LOYOLA MOUNTAINEERS

Mountaineering Module I
I. INTRODUCTION

A. MOUNTAINEERING AS A SPORT
Mountaineering is a unique and challenging sport. Unlike other sports, both your opposition and
field of action is nature itself. However, nature can also be your mentor as mountaineers.
Climbing as a team that works together in achieving a single goal amidst all obstacles the
mountain has in store, we are taught the value of true camaraderie. Trekking in the vastness of nature, we
are reminded of our minuteness. In our quest to the peak, we conquer our fears, instilling in ourselves the
values of discipline and hard work.
We are then rewarded with front-seat tickets to a spectacular show of nature (though, sadly, we
are sometimes welcomed by the sight of destruction wrought by man upon nature). The beauty that we
behold is truly inspiring. Though minute, we realize our oneness with God's wondrous creation and our
responsibility towards it; every mountain is sacred. Each, in its own way, is heaven on earth and they
should remain that way. It is in the preservation of the environment that we can play a vital role. This
dedication is not only for the uplands but also for the lowlands - even the metropolis can be heaven on
earth.
Despite all that has been said, the real magic and beauty of mountaineering cannot be
encapsulated with words and is best experienced.
B. LM PRINCIPLES

C.

We believe that the collective effort of concerned individuals is the most effective campaign for
the preservation of our natural resources.
We believe that mountaineering as a sport cannot be isolated from the endeavors aimed at
environmental welfare and sustainable development.

LM OBJECTIVES

The Loyola Mountaineers shall encourage awareness towards the proper appreciation,
preservation, and conservation of nature's beauty and resources
The Loyola Mountaineers shall promote mountaineering as a safe and healthy physical activity.
The Loyola Mountaineers shall continuously train its members on the various aspects of
mountaineering to improve their physical and mental competence in the sport
The Loyola Mountaineers shall foster unity and productive relationship among its members.
The LM shall link and coordinate with other mountaineering and environmental groups as well as
governmental and private entities and persons who are in like pursuance of our objectives.

II. LEAVE NO TRACE

Front-Country
Areas that involve open space trails, urban and state parks, and established
campgrounds (ex. Eco parks, Mt. Batulao, Mt. Maculot, Mt. Pico de Loro, etc).
LNT aims to concentrate impact on established areas
Backcountry
Areas that are inaccessible, have no facilities or amenities (ex. Mt. Kanlaon, Mt. Talinis,
Mt. Tinagong Dagat)
LNT aims to scatter impact to avoid establishing areas

A. LEAVE NO TRACE PRINCIPLES

1. Plan Ahead and Prepare
Know the regulations and special concerns for the area you'll visit.
Prepare for extreme weather, hazards, and emergencies.
Schedule your trip to avoid times of high use.
Visit in small groups when possible. Consider splitting larger groups into smaller groups.
Repackage food to minimize waste.
Use a map and compass to eliminate the use of marking paint, rock cairns, or flagging.
2. Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces
Durable surfaces include established trails and campsites, rock, gravel, dry grasses, or snow.
Protect riparian areas by camping at least 200 feet from lakes and streams.
Good campsites are found, not made. Altering a site is not necessary.
In popular areas:
Concentrate use on existing trails and campsites.
Walk in single file in the middle of the trail, even when wet or muddy.
Keep campsites small. Focus activity in areas where vegetation is absent.

In pristine areas:
Disperse use to prevent the creation of campsites and trails.
Avoid places where impacts are just beginning.

