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Materials Today: Proceedings 2 (2015) 3973 3987
Preparation, characterization and growth mechanism of dandelionlike TiO2 nanostructures and their application in photocatalysis
towards reduction of Cr(VI)
Jeffrey Baloyi a, b*, Tumelo Seadira a, b, Mpfunzeni Raphulu b and Aoyi Ochieng a,
a
Centre for renewable energy and water, Vaal University of Technology, Private Bag X021, Andries Potgieter Boulevard, Vanderbijlpark, 1900;
RSA
b
Advanced Materials Division, Mintek, Private Bag X3015, Randburg, 2125; RSA
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures were successfully synthesized from TiCl4 and water via simple
hydrothermal method. The samples were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), scanning electron microscopy
(SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET). The photocatalytic activity of the
dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures was evaluated by photoreduction of Cr(VI) under UV light irradiation. The results indicated
that the dandelion-like rutile TiO2 nanostructures were composed of ordered nanorods with an average diameter of 17 nm.
Furthermore the results indicated that the dandelion-like TiO2 can be easily scaled-up and reproducible. The growth mechanism
of the dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures has been proposed to occur in a four-step reaction, i.e., (i) nucleation and nanoparticle
formation; (ii) formation of spheres through self-assembly growth; (iii) further growth and (iv) agglomeration of the dandelions
to form flower-like rutile TiO2. The dandelion-like TiO2 structures exhibited higher photocatalytic efficiency compared to P25
TiO2 for the photoreduction of Cr(VI). The highest photocatalytic reduction rate was with 2 g of the catalyst in a 10 mg/L Cr(VI)
solution with pH 2. The high photocatalytic activity of the dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures was attributed to the flower-like
morphology, highest light-harvesting efficiency resulted from multiple reflections of light, hierarchical mesoporous structure and
large specific surface area (81 m2/g).
2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2014 Elsevier
Ltd. Allunder
rights
reserved. of the Conference Committee Members of 7th International Symposium on
Selection
and peer-review
responsibility
Macro- and Supramolecular Architectures and Materials.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 11 709 4182; fax: +27 16 950 9796.
E-mail address: sj2010@webmail.co.za
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 16 950 9884; fax: +27 16 950 9796.
E-mail address: ochienga@vut.ac.za
3974
1. Introduction
In recent years, TiO2 architectures with complex hierarchical-micro/nanostructured have received considerable
interest for fundamental research and practical application due to their outstanding properties, such as low density,
high specific surface area and large pores [13]. Particularly, three-dimensional (3D) dandelion like-TiO2
hierarchical superstructures, assembled by zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D)
nanoscale building blocks such as nanowires [4], nanorods [5], nanotubes [6], and nanosheets [7], show diverse
applications in various fields including microreactors [8], sensors [9], water-splitting [10], self-cleaning devices [11],
environmental pollution [12], photovoltaic cells [13], Li-ion battery materials [14], optical emission [15], energyconversion [16] and photocatalysis [17] owing to their unique structure and outstanding chemical/physical
properties. It is generally known that the properties of TiO2 materials are related to their morphology and size, which
will correspondingly affect their performances in the above-mentioned applications. Therefore, the controlled
synthesis of TiO2 nanostructures with different shapes and particle sizes is currently regarded as the most attentiongrabbing. In various morphologies, the hierarchical 3D dandelion like-TiO2 nanostructures have been regarded as the
more attention-grabbing structures due to the greater number of active sites and good light absorption efficiency than
other 2D or 1D nanostructures [18]. Therefore, it is of great scientific and industrial importance to explore novel 3D
dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures and find economical mass production methods which can keep the morphology
of the 3D dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures under effective control.
