An Enlightenment Dialogue with Fukuzawa Yukichi: Ogawa Tameji's Kaika Mondo, 1874-1875

Author(s): Michael A. Cusumano

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Autumn, 1982), pp. 375-401
Published by: Sophia University
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Dialogue with
An Enlightenment
FukuzawaYukichi
Ogawa Tameji'sKaika Mondo,1874-1875

by MICHAL A. CUSUMANO

tracttitledKaikaMondoRjE4J ('Questions
HE polemical
and Answers
in twopartsduring1874and 1875,
was written
AboutEnlightenment')
Western
civilization
to post-Restoration
Japan.'
to introduce
ostensibly
and has
The textwas one of theearliestworksof theJapaneseEnlightenment
ofnatural
the'theory
Yet twentieth-century
equality'.2
beenpraisedforespousing
oftheauthor,
an
intentions
theprimary
scholars
havefailedto consider
Japanese
evident
tothediscernobscure
namedOgawaTameji;J')II p. It wassurely
figure
encouraging
theadoptionof
ingMeijireaderthatKaikaMondowaspropaganda
ascribes
thetreatise
Moreimportantly,
bythenewgovernment.
reforms
initiated
to guide-thatis, to restrain-the
to the imperialregimecompleteauthority
orpolitical
ofWestern
ofindividual
concepts
Japanese
publicinanyendorsement
liberty.
wasa problem
arecompatible
Whether
or not'enlightenment'
and'despotism'
ofeighteenth-century
encountered
notonlybyprogressive,
absolutist
monarchies
regime
a non-democratic
thisquestion
canarisewhenever
Europe.Looselydefined,
of
the
maintenance
or
run
to
ofideas information
that contrary
theinflux
permits
the1870s
A debateon thisissuetookplaceinJapanduring
arbitrary
government.
to nominaldirectrulein 1868proofan emperor
restored
afterthegovernment
and customs.
Duringthesubsequent
motedtheadoptionofWestern
technology
and rigidsocialclasseswere
ofabsolutemonarchy
decadeWestern
ideascritical
theidealrelationship
also introduced
themes
suchas thesocialcontract,
through
as social
education
humanequality,
andcitizens,
theoretical
between
government
l >

is a doctoralcandidatein Japa- Kaika Hen jZOAR&W,1930, pp. 107-67.

THEAUTHOR
2 MBZ, p. 4; Nagai Hideo ,kAX, Nihon
He wishes
at HarvardUniversity.
nesehistory
*,
AlbertM. Craig of the noRekishi:JiyaMinkenFl *OM : 8
to thankProfessor
thathe Sh6gakukan, 1976, xxv, p. 107; Maruyama
forfirstsuggesting
same university
Historyof
studyKaika Mondoand othersuchliterature Masao, Studiesin theIntellectual
of TokyoPress,
TokugawaJapan,University
in MeijiBunkaZenshaF
I The textof Kaika Mond6is reproduced pp. 311-12.
in Meiji Bunka Zensha (MBZ],xxiv, Bummei

376

MonumentaNipponica,xxxvii, 3

How Japaneseintellectuals
emancipation,
progressand orderinhistory.
responded
to suchconceptsdemonstrates
existingpoliticalrealitiesas well as the character
movement.
of Japan'sbriefbut spiritedEnlightenment
Fukuzawa Yukichi MRIM3, 1835-1901,the most celebratedpopularizerof

in theMeijiperiod,was also a sterncriticof theimperial

Western
civilization
He arguedthatthegovernment
regime
duringthemid-1870s.
shouldnotbe the
ofreforms
aimedatraising
andpreferred
maininitiator
Japan'slevelofcivilization,
and citizensfreedfromtraditional
witha 'spiritof independence'
privateeffort
to the rulingauthorities.
Fukuzawaseverely
criticized
the Meiji
subservience
to abandona paternalattitude
and despoticpractices
reluctance
government's
theprevious
tosuggest
thatanygovernment
thathadvitiated
regime,
daring
ruling
forcewasillegitimate
Theupshotofthis
through
byreasonofthesocialcontract.
inWestern
scholars
trained
studies
whoimplicitly
position
wasto berateJapanese
condonedgovernment
policyby acceptingposts in the new bureaucracy.
Fukuzawa'sstandledto a publicdisputewithhispeersin theMeirokusha
*?
in 1873fordiscussing
a forum
founded
('SixthYear of MeijiSociety'),
Enlightenment
ideas.
A relatedmatter
ofconsiderable
is thatKaikaMondowas,in essence,
interest
a dialoguewithFukuzawa.The authorof thistractjoinedseveralMeirokusha
to rebutFukuzawa'scontention
members
thatgovernmental
despotism
was inwithpersonal
or nationalEnlightenment;
herently
incompatible
thisaspectofthe
textisrevealed
forthefirst
timeinthepresent
article.
Thereis a further
disclosure:
isconstructed
thetract's
rebuttal
whilelifting
wholesections,
as wellas mimicking
andmanipulating
topics,fromworkspublished
byFukuzawabetween1865and
1875.KaikaMondothusservednotonlytocircumscribe
theidealsoftheJapanese
butwithconsiderable
humorand skillitalso mockedtheirchief
Enlightenment,
FukuzawaYukichi.
spokesman,
To thereadera century
later,thedebatedescribed
aboveprovidesa glimpse
ofearlyMeijipolemics,
ofhowintellectuals
withdifferent
perspectives
approached
a fundamental
contradiction:
Enlightenment
through
authoritarian
means.The
contextof Kaika
presentarticlewillfirstdiscussthepoliticaland intellectual
as wellas explicitarguments
of theauthor.
Mondo,thenexaminetheimplicit
SectionI summarizes
twentieth-century
appraisalsof the tractand the 1874
Fukuzawa-Meirokusha
theidentity
debate,and includesinformation
regarding
ofOgawaTameji.SectionII analyzesthetwopartsofKaikaMondoas theycorrespondto theFukuzawacorpus.
I

Kaika Mondo: Within

theJapaneseEnlightenment

It is notknownhowcontemporary
readersreactedto KaikaMondoduringthe
earlyMeijiperiod.Since1930thetracthasbeenmadeavailablebyinclusion
among
representative
writings
fromthe JapaneseEnlightenment
publishedin Meiji
BunkaZenshui
('CompleteCollectionof Meiji Culture').IshikawaIwao H);Ig,

An Enlightenment
CUSUMANO:
Dialogue

377

ti)
TitlepageofKaikaMond.-

Title page of KaikaMondo.

Kaika Mondowhilerelying
heavilyon
theeditorof thisvolume(xxiv),introduces
dialogues:
Ogawa's prefaceand subtitlesof thefifteen
in 1874,andthesecondpartin 1875.It was
Thefirst
partofthetextwaspublished
worksin Tokyo.... As thetitleindicates,
therefore
oneofthefirst
Enlightenment
attacks
thetreatise
Kyuihei
thetwofigures
byemploying
lW*and Kaijir60190,05,
and
ofCivilization
oldcustoms
andadvocatesreasonsforthenecessity
conservative
for
Kaijiro,rathercleverand progressive
[bummei
kaika3ZOIFA{E].
Enlightenment
citing
copious
oftheconservative,
bigotedKyuihei,
thetimes,
repliestothequestions
so thathis interlocutor
of Enlightenment
clarification
examplesin an exhaustive
withpractical
touching
KaikaMondodealslargely
subjects,
mayeasilyunderstand.
and shelter;
foreignrelations;learning;food,clothing,
upon the government;
landdeeds;moneyand
naturalphilosophy;
and communications;
transportation

378

MonumentaNipponica,xxxvii, 3

papercurrency.
Regrettably,
thereis nothingknownabout the author,Ogawa

Tameji.3

Thisis indeedhowKaikaMondoappearson thesurface:an earlyMeijitract

thatmight
as wellhavebeenanonymous,
adopting
a question-and-answer
(mondo)
format
fora casualdiscussion
of Western
civilization
and itsintroduction
into
Japan.Although
theworkis morecomplex
thanitat first
appears,thecharacterizationsreinforce
theimpression
thatitis a straightforward
exposition
ofEnlightenment
ideals.Forinstance,
thenameKaijir6canbetranslated
as 'Enlightenment',
and Kyuihei
as something
like'Old Fogey'.The former
nameis a word-play
on
thetermkaika,alsousually
translated
as 'Enlightenment',
whilethelatter
suggests
thedisparaging
homonym
kyuhei
0n". As a nounkyaheimeans'old evils'or 'old
abuses',andas an adjective
itinvolves
connotations
of'old-fashioned'
or 'behind
thetimes'.Thispejorative
termoftenappearsinreformist
writings
aftertheMeiji
Restoration.
For examplesof its use, a reference
of the Japanese
dictionary
languagecitestwoof Fukuzawa'sworks,Gakumon
no Susume*r1U6ttb ('An
Encouragement
ofLearning'),
1872-1876,
andBummeiron
noGairyaku
tZPJW
1875.4Bothtextsare ofcentralimP*('An Outlineofa TheoryofCivilization'),
portance
to thedialoguesandto thecharacterizations
inKaikaMondo,although
a simpleequatingof Fukuzawaand Kaijiro,howeverobviousa comparison,
provesto be misleading.
Ogawa'stractis pedagogic,
evendidactic,
yettheinformation
presented
therein
is fullofpolitical
implications.
Bothofthecharacters
involved
represent
opposite
positions:
Kaijirosupports
thegovernment,
Kyuihei
is critical.
Theirdisagreement
is thepointofdeparture
foreachdialogue,
withKyuihei
and
gradually
weakening
eventually
conceding
defeat.Butscholars
whohavecommented
on KaikaMondo,
withIshikawa,eitherhavefailedto see or have ignoredthe propabeginning
gandistic
natureofthetextas wellas itsrelation
to Fukuzawa.As a result,
they
havemisunderstood
andthusmisrepresented
theauthor's
intentions.
Forexample,
in an accountof 'themovement
forfreedom
and people'srights',
Nagai Hideo
assertsthat,without
Kaika Mondoand similarpopulartracts,theconceptsof
humanliberty
andfreedom
wouldnothavebeenso rapidly
in MeijiJadiffused
In
pan.5 a now-classic
fromtheseventeenth
studyofJapanese
politicalthought
thenineteenth
through
centuries,
Masao quotesfromthetractto apMaruyama
plaudtheauthor's'theory
ofnaturalquality'and 'conceptofinvented
order'.
In hisKaikaMondo,OgawaTameji,a popularizer
oftheEnlightenment
ideals,remarked:'Whenheavencreatedman,itdidnotdiscriminate,
"thismanis a
saying,
daimyoso hemusthavefoureyesandeightlimbs"and"thismanis an eta[outcaste]
so hecanhaveonlyoneeyeandtwolimbs."Whenweseethatallhumanbeingshave
MBZ,

p. 4.

