

suksequence (mr, ]re1·4. By me nrininru rheice el AM, me sequence

geed: rensidu 1 geed pair. Since (A,.],.er·4 is had, mis pair c1nn¤t

h1ve me ternr er ]A,,B,], as B] S it has me ternr

(Br, B,]. Extendingme irnertien B, As] hy rr, »A rr, n·e deduee 1gain

m1t geed,1rent.radirtien. D

12.2 The graph minor theorem for trees

Thearem 12.2.1. (Krust¤l1tlG¤] [us t]

in T': Fig. 12.2.1.] As ene easily rheehs, mis is 1 quasierdering en

1 sequence H,...,1'erZr el reeted trees surh m1t senre had sequence el

 Ay 12 2 1 An rnrtreidurg rrr 1* rrr 1*' shrrwrug mer 1* Z 1*'

A,. Clearly, (T,,],,er·r s 1 had sequence. Fer eaeh n, let A,, denete the

1* Let 11** yeep he any sequence eltrers in A. Fer every k e rt rheese

nik] an n Z nik] srrch m1t 1** e Aer. Hrh1 k n-im snrulrst nik]. Then

s
;
1 1 geed sequence, hy me nrininrurheice el T..]»y and 1** Q Term. Let

T' n-euld he senre T' n-im : Z k, i.e.

TS T'ZT S
030
Trrrrvc

since nik] S nl:] hy me cheice el k, mis n-euld nrahe]T,1;,],,]1geed

11* ]»er·r, renrvleting me preelm1t A s nenequasrerdered.

By Lenrnr112.1.3, the
030sequence (A,,],,ep in h1s 1 geed pair

.1 4Ar,A,]: let _/:.·L AA] he irqeetive n-im T S JKT] hr ul T e A.. Nen-

el 1;, and it detrnrs an emhedding te shen· m1t 11 S Y], since me edgrs

r,r e 1; nr1p n1turuly te me p1ms r,Y]Ȣ<r]. 1-tence (LE] is 1 geed

Any
030 reederer wer-rre.1 mer we nrrnrt ned me ienrnr. mr serrreura er nrrrirsets
12.3 Tree-decompositions

degreemese prepertirsran he transtenedte mme general gr1phs, gr1phs

me tree prepertirs relerred te 1heve unrluding Krrrstus meerem], and

LetG he1gr1ph, T1t.r¤, and let i' Z (ll ]rer he1la.nrilyelvertex

sets ll Q \'4G] indexed hy me vertinsz el T. The pair (T,]'] is rslled

rm \'1G]Z Ureru:

(T3] iq, mir Q li, n-henever ¢r,¢1,¢r s Ts1tisiy eg e ¢,T¢,.

Genditiens (T1] and (T2] tegemer s1y th1t G is me unien el me srrh.

prms el(T, I'] and su-m1t (T, I'] is 1t.rer 024deeenrpesitien

elG rnte thrse pers

parts. Genditien (T3] inrplirs m1t me parts el (T,]'] are erganired rrrte

r. ,3 034,··']]
1 r ~

Z 030r. ~;;r» A;
wlrereseeriyms *serrse*strr.rrir1 he wrudeperrd hem enme ¤nr¤er=ys.rrsrr1ered
 Ierrrrrrn 12.3.1. Let 1r11 be any edge ¤iT and let 1;,11, be the earn.

prrnenu rriTZ1,11. with 1r e 11 and er e Pr. Then ll. mir Sep-=¤¤¤¤

Ur :Z UZR li dum U, :Z ugh li in G Jig. 11.3.2].

0u ] 4; u 024Z
J M

rr, r_f Z.; LZ Z-ZZ

030 ZZZ - .. ~ 1

] t Vrrntlr ZJ

Therelere Ur H Ur Q ll, H ll, hy (T3], se ul ne h1ve te shen- is m1t G

has ne edge urn; n-im ur s Ur = Ur and ua e Ur = Ur. Lt urur s surh

an edge, men hy (T2] mere is 1 1 e T n-im rrr, rr, e iq. By me rheice el

rrr and :11 ne h1ve neimer 1 e Tr ner 1 s H, 1 centradirtien. D

Nete m1t t.rer 024deeenrpesitiens

are pasd en te suhgr1Ph$=

[tz rz] Ierrrrrrn 12.3.2. Far eterr H Q G. the pair (YZ 4\m\'(H]]re1J isa

lr e \'<H]. Let _r:\'<G]A\'1H] be ure map asagning trr eaeh ver.

Frm/. The asrtiens (T1] and (T2] ler KRW] hllen inrnredi1tely

as in (T3], and rensider 1 vertex ir e W], M H], el H; n·e shen- m1t

Ir e Wr,. By detrnitien el Wr, and Wl, merearevertins ur s ll, NLG.

and ur s ll, U Mr. Since LW. s cenneeted in G and ll, sepa.r1tes ur lrenr
Ierrrrrrn 12.3.4. Given a set W Q \'(G]. there is either a 1 e Tsueh

that W Q ll. rw there are veruees wr, un s W and an edge 1,1, e Tsueh

m1t W Q \[. Gven re e W,let1/ e Thesurhm1t re s \[·. 111* Z1,

oil 12 I']. D

This ekserv-1tien nretiv-1tes me lellen-ing deturitien. The rrndth el nrdm

KT, I'] is me nunrher

nrax {|\1|Z1 :1 e T),

y
n
a
and me
n
e
i
t ms-rrrdth
el G. tn·]G]
As ene easily el G s me
rheehs, least
trees
031 n·idm el
menrstlvrs h1ve t.rer 024n-idm
1.

Proposition 12.3.6. HH ZG then tn·4H] S tn·(G]. D [tz rz]

argunrent lrenr me preel el Lenrnr112.1.3 tn·4G] tinrrs. This tahrs us 1

-1-nerrrerrr 1111.
Andrea me -Zr rn mehennn
me denrrrrrenre ser-rrrenr
or wrdm sn-earrrrrrrr
nr. emer vnruese than h. nrniee
 tural vhenenrenen m1t ercurs in 1 gr1ph it and enly il its t.rer 024n-idm
is

gn.1 k>.kgrrdismegr1phen(1,...,k] 031n-immeedgeset

(<:,1]1:',1'] : I:Z:'I+I.iZ1'I Z1l»

The rressss el mis grid are me k sets

031

Thus, me rres C, is me unien el me grid's rm relunrn and its 1m ren-.