Currently, methods used for the synthesis of 3D TiO2 hierarchical structures include chemical vapor
decomposition [19], sol-gel [20], reversed micelle [21], Ostwald ripening [22], Kirkendall effect [23] and
hydrothermal reactions [24]. However, the direct synthesis of 3D TiO2 hierarchical structures via simple and costeffective techniques remains a significant challenge. The hydrothermal method seems to be an excellent choice for
the synthesis of 3D TiO2 superstructure, particularly the dandelion-like structures. This method provides the
advantages of controlling the stoichiometry, homogeneous products and allowing the formation of complex shapes
and preparation of composite materials [25]. Moreover the hydrothermal method provides excellent homogeneity
and possibility of deriving unique stable structures at low reaction temperatures [26]. Since the raw materials react in
an enclosed system under a controlled temperature and pressure, the method using an aqueous solvent as reaction
medium can be classified as environmentally friendly. Particles and rod-like TiO2 structures are easy to synthesize
by this method, while the novel 3D TiO2 structures synthesized by this method are hardly ever reported in literature.
Also, a systematic study on the synthesis of TiO2 by hydrothermal method has not been reported. Recent efforts have
made this technique a new platform for synthesizing 3D TiO2 superstructures having controllable hierarchical
features [27,28]. For example, Jin et al. [1] synthesized dandelion-like rutile TiO2 microspheres using rutile hollow
SnO2 spheres as templates. Zhou et al. [2] synthesized a novel 3D sea-urchin-like hierarchical TiO2 microspheres
with 1D nanostructure by hydrothermal method using Ti plate in a mixture of H 2O2 and NaOH aqueous solution, and
investigated the influence of reaction time, reaction temperature and calcination temperature.
Fujishima and Honda discovered the photocatalytic splitting of water on TiO 2 electrodes in 1972 [29], since then
photocatalysis is known to be an important method to remove toxic heavy metals from wastewater. Among different
semiconductor photocatalysts the 3D TiO2 superstructures exhibited excellent photocatalytic activities upon UV
light irradiation. This was due to the high specific surface area which contributed to the formation and migration of
photocarriers and the adsorption of reactants on the catalyst surface. The materials are also less likely to suffer from
severe agglomeration and easier to be separated from the solution than traditional TiO2 powders. This makes them
promising for potential applications in photocatalysis. To the best of our knowledge regarding Cr(VI) photoreduction
by dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures no report is available in the open literature.
3975
In this study, 3D dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures were synthesized from TiCl4 and water by a simple
hydrothermal method, and Cr(VI) was selected as model compound. The morphology evolution and formation
mechanism of the 3D dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures were investigated in detail. The reproducibility, scale-up
effects and photocatalytic activity were studied.
Nomenclature
eh+
Electron
Hole
Braggs angle
2. Experimental methods
2.1. Materials
All chemicals used in this study were of analytical-grade and used directly without further purification. High
purity water (resistivity 18.2 Mcm) purified by a Milli-Q water system (Millipore) was used in all experiments.
Degussa P25 (anatase: rutile 80:20, BET surface area of 49 m2/g, particle size 21 nm) was sourced from Merck
Chemicals (Pty) Ltd., South Africa. Nitric acid (99.99% HNO3), sodium hydroxide (99% NaOH), potassium
dichromate (99.99% K2Cr2O7) and titanium tetrachloride (99% TiCl4) were purchased from Merck Chemicals (Pty)
Ltd., R.S.A.
2.2. Synthesis of dandelion-like rutile TiO2 photocatalyst
Dandelion-like rutile TiO2 structures were prepared using the hydrothermal method. Super-cooled high purity
water (160 mL) at a temperature close to 0C was added to a 2000 mL reaction flask. The flask was placed on a
magnetic stirrer with a 2 cm magnetic stir bar inside. A desired amount (60 mL) of TiCl 4 was added to the super
cooled high purity water drop-wise using a separatory funnel while vigorously stirring at 500 rpm. The high purity
water was super cooled to suppress vigorous reaction. After adding all the TiCl4 drop-wise into 160 mL of high
purity water and the two substances had completely mixed and reacted, the heating mantle was turned on and the
temperature was gradually increased to 100 oC, the contents of the flask were then refluxed for the next 24 hours (h),
while stirring at 100 rpm. After 24 h, a 5810-R Eppendorf centrifuge was used to centrifuge the suspension at
3000 rpm at 21C for a period of 99 minutes (min). The washing of the solids with high purity water was done five
times for five minutes per wash in order to remove any chloride ions from the solid TiO 2. The solids were extracted
then from the tube into petri-dish and oven-dried using an oven for approximately 16 h overnight at 120C.
