Childhood Education

ISSN: 0009-4056 (Print) 2162-0725 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uced20

Learning through ICT in Swedish Early Childhood

Education from a Pedagogical Perspective of
Quality
Sonja Sheridan Ph.D. & Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson
To cite this article: Sonja Sheridan Ph.D. & Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson (2003) Learning
through ICT in Swedish Early Childhood Education from a Pedagogical Perspective of Quality,
Childhood Education, 79:5, 276-282, DOI: 10.1080/00094056.2003.10521212
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2003.10521212

Published online: 04 Sep 2012.

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Sonja Sheridan and

Ingrid Pramling
Samuelsson

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Sonja Sheridan is Ph.D., and

Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson is
Professor, Department of Education, University of Gothenburg,
Sweden.

Learning Through ICT in

Swedish Early Childhood
Education From a Pedagogical
Perspective of Quality

nformation and communication technology (ICT) has swept into modern society and rapidly been brought to use in various areas. Sweden has
enthusiastically adopted the technology and in the process has become a
world leader, in terms of numbers of computers per capita and frequency of
Internet use (Next Generation Forum, 1999,2000).Today, ICT is an integrated
part of the Swedish society; most of the adult population is using it in one way
or another and we dare to predict that use will increase in the next generation.
ICT is everywhere around us, both in society at large and in our homes, and
it influences many aspects of most childrens everyday lives.
The aim of this article is to discuss how teacher education and teacher
competency affect childrens capabilities to learn through ICT. Our focus
here is limited to the uses of computers and the Internet, although ICT has
a broader definition and includes a variety of technologies.
Swedens political leaders haveset out to make the country a leading IT
nation, and to ensure that all of its citizens have access to information
(Ministry for Industry, Employment, and Communications, 2000). To fulfill
this ambition, the government has focused on the education system. A largescale national government scheme, IT in School (ITiS), was implemented in
1999to guarantee that every child and teacher in school would have his or her
own E-mail address and access to the Internet (Ministry of Education and
Science, 2000). Since then, more than half of the teachers in Sweden (75,000),
from the preschool level to adult education, are occupied with ICT competency development, with the support of specially trained ICT consultants.
The ITiS government program excluded preschool children between the
ages of 1to 5, as well as their teachers, because many preschool teachers and
decision-makers question the benefits and suitability of ICT for these youngest children. It is important to clarify that preschool is the first step in the
Swedish education system, which continues up to age 19 (early childhood
education extends until approximately age 10). Both preschools and grade
schools adhere to nationally mandated curricula that are linked by shared
goals (Ministry of Education and Science, 1994/98, 1998).
The dual aims of the curriculum are to promote a childs learning and
development in accordance with the overall goals and to enhance quality
throughout the education system. It is also important, however, to point out
that no specific methods or tools to improve education and/or enhance
quality, such as ICT, are mentioned in any of the Swedish curriculum
(Pramling Samuelsson, in press). From one perspective, ICT is regarded as
276

CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION

Swedens political
leaders have s e t
o u t t o make t h e

country a leading
IT nation, and t o

ensure t h a t all
o f i t s citizens

have access t o
information.

Downloaded by [Universiti Sains Malaysia] at 06:52 12 November 2015

just one tool among many in the education system.

Nevertheless, in many ways ICT has become part of
childrens everyday lives, even in preschool. One
reason for this is that Swedish preschools and schools
are under the jurisdiction of the community, and most
communitieshave decided to include preschoolswhen
they allocatefunding for computers. It is estimated that
many Swedish preschools have at least one or two
computers to be shared among 3 to 4 units (akin to
classrooms),with somekind of technical support. Grade
schools have at least one computer for each classroom.
Some preschool teachers also attend programs to develop their skills. Most pedagogical software programs for young children require high-capacity
computers, but many preschools still need computers
and an Internet connection.
Although ICT is strongly related to learning, there is
no self-evident connection between access to technology, changesin working methods, and improved learning for the children (Alexandersson,Linderoth, & Lindo,
2001). Therefore, the following questions need to be
raised: What are the conditions that would allow ICT
to become a tool for the kind of learning that is the goal
of preschool and school curricula? Can ICT be used in
preschool and beyond to create alternative scenarios,
thereby making it possible for a child to discern something he otherwise would not have? How do such
factors as teachers education, competency, and pedagogical beliefs concerning ICT and younger children
affect the likelihood of children becoming skillful users
of ICT? And why are these technological skills important for young children to acquire?