Clearly, me cresxs el me k >. k grid ternr 1 hranrhle el erder k: they

Theorem 12.3.9. (Seynreur Se Themas 1tN3]

Let k Z tl be ur integer. A graph has nee-width Z k if and only if it

el T. MX :Z ll, H ll, cevers B, ne are dene. llnet, men ler eaeh B e B

r
e
d
r
e
1 s.r.1rrrrsrr.r1e
l neredeeerrrpesrrren
G. (The indurtien em,
starts, since ne ene rn in
hranrhle ntrrrh
G has1rn~ pur
mere er
man 2]**]

sets.] Let X Q \'4G] he 1 never el B n-im as len- vertirrs as pesihle; x

men A :Z |XI S k is me erder el B. Our aim is tre shen- me lellen-ing: z

nee-derrrrnpddtion oiG]X u\']G]| with X as apart.

adnrisihle.]

mme element el B, and hence Y :Z WG] U NKG] ders net rever B.

s1tishrs Ke].

meerem13.3.1] m1t\L. and X arelinhed hyz dineint p1ms r;,...,?;. F;

W] :Z (\]m']H]]u(1, |1e sT1rl

n-hirh (T,(\[]re1] indurrs en H (cl. Lenrnr112.3.2], except m1t 1len-

r 034
l
i
t
s h1ve |Wr| S |\I| rr].
hr ul hr ]
1: 2-5-]
eaeh 030i
A 1. e W1 024\1
ne h1ve 1 e sT1.,

se ll rentains seme emer vertex el F1 <Lemnr112.3.1]: m1t vertex ders

As W. Z X, ul m1t s lelt te shen- ler 1:] s m1t mis deeempesitien

|W]| s k, n-e hnen- m1t ll fails te meet seme B e B: let us shen- m1t W1

has t.rer 024n-idm

1t least k Z 1. (Try te shen- ms n-itheut me meerem!]
 Let us rall eur t.rer 024decempesitien
(T, I'] elG unkrri, er Lrrn,* il it irnrre.1, rern

(T4] Given 1r,1r s Tand vertex sets Zr Q ll, and Z, Q I], surh m1t

mirh (i.e. me separ1trers I] M \]· ueng 1 p1m in T are large], men G is

n-hirh ensures m1t Tis nentrivial (unlrs G s remplete] hut su-s neming

Theorem 12.3.10. {Themas 19911]

el G are k(eleur1hle, men se is G {preel:]. The mme 1pplirs te the

st elparts ehtained n-ill even he unique (Fxerrise 21].

erem 7.3.4, any gr1ph n-imeut 1 K nriner

030 has 1 srrpergr1ph n-im 1

den-ernrrrrs
030 en warm eime twe. drrel rsprers r.ir1*1>we won rr. enrphesrre
wagner gr1ph W, and sinrilarly ler gr1phs n-imeut K* nriners (see Pre.

deeempesitien 4T,]'] srrch m1t G]\]] is remplete ler every 1 e T: let

us rheese (T,]'] n-im |T| minimu. Lt |T| S 1, men G s remplete and

hence rherdu. Se let 1r11 e T he an edge, and ler r Z 1,2 detrne 1;

and (T2], and \'(Gr HG1] Z ll, H ll, hy me lemm1; thrrs, Gr HG1 is

remplete. Since (1{,(\1]reh] h 1t.rer 024decempesitien

elG, inte remplete

parts, hem G, are rherdal hy me indurtien hypemrsis. (By me rheice

el ]T,I'], neimer G, s 1 suhgr1ph elG]\[, H\1rI Z Gr HG1, se heth

G, are indeed snruler man G.] Since Gr HG1 s cemplete, any induced

ryrle in G lirs in Gr er in G1 and hence has 1rherd, se G tee is rherdu.

snruler rherdu gr1phs Gr,G1 n-im G, HG, remplete. By me indurtien

hypemrsis, Gr and G1 h1ve trer 024deeempesitiens

]13,I',] and ]T1,I1]

rhechs,1UK H 11] +1r11, l'r H I1] h 1 t.rer 024deeempesitien

elG inte rem-

Corollnry 12.3.12. tn-(G]Znrin{.e(H]Z1|G Q H; H rherdu}.

Genversely, let us renstrurt an H u 1heve n-im AH] Z1 S tn-(G].

]T,I'] s use 1 treedeeempesitien el H. By Prepesitien 12.3.11, H is

i.e. at mest tn-(G]. D

12.4 Tree-width and forbidden minors

ll 'H s any set er das el gr1phs, men me rlas

Ferh.4'H]:Z(G|GeHhrulHe'H] 1-Perhrrrtr

semerphism. 030
When it is n-ritten as 1heve, ne s1y m1t this preperty _

is
erehrded]mrnereebsrd:
expnsd hyilG'
speeitying
Z G e Ferh.
me gr1phs
YH] men
H eG'
H eas
Ferh.
prnrdden
4'H]. (er
Every nriner.

Frm]. Fer me *il' part, nete m1t 'P Z n-here the F

neturdm1t'H Z (K'] ler k Z2: megr1phselt.rer 024n-idm

Q 2a.re

precisely me lerrsts. Fer k Z3, ne h1ve 'H Z ( K* ]:

noK*nrinor. wut

Frm]. By Lemm112.3.5,ne h1ve tn-]K*] Z 3. By Prepesitien12.3.6, uz 1 it

merelere, 1 gr1ph el t.rer 024n·idm

Q 3 rsnnet rentain K* as 1 nriner. {gfx:]

Genversely, let G he 1 gr1ph n-itheut 1 K nriner;

030 ne asrurre m1t

n-imeut 1 K* nriner. By Prepesitien 7.3.1, G' ¤n he renstrurted rr 024

rursively lrem triangles hy pasting ueng K 031s.

By indurtien en me

As
030
rrsrrei we nhhrermu 1-Perhrrur
 A qurstien renverse te me 1heve is te ask ler n-hirh H (ether than

Ki and K*] me t.rer 024n-idm

el me gr1phs in Ferh.(H] is heunded. in-

Ferh.1H] nim nen-planar H rentains ul grids; yet as ne s1n· alter

Theorem 12.4.3. (Rehertmn ie Seynreur 1936]

planar gr1ph is 1 nriner el seme grid. (Te see mis, tahe 1 dr1n-ing el me

mg;] rneorenr 12.4.4. meherrsen se ser-rrrenr may

rerurected vertex sets sueh m1t each pair A,, Aj e A ¤n he linhed in G

in .4. We men rensider ul me pairs el mrse p1m lanrilirs.

p1m Fl, e TL, lrem eaeh lanrily se m1t mrse seleeted p1ms are pairn-ise

1 K"* nriner in G, n-hirh rentains me drsired r >. r grid il m Z r 031.

us
r
e
l
l
u cul 1 set
dineint X Q WG]
srrhsets RZ erternrrttv
Q X n-im k-eenneeted
|Y| Z IZI Q in
k G it |X|
mere areZ k and
|1r*|dineint

me vertex set el 1 keennected suhgr1ph el G need nnt he externally

keerurected in G. On me emer hand, a.ny herirental p1m in me r >. r

grid is externally keerurected in m1t grid ler every k S r. ( Hen- 5]

rerurected set el vertins {Lenrnr1 12.4.5]. Genversely, it is easy te shen-

m1t large externally keerureeted sets in-im k large] ran exist enly in

gr1phs el large t.rer 024n-idm

(Exercise 35]. Se, like large grid nriners, thrse

li] Thas maximunr degrm Q 3:

(ii] every vertex el A H B lirs in T and has degrm Q 2 in T;

(iii] Thas 1lealin AHB, er |T| Z 1 and T Q AHB.

elerder Q h, n-here C :ZG]\'(G] HN(G]]. Glearly, U ZW. E

\\e daim th1t U Z \'(G]. Suppese net. Let C he 1 rempenent el L

KG Z C, G ]. Pr

By asumptien, IXI Q lr; let us shen- m1t equuity helds here. ll

net, let rr e X he1lealelT (respectively ( rr] :Z \']T]] as in (iii], and

GZU,se N(G']lirsinside1pa.rtelD (and henceelU],and (GZCQG']

is 1 premrsh el erder Q Ir hy asumptien. Lt C" HG Z 6, men G' Q G

and NM"] Q X'. mereever, n e NM"]: emern-ise MG'] Q X n-euld

 rempenent C el G ZX. Since e s 1leal el T, it is straightlernard te

rhech m1t1G ZG',G'] is again 1 premrsh el erder Q Ir, rentrary te the

)
1
s
u
h
T |X| Z 1
lr, se 111
hy as 024rrnrptien
eur premrsh 1G ZGG] rsnnet

k' k' :Z |'P| Q |Y| Z |Z| S k hy me cheice el Y and Z. By h1enger 030s

s meerem13.3.1], Y and Z are separ1ted in H hy1 set S el H vertins.

rz rentaining me vertex s e S hy F, (Fig. 12.4.2].