2.3. Characterization
The crystal structure and morphology of the prepared photocatalysts were characterized by powder X-ray
diffraction (PXRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), BrunauerEmmett-Teller (BET) and Barret-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) analysis. The PXRD spectrum was obtained from a Bruker
AXS D8 X-ray diffractometer machine with Ni-filter Co K at 40 kV and 35 mA with a wavelength alpha as
1.78897 . The samples were scanned in the 2 range from 20 to 70 with a step size of 0.02 and a count time of
1s each point. The SEM images for determining surface morphology were done on a FEI Nova NanoSem 200
scanning electron microscope from FEI Company. The scanning electron micrographs were obtained at an operating
voltage of 3kV. The TEM images for the determination of internal morphology and particle size were carried out in
a JEM2100F Electron Microscope from JEOL Ltd, using an accelerating voltage of 120 kV. The samples for TEM
analysis were prepared by dispersing some of the powder products into methanol and then sonicated for about 3s. A
few drop of the suspension were deposited on the copper grid, which was then put into the desiccator. Furthermore,
3976
the BET and BJH analyses were carried out in a Micromeritics ASAP 2020 unit by using the adsorption-desorption
isotherm at 77K. The samples were placed in the sample holder and first degassed at 150C for 3 h prior to analysis.
After degassing, the samples were re-weighed and analysed under liquid nitrogen. The BET surface area was
determined by multipoint BET method. A desorption isotherm was used to determine the pore size and pore volume
distributions via the BJH method.
2.4. Photocatalytic activity test
The photocatalytic activity of dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures was investigated by photocatalytic reduction of
Cr(VI) in aqueous solution. Cr(VI) was chosen as a model pollutant, as is listed as priority and hazardous pollutant
(WHO, 2008) which is very harmful to the environment and human. Photocatalytic experiments were carried out in
a batch type photoreactor at room temperature (25 2 oC). Prior to UV light irradiation, the suspension was stirred in
the dark for 60 min to reach a complete adsorption-desorption equilibrium. The light source used in photoreactions
was a HPR 125 W UV-C lamp developed by Philips lighting and was preheated for 30 min to obtain a constant light
intensity. Photocatalytic experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of photocatalyst dosage, initial pH
and initial Cr(VI) concentration. A desired amount of photocatalyst was added to a reaction flask containing 250 mL
of an aqueous solution of K2Cr2O7 with defined concentrations (10 to 50 mg/L). The Cr(VI) stock solution (1000
mg/L) was prepared by dissolving 2.835 g of K2Cr2O7 in 1 L high purity water. The stock solution was diluted with
high purity water to obtain the desired concentration range of Cr(VI) solutions. The initial pH of the solution was
adjusted by HNO3 or NaOH aqueous solutions. At different time intervals during the runs, 5 mL samples of the
suspension were withdrawn from the batch reactors and centrifuged employing a 5810-R Eppendorf centrifuge
before the absorption spectrum was taken. The absorbance of Cr(VI) was measured spectrophotometrically at 360
nm, by UV-vis spectrophotometer using American Public Health Association (APHA), standard methods for
examination of water and wastewater [30]. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated by analyzing the Cr(VI)
reduction after a fixed contact time. The photocatalytic activity of Degussa P-25 was also measured as a reference to
compare with that of the synthesized dandelion-like TiO2 catalyst.
2.5. Kinetic studies
Many researchers [31, 32] have observed that the reduction rates of photocatalytic reduction of various metal ions
over irradiated TiO2 follows the Langmuir Hinshelwood (L-H) kinetics model. The LangmuirHinshelwood
kinetic relates the rate of surface catalysed reactions to the surface covered by the substrate, being the kinetic
equation expressed as
where is the reduction rate, is the reactant concentration, is the time, H-L is the rate constant, and ad is the
adsorption equilibrium constant.