of the Writings
of FukuzawaYukichi,Cam-

Nihon Kokugo Daijiten *MVtnA,

bridgeU.P., 1969,p. 39.
s Nagai,p. 107.
Sh6gakukan,1973,vi, p. 117. See also Carmen
Blacker,TheJapaneseEnlightenment:
A Study
4

An Enlightenment
Dialogue
CUSUMANO:

379

a manwiththerank
twoeyesandfourlimbs,is itnotclearthatinhumanrelations
ofJunior
GradeFifthOrderanda plainoldpeasantcalledGombeior Hachibeiare
ofnaturalequality
ledTamejito a conceptofinvented
equalinstatus?'Thistheory
This involvessuch
order.'Now thereis thequestionof man'sactualsituation.
rank,and
classifications
as nobleand base, richand poor,familybackground,
ofthesamurai
and
class,richfamilies,
status.Amongmentherearenobles,members
are notbasedon thecommands
thepoor. But thesedifferences
ofHeaven.Theyare all
Theyare merelysituationsthatprevailin
rulesordainedbyhumanbeingsthemselves.

theworldofmen.'6

thatOgawa spokein simpletermsofnaturalequalThe above quotationsaffirm

enforcedby the Tokugawa regime.
ityand criticizedspeciousclass distinctions
he did thisfroman abstractbeliefin human
It is anothermatter,
however,whether
forless
thatwereinstituted
rights,or ratheras an attempttojustifyMeiji reforms
noblereasons.Of course,somecombinationof beliefsor at leastrationalizations
itto sayherethatKaika Mondo justifiedan array
on Ogawa's partis likely.Suffice
of government
measuresrevisingJapanesecustomsfor daily living,education,
foreignrelations,as well as preceptsfor social and politicalorganization.The
afterthefalloftheTokugawashogunate,
Restorationbeganthisprocessofreform
thenbetween1869 and 1871 all feudaldomainsweredisbandedand thecountry
This facilitatednew tax and
was centralizedunder the imperialgovernment.
of universalmale conscriptheintroduction
educationmeasures,judicialreforms,
of the government
bureaucracy.Class retion,and a completereorganization
strictions
dividingsocietyintothe nobility,samurai,peasants,and merchantsor
townsmenwereabolishedin 1870.
such measureswereprogressive
and servedas a
From a Westernperspective,
ofa constitution
and parliamentary
government
backgroundforthepromulgation
and domesticfactorsencouragedthese
in 1889-1890.But severalinternational
changes.Considerableactual or perceivedpressurefromforeignpowerswas laid
on Japanto 'modernize'itslegaland politicalsystems,
just as economicand social
reformswerenecessaryto build up the nation'scollectivewealthand strength.
Revolutionarymeasures requiredpropaganda to pacify disgruntledsamurai
and peasantswho challengedthe imperialregimeon numerousoccasionsduring
an oligarchydrawnmostlyfromtheforthe 1870s.Government
leaders,forming
merdomainsofCh6shuiand Satsuma,werealso opposedbyotherfactionscalling
ofthesegroupswerea combination
fora sharein politicalpower.The motivations
oftheJapanese
undertones
ofWesternidealsofdemocracywithprobablystronger
in additionto frustration
at beingexcluded
traditionof consensusgovernment,
frominnerpowercirclesaftertheRestoration.
milieuof earlyMeiji Japanwas therefore
The politicaland intellectual
highly
complex.Any assessmentof how 'enlightened'a particularpolicyor individual
This holdstruefortheMeiji
was mustconsidera varietyof possiblemotivations.
and forOgawa Tameji.Thereis,to be sure,a typeof'Enlightenment'
government
6

pp. 311-12.
Maruyama,

380

Monumenta
Nipponica,
xxxvii, 3

inKaikaMondo,butto seethisinpropercontext,
wemustaskwhythe
displayed
totheeffect
thatthecurrent
'inevery
authormakesstatements
regime
wayfollows
thejusticeofHeaven.... Is thisnota benevolent
forwhichweshould
government
is thegovernment
be grateful?'
ofJapan.... Thus,
Or,'Thecentral
government
formenofwisdomto be selected
fromthroughout
Japanto becomegovernment
officials
is a naturalprinciple.'7
of suchcomments
The chronology
and othereventsis ofcritical
importance.
Thefirst
partofKaikaMondoappearedinMarch1874,thesamemonth
inwhich
was published
theissueof theMeirokusha
journaldevotedentirely
to refuting
in January
Fukuzawa'scondemnation
of governmental
authoritarianism
and its
implicit
acceptance
by scholarsin publicoffice.Fukuzawa'scritique,
foundin
thefourth
noSusume,
andfifth
wasmostlikely
essaysofGakumon
a protest
against
pressrestrictions
inOctober1873.8Government
promulgated
leadershadbecome
oftheirreluctance
to senda punitive
sensitive
to criticism
to Korea,
expedition
and decidedto prohibit
withofficial
publicdisagreement
policyand to outlaw
moralteachings
thatcouldbe interpreted
as antigovernment
and demagogic.9
Severalhighofficals
leftthegovernment
overtheKoreaquestion,
including
Itagaki
TaisuketWailJtof theformer
Tosa domain.Itagakiand his supporters
then
in January
1874a petition
submitted
to theimperial
government
callingforthe
ofa popularly
immediate
institution
elected
Motivation
forthememorial
assembly.
waslinkedto domainfactionalism
andto thedefeatofItagakiand othersin the
Koreadebate,10
thepetition
borrowed
theterminology
although
of democratic
in theWestand complemented
thought
thearguments
offered
by Fukuzawain
thesamemonth.
orevents
thusformed
Severalthemes
thecontext
ofKaikaMondo:thepotential
ofa broadmovement
challenge
callingforrepresentative
government;
Fukuzawa's
ofimperial
thedebatebetween
condemnation
despotism;
FukuzawaandMeirokurolesof intellectuals
sha members
overtherespective
and government
in the
Enlightenment
process.The Fukuzawa-Meirokusha
debateis especially
relevant
ofwhether
becauseit takesup theproblem
it was possibleto createa WesterninJapanunderan absolutist
styleEnlightenment
Fukuzawa's
government.
critique
dealtwiththisas botha practical
and an abstract
question.On one level,he felt
thatit was contradictory
and cynicalforscholarsofWestern
to join a
learning
he himself
had workedas an expertin foreign
despoticregime,
although
affairs
and languages
fortheTokugawashogunate
and in thiscapacityhad traveled
to
theUnitedStatesand Europepriorto theRestoration.
Nineof thetencharter
members
oftheMeirokusha
inWestern
hadbeentrained
whileretainers
subjects
113.
Journalof theJapaneseEnlightenment,
HarRegardingthe level of discussionin vard U.P., 1976, p. xli.
Gakumon
no Susume,see Earl H. Kinmouth, 10 Maruyama Masao ALUM5, 'JiyaMin'FukuzawaReconsidered:
Gakumon
nosusume kenUndo-shi'
0 FtRMX%b, in hisSenchato
and its Audience',in JAS, xxxvii:4,August Sengo no Aida f' a fA*O, Misuzu Shob6,
1978,pp. 677-96.
1976,pp. 310-12.
9 WilliamBraisted,tr., MeirokuZasshi:
8

MBZ, p.

Dialogue
CUSUMANO:An Enlightenment

381

wasMoriArinori
was
oftheshogunate
(theexception
*tKL), so thisbackground
Nakamura
Masanao
Of
his
Meirokusha
unusual."1
hardly
peers,however,
rP'HIEi
memberbesidesFukuzawato refusea postin the
was theonlyotheroriginal
on remaining
Thisinsistence
a private
citizenandcriticism
Meijiadministration.
whobecamepublicofficials
notonlyisolatedFukuzawafrom
ofthoseintellectuals
to government
efforts
to recruit
butalso werecontrary
scholars
othermembers
movement.
motivein writing
forthe Enlightenment
Kaika
Ogawa's primary
ofthegovernment
and
Mondoseemstohavebeento opposeFukuzawa'scriticism
in publicoffice.
ofintellectuals
noSusumeshowsa strong
level,whileGakumon
On a moreabstract
preference
withthesuperficial
of
imitation
forWestern
ideals,Fukuzawawas notsatisfied
after1868.TheJapanese
thathadbecomefashionable
public,
Western
civilization
whichdistinguished
he claimed,stilllacked'thespiritof independence'
citizens
is
the
all
'It
indeed
value,
of a trulyenlightened
thatis, the
society:
important
ofindependence
ofa people. .. if
whichinturnis thespirit
ofcivilization,
spirit
theoutwardformsof civilization
a peoplelackthisspiritof independence,
are
Fukuzawaheldthatthemassesin Japanstillremained
on
useless.'12
dependent
the
and
thegovernment,
justas theyhad beenunder shogunate, onlyindividual
becausetheimperial
was unwilling
effort
couldbreakthistradition
bureaucracy
Whatever
theaccuracy
institutions.
ofthesecontentions,
democratic
to introduce
theessential
or thewisdomofthepolicychosenbytheMeijioligarchs,
pointreis
wereraisedin theJanuary
KaikaMondo thatthesearguments
issues
garding
of Gakumon
no Susume.Fukuzawawas especially
hardon scholarsof Western
the imperial
whathe feltwas indiscriminate
learningwho offered
government
praise:

trifle
aboutthegovernment
is praisedin boldletters....
... everycommendable
as ifitweresomegod.... Theyuseempty
phrases
Theylookup tothegovernment
ofequal humanbeings.Yet no one thinksit shameful.
whichare unworthy
From
theirwritings
thatthesepeoplewereall madmen.Yet the
alonewe mightsurmise
of thesememorials
and thewriters
of thesenewspapers
are almostall
publishers
andblindly
ledbythespiritof
scholarsofWestern
... theyareoppressed
learning
to saythatinJapanthereis onlya governcorrect
subservience....It is generally
ment,and as yetno people.13

ofthepost-Restoration
It is difficult
to imagine
a bleakerpicture
era: a lingera
of
new
with
no
realcitizens,
worshipped
ing'spirit subservience',
government
whoseemedto be littlemorethan'madmen'.
'as ifitweresomegod'byscholars
as thepolicyofa despoticgovernment
FukuzawathendamnstheMeijireforms
forcedupona submissive
toward'Civilization
and
populace.Japan'smovement
if
wasto hima merefacade citizens
wereno lessdependent
upon
Enlightenment'
1 Braisted,p. xx.