3. Dispose of Waste Properly

Pack it in, pack it out. Inspect your campsite and rest areas for trash or spilled foods. Pack out all
trash, leftover food, and litter.
Deposit solid human waste in catholes dug 6 to 8 inches deep, at least 200 feet from water,
camp, and trails. Cover and disguise the cathole when finished.
Pack out toilet paper and hygiene products.
To wash yourself or your dishes, carry water 200 feet away from streams or lakes and use small
amounts of biodegradable soap. Scatter strained dishwater.
4. Leave What You Find
Preserve the past: examine, but do not touch, cultural or historic structures and artifacts.
Leave rocks, plants and other natural objects as you find them.
Avoid introducing or transporting non-native species.
Do not build structures, furniture, or dig trenches.
5. Minimize Campfire Impacts
Campfires can cause lasting impacts to the backcountry. Use a lightweight stove for cooking and
enjoy a candle lantern for light.
Where fires are permitted, use established fire rings, fire pans, or mound fires.
Keep fires small. Only use sticks from the ground that can be broken by hand.
Burn all wood and coals to ash, put out campfires completely, then scatter cool ashes.
6. Respect Wildlife
Observe wildlife from a distance. Do not follow or approach them.
Never feed animals. Feeding wildlife damages their health, alters natural behaviors, and exposes
them to predators and other dangers.
Protect wildlife and your food by storing rations and trash securely.
Control pets at all times, or leave them at home.
Avoid wildlife during sensitive times: mating, nesting, raising young, or winter.
7. Be Considerate of Other Visitors
Respect other visitors and protect the quality of their experience.

Be courteous. Yield to other users on the trail.

Step to the downhill side of the trail when encountering pack stock.
Take breaks and camp away from trails and other visitors.
Let nature's sounds prevail. Avoid loud noises and voices.

* Check lnt.org for more details.

III. STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES

A. RULES
Organizers of the climb should serve notice to the members at least 5 days beforehand.
Announcements must include the objectives, nature, requirements, and itinerary of the climb. The
announcements should be posted on the Loyola Mountaineers Facebook group or sent through email
to all participants of the climb.
As soon as the pre-climb has been accomplished, the Team Leader must send the following to the
Manila Contact and the current Secretary:
o

The list of climbers with their contact numbers

The name and contact number of the climbers emergency contacts

The Manila contacts contact number

Name and contact number of the LGU or locals at the mountain

The itinerary of the climb

The purpose of the climb

Weather forecast

Organization regulation requires at least 6 climbers to make a climb official.

Only upon the approval of the Executive Board will the climb push through.
Once approved by the Executive Board, the organizers must follow the proposed itinerary strictly.
The Team Leader must notify the Manila Contact of the team's arrival within 6 hours after their
expected time of arrival (ETA) from the climb.
If in case no such communication was made, the Manila Contact will be tasked to form a Rescue Team
6 hours after their ETA. Mobilization will begin after 12 hours after their ETA if still no communication is
made.
B. PRE-CLIMB MEETING
The purpose of the pre-climb meeting is to plan, organize, and schedule the activities of the climb. All of
the participants are required to attend. This meeting should be held at least 3 days before the planned
climb in order to give allowance for preparation.
The meeting should be conducted in the following format:

1. Objectives and Nature

The objectives of the climb will determine the nature of the climb, requirements, and preparation
needed for the planned climb. For example, if you plan to go on a 3-day climb to Mt. Pulag, then you
will need to bring enough clothing for warmth and food that won't easily spoil.
The nature of the climb may fall under any of these 6 categories:
o

Training Climb - The purpose of this climb is for applicants or members to meet the training
requirements of the Loyola Mountaineers. A progressive training program is given to gradually
prepare them for major ascents.

Minor Climb - An ascent that usually takes a day to climb. Examples of which are climbs to Mt.
Maculot and Mt. Makiling.

Major Climb - An ascent that usually takes 2 or more days to climb due to its higher degree of
difficulty. Examples of which are climbs to Mt. Banahaw, Mt. Pulag, and Mt. Halcon.

Guideship/Open Climb - Members organize to guide other people or groups in certain

mountains for a fee. Guide ship climbs may either be minor climbs or major climbs.

Clean-Up Climb - The primary purpose of this climb is to help preserve and maintain mountains
and campsites; and not only those that are highly impacted. This means efforts such as bringing
down garbage left by indiscriminate climbers, tree planting on barren slopes, and trail
maintenance work to prevent further soil erosion. However, every climb is a clean-up climb
should also be practiced.