ZZZZZZQZ H___ZZZZZZ".

` 1

T 2 r' ,

(1 1

Let X' :Z XHS and U' :Z UHS, and let D' he thet.rer 024

Clearly, |X'| Q |X| + |S| Q In +k Z 1. We shen- m1t U' rentradirts the

Since YH Z Q MG] and |S| Q |Y| Z |Z| ne h1ve SHG Z 6, se

U' s larger than U. Let C" he 1 rempenent el G Z U'. Lt C" H G Z 9,

and Z\S; ne as-ume it has nene in Y \S. Let T' he me unien el T

and ul me YZS srrhp1ms el P1ms F. n-im r e l\'1G']HG: since mrse

meet C'. Therelere 1GZ(",G'] s 1 premrsh n-im tree T' and leal e;

|X| Z |Y| +IS1 Z hZ IYI +k Q Ir, 1 rentradirtien te me maximuity

degree S 3 andX Q \'1T]. Dren Thas a set F afedgessueh that every

as-ume m1t |X| Z 2k. Let e- he an edge el T surh m1t seme rempenent

As NT] Q 3, me end el e- in T has degrm a.t mest tn-e in T', se

me nrinimuity el T implirs m1t [X H \'1T']I Q ik Z 1. Applying me

Ierrrrrrn 12.4.7. Let G be a hipartite graph with Mparifiun (AJ? l.

|A| Z rt. |B| Z b. and letc Q it andd Q b be prrddve integers. Asurne

that G Iss at rnast 1:tZc]1bZd]1d edges. Then there ems: C Q A and

man bZd vertirrs in B h1ve

mere man 1:tZc]1d reighheurs in A. Cheese D Q B se m1t |D| Z ri and

ram vertex in D has 1t mest 1:tZ c]1d ndghheurs in A. Then D sends

Gven 1 tree T, ¤ll an r-tuple11r,...,1,] el distinrt vertirrs el T

ymd it, ler every j Z 1,...,r Z 1, me p1m in T rentains nene

 Ierrrrrrn 12.4.9. Let d,r Z 2 be integers srreh that ri Z W". Let

G be a graph eontaining a set 'H of r Z031

1 dqoint paths and a set

rirr everr r Z1,...,ri 4Fig. 1143). Then G has an r >. r gid nrinrrr.

11 l 1 1 l

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1, 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 e H
H. Z 1 » I I I 1 030_
1

1 * E E E
Vr 031 \Ir

Fw ici s rnntrs rnnrserrrng rs rn Lenrnre 124 zi

nhirh tn-e p1ms are ar-qacent n-henever 1; rentains 1 srrhp1¢h hetneen

mem m1t meets ne emerp1m in 'H. Since I; meets every p1m in 'H, this

1 s 1eenneeted gr1ph; let 1; he1 srannrngtreernrt. Since WI Z r1rZ11,

r-tuple el vertirrs. Since mere are ne mere man 1r 031]

distinrt
030r-tuplrs

Hi H' en 'H, seme r elme

031 trees 11 h1ve1eenrmen geed r-tuple1H 030,...,H 030].

11' 1Qk]andput'H':Z(H 030,...,H 030].

l.ts *herirental' p1ms n-ill he me p1ms H 030,...,H

l.ts *vertieal'
030. p1ms

H4 and [11+* nin he me sequence el srrhp1ms el Ktegemer n-im seme

rennecting herirental hits tahen lrem p1ms in 'H\ 'H'] induced hy me

Fig. 12.4.4. (This s n-hy ne need 1H 030,...,H

] te he 1geed
030 r-tuple in

enly r Z1 edgrs ler eaur vertiral p1th, n-e reserve r r1ther man just r Z1
 rr- 1`

II.

I r ,1 I

I 1 `~_ ~
H 1 1 . I I 1

H, , 1 11* . .

H, E r ' 1 l
Hr, 1 11
I, Il ` I1 1 1

I 024· ` / I
,,,,1. , ~ \r .

. 1;.1

EEWEEEEEEEEEEEE

HP 11|..
. .|.
|I'-'-.......II

H" 030::f:::::::::::::

H- 2:1|12:11
 inte r vertical p1ms, ne men centrart in eaeh herirental p1m me initial

sgnrent m1t meets me lellen-ing r p1ms li n-im r e 1, and se en.

Fernrally, ne precmd as lellen-s. Censider ul j, k e ( 1, . . . , r ]. (we

rn er ul r nim :1eZr1, Q r Q :1. 1put 1 :Z 11]. Let H4 he ehtained lrem

p1m Ig m1t n·ill ternr me srrhdivided ·verticu edge' ngng* This

030. p1th

precis·ly in vertirrs m1t nere centrarted inte ng and n;* respectively.

030,

tg Te detrne lf, censider an mZy1+¤ mm F Z Hr ...Hr in 11 th1t has

ne inner vertirrs in 'H'. (Thus, Hr Z H1 and Hr Z [11+1.1 Every

ne irurer vertex en any p1m in 'H. Trgemer n-im (parts el] me :th

segments el thrse srrhp1ms e{1;n-n»r an HMZHJM p1m

F' in G m1t has ne irurer vertirrs en any elthe p1ms H 030,...,H

and 030

en ul 1nd HM nrm ng and n;* 030,

rspectively, ne ehtrin eur drsrred

p1ms H .030,
. . , H', hec1uZ nene elmrse H4 s an irurer vertex elany el

me p1ms F Q 11 usd in me cerrstrrrctien el Ig. D

quantitative versien el eur meerem 1n-hich dearly implirs it]:

at least r*"·` 1* **1. Then G rrrntains either the r >, r ged

since 1.** renrrins me r 1 r grad as 1 srhgr1pn ne rrr1y asnrrre m1t

.-1 1 ; rrr ; 1*. me eZ 11+*1, 1ndret 1 Z J1?]. 1-ren e Z 1·< 1nd

Z 1111.1111 Z1rrr11111rZ111rZ1,
el erder lm +1112kZ 11. Let T Q A he 1 tree a¤ci1ted n-im the T

premsh lA,B1: menX :Z \'lAHB1 Q \'lT1. By Lemm112.4.G, Thas x

|X|1l2kZ 1 ] Z1 Z nr drnernt snhtres raeh centairring1t least k vertirrs

elX: let Ar,. . . , A,,, he the vertex sets el thse tres. By detrnitien el1 4, 4,,

p1ms m1t h1ve ne irurer vertirs in A. Thse sets 'Fl, nill shrinh 1 little

ure eptien in eur preel n-ill he te nnd single p1ms Fl] e TL] m1t

and 1*,], srrch m1t many p1ms el 'P,] rmet marry p1ms nl 'P,,,, lnrrning

Let us impese 1 linear erdering en me index pairs :1 hy hxing a-n

A Z 11,1,... in tunr, ne shall censider me pair pq n-im mug] Z i arrd

meh pair rj, n-e mall deture 1 sequence 1;] Z el snruler and

snruler sets el p1ms, nhirheventuulycell1ps te 1*; Z ( r;] ] n·hen A

has risen te A Z zrl:11.

ul tl Q A Q 1* and ul 1 S : Q 1 S rn, mere exist sets PL s1tisiying the

li] if is 1 nenempty set el dineint A,ZA] p1ms in B m1t meet A

enly rn rnerr endpernrs.

whenever 1 set if] is detrned, ne shul n·rite Hf] :Z 1171] ler me unien iq

lii] Lhrl:11 Q A men if] has exaetly ene element F1], and Fl] des ra,

ret meet any pam helenging te 1 set P:] nim rj Z r1.

liii1 l.f¤l:j] Z A, then [PL] Z k]i 030.

liv] llelrj] s 1, then [P;] Z k]é 030* 030.

lv] LH Zulpql Q ¤l:j], menlnreveryc e ElHQ]\ Ellij,] mereare

ne k]e"* dineint
030 A,ZA] p1ms in me gr1ph lH,§, H H}]] Ze.