mentof Learning[EL), tr. David A. Dilworth

, Fukuzawa & UmeyoHirano,MN Monograph

FukuzawaYukichi
33, 1969,
ZenshaXNffi 1FZ], IwanamiShoten,1926, p. 30.
13 FZ III, pp. 30-31; EL, p. 25.
II, p. 37; Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encourage12

XXXVII, 3
Nipponica,
Monumenta

382

Fukuzawa
theirrulersthanthemasseshad beenundertheTokugawasystem.
thantheregime
wasevenmoresinister
government
alsodeclaresthattheimperial
ithadreplaced:
usesbothforce
regime
butthepresent
ofthepastusedforce,
... thegovernments
ofconis richintechniques
thelatter
to theformer,
In contrast
andintelligence.
thepeopleofpower;thepresent
deprived
thepeople.Pastgovernments
trolling
the
menexternally,
controlled
Pastgovernments
minds.
robsthemoftheir
regime
wasa deviltothepeople,
as well.Theformer
interior
their
controls
regime
present
is nowa god."4
thelatter
by
members
employed
werereadby Meirokusha
Theseand othercomments
)oLZ, forexample,was theofficial
Kat6 Hiroyuki
government;
theimperial
to Fukuzawa
Theirresponses
booksto theMeijiemperor.
on Western
lecturer
memaccordedto him.The Meirokusha
oftherespect
indicative
weremeasured,
disjournalbefore
Fukuzawainthesecondissueoftheir
bersalsochosetorefute
issue.
inthefollowing
theItagakimemorial
cussing
Fukuzawaas 'myesteemed
addressing
Kato openstheseriesof refutations,
civilization
and cultivate
to stimulate
He thenstatesthatit is necessary
friend'.
'It is alwaysappropriate
asserting,
andoutsidethegovernment,
bothfromwithin
to do
iftheyareinclined
studiesto servethegovernment
inWestern
forscholars
governbeing
the
'the
that
government,
proposes
MoriArinori
SO.'15 Similarly,
bythepeopleand forthepeople,'withno
mentofall thepeople,is established
for
He claimsthattheresponsibility
andcitizens.
between
distinction
government
of
itsessence,regardless
is heldbythosewhounderstand
civilization
promoting
being
'The
people,
observes,
Tsuda Mamichi R3;IXI
theirpoliticalaffiliations.
thecountry
... thegovernment
within
arefactors
thecountry,
thepeoplewithin
whilethepeoplearelikethebody.'16
is likethespirit
that
is madebyNishiAmaneNAN.He contends
response
Themostarticulate
independence
future
the
between
connection
is
a
failstoprovethatthere
Fukuzawa
liferather
thanin
needforscholarsto remainin private
ofJapanand a current
of
a longtradition
through
NishiagreesthatJapanhas suffered
government.
of'Expel
ina spirit
itself
originated
theMeijiRestoration
andlethargy;
despotism
byan 'oppression
andwascharacterized
andhonortheEmperor,'
thebarbarians
The Restoration
'strongly
to whichthepeoplefeltwellaccustomed.
andservility'
arenotlikely
andtraditions
attitudes
eventhough
institutions,'
Western
affirmed
ofJapanese
Nishialso admitsthatitwilltakegenerations
to be changedquickly.
but
Western
scholarship',
of
'theinnermysteries so-called
scholarsto penetrate
as it is
to faultscholarsforjoiningthenewgovernment,
arguesthatit is unfair
to haveintellecoftentheironlysourceofincome.He also believesit preferable
'mad
office
ratherthantheirbeingisolatedor considered
tualsin government
Nishi
then
denies
as in the middleof the Tokugawaperiod.
and deranged',
14 FZ III,

p. 38;

EL,

p. 31.

15 Braisted,pp. 21-22.

16

Ibid.,pp. 23-24.

CUSUMANO:An EnlightenmentDialogue

383

Fukuzawa's contentionthat scholarsof Westernlearningadopt an attitudeof

beforethe government,
thatsuch 'flattery
'fawningservility'
althoughadmitting
and servility
mayusuallybe tracedto Shint6scholar-politicians.'17
betweentheMeirokushaarticlesand Ogawa's
Whilethereis no directconnection
tract,Kaika Mondowas clearlyanotherrebuttalof Fukuzawa.Yet one can only
guesshow theauthorof Gakumonno Susumewouldhave reactedto thisindirect
refutation.Surely Fukuzawa would have used language much strongerthan
'fawningservility'to describethe mentalityof its author.Ogawa's announced
missionwas to 'enlighten'the ignorantmasses,yethis main functionwas to act
as an apologistforofficial
policies.Alreadyin thetract'sprefacedeference
to the
Meiji regimeis evident:
nowconductsa fairand upright
The emperor
baseduponuniversal
government
of themasses.Nonetheless,
justice.Indeed,thismaybe calledthegood fortune
theignorant
defendtheold practices,
poor stillstubbornly
to evilcusadhering
to penetrate
and understand
toms... thisis due to theirinability
trueprinciples
[shinri
thoseprinciples?
Everyone
X39].Ifso,willthestupidpeopleeverunderstand
knowstovalueajewelovera rock,orajustgovernment
overa deceitful
one.Ofthose
of this,I wonderhowmanyrecognize
whohaveanyunderstanding
itsprinciple?
eachhousehold
Accordingly,
eachpersonshouldbe instructed,
enlightened.
Schools
education
mustflourish.
thepeopleshouldbemade
shouldbeestablished,
Moreover,
Thisis thedebatebetweenKaijiroand Kyflhei.
to perceivetruthforthemselves.
thistract.'8
Finally,itis thereasonforcomposing
Despitethesimpleexplanationgivenabove,severalmotivesinspiredthewriting
of Kaika Mondo. One was to disseminateinformation
about the West and the
in
This
was
mixed
with
an appeal forsupportof governEnlightenment Japan.
mentmeasures.Ogawa also triedto refutethecontentionthatthe Meiji governmentwas despoticand that scholarsshouldprotestby refusingto join it. The
authoris especiallycleverin his use of Fukuzawa's writings,
as thesematerials
in a morevernacularstylethanthatused
and topicswereborrowedand rewritten
in workssuch as Gakumonno Susume.For example,Kaika Mondoemploysthe
copula de gozaruinsteadof nari,and oftenparaphrasesor substitutes
elementary
and kana foreruditeChinesecharacters.Nevertheless,
synonyms
theMeiji reader
familarwithFukuzawa's publicationscould hardlyhave failedto noticethe resemblancein Ogawa's text.
natureof Kaika Mondowas surelyobvious,exceptperhaps
The propagandistic
to an unsuspecting
peasant-indeed, to someonelike Kyiuhei-whomightnot
have graspedthe politicalimportof the tract.Such a readerwould have been
overwhelmed
by Kaijiro's confidenceand knowledge,not to mentionconstant
knewbest how to look afterthe people and
reassurancesthatthe government
the country.Withthistypeof readership,Ogawa no doubt foundsuccess,yet
17

Ibid.,pp. 25-27.

18

MBZ,

p.

107.

384

MonumentaNipponica,xxxvii, 3

to a considerable
extent
thepersuasive
powerofKaijiro'sarguments
is thepower
oftextssuchas Fukuzawa'sSeiyoJijo04*1 ('Conditions
in theWest'),18661870,and Gakumon
no Susume.Overall,directborrowing
or paraphrase
from
Fukuzawaamountsto aboutone-tenth
of Kaika Mondo(whichrunsto sixty
closely
printed
pagesas reproduced
inMeijiBunkaZenshu).
Mostofthisborrowed
is wovenintothelongorations
material
ofKaijiro,whichmakeup aboutthreefourths
ofthetext.Theremainder
isallotted
toKyuihei,
andeventhispartincludes
of Meijiofficials.
Fukuzawa'scriticisms
Kaijirothuscannotsimplybe equated
withFukuzawa.The implicit
characterization
of thelatterin Kaika Mondois
morea combination
of'Mr Enlightenment'
and'Mr Old Fogey'.
Littleis knownaboutOgawaTameji.He is listedin no majorbiographical
reference,
although
hepublished
severalothertextsbetween
1873and 1890which
providesomecluesto his vocationand personality.
His first
listedpublication
appearedin December1873and was titledUsagino MondoAV)PUN&
('Dialogue
oftheRabbits').Thisshortpamphlet
is another
Enlightenment
satireemploying
thequestion-and-answer
format.
as editorofa translaOgawawasalso credited
in 1873,of FrancisWayland'sTheElements
tion,published
of MoralScience,
1835.During1874he published,
alongwiththefirst
partof KaikaMondo,two
booksexplaining
theWestern
ofwritten
inaddition
convention
tothree
contracts,
texts:Gakumon
educational
noHi *P"1Jo(theEnglish
titleis givenas 'TheWay
of Intellectual
Improvement'),
KunmoHitono MichiVIIVAOD ('The Routeto
Moral Instruction'),
and Bunsho
Jizai * M*E('FreeComposition').`9
Ogawa's
last-known
publication
is datedApril1890and titledKotsuyobun:
KairyoBuntai
3)f19A
AZ;O ; ('LettersforCorrespondence:
Improved
Style').Thisis a continuation
of hispreviously
published
instructions
on howto writeformalletters
forvariousoccasions.
Severaloftheseworkslisttheauthoras a Tokyocommoner
(heimin
*1K) and
givea local address.One prefaceis dedicated
to 'OgawaSensei';sincemostof
thepublications
deal witheducationor moraltraining,
it is not unlikely
that
he workedas a teacher,
perhapsin a primary
in
school.He is notmentioned
therecordof government
employees
and officials
duringthefirst
decadeofthe
Noneof hisknownpublications
Meijiperiod.20
was officially
sponsored
bythe
government.
19 This last workhad a complicated
Jizai.Still
pub- 'OgawaAkira'withthetitleBunsho
lishinghistory.BunshoJizai 3Z*AtE is an anotherlistsOgawa Tameji,yetthe titleis
elementary
textbook,severalhundredpages Shogakuyobun:
KaikaKango;J-* :1I;
g-V
inlength,
forwriting
holidaygreetings,
invita- ('LettersforPrimary
Schools:Enlightenment
tions,appointment
notices,
responses,
and the Chinese').A work similarto the original
like,in formalJapanese.Originally
published BunshdJizaiis datedAugust1883and titled
inJuly1874,threeidentical
versions
appeared Nichiydbun:
BamminHikkei HSAZWMEAK
in December1875.One liststhe same pub- ('Lettersfor Daily Use: A PopularHandlisherand distributors
as theearlieredition book').
20 Meiji Shoki no Kan'in Roku Shokuin
whilebearingthetitleShogakuKaika Kango
1977,i-InI(1869;
4i'MILAV3 ('Chinese for Primary-SchoolRoku
Enlightenment').
Another
givestheauthoras 1880).