its functions, and experience ICT as a tool with vast

possibilities for communication and information retrieval/sharing.
When considering different modes of information
dissemination, the printed word can be considered as
limited. It represents a linear and sequential way of
thinking, in which both information and narratives
build up to a conclusion. While such linear thinking
may stimulate childrens ability to think in logical and
deductive ways (Hundeide, 1991), their creativity also
needs to be challenged. ICT (including the Internet)
gives children a medium in which information can be
presented in both a linear and a nonlinear and associative way. Childrens spontaneous thinking uses associations; ICT challenges young children to associate
one thing to another in creative ways (Alexandersson
& Pramling Samuelsson, 1998, p. 6 ) .
Many computer programs for young children are
developed so that the natural flow is associative and
not linear. Many programs, as well as the Internet, rest
on a system of links. A child can go from one link to
another, forward, backward, or in any direction the
child finds interesting and can associate to. In this way,
thinking could become more liberated and creative
since the answer to a question can vary, depending on
where and from what perspective the child finds the
information. Swedish childrens television programs
have responded to this style of thinking, shifting the
emphasis from a linear view of learning to one of
associations.

ICT As a Tool for Learning

and Knowledge Formation

Preschool and school activities are the product of a

complex combination of teachers formal education,
competence, theoretical knowledge, practical experience, and general view of childrens behavior. Teachers pedagogicalbeliefs about the importance and uses
of ICT for children are embedded in their views about
an appropriate childhood. Unfortunately, preschool
teachers have a tendency to value their own childhood
experiences as being the best (Sommer, 1997). ICT can
be perceived as a threat to an idealized and romantic
view of childhood (Sandberg & Pramling Samuelsson,
in press). ICT has not beenused as a general tool within
education for more than a few years, and so it is still
struggling for acceptance. Most preschool teachers,
except the ones who are recent graduates, have very
little experience with using computers, both in their
private and professional lives. This could explain some
resistance towards the technology itself and a reluctance to learn it.
ICT has its own particular discourse and is embedded in conceptsthat could be unfamiliar to the nonuser.
At the same time, it is part of the everyday language for

Despite action undertaken by the government, Sweden

is facing difficulties in overturning the trend of too few
high school students electing to take technical courses
or those that focus on math and science. What is
interesting in this context are the results of several
studies focusing on childrens computer game use,
which show that boys and girls play in different ways
and have different preferences (Linderoth &
LantzAndersson, 2002). One conclusion from these
studies is that introducing these games to children
early on can refute myths about technology being more
appropriate for men, and can highlight the importance
of selectingcomputer games with elements that attract
girls. Therefore, an early start with computers might
create a new approach towards technology on both a
general and a gender level, which, over time, will
influence traditional and cultural patterns.
Just as it is every childs right to become literate, he
or she should have the right to become a skillful user of
ICT. Children should be able to operate a computer and

Teachers Education and Views

of Children and Childhood

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those who use computers and E-mail in their own

education and work. The acceptance of ICT also raises
questions related to knowledge and values. Whether
or not teachers consider the use of ICT to be positive or
negative, however, it is here to stay. Therefore, teachers
might not only need help learning how to use ICT, but
also need to experience its advantages and unique
qualities, and understand the limitations they will face
if they do not learn to use it.

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What Does It Take To Develop

a Technology-Literate Child?
Pramling Samuelsson and Asplund Carlsson (in press)
claim that a pedagogical perspective of learning should
be regarded as separate from a perspective of psychology and sociology. They argue that the main focus
should not be on a description of how things are, but
rather on what education should contribute to a childs
learning process. Incorporating this idea into a perspective of ICT means that technology should be seen
in the light of how it ought to be used as a tool to
promote learning, in relation to the overall goals for
preschools and schools.
From a pedagogical perspective of quality, we will
discuss how the process of acquiring the technology,
and helping children become confident users of that
technology, depends on several aspects of quality education settings, as well as on the social and cultural
values and traditions in the Swedish society. Aspects
of educational practice and values for learning are
inseparable, influencing and constantly interacting with
one another; together, they shape childrens potential
to become skillful users of ICT. Therefore, a schools
level of pedagogical quality is the result of how those
aspects are made to interact with one another in promoting a childs learning and development in the area
of ICT (for further definition of pedagogical quality, see
Sheridan, 2001).
Those aspects of quality can be described from three
perspectives (Karrby, Sheridan, Giota, Daversjo Ogefelt,
& Bjorck, in press). The structural perspective concerns
the physical and material resources related to ICT. The
childs perspective concerns how children experience
and handle ICT, and for what uses. Several studies
show that children, both in preschool and school, experience ICT as play and treat it as such (Alexandersson,
Linderoth, & Lindo, 2001; Klerfelt, 2002; Klerfelt,
Gustafsson, Mellgren, & Pramling Samuelsson, 1999a,
1999b, 1999c; Linderoth, 2002; Linderoth &
LantzAndersson, 2002; Nielsen & Nielsen, 1998; Papert,
1998). Finally, the didactic perspective focuses on how
teachers interact with the children to promote learning.
Childrens ICT learning is significantly affected by
teachers pedagogical awareness, education, and ability to meet each childsinterests and support, stimulate,
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EDUCATION

