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Solid State Physics

Gerald Burns
IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center
Yorktown Heights, New York

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.


Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Pubiishers
Boston San Diego New York
London Sydney Tokyo Toronto

Contents

*1

Symmetry Operations
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4

A Symmetry Operation 4
Point Symmetry Operations 5
The Point Groups of a Molecule 9
Other Symmetry Operations of Crystals
Notes 20
Problems 20

17

Symmetry Description of Crystals


2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7

Lattice 25
Primitive Unit Cell 26
The 7 Crystal Systems 26
The 14 Bravais Lattices 29
The 32 Crystallographic Point Groups 35
Space Groups 38
Definitions of Directions, Coordinates, and Planes
Appendix to Chapter 2 46
Notes 47
Problems 48

43

Simple Crystal Structures


3-1
3-2

Introduction 51
Several Cubic Symmorphic Structures

51

The book may be started in Chapter 1, Chapter 6, or Chapter 9.


IX

3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7

Diamond and Zinc Blende Structures 56


Point Group of a Space Group (S) 58
Examples of Defect Structures 60
Different Points of View of a Structure 61
Close Packing (and the Hexagonal Close-Packed
Structure) 62
3-8 Volume Effects for Simple Structures 65
3-9 Wurtzite Structure 66
3-10 Site Symmetry (S) 67
Notes 68
Problems 69

T" X-Ray Diffraction


4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4

Crystal Symmetry and Physical


Properties (S)
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5

Electron, Neutron, and X-ray Diffraction 73


Bragg's Law 75
The Laue Formulation 77
Experimental X-ray Diffraction Methods (S) 81
Notes 83
Problems 83

Introduction 87
Neumann's Principle 88
Tensors 88
Crystal Symmetry and Physical Properties
Nonlinear Optics 96
Notes 98
Problems 98

90

Classification of Solids
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6

Summary of Chapters 1-3 103


Introduction to Classification of Solids
Five Types of Bonds 112
Repulsive Potential Energy 115
Molecular Bond 118
Hydrogen Bond (S) 124
Notes 127
Problems 128

112

CONTENTS

The Ionic Bond


7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4

Transfer of Electrons 131


Ionic Radii 133
Typical Structures 134
Cohesive Energies of Ionic Crystals
Notes 143
Problems 144

138

The Covalent Bond


8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-6
8-7

Introduction 149
Bonding and Antibonding 150
The Hydrogen Molecule 154
Maximum Overlap 157
The Formation of a Crystal 164
"Classical" Semiconductors 168
Continuous Range of Bonding (S) 175
Appendix 183
Notes 184
Problems 185

Metals
PART A
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6

9-9
9-10
9-11
9-12
9-13
9-14
9-15

191

Drude's Free Electron Theory 191


Drude's Assumptions 195
DC Conductivity 196
Wiedemann-Franz Law 197
Frequency-Dependent Conductivity (S, A)
Problems of Drude's Model 201

PART
9-7
9-8

DRUDE'S MODEL

198

QUANTUM MECHANICS APPLIED

203

Eigenfunctions of Free Electrons in a Metal 203


Fermi Energy, Density of States, and Fermi
Surface 208
Soft X-rays, Heat Capacities 213
Fermi-Dirac Statistics 215
Low Temperature Expansion Using F-D Statistics 216
Thermal Properties of the Electron Gas 217
DC Conductivity (with F-D Statistics) 223
Electron-Electron Collisions (S) 225
Hall Effect (and Other Magnetic Field Effects) (S) 228

Xll

9-16 Landau Levels (S, A)


Notes 235
Problems 236

233

Band Theory
PART A

QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION

243

10-1 Nearly Free Electrons 243


10-2 Classifications of Solids 247
10-3 Effective Mass 248
PART

WAVE FUNCTIONS AND ENERGY LEVELS

10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8

Bloch Functions 252


Nearly Free Electrons 257
Brillouin Zones 260
Examples of Brillouin Zones 263
Wigner-Seitz Approximation The Binding
Energy (S) 273
10-9 The Tight Binding Approximation (S) 276
10-10 Crystal Momentum 280

PART
10-11
10-12
10-13
10-14
10-15
10-16
10-17
10-18
10-19
10-20
10-21

SEMICONDUCTORS, REAL BANDS, AND


RELATED CONCEPTS 281

Holes 281
Band Preliminaries (A) 289
/ ( k ) for a Two-Dimensional Square Lattice 293
Body-Centered Cubic Lattice Sodium (S, A) 302
Si,Ge, GaAs, andGaP 304
Carrier Concentration at Thermal Equilibrium 313
p-n Junctions 323
Metal-Semiconductor Junctions 334
The Gunn Effect (S) 337
Other Topcis(S) 339
Summary 345
Notes 348
Problems 349