Nete m1t, hy liv], the p1ms cerrsidered in lv] de exist in HL. The

purpese el lv] is te lerce mese p1ms te reux edgs lrem HL n-hen.

ever pessihle, using nen- edgs e- 1 H* enly il neersry. Nete iurmer

rr.1t srnee rrlr.1] e lt;] hv derrnrrren E} rr, eendnerrs lrrr] 1nd lrv] gave

Z c n-henever
031 ¤l:j] Z L
 Let us shen- m1t 1* s 11. Let pq :Z and put 'PQQ, :Z 1*,,,. Te

deture PQ] ler zrl:11 1I put H,] :Z L17'.], let F Q E(H,]]\E(HQj,1

he nraximu srrch m1t (H:. H H.] 1 Z F sill centains k]e dineint A,ZA]

p1ms, and let PQ] he srch 1 set el p1ths. Since me vertirs lrem A,] H A,

h1ve degrm 1 in HL H H.] unlrs mey use lie in A. H A], thse p1ms

h1ve ne irurer vertirs in A. Orr cheirs el PQ] merelere s1tisiy (i1Z(v1

cenditiens (i1Z(v1 are s1tished ler A hut cannet he s1tished ler A +1.

rr.; Let pq :Z r 030lz].

Lt 1*;, rentains 1 p1m F m1t 1veids 1 set Q,] el

el me p1ms in M] er ul rj n-im rlrj] s 1, men ne can

detrne 136* er ul rj as helere lnim 1 centradictien]. Lndeed, let s1 :Z

r 030lz
+1] and put '¤§f :Z
030Q,]. Fer rrlrj] s 1+1n·rite H,] :Z 11 131,],

let F Q ElH,]]\ ElH§f 030]

he nraximu srrch m1t lH§f HH,]]
030 Z rstill

rentains1t least we |]e dineintA,ZA]

031 p1ms, and let '¤ 030*
he srrch030
1 set

1r,.1trs. setrrng1=,§· rZ1¤]1nd1-y' Z ev] Z 1 ni] ] er rlrr] e 1

men givs us 1 lanrilyel sets ${5* m1t centradictsme maximuityel1*.

Thrrs ler every p1th F e P;. mere exists 1 pair rj n-im ul:11 A

srrch m1t F 1veids lener than el me p1ms in if]. Fer seme

r 1I¢ 030,f,|1(ZZ1I
el mrse F m1t pair rj nill he me mme; let';1 denete me set

rr el mese F, and heep rj trxed lrem nen- en. Nete th1t [PI Z I'P,f,I](1]] Z

P|*?]|1liZ1 rv lin] rnd (rv].

·1
1r
Q Z 111 ( Z Zum)
LetusrrZLerrrrrr112.4.7te1rndsetsI'Q 'P
|'H| Z r 031

hipartite gr1ph n-im vertex sets 1* and if] in n·hich P e 1* is ar-uacent

te Q e 1*; n-henever P H Q Z 6 des net h1ve tee many edgs. Since

every F e 11 has lener man reighheurs (hy detrnitien el 1*], this

1¤1l#]11¤ S 1¤1l#]11¤r 031

S 1l¢*l11l 1111111*

Z
S
'
1 11 edgs, as reqrrired. I-lence, I' and 'H erist as claimed.
ene lrem eaur segnrent ln-hich is me mest delic1te task: ne shall need

cenditien (v1 lrem me deturitien el me sets it here], and trnally divide

Se let us pich 1 p1th Q e 'H, and put Q

d:Z Z Z r"* 031. A

r11rerr.1t1>·1 Z 1¤1n 0311l¢v]l

Z wv.],

Fer n Z 1,2,. . . ,dZ 1 let e-,, he me trrst edge elQ (en its nu- {rem r,.

Ar te A]1 srrch m1t me initial cempenent Q,. el Q Z c,. meets a.t least Q,.

ditierent p1ths lrem I', and srrch m1t e,, is net an edge el H;.

exactlyp1ms
in Q hy
lrem
an I'.
edge
Put
net
Qnin
:ZH1.,
(andeach
Qi el
:Zthse
Q. Since
Q,. meets
|I'| Z 1*];*;], ne h1ve

ln Z 1,...,d]rammeeting1t least lrnm I'. Q; Qj,

Fer tach n Z 1, . . . ,dZ 1, h1enger 030s

meerem (3.3.11 and cenditiens

liv] and lv] imply m1t H,}, H Hf] has 1 set S,. nl Z1 y¤1i¤s srrrh 5,.

m1t (H,§,HH} ]Ze,,ZS,, rentainsnep1mlremA, te A]. LetSdenete 5

rhe ....11.. 1r1ll rinse sets s,. 1-ren 1s] e rim]], se raclr m meets 11

1
.
I
Q 1 1. Q e,... q;] c,. c.rZr 1 1

] ¤ rz ] 1

1, 11

1 1
] 11 1

1 1 1 1

` X s... 1.. `· .~°

.1. Nr .1,

every p1m F e ${1 (Q ]. Denete me irritiu cempenent et FZ1 hy F,,,

The separ1tien prepertis el me sets S,, nen- imply m1t IL. HF Q FJ, ler

indeed 1;. cannet meet F,.Z., hec1nse r*,.Zr HIL. H lQZQ·rZr] n-euld

men centain an A,ZA] p-rm in (H; H HQ 1 Z c,.Zr ZS,.Zr, and lihen-ise

(censider S,.] IL. cannet meet F Z F,,. Thus er ul n Z 1,...,rl, me

H S G.1

el1t mest _/(k1v¤·ticsinG srrch m1t GZ U has ne srrhgr1ph in MH,

k cepis el H ln-him is 1gun planar] as 1 nriner. Detrne

Jlk1:Z 2_/(kZ11+re»

inductively, starting n-im _/(111 Z _/(11 Z tI.

inductien step. Lt tn·(G1 Z ree, n-e are heme hy deturitien el re,. Se

as-ume m1t tn-(G1 Q ree, and let (T,(\11re11 he 1t.rer 024decempesitien

hllen-s. Let IK, T1 he me cempenents el T Z1.1, centaining 1. and 11,

Gr =ZG1 U (11 =\1r1I and G1=ZG1U1\1=\1r1I»

1t mest _/(kZ1] vertirs. Line can, ler hem r, men hy Lemnr112.3.1

Suppese nen- th1t Gr has ne srrch cever. Then, hy me inductien hype-

msis, Gr has k Z1 diseint MH suhgr1phs. Since 1,1, n-as use directed

as me spedu cas el H Z K'. 1t is hst pesihle in m1t il H is nen.