and challenge their learning, through ICT, in the direction of the overall goals (Pramling Samuelsson &
Sheridan, 1999; Sheridan, 2001).
Certain conditions characterize different levels of
pedagogical quality in the area of ICT. First, we would
like to emphasize that one cannot separate ICT as a tool
and ICT as content. These aspects are very closely
linked. As Nielsen and Nielsen (1998, p. 27) say:
Focus must be on the content of learning and not on the
technique as such, since we know that the choiceof hard- and
software determines what possible learning can take place,
what content the learner gets, how it is organized, and not
least what are the mediated messages about the nature of
the technology and its possible usefulness in the teaching.
(Authors translation)

A Low Level of Qualify. From a Swedish perspective,

the lowest level of quality related to ICT in education
settings is when only one computer is made available
for children to use, either individually or together, at
the teachers discretion. The computer might be situated in a special room or corner that does not attract
childrens attention. Typically, only a few software
programs are available, with limited access. The children seldom use the computer, nor do the teachers
encourage its use. Observations and studies of quality
in preschools, combined with interviews with children
and the teachers, confirm that such classrooms exhibit
a low level of quality, even if no research into its
frequency of use has been conducted (Karrby, Sheridan,
Giota, Daversjo Ogefelt, & Bjorck, in press).
The first step in becoming a skillful user of ICT
requires that computers and software programs be
available within each classroom, that the children are
allowed to explore the functions of both the general
technology and specific programs, and that the teachers show them how to use and handle them. Several
studies show that many teachers feel uncomfortable
handling information and communication technology
(Klerfelt, Gustafsson, Mellgren, & Pramling
Samuelsson, 1999c),and they must dedicate significant
time and effort learning basic functions when computers first are installed (Rosh, 2002). At the lower level
of quality, teachers often take a controlling and instructing role-partly to ensure that all of the children
have equal opportunities to use the computer
(Alexandersson, Linderoth, & Lindo, 2001; Linderoth
& LantzAndersson, 2002).
Many Swedish education settings have achieved only
this lower level of pedagogical quality. Some teachers
stop engaging themselves once the children are selfsufficient and have learned the basic ICT skills.
A Good Level of Quality. In Sweden, the market is
flooded with software programs directed toward spe-

Aspects of educational practice and values for learning are inseparable,

influencing and constantly interacting with one another;

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together, they shape childrens potential to become skillful users of ICT.

cific educational use, and designed to challenge
childrens creativity. Digital cameras are also being
used more and more frequently for advanced digital
documentation of childrens learning and activities in
preschools and schools (for digital documentation, see
Forskolan Persggrd, 2002). The most-used programs in
Swedish preschools and schools are so-called prefabricated pedagogical programs, in which children are
supposed to learn specific knowledge or develop certain skills and abilities, such as a mathematical understanding or the function of different ecosystems.
Multimedia programs, which allow children to express
and create their own experiences in text, sound, and
pictures, are mostly used in combination with various
research and/or development projects such as IT in
School (ITiS)(Ministry of Education and Science, 2000)
and Creative Computing (Klerfelt, 2002; Klerfelt,
Gustafsson, Mellgren, & Pramling Samuelsson, 1998,
1999a, 1999b).
Many educators are reluctant to include computer
games in the classroom, regarding them with skepticism (Klerfelt, Gustafsson, Mellgren, & Pramling
Samuelsson,l998,1999a, 1999b).We, however, strongly
recommend using computer games as part of education. While playing these games, a child cannot help
but learn different skills and knowledge within a broad
area, even if learning becomes secondary to the aim of
completing the task (Linderoth,2002). In their modern
fashion, games represent the old activity of play; as an
educational tool, they heighten childrens motivation
while enhancing their capacity to understand and critically analyze systems, cause and effect, ecosystems,
scientific and economic phenomena, human needs,
and various models of society. They also provide
training in skills such as driving a car, making decisions, and learning to cooperate, while offering insight
into the unknown, the past, and the future through
virtual worlds (Linderoth, 2001).
At a good level of quality, children communicate,
discuss strategies, solve problems, and have fun together while they use both games and educational
programs. The childrens behavior demonstrates that
they find their computer use to be meaningful. Children at these ages are concerned about fairness and so
take turns using the computer, following the clockvery
carefully to make sure that each child gets his or her
time at the keyboard. They often stand in line to use the