Dialogue
An Enlightenment
CUSUMANO:

385

career,and
reveala basic patternin education,
Ogawa'sworksnonetheless
of Englishand Chinesecomposition
probableoutlook.Apparentknowledge
samuraimighthavereceived
a broadeducationsuchas a progressive
indicates
memas inthecaseofFukuzawaandmostMeirokusha
priorto theRestoration,
withelementary
inChinesestyle,
composition
bers.Severaltextsdeal specifically
at leastcomparedto the
stancetowardWesternization,
a moderate
suggesting
of Chinesestudiesor rewhoproposedtheabandonment
of reformers
attitude
the
language.KaikaMondoalso reflects
of Japanesewitha Western
placement
butto add
education,
increasing
trendin MeijiJapannotto discardtraditional
in Japanese
and customsto thecurriculum
learning
information
aboutWestern
schools.
pedagogue
hisoccupation
mayhavebeen,Ogawawas a self-styled
Whatever
gainas
bythehopeoffinancial
perhapsmotivated
polemicist,
andEnlightenment
the
explain
This
would
Enlightenment.
and
Civilization
muchas bythespiritof
similar
recycling
titlesor authorship,
Jizaiunderdifferent
ofBunsho
appearance
Ogawa
their
author.
writings
andmimicking
Fukuzawa's
from
andlifting
materials,
It
withpublishers
and book retailers.
also musthaveenjoyedgood relations
and
titles,
different
texts
under
same
to
re-issue
the
somecooperation
required
in Tokyoand Osaka
widedistribution
had a relatively
all of his publications
are listedforBunshoJizaiand otherworks.Kaika
becausedozensof retailers
in
in Tokyoby Sanshoya=#f, withthreedistributors
Mondowas published
A1
Maruya
Zenshichi
was
Tokyo
agent
in
main
The
Tokyoandeleven Osaka.
forwhich,
Fukuzawa
worked
oftheMaruzen
coincidentally,
company
*-t,a branch
of Western
books.21It is somewhat
theimportation
as a consultant
regarding
weredistributed
by a
ironicthatKaika Mondoand otherOgawapublications
Fukuzawa.
thatalso employed
majorbookretailer
II

A Dialogue withFukuzawa Yukichi

to essayswritten
byFukuzawabetween
Nearlyall ofKaikaMondocorresponds
essential
casesofliftedmaterial
onlythemostflagrant
1865and 1875,although
Fukuzawa
therelevant
here.Selections
from
willbepresented
toOgawa'sargument
theflavor
is madeto recreate
Someattempt
forcomparison.
textsarereproduced
show
the
sincethismayhelpto
why tracthas
ofthedialogues,
and atmosphere
document
thatitis.
forthecontroversial
notbeenrecognized
to
The firstpartof Kaika Mondo,publishedin March 1874,corresponds
ca. 1865,
Fukuzawa'sTojinOrai kAIA ('Comingsand Goingsof Foreigners'),
no SusumeappearingbetweenMay 1872
SeiyoJij1,and issuesof Gakumon
1874.The mostimportant
dialoguesdeal withtheinterpretations
and January
humanequality,Westernlearningand education.The
of Japanesehistory,
no
ofBummeiron
to thethirdchapter
in May1875,corresponds
sequel,published
from
no
Susume
March1875,as wellas to issuesofGakumon
published
Gairyaku,
21

KimuraKi *i4-, MaruzenGaishiA* A , Maruzen,1970,pp. 66,70, & 98.

386

MonumentaNipponica,xxxvii, 3

FebruarythroughJuly1874. Topics includethe evolutionof civilizationand

ofgovernof government,
thesocialcontract,
mutualresponsibilities
thenecessity
of the Meiji bureaucracy.
mentand citizens,and thestructure
While both partsof Kaika Mondo rebutFukuzawa,the second halfincludes
more philosophicalargumentsas Ogawa respondsto a change in Fukuzawa's
styleof critiqueafterJanuary1874.The fourthand fifthissues of Gakumonno
of the new
againstthe authoritarianism
Susumewereimpassionedprotestations
wereperhaps
regime.In viewof the presslaws of October1873,thesecriticisms
chosenotto attacktheMeiji government
directly.
illegal,and Fukuzawathereafter
The next issues of Gakumonno Susume,followedby the scholarlytreatise
and
analysisof government
thusundertakea theoretical
Bummeiron
no Gairyaku,
theearliercondemnathe historyof civilization.Yet theseworksalso reinforced
principlesby
of moraland intellectual
tion of despotismand the compromising
scholarswhojoined theMeiji administration.
Part One,March1874
Kaika Mondo beginsinnocuously.Kyiiheicomplainsthat changes since 1868
have beentoo rapidforhimto follow:
at all whatis happening
thesedays.The
Somehow,
KaijiroKun,I don'tunderstand
thegovernment
to theemperor,
reasonis thata fewyearsago theshogunreturned
ThoughI had believedin thewaysof the
personally.
whonowrulesthecountry
andthateverything
wouldturnoutwell,
we usedto observe,
pastandthecustoms
unlikethatofold.22
unexpectedly,
theworldoftodayis completely
of the government
concernedthatcentralization
willlead
Kyfiheiis particularly
insensitive
bureaucracy.
This,heclaims,
to oppressionofthepeasantry
bya greedy,
the imhappenedin China whenpowerwas seized by the Ch'in A. 'Thereafter,
in
domains
is
of
of
the
and
imitation
establishing
prefectures
perialact abolishing
thefirstCh'in emperor.In theend,it willbecomethebane of thelowerclasses.'
He claimsthattheAshikaga
Kaijirorespondswitha lectureon Japanesehistory.
thathad once belongedto the
and Tokugawa shogunsusurpedthe sovereignty
is historically
justifiable.Gradual recognitionof
emperor,hence centralization
thatwould 'compareto Americaand
this,plus the need to have a government
England',led to theMeiji Restoration:
on behalf
ofpeoplewhoadvocateda justand truegovernment
Whenthenumber
theshogun'spositionbecameuntenable.
oftheemperor
Finally,in the
increased,
werereturnedto the emperor.... Since the
fall of 1868 the affairsof government

theirlandsto
shogunhad doneso, it was onlynaturalforthedaimyoto return
heldstolenproperty;
yetonce
theemperor
also. Untilthentheyhad unwittingly
to rectify
theirerror.Is
thereshouldhavebeenno hesitation
thiswasunderstood,
?23
an excellent
an age-oldinjustice
notsucha return
totheemperor
deed,rectifying
22 MBZ, p.

108.

23 MBZ, pp. 109-10.

CUSUMANO:An EnlightenmentDialogue

387

Subsequentportionsof Part One calm Kyulhei'sfearsof railroadsand telegraphs,or thatWesterners

wantto seize controlof Japan.24Kaijir6's responses
paraphraseFukuzawa'sexplanations,in SeiyoJijo,of steamengines,telegraphy,
To denythatforeigners
and electricity.25
have evildesignson theJapanesearchipelago, Ogawa also uses argumentson politicaleconomyfromTojin Orai.26
No reference
is made to Fukuzawaor to thesetwoworks.
Anothertopic taken up in Kaika Mondo is Westernlearningand education.
Kyuiheicomplainsthat the lettersof the Roman alphabetlook like 'wriggling
worms'.He lamentstheneglectofJapaneseand Chineseclassics,criticizing
governmentleaders for being 'lovers of the West' and importingforeigncivilization
indiscriminately.
Kaijir6 answerspatiently:'These thingscalled lettersrepresent
the thoughtsof people. As tools forunderstanding
the principlesof the world,
theyare used in place of whatare called words.'He observesthatto use Chinese
charactersit is necessaryto learn many thousands,requiringyears of study.
In contrast,the Japanesesyllabariesand Roman letterscan be learnedin about
a month.
Sincetheyaretoolsforlearning
theprinciples
oftheworld,theyarejustliketoolsof
a carpenter
or a painter.
Now ifa carpenter
andpainteronlypossessa lotoftools
butdo notknowhowtobuilda houseorpainta wall,theirtoolsareuseless.Besides,
iftheinvestigation
of meretoolsconsumesseveralyears,howutterly
foolishand
stupiditis! Thisis theinconvenience
ofChinesecharacters.27
To someonewho has read Fukuzawarecently,
Ogawa's tractat thispointmay
seemsomewhatfamiliar.Comparetheabove quotationto theopeningstatements
in thesecondissueof Gakumonno Susume,publishedin November1873:
Lettersare theinstruments
of learning.
Theyare likethehammers
and sawsused
to builda house.Although
hammers
andsawsareindispensable
toolsforbuilding
a house,a personwhoonlyknowstheirnamesbutnothowto builda housecannot
be calleda carpenter.
Forthisreason,a personwhoonlyknowshowto readletters
butdoesnotknowhowto discerntheprinciples
of things
cannotbe calleda true
scholar.28

The aboveis an exampleofhowKaika Mondocorresponds

to variousFukuzawa
texts.But as Kaijiro continuesthisdiscussion,materialis liftedalmostdirectly
fromthefirstissueof Gakumonno Susume,publishedin May 1872.Ogawa's renditionis in theleftcolumn,theoriginalFukuzawatextin theright.29
Learningdoes not essentially
consist
in suchimpractical
pursuitsas study
of obscureChinesecharacters,
read24
25

MBZ, pp.

119& 126.

Nihon no Meicho: Fukuzawa Yukichi

Chuo Koronsha,1963,
4c*041*4RIV,
xxxin, pp. 378-82.

Learningdoes not essentially

consist
in suchimpractical
pursuits
as study
of obscureChinesecharacters,
read26
27
28
29

MBZ, pp. 120-21;Blacker,

p.
MBZ, p. 122.
FZ III, p. 9; EL, p. 9.
MBZ, p.

122; FZ

III, pp.

2-3;

122.

EL, p.

2.