A unsrr dscempennen elG s 1 la.mily(\§1re 1 nlvertexsets indexed deeone

hy mme linear erder 1 srrch m1t 11,,, I; Z \'(G1, every edge ¤lG has " 030

hem its ends in seme li, and li H\{ Q I] n-henever : Q 1 Q k. when

Let S' he 1 suhspace el 1 ¤rrtace S

030
ehtained hy remeving me

C.,...,Ge sy. This space is deternrined up te hemeemerphisnr hy S L. cr

and me numher k, and ne denete it hy SZ k. Each C; s me im1ge ¤l1 5 Z k

we ¤ll me crrjis el S' and me peints meir errhs

A030
cnrnvrer crrrurrerer zenrnnrnnd wrmrrrrr 1,r.rrrn1ary, see Avvends ra
;_";_Q_]]" emhrrdrrule in S it H has 1 set X el1t mest k vertirs srrch m1t H Z X

te cutfs and ne vertex te me reet el1 cuff:

and HnHH, Z each :1

Theorem 12.4.11. (Rehertmn ie Seymeur zI1I3]

m1t me separ1ters \[ H lqr in me t.rer 024decempesitien

el G (ler edgs

(Distel Ae Themas 1929]. There are use strrrcture meerenrs ler exclud.

First, me structure meerem ler excluding K"*. Call 1 gr1ph H

FII. ......11 rrrnrrr ir ri rns 1 rrrrire se. r ervenirre ner. ,11. ri Zr .1..

he n-ritten as Hn H Hr m m1t (N1Z21 held n-im S Z S (me

031sphere]

and k Z 1, n-hile (N3] helds n-ith k Z |X|. (Ln emer n-erds, deleting

edge 11* e Tthe set \1H\1· is turite and ler every inturite p1m 1.1,...
Theorem 12.4.12. (Distel, Rehertmn, Sbymeur 1: Themas 1995Z99]

A graph G has no K"* minor if and only iiG has a nee-decompddtion

Finally, 1 strrrcture meerem ler excluding K"¤ as 1 tepelegical nri.

ner. retrrs s1vrrr1t c 11snnrrs rnsnrrdrtr irc 1d.rrirs 1ner.dererrrpesi. ]_Z_Q] 034

tien (T, (l11rer] inte trrrite parts srrch mat ler every intrnite p1m 1,1, . ..

Theorem 12.4.13. (Distel, Rehertmn, Sbymeur 1: Themas 1992Z94]

li] G does not oontain K"¤ as a topolrgioal minor;

(ii] G has tinite tree-width;

(iii] G Ins a normal spanning uee T srioh that for every ray R in T

intinitelymany paths meedng pairwise only in e.

12.5 The graph minor theorem

Gr11>h prepertis m1t are clesed under talring nriners eccur lrequently

me nriners K and
030Kr r. This is 1 grad chrrrrreterramen el planarity in

de m1t: ne just h1ve te exhihit an MK er

030MK,. in eur gr1ph, as

il net, ne can preduce an MK' s evidence.

s minerclesed: men 'P Z Ferh. ('P], n-here 'P s me cemplement el 'P.

Z 1 ri 1 ri is s.r.inirr.1iir.
 'P Z Ferh.('H]. We call Kp the hrrrrrteresm set ler 'P.

{nig: Theorem 12.:1.1. (Rehertmn Se Seymeur 19s6Z21I1I4]

*'¤·I¤"· n
o
u
a
l
e
r
e
g
r
lThe snite
grids graphs are(Lenrm112.5.4].
as nriners wellorrasi-orrieredLy
Then me nrinor
meir t.rer 024n-idm
is heunded

pl1y hetnun gr1ph miners and mrrtace tepelegy, n-hichZhy nu· el

Fer cenvenience (cl. Prepesitien 1.7.2 (ii]], ne shall n-erh n-im hex1genal

r1mer man square grids.

nean its hexagerral {acs, net its euter lace.] A srrhgrid H* el HI is

ernrrnrerl crrnenrerl it meir centru {acs ceincide. we n-rite Se ler me perimeter

5, s, rycle el me canenical srrhgrid H* in HI; ler exarrrple, S. s me hex1gen

 042 042

042: 042: 042: 0

0428
I I I 0428 0428:8 0428

042:
I I I I 042:
0420422 042

042 042
**= 042' 042'
I 042I 042I 042I 0
042*
042
042:

Ag ic J i The heregrrnrl nal H wnh

030 ernrral nne [ and

rm;. Let G he 1 gr1ph mat eannet he emhedded in s 1nd is rrrinirrru I} j Q]

srrhgr1ph elG n-hich eur trrst emhedding had placed in D': nete m1t

in S (1 centradictien].

hlere lermuh-, let Z :Z e(S] denete me Euler genus el S. Let r

he hrge eneugh m1t HI centains Z +3 diseint cepis el H"** 030,

n-here e

By me cheice el r, ne can nnd Z +3 diseint cepis el H"** in

030
HI.

The canenical srrhgrids H"' el mse H"** are

030 net enly dineint, hut
 mere, and C denets the set el mese e+3 drcls, men S'\ LIC has 1

centaining (¤*e_/](T]. As e(S'] Z e+2, ms centradicts Lemm1 13.6.

mem, D su-, meets me heundariv el anemer srrch disc. But since the

gr1ph ¤*lH]. Centracting (oi e_/11S ] in ¤*lH] nen- yields 13eennected

ing THII~ in G and G :Z _/($1 hr its cencentrir cycls, me im1gs el

L, mecyclsSelmisHI 031* :Z¤ .I:| 042

F, 042:
" 042:
042:
Z` 042:
042
042: 042:
042: 04

,:3 O 042O 042O

042I 042O
| 042O
042 042l.

e
d
n
p
s
r
r
e
c ,:1 042,:,
1 042,
042:
__ 042,
042
(hy rrej] te drcls in Sm1t heund dineint epen diss there 042

ii lFigure12.5.3]. Let H Q he me clesrrre in S el me rrrrien el

H" Let H" :Z Q G, n-here H*+ s

030
canenical in HII·. Recall

m1t de] m1ps me hex1gerrs el H*+* te circls in S' heunding dineint

 I'! I "\

~ :'° 042
042
~042
E:
042
1 .4%.,,. 042
~ . 042.
jg}; ~»Z»
042 031

s..

D' in S', herurded hy 1/(C]. Deleting 1 snrul epen disc inside U m1t D'

des net meet ¤ 031(G1,

ne ehtain 1cylinder H Q S' m1t centains rr

merst elG (Fig. 12.5.4].