This model assumes that, if the adsorption of Cr(VI) onto the surface of the photocatalysts is very low, ads
can be neglected in the denominator simplifying the equation to a pseudo-first-order equation as given by [33].
The reduction rate for the reduction of Cr(VI) for the pseudo first order reaction was calculated in terms of mg.
L1 . min1. The integration of Eq. (2) with boundary conditions of C = Co at t = 0 is represented by
3977
(110)
(110)
(110)
(110)
Intensity (a.u)
c
(110)
(110)
20
30
(110)
(110)
40
(110)
(110)
50
60
(110)
(110)
70
2-theta (degree)
Fig. 1. PXRD diffractograms for different preparation scales (a. 10 g; b. 50 g; c. 100 g) of the rutile dandelion-like TiO2
The morphologies and structures of the as-prepared dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures with 24 h reaction time
were characterized by SEM and TEM. Figures 2a-c show the SEM images of the dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures
synthesized for 24 h and hydrothermally treated at 100C. Enlarged individual 3D dandelion-like TiO2 nanospheres
with numerous densely packed TiO2 nanostructures can be observed in Figure 2a and Figure 2b. The top surface
reveals that the spheres were composed of many loosely packed nanometer-scale crystals in Fig. 2c. Similar results
were obtain by Bai et al.[24], where they synthesized dandelion-like TiO2 structure by facile hydrothermal method
using TiCl3 and NaCl as the main starting materials. The TEM images of the dandelion-like TiO2 further provided
3978
information regarding the interior structure of the dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures. The corresponding TEM
images of the dandelion-like TiO2 in Figures 3a-b show a typical well-crystallized and half dandelion-like rutile
TiO2, respectively. The TEM images demonstrated that each dandelion-like nanostructure is composed of ordered
nanorods with an average diameter of 17 nm. A similar nanorod-structured TiO2 surface was observed by Jin et al.
[1], who synthesized dandelion-like microspheres as anode materials for lithium ion batteries with enhanced rate
capacity and cycling performances. The full rutile dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures were formed as shown in
Figure 3a-b. This was also supported by the XRD patterns of the dandelion-like TiO2 which was identified as pure
rutile phase (Figure 1). The morphological results obtained using SEM and TEM images indicated that the
dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures are comprised of highly close-packed nanorods.
Fig. 2. (a) SEM images of the rutile TiO2 synthesized for 24 h and hydrothermally treated at 100C; Inset: an enlarged individual dandelion-like
TiO2 sphere; (b) typical well-crystallized dandelion-like TiO2 microsphere; (c) top-image of a dandelion.
Fig. 3. TEM images of the dandelion-like rutile TiO2 synthesized for 24 h and hydrothermally treated at 100C: (a) typical well-crystallized
dandelion-like TiO2 nanosphere; (b) dandelion-like TiO2 half nanostructure.
Generally, the photocatalysts with higher specific surface area and porous structures are known to enhance
photocatalytic activity of the photocatalysts. This could be attributed to more surface active sites for the adsorption
of reactant molecules, ease transportation of reactant molecules and product through the interconnected porous
networks, and enhanced harvesting of exciting light by multiple scattering within the porous frame work. Table 1
shows the properties of as-prepared dandelion-like TiO2 and commercially available Degussa P25. There is little
information reported in the literature on the BET surface area of the dandelion-like TiO2 structure. Jin et al. [1]
synthesized dandelion-like rutile TiO2 microspheres using rutile hollow SnO2 spheres as template. They obtained the
dandelion-like rutile TiO2 which contained pores of about 4 nm, and the BET surface area was 46 m2.g-1. Zhou et al.