Some Thermal Effects in Solids


PART A
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5

HEAT CAPACITY

355

Specific Heat at Constant Volume and Pressure 355


Energy and C v from Statistical Mechanics 357
Classical Results for C v 360
Einstein's Model 362
Debye's Calculation of C v 365

CONTENTS

PART
11-6
11-7
11-8
11-9
11-10
11-11

EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH DISORDER

371

Orientational Disorder in Molecular and Ionic


Crystals 371
Polarization by Orientation (S) 379
Point Imperfections in Crystals 385
Diffusion (S) 389
Color Centers in Ionic Crystals (S) 396
Localized Vibrational Modes (S) 398
Notes 399
Problems 401

Lattice Vibrations
12-1 Introduction 407
12-2 Vibrations of a One-Dimensional Monatomic
Chain 408
12-3 Vibrations of a One-Dimensional Diatomic Chain
12-4 Real Crystal Systems 419
12-5 Phonons (A) 425
12-6 Crystal Momentum (A) 428
12-7 Neutron Diffraction from Phonons 430
12-8 Thermal Conductivity (S) 433
Notes 441
Problems 443

412

Optical Properties of Crystals


PART A
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
13-6
13-7

450

Dielectric Polarization 450


Oscillating Fields 452
Electromagnetic Waves in Solids 454
Reflectivity at an Interface 457
Kramers-Kronig Relations (S, A) 458
Damped Harmonic Oscillator 461
Dielectric Response of a Quantum System

PART
13-8
13-9
13-10
13-11
13-12
13-13

MACROSCOPIC THEORY

LATTICE VIBRATIONS

464

465

Introduction 465
Long Wavelength Optical Vibrations 466
Measurements and Results 471
Polaritons (S) 476
A Microscopic Model (S) 480
Clausius-Mossotti (Lorenz-Lorentz) Equations (S)

484

CONTENTS

XIV

PART
13-14
13-15
13-16
13-17

486

Introduction 486
Oscillator Model 487
Experimental Results 490
Transverse and Longitudinal Free Electron
Modes (S) 495

PARTD
13-18
13-19
13-20
13-21
13-22

FREE CARRIER ABSORPTION

INTERBAND TRANSITIONS

498

Introduction 498
Fundamental Absorption Near % 500
Excitons (Mostly Weakly Bound Excitons)
Fundamental Absorption Above it 520
UrbachEdge(S) 521
Notes 524
Problems 526

509

and Structural Phase


14 Ferroelectricity
Transitions
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
14-6
14-7

Introduction 531
The Free Energy 536
Soft Modes 542
Microscopic Model of Soft Modes 550
Renormalization Group 552
Optical Properties of Ferroelectrics (S) 554
Other Related Properties
Notes 559
Problems 562

15 Magnetism
PART A

DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM

15-1 Introduction 565


15-2 Diamagnetism 567
15-3 Paramagnetism 569
PART
15-4
15-5
15-6
15-7
15-8

FERROMAGNETISM, ANTIFERROMAGNETISM, AND RELATED TOPICS

Introduction 584
Molecular Field Theory 584
The Heisenberg Exchange Interaction 588
Magnetic Structures 590
Special Techniques Used to Study Magnetic
Structures 596

584

565

CONTENTS

PART OTHER TOPICS 604


15-9 Spin Waves (S, A) 604
15-10 Anisotropy, Hysteresis, Domains, and Bloch Walls
15-11 Metals and Magnetism (S, A) 619
15-12 Spin Glasses (S) 625
Notes 627
Problems 629

Superconductivity
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
16-6
16-7
16-8

Introduction (dc Conductivity) 633


The Occurrence of Superconductivity 634
Effects that Destroy Superconductivity 635
Magnetic Properties 637
The BCS Theory 642
BCS Predictions 648
BCS Related Measurements 653
The Josephson Effect 659
Notes 666
Problems 668

Surface Science
17-1
17-2
17-3
17-4
17-5
17-6
17-7

Introduction The Need for UH V 674


Crystal Shape 675
Preparation of Clean Surfaces and LEED 677
The Structure of Surfaces 679
Interaction of Gases with Surfaces 686
Surface Related Techniques 692
Electronic Surface Structure 702
Notes 710
Problems 712
Appendix to Chapter 17 712

Artificial Structures
PART A SEMICONDUCTORS 716
18-1 Introduction 716
18-2 A Particle in a 1 -D Rectangular Well 717
18-3 3-D Motion with a 1 -D Rectangular Well 719
18-4 Experimental Aspects 724
18-5 Semiconductor Superlattices 726
18-6 Inversion Layers 737

xvi

CONTENTS

PART METALS 747


18-7
18-8
18-9
18-10

Introduction 747
Sample Preparation 748
Properties of Layered Metal Structures 749
Other Artificial Structures (S) 752
Notes 753
Problems 755

Appendix

757

Appendix Units
Bibliography
Index

800

796

792
,

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