..1..] 1

1/143) ..1a Z ..1

, ]Z, ¤(U»1I

cempenents el G Z C. Since ¤ 031(G1

heunds me disc U in S', ne lrnen-

mse cempenents in 11. Since e e _rlH*] Z H" Z G, mis includs me

te S' Z U. As ¤'lGe1 Q D', mse de net meet Ge. Since ¤l 254'HGe]
is

me lrentier el R in S, mis means m1t ul!] Q SZ 11 er ul!] Q H ler

:r(Jn] Q H: as SM1 H HI Z 6, mis n-euld mean m1t lis in

we mrrs h1ve alle] Q S Z H, and detrne rr" as rr en Jn and en ul me

edgeteC. l.t¤lJ] Q SZH,nedetureo"en Jasrr. l.t¤lJ] Q H,men

in C srrch m1t ¤ 031lF]

Z ¤ 031lG1
H D" (n-hich is me inr1ge under j el ene

er tn-e cenxcutive edgs en $1+1], let he me vertirs n-ith

deturitien el Jn]; let re he its lust vertex m1t rr' m1ps te me heundary

jeirring Mlm.] te Mlm] ueng me heundary circle el D", mere is ne arc

every J e .7 n-im ¤ 031lJ]

Q D" has all its neighheurs en C in me mme F;,

lrem me clesrrre el _A in S' te me clesrrre el D, in S. Fer every J e ,7

n-im :r'lJ] Q _A,ar1d ler ul J{' edgs el G, deture rr" as ,1, ee'. D
 m J .;` /· ~, u ,7,,,

J.,` V?13 ~ j 030`*·

pm.; gf cmu.., um. By M ...,.,..m.,~, u.. gw.; i.. Q I it

{,.,5, ue mmmpznhle undex me mmm-uelmnn, Lt meix ue¤ 024widm

is 'U U
030

unhmmded, ud lem r he as in Le¤mm12,5,4, By Tnemem12,4,·1,s¤me

Pmqr
m
u
n
i
e
i
l qs me sup;.
Fmh.1G»W, mum
und ue mq mmm, 4sxe
ug me smmme 042em,
we nne
mmmmn me m snm.-
mese gupns

\\e mw ahezdy sen new mis wmks when G, s plum: men me

gupns in F¤xh.1G»W have hnnnded ue¤ 024wid ('1'nemem

042J 042 12,4.3) und ue

emuidex me use nt G, : IP: smee G, 4 IC Im

030
n :: |G,|, ue my

ax-nmemm lC ¤G.
030 tm]! z a1,
in Fmt:. UTY ¤.n he nhaaanemed hy men uenwlemmpnsivjnns, and

nne nt me mutans S s 5: se Themun 12,4,11, By a genexajinavjnn

mam S S', Again, me exelushn nt H, as a minm mnsuajns me

¤n1y nne new mntane X. men mn emhedding nt H, 024

X, :111 manu

and S' hx innnively many z (wimmn Inx nt genexajny me mme me

nnhedded in mese mutans, wim VIH; M Hf'1 Z X,, The sem nt a11 mse

a sharpeninget vhe 1ennna wha; ms invn apmnne nm muy me zuvhs

s Wasn': lm every graph H mere s a pnlynnmial-vime algnrimni mam

dedds whemer nr nm me inpnm graph mnvains H as a minnr, By

algnrimm exists (nn maner hnw slew 1 mam deeids ler any given graph

in 3·spaee will nm ueave a knee where nene had heen helme, l-lenue, hy

handled nr mnsu-named, hlnsm nl mese have nm even heen mnehed upnn

lndeed
031 . eme wah . m·1e.11y enr.¤¤.u mum; dependln:
Exercises

11 ' Ginn rr ; rl. S rhe elm (G 1 G g V) arndnumideied 1,1 rhe

12 Y Ler
Gmy 12. nh ¢ W hn ann edn nu ,16
1s Ler Gis
keagmph.
.1 J < k Meryl.`;
1 030¤m.¤nd
M, Miller
nU,, \1_ ;\1_

111 Call wd sep.n·.nn.ns (U,.U1) md (U 1. H1 )»lG mnpnlrm twe ean

2a ' In rhe wand hall dnhe pm.: dl Thedmn 12 au, ler H' he rhe nnnin

dl H and rhe puh: P1. Lx H" he rhe graph unwind min H'

sul'; lllrdinlle 1**

za use rhe prevnins ewan ni shaw rhar G has nd IP innm it and ,n|y
4a ' lsulnd Pippeirniii 12: 11 ni inhnne gmphsinn ednmning an inhnne

Notes
naned lm :4 Arnkarrg. DG Curnerl and A Prdslnirdwsla. Fdrnalden rnnnrrs

IP. rhe rarahedrun K1 1 1. rhe sprain G -031

IP. am rhe Wagner graph \ 042
A IIIHHUZG sets

Lee A. B he sevs, 1.1 mere exists a hijenive map hemween A and B,

we wrive IA| : |B| and say what A and B have sha sms drrdmduxq,

and B A A, mere is alse a hijenien AA B} Fer evuy sem mere exisvs

seqnenns, (Whemer |lR| is equal m N, nr greaver depends nn me arimns

Tha
030 a me canurnernsrear ehedrern, . sanple rrauhahedreue pm s men
 mmparahle, 1.1 (CS1 is a rhain, and i1 1, y e G misty 1 q y hum nn

gjgnnl ra ae .1a11.ar.1am.1, rm exarrrple, rl, ; and 1: are 111 [mrs 4wm. near

¤1 a uellrrdered sem X has a surnsr (unless 1 s rnarirnal in X 1: me

unique minimal elernenm ¤1(y e X |1 < y 1 C X, 1-1¤uever,an elernenm n1

we asume mrnughnumy is mam 1¤r every sem X mere exisrs a relavinn by

(n11 .1 Finive chains ¤1 me mme rardinalimy always have me mme erder

sq~,asa1a.milyS:(:.; I SQ ur) wims. Q sghrallq Q es Qd, This

S hyF:
,
s
w
l
¤
1
n
n
i
v rrdnwuxa mducnan,
lem us wrive which
Fm vn werhs
exprr§ mamas im dns, Jus; as in erdinary

The cnnclusinn men is mam Pixel hr every 11 Q d, mam is, every 1 e S

<¤<¤|m1wm1s;

se Pixel hnlds 1¤rall 11 Q d,

nman srecilus 1er each erdinal d same enjecr 1,,, in a

which 1,, cannm he 1¤und, cenvenm eurselvcswieh having denned 1,, 1er

all 11 Q cv, and say wha; eur recursien zaminrras am sup dn Un 1ac1,

Zum'; Lernrnn. Le: (X, S1 be .1 paruhlly urdered sen suph than everr
B Surfaces

A surjdea, 1¤r me purpese ¤1 mis hnnh, is a cnrnpacm c¤nnec 042ed smzee

030

hemeemerphic un me Euclidean pla.ne ni', An dre, a errata, and a me are

real inuerral 111,1], un meunim circleS :

030
(1 s l1f 030:|11|1:11,and
un daa

meunim disc (1 s lR =031

|11I1 S 1 1 er (1 s lR 031:|11|1Q11,rspec 042ively,

1r¤n 042ier
¤1X
me wha;
sphere S is a
: circle
031
(1 sin S is
1R' a minddn,
: |11|1 : 1 1 meta
hy e1 X,
*adding A heundary
nnively many splere 5*

handlcs nr nnively n·1a.n1 cresavs',

030 and mam mrdans ehvained hy adding

rhraugheua
030 nih aupenda *cr.ruiee¤d* rreans
 me clasincavinn meerem, hum vc 1¤rm a picmuré lem us see wha: me

epen diss whnse clnsurs in S are digninm, a.nd iden 042i1y

meir 031
hnundarv

drcls wim me circls S >.

030
(111 and S >.
030
(1 1 ¤1ac¤py ¤1S >.
030
111,1]

ensrrrs diminm 1r¤m S, Tn ddd 11 ernssdrp, we remnve nne epen disc, a.nd men

hnurhnnd hemeemerphic vc ni', Tn dn mis rignrnusly, lem us nrsm lnnh

a1l1nde. A wander s me preduce space S >.

030
111,1], nr a.ny space hnmen.

_ mnrphic vc im, 11s mddte errata s me circle S >.