[2] synthesized dandelion-like rutile TiO2 via a one-step solvothermal approach using titanium n-butoxide in a
mixture of HCl and n-hexane, they obtained dandelion-like TiO2 with the BET surface area of 40 m2.g-1. As shown
in Table 1, as-prepared dandelion-like TiO2 kept a high surface area of 81 m2.g-1 with pores of about 3.2 nm, which
contributes to the excellent adsorption capacity. This indicates the importance of obtained results as a positive
3979
SBET (m2g-1)
PV (cm3/g)
PD (nm)
References
Dandelion
81
0.071
3.2
[present]
Dandelion
46
[1]
Dandelion
40
Degussa P25
49
[2]
[present]
SBET, PV, PD represent BET surface area, pore volume, pore diameter, respectively
The nitrogen adsorptiondesorption isotherm and Barret-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) pore size distributions derived
from the desorption branch of the adsorption isotherm of the as-prepared dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures are
shown in Figure 4. The N2 adsorptiondesorption isotherm of the dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures can be ascribed
to a type-IV, which is typical of mesoporous solid materials (2-50 nm) according to the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) classification [34]. The hysteresis loop of as-prepared dandelion-like TiO2 fit well
to type H2, which is characteristic for mesoporous materials with ink-bottle pores [34]. The pore size distribution
plot (inset of Figure 4) calculated using the BJH equation from the adsorption branch of the isotherm shows an
average pore size of 3.2 nm. The materials exhibited a narrow pore size distribution suggesting good homogeneity
of the pores.
Fig. 4. Nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms and BJH pore size distributions (inset) plots of as-prepared dandelions-like TiO2.
3980
(I)
(II)
TiO
islands
Growth
of
nano wires
TiCl4 + H2O
Dandelion-like TiO
(III)
(III
nanostructures
Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of a possible growth mechanism for the dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures.
3981
petal-like bundles of particles, with prolonged reaction time. Based on the results and analysis a complete
morphology evolution process of the 3D TiO2 nanostructures was proposed as follows: (i) nucleation and
nanoparticle formation; (ii) formation of spheres through self-assembly growth; (iii) further growth and (iv)
agglomeration of the dandelions to form sheet-like rutile TiO2. Time was found to be the most important controlling
factor.
Fig. 6. SEM images of TiO2 samples selected at different intervals (a) 12 h; (b) 24 h; (c) 48 h.
In the present study, it was found that the reaction temperature plays an important role in the nucleation and
growth of TiO2 crystallites which determine the final dandelion morphology of the products. Figure 7 illustrates the
SEM images of dandelion-like TiO2 hydrothermally treated at 80 C, 100 C, and 190 C for 24 h. At 80C reaction
temperature (Figure 7a), the dandelion-like TiO2 were formed by loosely packed nanorods and TiO2 dandelions or
strands grow slowly and freely from the nucleus in all directions. When the reaction temperature was raised to
100C (Figure 7b), compact dandelion were obtained with rods originating from the centre. At a high temperature
(190C), the dandelion-like TiO2 structures were destroyed, resulting in sectors composed of nanorods and sheet-like
TiO2 structure (Figure 7c).
In order to investigate the effects of scale-up and reproducibility of the dandelion-like TiO2 structures samples
were prepared at different quantities namely 10 g, 50 g and 100 g at 100 C for 24 h as shown in Figure 8. In Figure
8a-c, the overall morphology indicates the existence of many uniform, dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures. These
results suggest that increasing the dandelion-like TiO2 preparation quantity has no significant change on the
structural and chemical characteristics of the materials. Furthermore, this is in agreement with the results obtained
from the XRD data obtained in Figure 1. Therefore, it is of great scientific and industrial importance to note that the
dandelion-like TiO2 nanostructures can be reproduced and scaled-up while keeping its morphology under effective
control.
3982
Fig. 7. SEM images of the rutile TiO2 synthesized for 24 h and hydrothermal treated at various temperatures; (a) 80C; (b) 100C; (c) 190C.
Fig. 8. SEM images of the rutile TiO2 synthesized for 24 h and hydrothermal treated at 100C; individual dandelion-like TiO2 spheres of different
quantities, namely; (a) 10 g; (b) 50 g and (c) 100 g.
3983
were 10% and 1%, respectively, indicating that Cr(VI) is stable under UV light irradiation and in the dark. Both
photolysis and adsorption in the dark can be considered to have negligible effect on the reduction of Cr(VI).