Exploratory Climb This is a first ascent or an establishment of a new climbing route in a

particular mountain. This type of climb needs greater preparation and careful planning because of
the possibility of unexpected events or emergencies.

2. Route Planning
If the team is climbing on their own, the Team Leader must have at the very least climbed the said
mountain before to ascertain the proper trail and overall state, terrain, and vegetation of the mountain. If
the Team Leader has not climbed the mountain before, he must make sure that at least one of the
members climbing are familiar with the route. If no member is familiar with the route or the Team
Leader wants to be certain of the trail, a guide can be present during the climb and/or an ocular climb
can be set beforehand to have a clear background on the mountain and to make the proper
adjustments based on the state of the mountain.
3. Itinerary and Program of Activities
It is important to value a set itinerary in order to avoid inconveniences and discomforts such as being
forced to do late/night treks or to set up camp in the dark. Scheduling the activities also allows for
effective time management. Itineraries for multi-day ascents or exploratory climbs are based on the
study of the map which provides an approximation of the distance to be traveled. One can also
determine the amount and kind of gear and provisions to bring through the itinerary.
4. Organization
This involves the selection of climbers to fulfill the climb roles of Team Leader, Scribe, Medic, and
Tailman. A climb with a large number of climbers requires the designation of Group Leaders.

 Team Leader - Oversees the arrangements before, during, and after the climb. The Team Leader sets
the pace of the climb and takes the role of a decision maker. For critical or important problems, he will
have the final say. However, he must remain open to suggestions especially on matters regarding the
safety of the whole group. The Team Leader takes on the role of a Safety Officer and is in charge of
gauging how safety an area or situation is. He is one who is familiar with the mountain and has good
leadership qualities. He is also tasked to update the Manila contact periodically during the climb.
Medic - Has basic or advanced knowledge of first aid and must be prepared for any accidents or
health-related emergencies that may happen. The Medic is in charge of preparing and bringing the med
kit or first aid kit. It is recommended that the med kit prepared by the Quartermaster is used. He is also
in charge of creating a medical report should there be any injuries or incidents - after the post climb
for submission together with the climb report.
Scribe - Monitors the time, documents the progress of the climb in contrast to the itinerary, and notes
the problems encountered and other important details. The scribe must have a watch and must be able
to have the proper materials to document the itinerary. He is in charge of taking down the comments
and recommendations made by the team during the post climb meeting.
Tailman - Usually the assistant of the Team Leader, the Tailman is responsible for keeping the rear
part of the group in pace and making sure proper distance between climbers are followed. The Tailman
is the only person authorized other than the Team Leader to order a trek to stop or resume and is also
responsible for making sure that no one is left behind en route to the jump off point or during and after
the climb itself.
Group Leader - Responsible for sub-groups of usually 4-5 members which are formed by breaking
down a large number of climbers. The Group Leader is in charge of facilitating the distribution of tent
parts and meal assignments and to assure the safety of the group.
5. Equipment Distribution
Group equipment should be equally distributed among the members of the group while considering
their individual capacities. The equipment to be distributed are the following:
Tent parts - Body, Pegs and Poles, Ground sheet, Fly
Cooking materials - Stove, Cookset, Fuel or Butane
Others Trowel, Map and compass, Rope, Bolo, First Aid Kit, Climbing Hardwear
6. MEAL PLANNING
The amount of food to be brought on a climb depends on the length of stay allowing for extra provisions
for emergencies.
Meals should be rich in carbohydrates, protein and fat to replenish the body with energy.
Meat and vegetables should be preserved to prevent or delay spoiling of food. (See Appendix A)
Consider the food preference of your group mates - dietary needs, allergies, and religious limits.
Design your meal in such a way that it would require minimal amounts of water, cooking oil, cooking
time, and waste products.
Packed lunch

 Trail food
Meals should not be limited to pre-packaged or canned goods.
Some food packing notes:
o

A kilo of rice would be the standard amount for 6 people in every meal.