030
(|1, A Msmus smp

Qf_jf_* 034 s any sac. hnnearnnpriic 1n me prndncr sac. 111,11a 111,11 ann

hienvincavinn ¤1(1,y1wim111,1 024y1hr

all y e 111,1], hs mddte errata

Q 1 Q 11u(p1,wherepsmep¤in1rrs11l 042ing1r¤m

vhe idenvincavinne1 11, $1 wivh 111, Q 1, 11 ca.n he shnwn* wha; every circle

C in a sirtace S s vhe middle circle e1 a suivahlecylindernr mnhius snip

11w¤·sided1 hnundarv circle ¤1 me disc nr diss we remnved 1r¤m S in

N 1C, 1.1S 1 C has awe cempnnenvs, we call C a seprrdmg drcle in S;

i1i1 has nnly nne, men G is nan-sepzrdmig, While nnesided circls are

rhs
031s made preese by me 1denujk1r11.,n1r¤¤r~yy whnse n.rn1.1de:1n111r.n can

* rn unneivle me mu ne11hL~·.urheed N s ¤.r1s¤·11e¤d .1 1n me une.: er

lis nn anemer arc, we men wrive ¤1G1 hr me unien ¤1 all mese p¤in 042s

11 ni + A : 1 1 S1 ,

s1S1::2 024\(S1. 1151

irs valus in ri (see helnw 1,

leavs me numher ¤1 venics unchanged, As a rrsnilm, a grnws hy 2,

im prnduced (which runs arnund me new ha.ndle nr *hal1-wn· amund
030

[em G he a nnnseparaving circle in a s1r1ace S s S 031,

Tn d 11: S

hll¤ws, 030
Lee N he any snip neighheurheed ¤1 G in S, and pu; X' 1:

drcle ¤1 N \G in S', wim (N\C1u X' U X" hrming nne cylinder in S',

me a disc diminm 1r¤m S' andiden 042i1yi

hnundary
042s cirde wim X', X"

The
030dsd-1m1r.n 111.1 mllews may ,¤.und camplwaeed hue 11 s nr.1 wr.rl11n1 1n
ue preve, 0301
lndaed. hy deuhling G we len n Z vn unchanged, hecaus a

which increasd hy 2 in me nas: cas a.nd hy 1 in me secend,

(i1 i£G1s ane-sddedin S. men s(S'1 Z s(S1Z1.

1ii1 1£G1s nwasdedin S. dren s1S'1 Z s(S1Z2. D

induc 042ien
en me Euler genus, Still, in is semevims mere cenvenienm ue

s(S1 Z s(S'1+s(S"1,

s(S'1+s(S"1Z12Z n'+m'ZA'1+(2Zn"+m"ZL"1

Z 4Z1n+k1+1m+k1ZU+21

Z sl S1 ,

New i1 S' (say1 is a sphere, men S' US was a disc in S heunded hy G,

1-lence, i1 G des nee heund a disc in S men s1S'1 and s1S"1 are hem

verhaw
030 me sanblen bn.4 was 1n·en by C 'rhernassen The .1r.rdansa1eer1n1s
 in C. Then s(S1 z |f|.

a snip naghheurheed N dineinm 1rem all me emer circls in C (since

cr cg cj [em us panivien C as C Z C, uf; uf}, where me circls in C, are

enesided. mese in fj are mweesided hum nenseparaving, a.nd mese in

C} are separaving, we shall, in murn, cum aleng all me circls in C1,

seme |f}| drcls nee in C, and am leasm hal1 me circls in C1, This will

L. ehvained 1rem S hy cuning aleng a circle G a.nd capping me hele1s1,

Our vask will he ue ensure mam C, is nenseparaving in S hr every

1 Z 11,,,,,11 Z 1, Then Lemma B,4 will imply that S s($1Z1

hx all 1 and QS,11 S s1S1 Z2 whenever G s {1, giving

FI

. ¤ 031
1-·

c, e. Lay- » * ,
Z Z L ar; Z aa JL an

U) ~
1
=
g
n
i
n
u
G aleng me circls in C1 (and capping me hels1 s snaigh 042.1er-

ward: since mse circls are enesided. mey are alwns nenseparaving,

Next. ue censider me circls in C}. such as Ca in Figure B,1, Fer

pein1 e1 D(C1 des, mse D(C1 are alse cempenenvs e1 S1 UC, 1.n

a cempenen1 e1 S 1 G, where S s me cunen1 s1r1ace a1 042er

a.ny surgery

per1ermed en me circls in C1 and inside D(C'1 1er seme G' s G, Given

a med circle G s C}, le1 S' he me s1r1ace ehvained 1rem D(C1 hy spping

sphere a.nd hence cenvains a nenseparaving circle C" (Lemma B,11, we

(since every pein1 e1 S 1C' sn he jeined hy a.n a.rc in S 1G' me G,

whim is cennec 042cd1.

a.nd we mn selec1 G as a circle G, 1e cu1 aleng,

11 remains ue selec1 a1leas1 hal1e1me circls in C; as circls G 1e cu1

(i,e,, hem meir *sids'1 lie in D,. (ln Figure B,1, mseare me circls G,

Every emer G s C; lis in me clesure alse e1 a cempenen1 D(G1 s D,

e1 S1 UC, (ln Figure B,1, mse a.re me circls C1.,,,,Ca,1 Fer every

cempenen1 D e1 S1 UC we selec1 all hu1 ene e1 me circls G e C1

wim D(C1 Z D as a cu1 042ing

circle G,, Clearly, eam e1 mse G will he

leas1 |f;I12, D
 Hmts fO1` all the

Exe 1·c1s e s

> > >

Hints for Clmpter 1

Hints for Clmpter 2

1 Ilrhin s in. iuarihing 111.1. rhin lm l11uug`s rhenreiu hw nrras naar

6 ' I1 wu han 9 g .9' Q .1 wirh 191 Z 1.*.*1911 in rhe mnre ease. rhe

1n 2 03011·
.1 G 030

G ·· 10*1**. 1.r isa rhe reiuarls un iuaeiuuiuaardinaliry iuarihins

 m Find a suhgraph H sdiuurphn r1. a 111111 1.r l& 1.r
030 11* rhar ninrains

Hints for Clmpter 3

Hints for Clmpter 4
Hints for Clmpter 5

1s ' 111 1-11.11 will u, and u1 ln11.l1.ur1d.and haw u..'

44 ' srarr 11.rh a eandaian l1.r rhe ser 0. . 1 a ser 1.1 .r1ar..nal 11..upl1n

Hints for Clmpter 6

1 1.11.n rhe nrrns. 1..n lm 1..n. lr1..u 9 r1. 9 1-11.11 d1.1s rhe nalin 1.1

/1911 ihange 1...1. 1....11

 11 l.nsr1nd 1.1 pr1.v...g 1F21 l1.r 1,. shew .u1.re generall.1 rhar y1X.T1 Z n

l1.r e.1·1·»1eur l1" 1.Y.K`1 1.lG*

reera...s asigind lm [11 and s an. 1... as lew edges as p1ss.l.le Then

Hints for Clmpter 7

éslirr #1+01
 G ¢ 11* earends r1. all 1.1 G

Hints for Clmpter 8

lm .ua.1y edgs r1. rhe ...n...re ser 1.l nrraes yer r1. he d1h.nd
 Z G [v1. .1.1] rhar ..upl.es rhe e1.rr1sp....d...g srann.e.n l1.r rhe

lr1..u G.1 lm add..¤g a large e1..uplere graph K 11...nd e1..upler1ly r1. all

ehange rhe parn,1 ..11111

:12 ' F1.r s..upla..r11. replaee rhe graph wnh a sp.1.1.1..1g rree ..1 .r. 1* sa,.