On the contrary, when the system was exposed to UV light in the presence of both dandelion-like TiO2 and P25
TiO2 photocatalysts, a rapid decrease in Cr(VI) concentration was observed. The obtained results indicate that UV
light energy in the presence of catalyst is of fundamental significance in Cr(VI) reduction in aqueous solution and
proposed that photocatalytic activity of both dandelion-like TiO2 and P25 TiO2 for the reduction of Cr(VI) ions may
occur through direct reduction by the photo-generated electrons. The as-prepared 3D dandelion-like TiO2 exhibits
the highest Cr(VI) reduction efficiency, and about 82% of Cr(VI) was reduced, which was higher than 70%
photocatalytic activity of Degussa P25. The high photocatalytic activity of dandelion-like TiO2 sample can be
attributed two factors. Firstly, the dandelion-like TiO2 has a larger surface area due to the higher destiny of flowerlike nanostructures, which leads to the strong absorption capacity on the surface of dandelion-like TiO2
nanostructures. Secondly, the 3D flower-like morphologies that were observed by SEM, can utilize their radiation
light more efficiently due to the multi-reflections on the high density surface of the flower patterns. As a result, the
absorption of photons and production of photo carriers are improved significantly. Therefore, enhancing the
photocatalytic activity of dandelion-like TiO2 for the reduction of Cr(VI) in aqueous solution.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
C/Co
0.6
0.5
Without catalyst
Dark
P25
Dandelion-like TiO2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
3984
25C). At pH 2 to 4, Cr(VI) ion in the solution exists as HCrO 4- and Cr2O72- [37], that act as strong oxidizing agents,
therefore they are easily reduced.
At higher pH, pH 6 to pH 12, the fraction of HCrO4- and Cr2O72- decreases gradually, but the fraction of CrO42species which is a weaker oxidizing agent, increases. Moreover, Cr(III) in the solution resulted from Cr(VI)
photoreduction may precipitate as Cr(OH)3 [38]. This can scatter the entering light leading to the low
photoreduction rate. The trend is consistent with that reported by Prairie et al. [39].
Cr(VI) reduction rate (mg.L-1 .min -1 )
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2
10
12
pH
Fig. 10. Influence of initial pH on the photocatalytic reduction rate of Cr(VI). Experimental conditions: [initial pH (2-12); catalyst dosage, 2 g/L
and initial concentrations, 20 mg/L)].
3985
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10
20
30
40
Initial concentration (mg.L-1 )
50
Fig.11. Influence of initial Cr(VI) concentration on the photocatalytic reduction rate of Cr(VI). Experimental conditions: [initial Cr(VI)
concentration (10-50 mg/L); catalyst dosage, 2 g/L and initial pH, 2)].
3986
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
4. Conclusions
In summary, morphology and structural-controlled dandelion-like TiO2 structures have been successfully
synthesized by a simple and cost effective hydrothermal method. It was found that the reaction time and reaction
temperature can critically affect the formation of the dandelion-like TiO2 structures. The results reported in this
work also suggest that the dandelion-like TiO2 can be easily scaled-up and reproduced. The growth mechanism of
the 3D dandelion-like TiO2 structures was reasonably deduced according to the SEM images at different reaction
time. The formation mechanism of the 3D dandelion-like TiO2 structures was proposed as follows; (i) nucleation
and nanoparticles formation; (ii) formation of spheres through self-assembly growth; (iii) further growth and (iv)
agglomeration of the dandelions to form flower-like rutile TiO2. Due to the larger specific surface area (81 m2/g) and
the light capture of the flower-like structure, the dandelion-like TiO2 structures exhibited excellent photocatalytic
activity, which was high than Degussa P25 TiO2. The reduction rate of Cr(VI) depended on several experimental
parameters, including catalyst dosage, initial Cr(VI) concentration, and solution pH. Dandelion-like TiO2 appears as
promising materials for the reduction of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions using UV/TiO 2 photocatalysis process.
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out and financially supported by Mintek. Jeffrey Baloyi and Tumelo Seadira are M.tech
students funded in part by the National Research Foundation (NRF)/ Department of Science and Technology (DST)
of South Africa.
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