Let the food cool first before packing it. This prevents the food from spoiling quickly.

7. Budgeting
Each climber must pay for their own transportation and registration fees. Other personal expenses may
include spare batteries, trail food, toiletries, and other personal things unless discussed by the group to
be considered as communal provisions. Meal costs are shouldered by the group members and are
usually settled during the post-climb meeting.

8. Special Conditions
In order to adequately prepare oneself for the climb, one must consider other special conditions such as
weather, terrain, and expected cell signal properties.
Weather conditions play an important role in choosing what to bring for the climb. For example, one
might need more water than usual for a climb with a sunny weather forecast. On the other hand, if the
forecast indicates thunderstorms, one might consider bringing extra clothes in case the water seeps in
the tent, a poncho or umbrella to protect oneself from the rain, or a shower curtain to add waterproofing
to the tent.
Terrain should also be considered while preparing for a climb. For example, one might consider
bringing arm warmers for mountains that feature cogon grass.
Expected cell signal properties are also relevant especially to the Manila Contact so that he/she will
know when and how often to expect SMS updates from the team.
C. POST-CLIMB MEETING
A post-climb meeting is an assessment of the climb in which the participants share their comments and
suggestions regarding the activities, itinerary, and key events of the climb. Positive and negative
feedback will be needed and discussed.
The team should meet, at most, 5 days after the climb. All participants are required to attend the
meeting.
The Team Leader facilitates a discussion on the groups assessment of the climb while systematically
going through the actual itinerary. During the discussion, the scribe takes down notes.
This may also serve to be the venue for group equipment return. Matters regarding the costs of the
meals may also be settled.
The entire post-climb meeting is expected to be documented by the scribe for the archiving and passing
on of information
IV. CLIMB PREPARATION

A. PHYSICAL FITNESS
Mountain climbing and backpacking are physically demanding activities. One who is not physically
prepared for a climb may find it a miserable and overly difficult experience.
Physical training is required for all climbers. Fitness programs may be individually formulated following
certain guidelines:
o

Easy loss of breath pertains to the need for cardiovascular endurance while muscle soreness
pertains to the need for muscular endurance

In order to increase cardiovascular endurance, activities that can be done include cardio workouts
or low-weight-high-repetition weight training.

In order to increase muscular endurance, activities that can be done are high-weight-lowrepetition weight training that focuses more on endurance than power.

Carbo-Loading:
o

Carbo-loading supersaturates your muscles with stored carbohydrates (a.k.a. glycogen). The
classic method of carbo-loading is achieved in two stages: muscle glycogen depletion and
repletion (storage). The process begins 6 to 7 days prior to the event.

The first day includes exhaustive exercise to deplete glycogen in the muscles that will be used
specifically for the event. Days 2, 3, and 4 involve a low-carbohydrate, high-protein, and high-fat
intake. Days 5, 6, and 7 are the carbohydrate loading phase. The athlete must also take in
sufficient protein, vitamins, minerals, and abundant water. Exercise is tapered off, with complete
rest the day prior to the event.

The idea behind this process is to increase your bodys glycogen storage so that, during the
event, you have as much energy available to your muscles as possible. For each gram of
carbohydrates your muscles store, they hold 3 grams of water. This amount of water becomes
available during exercise and helps to prevent dehydration, but it is also heavy. Carbo loading
can result in a 3 to 4 pound weight gain. Some athletes complain of feeling sluggish and
uncomfortable from carbo-loading. Others feel that they couldnt complete their event without the
extra stored energy. The benefits of this have yet to be conclusively demonstrated.

A proper diet is recommended throughout the entire training cycle.

Other things to remember:

o

A weak or sick climber may become a liability to the group as they may slow down the pace.
Anyone who is sick or not feeling well a few days before the climb should forego the climb.

Proper stretching is a must before trekking. One who does not stretch well and thoroughly may
get cramps or attain injuries during trekking.

Backpacking itself is the best training for the sport. A good climber is one who spends much time
hiking, backpacking, and climbing.