388

MonumentaNipponica,xxxvii, 3

ing ancienttextswhichare difficult

to make out, composingJapanese
verse,and writing
poetry.Although
thesesubjectsmaybe greatly
to people's benefit,they should not be
esteemedas highlyas theConfucian
and JapaneseLearningscholarshave
esteemedthemsince ancienttimes.
Amongthe ChineseLearningscholars, thosewho have been skilledin
practicalmattershave been fewindeed. Rare also has been thechonin
who,if he was wellversedin poetry,
was also successful
in business.Consequently
we observethatthoughtful
choninand peasants,whentheysee
theirown childrenconcentrating
on
books, fear as good parentsthat
theywilleventually
bringtheirbodies
to ruin.This is not withoutreason.
And it provesthat such formsof
learning
are ultimately
withoutpractical value and will not servedaily
needs.

ing ancienttextswhichare difficult

to makeout,or enjoying
and writing
poetry.Thesekindsof interests
may
be usefuldiversions,
buttheyshould
not be esteemedas highlyas the
Confucianand JapaneseLearning
scholarshave esteemedthem since
ancienttimes.Among the Chinese
Learningscholars,those who have
beenskilledin practicalmatters
have
beenfewindeed.Rare also has been
thechonin
who,ifhe was wellversed
in poetry,was also successfulin
business.Consequentlywe observe
thatthoughtful
choninand peasants,
when they see theirown children
concentrating
on books,fearas good
parents that they will eventually
bring the familyfortuneto ruin.
This is not withoutreason.And it
provesthat such formsof learning
without
are ultimately
practicalvalue
andwillnotservedailyneeds.

The nextsectionof theKaika Mondotextwas takenfromGakumonno Susume

withno changesat all:
Suchimpractical
studiesshouldthusbe relegated
to a secondary
position.The
objectofone'sprimary
efforts
shouldbe practical
learning
thatis closerto ordinary
humanneeds.For example,a personshouldlearnthe47-letter
kana syllabary,
methods
ofletter
writing
andofaccounting,
thepractice
of theabacus,thewayto
handleweights
and measures,
and thelike.Andthereare manyadditional
things
to be learned.Geography
is theguideto theclimates
notonlyofJapan,butofthe
manycountries
oftheworld.Physics
is thesciencewhichinvestigates
theproperties
andfunctions
ofthemyriad
things
oftheuniverse.
Histories
arebookswhichstudy
thecondition
ofthecountries
ofthe
ofthepastandpresent
bydetailedchronicling
historical
ages.Economicsexplainsthefinancial
management
of self,family,
and
thestate.Ethicsexpoundsthenaturalprinciples
ofpersonalmoralcultivation
and
ofsocialintercourse.30
to hintat hisdebtto Fukuzawa: 'It has alreadybeen
Ogawa herepausesbriefly
statedin the publicationsof Gakumonno Susumethat everyone,whetherhigh
or low,mustknowthesethings.'31
Butthereis no explicitmentionthatFukuzawa
has been extensively
quoted or paraphrasedin this dialogue and elsewherein
30 MBZ,

p. 122; FZ III, pp. 2-3; EL, p. 2.

MBZ, p.

122.

An Enlightenment
Dialogue
CUSUMANO:

389

Kaika Mondo.Instead,Kaijiromerelyproceedsto enumerate

the benefits
of
'Allthesesubjects
havegoneunnoticed
andthenasserts,
Western
learning
bythe
Japaneseuntilnow sincetheywereall invented
by Westerners.'
Ogawa (left
issueofGakumon
thetextofthefirst
noSusume
column)nowcopiesandrewords
(right
column).32
each of
For thepurposeof studying
theseareas, a personshouldinvesof Westernbooks.
tigatetranslations
In manycases he can use kana. But
a lad who is youngand talentedin
lettersshould be taughtto read
Westernlanguages.By graspingthe
practicalmattersof each science,
whichvary in subjectmatterand
content,he can searchforthe truth
of thingsand make themservehis
presentpurposes.The above-mentioned subjectsare ones common
whicheveryone
to man,and matters
in, without
shouldhave an interest
of highor low, rich or
distinction
poor. Afteracquiringsuch learning,
the four classes will pursue their
and
withoutobstruction
occupations
graduallyprosper.Eventuallythey
inwill become an unrestrained,
people.
dependent

For thepurposeof studying

each of
theseareas, a personshouldinvestigatetranslations
of Western
books.
In manycases he can use kana. But
a lad who is youngand talentedin
lettersshould be taught to read
Westernlanguages.By graspingthe
practicalmattersof each science,
whichvary in subjectmatterand
content,he can searchforthe truth
of thingsand make themservehis
presentpurposes.The above-mentioned subjectsare ones common
whicheveryone
to man,and matters
shouldhavean interest
in,irrespective
of rankor position.Afteracquiring
such learning,men will go on to
createsocial distinctions
as a matter
of course.Each willthenbe able to
managehis ownfamily
business,
and
theindividual,
and nationwill
family,
achieveindependence.

The subjectstreatedabove havebeen of a generalnatureand involveno startlingdeclarationseitherby Fukuzawaor byOgawa. Yet ifin factFukuzawaread
copied,
Kaika Mondo,he would,no doubt,have been upsetto see his writings
even
have
been
would
He
tract.
paraphrased,and truncatedin a pro-government
more displeasedto know that his workscontributedto the reputationof the
tractand itsauthor.For example,in anothersectionKaijir6 deniesthatphysical
oftheTokugawa
differences
existamongpeoplewhichmightjustifya continuation
suchas thefollowingquotation
divisionof societyintoclasses.These arguments,
by Kaijiro,have been citedby Maruyama33to showOgawa's liberalspirit:
thepurposeofHeaven.It is
Thispositionofequalityhas beenfromthebeginning
of
ofone'swill,thepursuit
includethefreeexercise
Theserights
calledhumanrights.
bring
ofgoods;onlywhentheserights
andthefreepossession
peaceandtranquility,
that
It is something
lawsmaytheybe obstructed.
harmto othersorviolatesociety's
ofhigh
equallyfromHeaven.... Amongtheclassifications
has received
everyone
wealthy,
samurai,
andlow,richandpoor,lineageand status,therearethenobility,
32 MBZ, p.

123; FZ

III,

pp. 2-3; EL, p. 2.

33

See n. 6, above.

390

MonumentaNipponica,XXXVII,3

andpoor.Butthisis notsomething
ordainedbyHeaven.We ourselves
havedeterminedit.Thisis merely
a condition
in theworldofhumanbeings.34
Humanrightsand equalitywereprogressive
conceptsfora Japaneseto profess
in the 1870s.On anotherlevel,however,Ogawa is merelydefendinga governmentdirective
thatwas complexin motivation,
fortheMeiji abolitionof thefour
classes and otherreformswere not motivatedsolelyon humanitariangrounds.
In any case, Kaika Mondo does little more than paraphrase statementsby
Fukuzawa,suchas thefamousdictum,'It is said thatheavendoes notcreateone
man above or below anotherman,' appearingin the firstissue of Gakumonno
Susume.This 1872essaystatescategorically
of social
that,despitethepersistence
and personaldistinctions,
all menare createdequal:
Nevertheless,
as we broadlysurveythehumanscene,thereare thewiseand the
stupid,therichandpoor,and nobleand lowly,whoseconditions
seemto differ
as
as thecloudsand themud.The reasonforthisis clear.In theJitsugokyo
greatly
andthata manwho
AM wereadthatifa mandoesnotlearnhe willbe ignorant,
is ignorant
is stupid.Therefore
thedistinction
between
wiseandstupidcomesdown
to a matter
ofeducation.35
Comparetheparallelsegmentin Kaika Mondo.The speakeris Kaijiro,lecturing
Kyiiheion theconnectionbetweeneducationand social status:
If we examinethecreateddistinctions
between
highand low,richand poor,they
usuallydependon a person'stalent.The reasonforthisis clear.An old booksays
thatifa mandoesnotlearnhe willbe ignorant,
andthata manwhois ignorant
is
thedistinction
stupid.Therefore
between
wiseand stupidcomesdownto a matter
ofeducation.36
As can be seen,thelastpartofeachquotationis practically
identical.The followingportionofKaijiro'smonologueis also takenalmostunchangedfromGakumon

no Susume:

therearedifficult
Moreover,
and easyprofessions
in society.The personwhoperformsdifficult
workis regarded
as a manof highstation.One whoperforms
easy
workis calleda personoflowstation.
Allworkinvolving
intellectual
effort
is more
difficult.
suchpersonsas scholars,government
Consequently,
merchants
officials,
whomanagelargebusinesses,
farmers
whoemploy
manyhands,areconsidered
noble
and of highstation.Beingsuch,theirhouseholds
are naturally
and they
wealthy,
seemto toweraboveand outofreachofthelowerclassesofsociety.
Butwhenwe
intothereasonforthis,wefindthatthesedifferences
inquire
areentirely
theresult
of
whether
theyhaveordo nothavethepowerswhichlearning
brings.
It is notbecause
of somedecreeof Heaven.As theproverbsays:heavendoes notgiverichesand
to manhimself,
butto hislabors.Therefore,
dignity
thereare no intrinsic
distinctionsbetween
and
high low,richandpoor.37
MBZ, p. 111.
35 FZ III, p. 1; EL, p. 1.

36 MBZ, p. 111.
37 MBZ, pp. 111-12; FZ III, pp.

1-2; EL, p. 1.

CUSUMANO:An EnlightenmentDialogue

391

The firstpartof
An elaboratedefenseof the Meiji regimeis thusconstructed.
on behalfof EnlightenKaika MondoborrowsFukuzawa'spersuasivearguments
exceptwhen Kyuihei
ment,scrupulouslyomittingcriticismof the government
is speaking.The peasantcriticis devastated,humbled.Recognizingthe follyof
beliefs,'Mr Old Fogey'endshisexchangein PartOne byfullysubmithisformer
tingto the guidanceof the imperialauthorities.The eager 'Mr Enlightenment'
providesa joyfulclosing.
In fact,as youhave
cometo admireyourunderstanding.
KYUHEI:I havegradually
is to letall the
government
spoken,I havecometo see howtheaimofthepresent
and enjoygreathappiness.
It seemsas ifI
financially,
peoplelivein peace,prosper
froma dream!UntilnowI didnotrealizethereweresuchprinhavebeenawakened
I thought
thepresent
was so different
and terrible,
and thegovernciples;instead,
suchbigotedviewsthatI nowfeel
to you,I expressed
mentwas evil.In contrast
ashamedanddisgraced.
myhumblewordsandtheyhavehad
KAIJIRO:Letus be happythatyouunderstood
to speakillofthepast,
blindly
theeffect
youclaim.It is thecustomintoday'ssociety
why.Althoughthereare manypeoplewho imitatethis
withoutunderstanding
abouttheemperor.
current
trend,you,in thebottomof yourheart,werethinking
thatnumerous
Thusyouthought
practiceswereeviland so you advancedthese
yourheart.Your complete
But my wordshave penetrated
variousarguments.
of former
and I admire
opinionsis trulythenatureof theJapanese,
discarding
if each person
yournoblespirit.Thus,forreasonssuchas you havementioned,
of thegovernment
and also studies,howmanyinteresting
upholdstheobjectives
and enjoyablethingswillbecomepossible,howhigha positionmayone attain!
Kun,if you considerthematterwell,I meanreallywell,shouldwe not
KyuThei
thatwe livein suchtimes?38
shedtearsofgratitude
Part Two,May 1875
criticassignedagainto Kyuihei.
Kaika Mondoreopenswiththeroleofgovernment
He nowaddressesKa-iro as a childwouldaddressan adult.'Well,Kai San, what
officials.'
He compares
I understand
leastare thedutiesofthepresentgovernment
the Meiji and Tokugawaregimes,and concludesthatthecurrentsystemis more
under
thanits predecessor.The loftilytitledministries
confusingand ineffective
the new emperorare but hollow shells. Proclamationsin formalChinese are
mountain
an unfamiliar
'For thepeasantsthisis likefollowing
incomprehensible.
Who protectsour
road in the darkness.Who managesour householdregisters?
homes?Who receivesour taxes?Whojudgesour petitionsto thegovernment?'39
in
This is the renewedsetting.The befuddledpeasant will now be instructed
in
of
but
of
not
the
government
thephilosophyand origins only
imperialregime
general.In 'Seifu no Seiritsukino Mondo' 0IEiODAlicD;eI ('Dialogue on the
Originsof Government'),Kaijiro beginsby describinga Hobbesian, primeval
38 MBZ, p.