lm ensuring rhar 11111. nrrer 1.lG s used lr.1 1..1ly n.1.rely .ua.1y .\1H
rheaa
rays
L1a.l:..1
arrhe
Ererse
rlarge Au
1...1a.1d
n.1.n1
.rs ser
h..1r
11,,
F1.r
as rays
l1.eally
Q., n.1.re
The Gparr
rhe1.1
sers S are

an ' Ls a .11.r..1al sp.1.1.1..1g rree r1. nnd pr..11s.1..1al sers 1.1 arr...
su ' T1. d1h.n rhe r1.p1.l1.gy 1..1 X. uuirare rhe d1h.1.ra..1 1.1 rhe usual 1..nZ
 we. ends ee.u1eade. a.1d rhar F Z G .s a eirele

11 ' Gne.1 a pe...1r ..· e AZ .1. pal: a sequenee u1.u1. 1.1 uerraes ..1 .1

16 Z 1-lem ea.1 T la.l re. he a re.pe.le.g.eal spe1.1.1u1g rree'

Hints for Clmpter 9

1 Z Can ye.u ee.le.ur rhe edges 1.1 11* nd a.1d green w.rhe.ur erenruig a red

e.r a green rr..1.1gle* can ye.u de. rhe s.1.ue le.r a 11**
 16 she.w u1duer.11·ly le.r le Z n. .1.1 rhar ..·1G*1 Z ..-1 H1

Hints for Chapter l U

:1 l..1duer.e..1 1..1 le w.rh 11 need. le.r rhe u1duera..1 srep ee..1sa1er G

Hints for Chapter l1

Hints for Chapter l 2
2a ' Weel: e.ur a.1 eqslnn deser.pr.e..1 e.lrhe sers \ [042
suuilar re. rhe den.1.ra..1

21 ' she.w rhar rhe parrs are preeisely rhe .uaruual .rredueal.le u1dueed sula
rhe1:1
u.1l.e.u.1dedly .ua.1y ds1e...1r ee.pas 1.1 11*
11* Fee
hee numhersin ivalisre1er ve delueiviens; in vhe cas e1 auvher nams,

mw re1er ee eheerems due ee 042na1

aueher. Thealphaheuslerder igners

almnaaeng l'"
*1** in kann; pam l.n.1-gs nar

·*·¤·····<<¤ 024*
N kann; .11.1-11.1.111 11 1.11.1

seanneng nes 16Z1¤ s2

2** 111111.1.1 my 1 111

nw-: ex 11 uu 212

030" 034'
_ 034 030 ndnnnds .1 si as in

....1 1......1...·.1,· 111. J ¤·¤ 031·=

M

1.1 .n.1n1 042e

11.1.111 un. um 1111 -"°

¤1edee1.r11be.s111e..11 and 1.1..11bis 2***

 eannenire 1:eZm 111 111 -1: ¤·¤¤¤<<¤:¤1·221¢»2~

11.1.1.1. 211 21s 211 2¤e1 es. 042*

****2030
5 5

11..1.1 ca 11.1 1.11 ru 21. 112

11.1... w 111 ***·**¤***·**{** K

11.1112
s ri
.
.
1
2
Z
s
e
a
m an eur
ia. eu. 211 2**** 5

11..1111a.n wu 2111
ev. 211 211 " "
030
""
030
" 030
030 * *2* 034"
" ' 030}" 030

11.1.1.... .,11. *2* *2**

QQ; §',f{ 031 034 034 .1.1..... .1111.11. ...1 11.

*2* **2

md mm§_ 030m"_, 2.,, ` .n1.nd1.111e1.1~n 211 111

2ad2a1 211 2111 ..1.....

11.111 e 11 11 ar 1111 nr 111.

"*"f 030
"' 2m 2si 21:1 211 211 insane

E"*
*" g"
030**
034* 111111
.1..1.1.11 111 111
..1..,. inin
.1.

: 034""*
_*" *°*
030,," 1.1.1 1.1.1.1..e 11141.
,_ M ,5 034' .1..1n.n1,·e1.1...ee.1d in 211 211
*" ..u1n11y1e11a11. mu 21s 1.11

1....... 1.
j[_ 030;j_j_
Q 112 1... ..1.................... 11.

.1ensen1·r1 ra 1:.2 in LTU 5*

J1.hns1.n L1 ia:. \ 024¤n-h

{1.......1. 21. ~*·¤·°·2*

.1..1.1... c .4 .2 E *1*,%** **'

1..1.1 11 A :1. 111 eu. nr 211 *1***** *****2**** M

*1***** * ** 034 mb:. 4 n2 11. 111

*< 0241·¤¤¤A K NP ¤`¤¤ 024¤¤ .l1eb1. 21.2:1 war 1111.1112 112

*****2* b11.1r..1..1....1 1.1

:1.n.w1u..1a cs:.1A lz 41: sl OHM ·'¤ *¤*

*···¤¤·* ».1~.r11» 1:

***·W** 024¤ 024 A.B.1-.111 w 624:1 rs 21:..221 211

*****2* * 034 1+11.111 v m aus m :111 :11

 030"
034
.1...1....1.1e1.111
034 11.111 112 1.11 1.1

eealely eu 212 ¤··*¤¤ > 031

.n.1n1n 2ns an 212 211 212 w¤<<* ¢h<<·¤¤¤ 5*25* *4**
wa ers can 1..e* see 1. ..1..1... ***<** 5* 2***

Sym, M ¤ **1 ...1.. ...1. ..1

wi" ,,," 035

030 edn. ..1..1..1ee1.11.1.......... 111

e 111
 Symbol Index

6 2 1 , 1 23

E g fig,,,, 1a

(.1,,... .1.
` E(¤1.E 031(1¤1.,,, 2
Z 4,66,144 1411, 226

i V7 e,
IT, .2, 5,,,,
P, C', 1111

G2, H', 261

11 1,15. G, X, 4, 1411,221, 321

11 1, 1s (S,S1.,,, 142

1 1*,1 1:* 1, :116 11*1,,,,, 14

lh 23 m|4GW 114

ri 1, 351 JKGW 5.

L. 1 dim 5.

d*(¤W 124

UG) 23, 232 dixym 116

PKG) 25., 249 djunc 6

UG} 73 ¤x(n,HY 165.

GUMP7 294 1113

'Pg 306 { 1

751 KW7 mme) 26

1'(G7 73 leg, In 1

pu·(GW 352

254'*, 254'(S,m.C(S,m
6,221 q(Gy 39

EKG) 2 n:1G 9

EKXW 291 165.

PKG) 66 Milf} 76

Fmt:. 321 ¤r(GW 321

GKHLHM 25.9 u., u,,, uu 16,19

lC 030 3, 191 NUI 1113

Km nv 11

IQ, 11 AKG) 5.

LKGW 4

MX 19 MG) 126

NUI, MU) 5. 5(G7 5

NWN 124 2lGL QS) 5,363

F 295. MG) 11

F* 6 »:u(HW 66

Fu 134 AKG) 12

HKHW 25.5. MAH) 66

H(H;,Hz7 25.5. N 3111

H(k,c,r) 255 S5

Mir) 25.3 In : lab 141

H. 164 :1* 3111

S" $5, 361 AG) 141

TX 211 (KG) 112

165 \ 0354Gy 135

WG) 2 AG), .¤ 126, 356

[NG) N3

[MG) 121

[MG) 121 M. N; 351