computer, and many of the children ask the teacher if

they can play with it. What is significant and interesting is that they talk about the content as if it were games.
The children know that one either cooperates or competes, depending on what kind of game it is. Sitting
together in front of a computer, children behave as they
do in play-they help each other, negotiate, support,
plan together, etc. Children as young as 5 and 6 years
old (sometimes even younger) cooperate, collaborate,
and tutor each other while using the computer. Such
patterns of behavior seem natural with the computer,
although they are much more limited when children
solve problems with paper and pencil (Alexandersson
et al., 2001). Children also develop different strategies
while learning to handle the computer and/or different
programs. They ask friends, experiment, guess, move
the mouse aimlessly,use help functions, and explore by
themselves or together with friends (Alexanderssonet
al., 2001).
Studies show that different factors steer childrens
own creative production of games, such as their experience with the technology, literature, media, actual
conditions, and available resources, including the
programs possibilities and limitations for producing
the game. In the process of producing the game, very
young children learn to handle various computer programs and even programs that are designed for
grownups, like Photoshop. Childrens previous experiences also are influential if the childs attention is
drawn to the task or towards the structure of the game,
which means that children can be using a program
without reaching an understanding of its content
(Alexandersson et al., 2001). To learn specific content
by using games requires different aspects of the game
be experienced as representations of phenomenon and
not as objects of their own; here, the role of the teacher
becomes crucial. The teachers interaction and guidance is critical if a child is to transfer gained knowledge
to real problems, systems, and phenomena.
Most Swedish preschool teachers have an academic
education, which focuses on childrens development
and learning from theoretical and practical perspectives. During their education and in their practical
work, most teachers develop a deep knowledge of how
children learn, but have little experience of how the
ICT technology is or can be related to childrens learning. ICT fits into established theory, however. For
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example, according to education theories, it is better for the child to use more
senses while learning. ICT makes it possible to communicate with the written
word by itself and/or combined with
sounds and illustrations.
At this level, the teacher encourages
children to send E-mail, to use the Internet
for information searches, and to write and
illustrate their own stories on the computer. Several studies show that interaction and guidance from the teacher is
critical for helping young children create
technically advanced stories that are animated and incorporate sound (Klerfelt,
2002; Klerfelt et al., 1999b). However,
experience from the ITiS project and other
studies show that instead of recording the
voices of children while documenting
their pictures or drawings, teachers more
often write what the child says and scan
the text (Klerfelt et al., 1999b).
It is also the teachers responsibility to
create possibilities for children to use computers, both by themselves and together
with peers. Children have a need to express their experiences and must be able
to do so, using computers to communicate
with both advults a i d their peers. Cooperation and learning together with peers
stimulate both dialogue and reflection,
and collaborationbetween children stimulates exploration and experimentation
(Damon & Phelps, 1989). It is also important for a child to be able to make his or her
own reflections, interpretations, and judgments. During all of these activities, teachers must engage themselves to make sure
that children put words to their own learning processes and develop an ability to
express what they see, hear, and feel
(Alexandersson & Pramling Samuelsson,
1998).
Many Swedish preschools have reached
this good level of quality. Still, at this level
the computer is not an integrated part of
other activities in preschool, and its uses
can be described as learning by doing various activitieswith the computer, compared
to learning t h r o u g h the computer
(Alexandersson et al., 2001).
A High Level of Quality. To be truly
skillful users of ICT, children must develop a critical attitude and an ability to
evaluate programs and the information
280 0 CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION

presented through them. From a

Swedish perspective, a very high level
of quality would represent children
using computers and ICT equipment
throughout the day as a multifunctional tool that isintegrated withother
activities and themes.
At a high level of quality, the children learn tlzrozrglz the computer and
from each other while using a variety
of programs or creating their own.
They explore new topics, are creative
in their search for information on Web
sites, ask questions, and express their
reflections and feelings. With help
from the teachers, they learn to discern between what is realistic and
what is impossible in the real world,
yet possible in the virtual world
(Alexandersson et al., 2001). The children focus on understanding various
phenomena as well as controlling
and mastering functions of different
programs.
At this high level of quality, teachers interact with and guide the children. They create possibilities in which
ICT can be used to support children in
developing new experiences and to
expand their understanding of the
world. The teacher starts by reviewing what is known to the children; he
or she moves on to the unknown by
directing the childrens attention towards a variety of images and relating
them to real situations and phenomena, and then encouraging them to
reflect about unique characteristics,
patterns, similarities, etc.
The most important goal for the
teacher is to help children experience
the technology as a communication
and information tool with vast possibilities-to give children the motivation to explore and create to the edge
of their and the technologys limits,
thereby helping children become
good communicators, information
seekers, and evaluators of content.
To make ICT part of childrens daily
life in such ways is a complex process
that requires teachers to have a positive attitude towards ICT. Teachers
must have knowledge of the technology and of how children learn, as well

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as an understanding of how ICT can be used in a childs

learning process. Teachers also must be able to integrate ICT creatively with all those activities and contents traditionally found in preschool and school.
At this time, such a level of pedagogical quality
related to ICT is seldom reached within Swedish preschools and schools for younger children.

pate and engage with the computer and interact with

the children.
The most important aspects from a pedagogical perspective of ICT quality are teachers competence in
guiding childrens learning through ICT and their attitudes toward it in preschool and school. Learning
through ICT requires knowledge of its unique qualities
in combinationwith an ability to direct childrens attenConclusions
tion towards both content and form. Developmentally
From a Swedish pedagogical perspective of quality, Appropriate Technologyfor Early Childhood (DATEC,
ICT should be regarded primarily as a tool-one that 2002), partly funded by the European Union under the
can be used in many ways and for different purposes. DGXXII CONNECT program, can be of assistance in
A computer should extend childrens understanding of this process for teachers (www.ioe.ac.uk/cdl/DATEC).
various phenomena and experiences, as well as pro- DATEC is a European network that identifies good
vide enjoyment in itself. What is significant from a practices and gives curriculum guidance as well as
Swedish perspective is that ICT should constitute one guidance for practitioners on appropriate technology
aspect of a rich and diverse early childhood educational education in early childhood.
program, no more and no less than all other existing
If early childhood educators can develop an interest
activities. It is also critical that ICT be integrated in in technology, the skills to use it, and an attitude for
everyday activities and not be considered something seeing the possibilitiesin it (i.e., to use their imagination
separate. ICT already is part of most childrens daily and creativity), then preschool and school will come a
worlds, and will continue to be so in the future. To be long way towards encouraging technology-literate
able to master ICT early in life is not only a question of children-children who can use ICT for making sense
necessity, but also of democracy, rights, and equality; of the world around them.
that is, there must be equal access for all children,
irrespective of backgrounds and gender.
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Fi

In New York State, schools will begin implementing

the Generation Y program, in which students are
taught to assist teachers with technology in their
classrooms. Funded through the New York State
Education Department Learning Technology Grant,
the program is operated by Generation.Yes, Inc.
Greg Partch, the Director for Educational Technologies in the Hudson Falls Central School District
and Director, North Hudson Electronic Educational
Empowerment Project, explains the involvement
with the Generation Y program: "We involve Gen Y
students in many aspects of our professional development, including vendor training workshops, and
find that students are driving classroom implemen-

282

+ CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION

tation of the workshop content."

The program allows budgetconscious schools to make use of
their student resources to help teachers bring classrooms up-to-date. By teaching students how to use
technology skills to help teachers, both students and
teachers benefit. Teachers have the technical support they need right in the classroom.
Schoolsaround the United States have been using
the Generation Y program. Dennis Harper, CEO
and founder of Generation Yes, Inc., enthuses:
"Schools will soon realize the benefits of students
and teachers working together to improve education in their own schools through technology."