128.

39

MBZ, p. 130.

392

MonumentaNipponica,XXXVII,3

to insureitsown
societyforcedto createa social contract,and thusgovernment,
survival.
of government.
For instance,
Let'stalkabouttheprinciples
a groupof menand
uninhabited
landandmovethere.
womendiscover
a certain
Theysoonbuildhouses,
in thehills,huntanimalsin thefields,catch
cultivate
theearth,gatherfirewood
fishinthesea-each personwithhisorherownplanforclothing,
food,andshelter.
forthgreateffort,
fromnaturemeansforclothing,
Putting
theyfurnish
food,and
and withthe surplustheyare able to save,tradeamongthemselves
shelter,
to
eachone'spleasureandto increase
everyone's
happiness.40
the inhabitantsshouldhave no worries.But
Withinsuch utopiansurroundings,
whenjust one personbeginsto stealor to monopolizenecessities
suchas firewood
intoa contestto seize thepossessionsof others.
or grain,thesystemdegenerates
In theensuingchaos, 'Since theirway of lifewilleventuallybe destroyed,
on the
basis of discussiontheunifiedgroupsuppressesany evildoersthroughthepower
of the majority,and makes laws for theirpunishment.
That is partlythe way
government
was established.'Accordingto Kaijiro,theMeiji regimealso started
in thismanner:
If we studyall thecountries
oftheworldand investigate
theirorigins,
we willfind
thatnot one of themdepartsfromsuchprinciples.
As regardstheoriginsof its
eventhegovernment
in generalfromthese
formation,
rulingJapandoesnotdiffer
And so fromtheverybeginning
of the government
principles.
theauthority
is
theauthority
of thepeople.Without
doubtthisis something
thegovernment
has
received
fromthepeoplethemselves.4"
Discussionson patternsin historicalevolutionand theplace of Japanin world
historywerecommonamongJapaneseintellectuals
duringthe 1870s.This formidable subjectis takenup by Fukuzawain Bummeiron
no Gairyaku,partof which
is based on F. P. Guizot's GeneralHistoryof Civilization
in Europe,1837,translated intoJapanesein 1872 as SeiyoKaika Shi
WhereasFukuzawa's
l
of thistheme,corresponding
treatment
to sectionsI and XIV of Guizot'stext,is
forthegeneralreaderto follow,Kaika Mondopresents
and fairlydifficult
lengthy
a simplified
versionforthebenefitof Kyiihei:
inall thecountries
oftheworld,therearemany
As forthetypesofpoliticalsystems
and generalcustoms.
differences
naturalcharacteristics
owingto theirdifferent
Still,if we distinguish
amongthem,thereare basicallythreeforms:monarchies,
In a monarchy,
ofhereditary
andrepublics.
rulersholdall
aristocracies,
generations
thecountry
In an aristocracy,
thoseofhighstatuswithin
politicalauthority.
gather
all thepeoplewithin
andconducttheaffairs
ofgovernment.
In a republic,
together
thenation,regardless
oftheirsocialstatus,participate
in politicalaffairs.
henceKaijiro declaresthathe will
Japanis neithera republicnoran aristocracy,
deal onlywithmonarchicalformsof government:
40

MBZ,

p. 132.

41

MBZ, p.

133.

An Enlightenment
CUSUMANO:
Dialogue

393

Thereare twodifferent
typesof monarchies.
One is calledan absolutemonarchy
[kunshu
seiji Ziktp, and theotheris calleda limitedmonarchy
[kunshin
d6ji
thereareno limits
to thesovereign's
authority;
1Rrp]. In an absolutemonarchy,
thecountry
as wellas itspeoplearethepossessions
ofthemonarch.
He maygive
of citizens,
awayor taketheproperty
and he holdsthepowerof lifeand death
overhissubjects.42
'From ancienttimes,'observesKaijiro further,
'all the governments
of Japan
and China have been absolutemonarchies.'Whenthe sovereignwas benevolent,
thepeoplewerewelltreated.Whenhe was not,thepeoplesuffered
a tyranny
worse
thanthetorments
ofhell.'Therefore,
an absolutemonarchy
completely
contravenes
true principles.It is a barbaric[yabanIf] formof government.
Needless to
say, the people livingundersuch a government
are ignorantand illiterate.'Yet
thesestatements
in Kaika Mondocome close to condemning
theMeiji regimeand
citizenryas 'barbaric'.The emperorheld absolute sovereignty,
at least nominally,and ruled throughan oligarchyremainingfromthe leaders of the 1868
thendisclaims,thiscriticism,
Restoration.Kaijiroanticipates,
whileassertingthat
underconsiderationby the centralgoverndemocraticproposals are currently
ment:
The present
examined
theseprinciples,
has carefully
government
and is removing
all theevilspresent
untilnow,thereby
a just and fairadministration.
conducting
Andso although
thepresent
regime
ifyou
mayseemto be an absolutemonarchy,
viewtheactualsituation,
thegovernment
is whatis calleda limitedmonarchy.
Discussions
are regularly
is entirely
beingheldon thethemethatthegovernment
thepeople'sgovernment,
and thatthegovernment's
workis entirely
thepeople's
work.43
Kunshindoji literallymeans 'joint rule by sovereignand subjects',but is here
translated
as 'limitedmonarchy'.As Kaijir6explains,the termimpliessome measureof law to limitthepowerof thesovereign:
In a limited
therearefixedruleswhichrestrict
theauthority
oftheruler,
monarchy,
affairs
are carriedout on thebasisof discussion
and all government
between
the
andthepeople.Thisis a civilized
andenlightened
suchas
sovereign
political
system,
Itaccordswithtrueprinciples
theonepeopleadmire
so muchinBritain.
andisinfact
a superbformofgovernment.44
no Gairyaku.
Approval of the Britishsystemis also found in Bummeiron
Fukuzawa favored restricting
governmentalpower while preservingJapan's
nationalpolity,whichhe saw as symbolizedin the unbrokenimperialline. But
he asserts,'Everygovernment
in the worldis the productof
moreimportantly,
thathave been triedin the
convenience.... Amongthe formsof government
42 MBZ, p. 133; Fukuzawa Yukichi,An Monograph
51, 1973,p. 39.
43
tr.David
of Civilization,
MBZ, pp. 134-35.
Outlineof a Theory
44
A. Dilworth& G. Cameron Hurst, MN
MBZ, p. 134.

394

Monumenta
Nipponica,
XXXVII, 3

worldsincethe dawn of history,

we can listabsolutemonarchies,constitutional
monarchies,aristocracies,republics,and so forth.A prioriargumentscannot
decidewhichformsare best.'45To Fukuzawa,theformof government
is deterbased upon theneedsof a givenpopulace.
minedinitiallyby practicality,
is largelyconsistentwiththe
Ogawa's expositionof the typesof government
noGairyaku,
discussioninBummeiron
fromFukuzawa's.
althoughhismotivesdiffer
Kaika Mondo stressesthe need forgovernment
and maintainsthatthe imperial
regime,conforming
bothto moralstandardsas wellas to Westernpoliticaltheory,
its role underthe social contractto provideforthe peace and
admirablyfulfills
happinessof the people. Ogawa therebyplaces the onus upon citizensto obey
as an obligationunderthe social pact. Kaijiro buttresses
directives
government
thesearguments
ofimperialruleand contrasting
bycitingthehistorical
legitimacy
ofthepresentregimewiththetyranny
of theTokugawashogunate.
thegenerosity
The basis of Kaika Mondo'sdialogueon the social contractis Essay Seven of
Gakumonno Susume,March 1874,titled'Kokuminno Shokubunwo Ronzu' PIMIX
03 in' ('The Duties of the Citizensof the Nation'). This issue describesthe
nationas a social contractin whichpeople 'join togetherwiththe othercitizens
of the nation'.Each persontakes on a double responsibility:
'to enact and implementthe laws of the nation',adopting'the mentalityof being a master';
and to remainunderthegovernment
withtheobligationto obey itslaws,adopting the mentalityof a 'guest'. A person'sprimaryresponsibility
is to 'honor
the laws of the land, and not forgetthe principleof the equalityof men.' If an
individual'srightsare to be respected,he musthonorthe rightsof others.This
requiresthat all citizensacknowledgethe authorityof the government
and its
rightto enactas wellas to enforcelaws.46
Fukuzawa hereseemsto retreatfromhis outragepubliclyexpresseda mere
two monthsearlier:'Since thisauthorityultimately
derivesfromthe citizens,a
of thegovernment
personnotconnectedwithadministration
shouldnot criticize
its affairs.'In contrastto what he had writtenin January1874, this issue of
noSusumeis limitedto an abstract,cautiousdiscussionof naturalrights,
Gakumon
humanequality,and thedutiesor obligationsof the social contract.In apparent
concessionto the spiritof the Meirokusharebuttals,Fukuzawa also agreesthat
thereis no distinction
betweengovernment
and citizens:
... thecitizensof a nationare at thesametimethegovernment
itself.Sincenot
administer
the affairs
of state,thisis entrusted
everypersoncan directly
to the
whichmakesa pactto serveas therepresentative
government,
of thepeople.Accordingly,
thepeoplearetherealmasters
andbosses.Thegovernment
is theirrepresentativeand manager....Therefore
the government
receivesthe mandateof
thepeople.According
to itspact,itmustseekto promote
therights
ofall,without
distinction
between
highandlow,andmustnotexhibit
evenonedegreeofinjustice
in itscorrect
and selfishness
ofthelawandpunishment
ofcrime.47
application
45
46

FZ IV,
FZ III,

p. 44; Fukuzawa,Outline,
p. 39.
pp. 53-54; EL, p. 41.

47 FZ III, pp.

54-55;

EL, pp.

42-43.

CUSUMANO:An EnlightenmentDialogue

395

is a social contract,Fukuzawa
Havingestablishedthatthebasis of government
thencontendsthatnotall regimesliveup to thisagreement:'It is an ideal situation
fulfilltheirrespectiveroles .... But
whenboth the people and the government
maytranscend
thosewhoare thegovernment
whenthisis nottheactualsituation,
the Meiji officialsare
theirlimitsto executea tyrannicalrule.'48By suggestion,
implicated,althoughFukuzawa does not recommendanotherrevolutionor the
beforethegovernment.
As an alternative,
he urges
of personalintegrity
surrender
the publicto perseverein the supportof 'just principles'(seiri iEl) and thereby
to reformdespoticpractices:
place moralpressureon theadministration
evenone'slifeto upholdjust principles.
The thirdcourseof actionis to sacrifice
inthemoralprinciples
oftheWayofHeaven.It means
confidently
It meansto trust
under
which
are
madeto suffer
bytyrannical
they
how
bitter
the
law
thatno matter
that
break.
without
letting
their
spirits
suffering
they
must
endure
government,
power,theyshouldonlybringpressure
uparmsnorusingone-handed
Neither
taking
to bearuponthegovernment
justprinciples.49
byadvocating
The highstandardsFukuzawa set forthe Meiji regimeare seen moreclearly
to thestateof a necin Bummeiron
no Gairyaku.This treatisereducesgovernment
essaryevil thatservesto maintainlaw and orderonlyuntilthe ultimatelevelof
is the intentionto judge existing
civilizationis reached.Even more significant
to humanprogress.Consequently,Fukuzawa
governments
by theircontribution
levelof civilizationis reached,not onlywill
suggeststhatwhenthequintessential
but governmentitself
on humanfreedombe unnecessary,
artificialrestrictions
willbecomeobsolete.
a greatdeal to civilizedprogress
We can onlysaythata government
contributing
little
to
or evendetrimental
to it,
civilization,
is a goodone,and one contributing
of
our
criterion
must
be
the
in
forms
government,
is a bad one. Hence, evaluating
has
attained.
There
never
been
a
a
has
to which person
perfect
levelofcivilization
formof government.
Shouldwe
and therehas neverbeena perfect
civilization,
wouldbecomeentirely
superfluous.50
everattaina perfect
civilization,
government
will one day become
Kaika Mondo avoids the abstractionthat government
'superfluous'.Instead,Ogawa rebutsargumentsmade in Gakumonno Susume,
maintainingthat the imperialregimehas done much to insurethe peace and
happinessofthemasses.For thisreason,'Dialogue on theOriginsofGovernment'
of theTokugawashogunate:
and corruption
recountsthetyranny
of its
theauthority
of a country
sincethegovernment
joins together
Essentially,
of politicalaffairs
thegovernment
through
people,theaim of theadministration
ofthepeople.The former
governmustbe to provideforthepeaceand happiness
in everyway.The shogunateshouldhave
to thisintention
mentactedcontrary
of thepeople,butinsteadcausedtheirsufprovidedforthepeaceand happiness
48

FZ III,

49 FZ iII,

p. 57; EL, p. 44.

pp. 58-59; EL, p. 45.

50 FZ IV, p.

45.

52; Fukuzawa,Outline,
pp. 44-

396

MonumentaNipponica,xxxViI, 3

it regarded
In substance,
thepeopleas itsownpossession.
As a result,
fering.
the
thisoutlookofthegovernment.
Theweakcontinually
conditions
ofsociety
reflected
ofthestrong,
and thosewithmuchpoweralwaysabused
encountered
thetyranny
thosewithlesspower.Relationsamonghumanbeingswerejustlikethoseamong
thebirdsand thebeasts.If youconsiderthisfromtheperspective
of thepresent,
itwasin facta frightening
andfoolishworld.51
In parallelwiththe seventhissue of Gakumonno Susume,March 1874,titled
'The Duties of the Citizensof the Nation',Kaika Mondoincludesa dialogueon
'Jimminno Seifu ni taisuruShokumuno Mondo' AkR t4)flt6*900314
('Dialogue on the Duties of the People Toward the Government').These are
oppositesidesof thesame coin. Fukuzawastressesthemutualobligationsof the
socialpact,whileOgawa emphasizestheobligationsofcitizensto obeythegovernment.Kaijir6 explains:
Now,abovea personhimself
therearerights
[kenri
$kJ]andduties[gimu ,]....
Forexample,
in buying
and sellinggoods,sincea merchant
has therightto collect
hismoney,
to handoverthemerchandise.
he hasan obligation
Sincethebuyerhas
he has an obligation
to paythemoney.It is the
a right
to receivethemerchandise,
Sincethemasterhas a rightto employa
samebetweena masterand a servant.
to payhima salary.Andsincetheservant
he hastheobligation
hasa right
servant,
to workforhismaster.
to receivehissalary,he has theobligation
Theseprinciples
all thetypesofjobs thatpeopledo in society
andnotfora moment
accompany
can
If younowthinkcarefully
abouttheseprinciples,
theybe abrogated.
youwillsoon
therelationship
cometo understand
between
a government
and itscitizens.52
Kaika Mondodescribeshow the government
administers
the countrythrough
laws to protecttheproperty
ofcitizensfromthievesand to guardagainstpersonal
above to managethe people,
injury.Asks Kaijir6,'If therewereno government
whatwouldconditionsin theworldbe like?' Strongerpeople,suchas thievesand
would dominate.No property-clothing,
murderers,
money,land, 'or even concubines'-wouldbe safe.In fact,one needonlyrecallthechaos whentheTokugawa
to appreciatethe new government.
regimewas overthrown
'KyuiheiSan, if you
thoughtabout thesethings,you would be convincedthatthe generosity
of the
is indeedboundless.Furthermore,
ifeveryonehas therightto receive
government
thisgenerosity,
theneveryonehas the obligationto repayit.' The specificduties
of the people towardthe government
are summarized:'First, to respectthe
country.Second, to uphold strictlygovernment
proclamationsand announcements.Third,to pay taxes,contributeto the needs of the nation,and serveas
soldiersto protectthecountry.'Kaijir6 elaborates:
thecountry
meansto respect
theadministration,
First,respecting
and
government,
officials
of thecountry....Originally,
thegovernment
cameintoexistence
from
out of thepeople.Sinceeach personwho wishesto createthegovernment
contributes
therights
hepossesses,
thegovernment
is thegovernment
ofthepeople.The
51

MBZ, p. 132.

52

MBZ, p. 137.

Dialogue
CUSUMANO:An Enlightenment

397

is theauthority
ofthepeople.Theadminstration
ofthe
ofthegovernment
authority
ofthepeople.The officials
managing
government
is theadministration
government
moreover,
are the
ofthepeople.Andtheseofficials,
affairs
are therepresentatives
willrealizethatthe
sameas anyotherpeople.... Whoevergraspstheseprinciples
is his ownpower,theweaknessof thecountry
is his own
powerof thecountry
of
weakness,
thenation'sjoy,sadness,and painarehisownas well.Thena feeling
willnaturally
andthiswillalsoextend
torespecting
forth,
spring
loveforthecountry
whoall conform
to moralprinciples."3
thegovernment
and itsadministrators,
does not
however,is preciselythatthe MeUi government
Kyuihei'scriticism,
conformto principlesof moralityand justiceand of humanequality.In thesame
cites the
vein as Gakumonno Susume,January1874, the peasant interlocutor
on freedomof expression:
and therestrictions
arroganceof publicofficials
if someoneopenlyslandersthegovernment
or is rudeto an
In today'ssociety,
andpunishhim.... You say,however,
thefellow,
arrest
official,
theybecomeangry,
ofthepeople.Butifyou
anditsofficials
arejustliketheservants
thatthegovernment
not
and listento thesesalariedgovernment
employees,
look at actualconditions
treatthepeoplelikethedogsand cats
himself....Publicservants
one prostrates
theykeepin theirhomes.... 4
As if to mock the idea expressedin Gakumonno Susumethatcitizensare the
truerulersof the country,Ogawa also has Kyuaheicomplainthat were public
officials
reallyservantsof thepeople,thenany citizencould disobeygovernment
not pay his taxes,refuseto servein the army,and at a singleword,
directives,
government
employeeswouldbe obligedto bow downbeforetheirmasters.NeverremainsconsistentwithFukuzawa's arguments:
theless,Kyfihei'sbasic criticism
thepeople,sucha government
and
and itsofficials
'Alas, byarresting imprisoning
as ifwe weretheirprivate
take advantageof theirpowerand brandishauthority
property.'55
of Kyuihei-orof Fukuzawa-on thislast pointagain parKaUir6'srefutation
allels Gakumonno Susume,July1874,in whichFukuzawarefersby suggestionto
Fukuzawa
towardthe public. Specifically,
this attitudeof Meii administrators
objectsto the Confucianconceptof meibun-Y, or 'moralobligation',dictating
to superiors'.In Confucianideology,thisincludes
of inferiors
the'subordination
and
betweena sovereign
theextensionoffilialpietyto definetheidealrelationship
his subjects:
is reducible
itsformcertainly
place,theoriginofthistheory,
To takeup,inthefirst
arisefromevil
of mightmakesright.But it does notnecessarily
to theprinciple
thepeopleas ignorant
It consistsratherin regarding
beingswho are
intentions.
to
andguidedbytheirtotalsubservience
i.e.whoshouldbe succored
easytocontrol,
are supand inferiors
oftheirsuperiors....The mindsofsuperiors
thecommands
unisonon thenationallevel,thevillagelevel,or ina shopor
posedto be inperfect
relation."6
All humanrelations
are to be treated
aftertheparent-child
household.
53 MBZ, pp.

137-38.

MBZ, p. 136.

MBZ, p. 136.

56 FZ III,

p. 87; EL, p. 69.

398

Monumenta
XXXVII,3
Nipponica,

not
relationresultsin subservience,
Fukuzawa maintainsthat the parent-child
familial
is
suitable
in
that
its
only
he
believes
application
Hence,
independence.
situationsand thatthis metaphoris totallyinappropriateto idealize behavior
and itspeople:
suchas betweena government
betweenstrangers,
whosewisdom
realparents,
can onlybe onebetween
relationship
The parent-child
between
government
children
.... therelation
and theirownimmature
is mature,
ofstrangers.
andpeopleis notthatoffleshandblood.It is inessencean association
between
strangers.
inan association
principle
cannotbe theguiding
feelings
Personal
ofa socialcontract.57
basedon thecreation
It is necessarily
Althoughappealingto the social contract,Kaika Mondo rejectsthe idea that
the sovereignauthorityand subjectsare equal. In Kyuihei'smonologueOgawa
boldlycriticizesthe depiction,foundin Gakumonno Susume,of the citizenas a
analogyto justifythe attitudeof
'master'.Kaijiro thenutilizesthe parent-child
theMeiji regimetowardthegeneralpublic:
to insurethatthe
abovethepeoplethemselves,
is a relationship
The government
thepeoplefrominjuring
upon.... To prevent
ofthepeoplearenotinfringed
rights
to theway
theirrights
equally.Thisis similar
thegovernment
protects
oneanother,
ofa parentis likewise
thespiritofthe
a parenttreatsa child.... The truefeeling
government.58

may appear to be doing,it in

Kyuiheiis assuredthat,whateverthe government
factacts onlyin hisbestinterests:
to
boil downto this-merely
the dutiesof the government
Upon examination,
thepresent
does has this
government
therights
of thepeople.Everything
protect
in accordance
withmoralprinciples,
ourrights
objectin mind.Becauseit protects
our
can eat threetimesa day,stretch
San,evenyouand I, freeof worry,
Kyuihei
intheworldforwhichwe
this,thereisnothing
andrestatease.Ifyouconsider
limbs,
shouldbe so grateful
as thegovernment.59
Elsewhere,Ogawa strikeshis mostdevastatingblow. Kaijir6 dismissesall antias merelytheexcessesof an excitabledolt:
statements
government
yourrecentargumentative
San, ifyouthinkaboutall thesethings,
Well,Kyuihei
personfallenintoerror.... For thisreason,take
opinionswerethoseofan excited
so as nottomakesucherrors
restraint
inyourremarks
carefromnowon toexercise
and
again. Fromthe bottomof yourheart,submitto the presentgovernment
itsgenerous
aims.60
respect

Conclusion:
Mentalities
of theJapaneseEnlightenment
Fukuzawamayhave been themostwidelypublishedand celebratedadvocateof
movement,but he was not its only spokesman.Ogawa
Japan's Enlightenment
FZ III, p. 89; EL, pp.
58 MBZ, p. 144.

69-71.

MBZ, p. 140.
60 MBZ, pp. 135-36.

CUSUMANO:
An Enlightenment
Dialogue

399

neverachievedsimilar
renown,
nordidhe deserveto do so. Much,too much,of
is derivative.
It reactsto ideasrather
thancreateorexplorethem.Yet,
histreatise
thatFukuzawahimself
borrowed
fromWestern
considering
enormously
thought,
to be overlycritical
ofKaikaMondo'sauthor.Be thatas itmay,
it seemsunfair
contrasts
thatOgawadescribed
theEnlightenment
withtheidealspremarkedly
no Gairyaku.Ogawa's versionis
sentedin Gakumonno Susumeand Bummeiron

noris itidealistic
orevenmoral.It is eclectic,
notutopian,
pragmatic,
andauthoritarianintherolehe assignsto thegovernment.
a balancedview.He concedesin theMeirokusha
NishiAmaneoffered
journal
thateventsleadingto 1868werenotliberalin spiritandthatRestoration
leaders
wereoriginally
weredirected
opposedto contactwiththeWest.Theirefforts
to imperial
theemperor
himself
towardthereturn
remained
absolutism,
although
The rulingoligarchy
madeonlyperfunctory
littlemorethana symbolic
figure.
untilpressured
toinstalldemocratic
institutions
fromwithin
andoutside
attempts
inpublicas wellas private
aidedbyintellectuals
thecountry.
Nonetheless,
office,
there-education
of themassesand the
thenewregimesuccessfully
promoted
andeconomic
ofJapan'ssocial,political,
institutions.
revamping
Meirokusha
indicate
that
inthe
Fukuzawa'speersconsidered
Rebuttals
journal
1874to be merely
a problem
ofperception,
ofJanuary
hisoutburst
or ofabstracofpeoplewithmoreorlessfreewill,whomayormay
consists
tion.Government
certaingoals,suchas Enlightenment.
notchooseto promote
Butthecontention
no Gairyaku,
in Gakumon
no Susume,supportedbyBummeiron
was notthatgovern-

werenecessarily
To a certain
mentandcitizens,
hostile.
publicandprivate
spheres,
couldencourage
The disagreement
was over
levelbenigngovernment
progress.
imitation
ofWestern
howmuchandwhatkindofprogress.
Superficial
civilization,
suchas advocated
byKaikaMondo,wasnotenoughforFukuzawa.He maintained
Authoritarian
defeatsEnlightenment.
meansperpetuate
a subthatdespotism
a spirit
ofindependence
servient
public,andhefeltthatthiswouldneverengender
reachedin nationssuchas
allowingJapanto equal theheightsof civilization
Britain
andtheUnitedStates.
was Fukuzawafreeof bias or compromise.
Yet neither
Duringthe 1880she
on theemperor
as theideological
and moralfocus
cameto placemoreemphasis
a concern
forJapan'snational
thisviewthrough
ofthenation,
justifying
security.6'
as thecountry
to reform
He relaxedhispressure
seemedto
despoticpractices
Thus Fukuzawa'sdistowardparliamentary
makesomeprogress
government.
or withOgawaprobably
withtheMeirokusha
lessenedby 1890,but
agreement
intoquestionthedegreeto
in itselfofMeijiintellectuals
thisconvergence
brings
builta firm
whichproponents
ofreform
andEnlightenment
democratic
tradition
whenthreatened
inlaterdecades.
orprovided
meansforitsdefense
theintellectual
thatevenhisdisdainforMeijiofficials
reveals
involved
Fukuzawa's
autobiography
61 AlbertM. Craig,'FukuzawaYukichi: Development
inModernJapan,PrincetonU.P.,
The PhilosophicalFoundationsof Meiji 1968, p. 132.
inRobertE. Ward,ed.,Political
Nationalism',

400

MonunentaNipponica,
xxxvii,3

more thanjust adherenceto democraticor moral principles.In 1898,recalling

not to enterthe imperialgovernment,
he speaks as would
his determination
a Tokugawasamurai:
feltthatthebasisof their
Whentheold regimewas lost,theretainers
apparently
standwas also gone.Theyturnedaroundand offered
theirservices
to thegovernmentwithout
theleastshowofembarrassment....
Butit seemsto methatwhena
manfailsina dispute,
itis hispartto takehisdefeatandretire
fromactivesociety.
Buttherewasnothing
likethatwiththesemen.Theyhavesoughthighpositions
in
therivalgovernment
and,havingobtainedthem,areproud.Afterall,theloyalists
thedoctrine
ofloyalty
is a fickle
arenotto be trusted;
idea.I shouldbe muchhappierto remainan independent
citizenthanto associatewiththiskindofmen.62
In lightof thesecomments,it is problematicwhetherFukuzawa's refusalto
was a noble standor plain intransigence.
participatein thenewgovernment
The
Meirokushawere honorablemen. Some members,such as NishimuraShigeki,
also criticizedtheimperialadministration
and praisedaspectsof the old regime.
Most chose to workwithor withinthe Meii bureaucracyratherthanagainstor
apartfromit.This choicewas laudable.Fukuzawapreferred
to promoteEnlightThis too was laudable.
enmentfromoutsideof thegovernment.
There are questionsleftunansweredabout Ogawa Tameji. We do not know
muchabout hisbackgroundand career,whetherhe knewFukuzawa personally,
or whyhe defendedtheMeiji government
so profusely.
We do notknowwhoread
Kaika Mondo or ifFukuzawaevenknewofitsexistence.It is clear,however,that
thetractwas partof a largercorpusdemonstrating
consistent
pedagogicalintentionsand intellectual
purpose.At leastin 1874-1875Ogawa was also an apologist
forthe imperialregimeas wellas a criticof Fukuzawa'santigovernment
stance.
None of theseessentialpointsabout Kaika Mondo and itsauthoris mentioned
in accountsof thetractbyJapanesescholars,who interpret
it as an important
but
ingenuousworkpopularizing
theprogressive
idealsoftheJapaneseEnlightenment.
A comparisonof Ogawa, Meirokushamembers,and Fukuzawa also showsthe
of Enlightenment.
of judgingmentalities
The complexityof mindsor
difficulty
is seen bestin Fukuzawa himself,
motivesamongMeiji intellectuals
whosecriticismsof the government
graduallysoftenedand whosepersonalprejudiceinfluencedhisrefusaltojoin otherscholarsin government
serviceafter1868.Doubtless
therewere manythoughtsin Ogawa's mind when he compiledKaika Mondo.
contextofthetractmustbe explained
The politicalimportas wellas chronological
iftheworkand itsplace in Japan'sEnlightenment
are to be understoodmorethan
superficially.
Analysisof Kaika Mondo revealsan authorwho was eclecticto the pointof
beingcynical,perhapsunprincipled
exceptin his devotionto the government,
and devious in the manipulationof ideas. He also believed,apparently,that
62 YukichiFukuzawa,The Autobiography
ColumbiaU.P., 1960,p. 313.
of YukichiFukuzawa,tr. Eiichi Kiyooka,

An Enlightenment
CUSUMANO:
Dialogue

401

withauthoritarianism
in government.
was notincompatible
Enlightenment
Yet
ofthetextliesnotin whether
theMeijiregime
thelargersignificance
was more
in itspolicies.Rather,it is theappearanceof Kaika
despoticthanenlightened
of a needto defendthe government,
MondJ-theperception
and mislifting
representing
Fukuzawamaterial-that
causeforreflection.
provides
Use of the
is creativeand bold,althoughthe
to defendofficial
socialcontract
authority
So is Ogawa'sdeliberate
ofa sycophant.
adduction
oftheparent-child
argument
tojustify
theadministration's
loathedbyFukuzawa,
analogy,
attitude
paternalistic
to expecta democracy
towardthegeneralpublic.It is anachronistic
to have
whenin Europemonarchy
replacedtheTokugawashogunate
was stilltherule
no Suswnedeclaredthatthemasses
thantheexception.
rather
Withal,Gakwnon
andthatthegovernment
a 'spiritofsubservience'
retained
a despotism
promoted
ofan authoritarian
is valid,both
reminiscent
parent.To theextenthiscriticism
Fukuzawaand,unwittingly,
Ogawa,providean explanation
whythedecadeof
after1868had onlya limited
Enlightenment
impactuponthefollowing
seventy
yearsofJapanese
history.