Remember to stay physically fit. Continuous physical training will give you the confidence to
conquer yourself in any mountain and will greatly contribute to the success of any climb. A weak
climber is a liability while a strong climber is an asset

B. CLIMBING EQUIPMENT
Familiarity with the equipment used in backpacking is a must for any serious outdoorsman. Using the
wrong equipment can make trekking miserable while using the right equipment will spell the difference
between a comfortable night and a wet or bad night.
This section will discuss the basic essentials (and non-essentials) that go into one's backpack during
the stay in the wilderness.
1. PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
Backpack
o

One of the essential needs of a mountaineer, an ideal backpack must be large enough to contain
all the gear and food needed for the climb. It should be fitted to one's body size for comfort. A
backpack should be sturdy enough to endure the rigors of rough handling and a heavy load. A
good 45-55 liter backpack would be enough for overnight and multi-day climbs.

Today's backpacks are fitted with several features like buckles and quick release locks that make
carrying heavy loads over long distances more comfortable. One of these is the padded hipbelt
which transfers much of the weight from the shoulders to the hips. It also keeps the pack from
swaying excessively. Other features like the padded shoulder straps help lessen the strain on the
shoulders while the sternum strap keeps the shoulder straps from slipping.

External-Frame Packs

This kind of backpack is structured like a ladder with sacks attached to it. The frame is
made of aluminum and is contoured for comfort. Each sack is usually divided into two
compartments and is provided with pockets. It offers good ventilation even when against
your back and provides a relatively straight-up stance and a heavy load-hauling capacity.

An external frame backpack carries weight best with the load positioned high over your
shoulders and supported largely by the waist belt. However, the same high center of
gravity also makes the external frame backpack shaky in terms of balance. They may
also be cumbersome to transport as the wide frame usually gets snagged on vines and
branches along narrow trails.

Internal Frame Packs

The frame of this type of backpack is incorporated into the sack. A contoured aluminum
or plastic frame is inserted into sleeves found along the back of the pack.

An internal frame backpack hugs tighter to your body compared to an external frame
backpack and carries the load somewhat lower so it achieves exceptional balance on
steep ascents and provides ease of movement along narrow trails. Fixtures like lumber
pads and compression straps add to the comfort of carrying an internal. However,
internal frame backpacks force one to stoop or bend forward while walking and can make
walking on low elevations quite warm because it does not provide good ventilation.

Frameless Rucksacks

Usually, these types of backpacks feature a simple foam-padded back panel, shoulder
straps, and a waist-belt. Frameless backpacks are best for either light and fast overnight
climbs or big day loads.

Parts of an internal frame backpack:

In addition to this, the hip belt stabilizer is considered by the Loyola Mountaineers as another
essential part of the backpack. It is used to adjust the hip belt to have a better fit to the person's
body. Tightening it would bring the pack closer to the body while loosening it will bring the pack
away from the body. The main purpose of this is to transfer the weight of the pack to the hips. It
keeps the load off the shoulders, which would then lessen muscle soreness, when done correctly.

To summarize, the Loyola Mountaineers considers 10 essential parts of the backpack:

1. Top load/lid
2. Load lifters
3. Sternum strap
4. Shoulder straps
5. Compression straps
6. Lumbar pad
7. Hipbelt
8. Hipbelt Stabilizer
9. Aluminum framestays
10. Framesheet

Care for the backpack:

Clean out your pack after every trip by first unzipping all pockets and compartments to
shake out crumbs, dirt, sand, and other debris. Wash the pack using mild soap and
water.
Perform basic maintenance. Stitch up any rips with heavy-duty needle and upholstery
thread. Inspect for loose seams or deteriorating hardware at major stress points around
the hipbelt and shoulder straps.

Store your pack in a cool dry place to keep it from collecting mildew.

Boots/Shoes
o

Some backpackers consider boots as the most essential of all backpacking equipment; good
boots can make a hike safer and more pleasant.

Four factors to consider when buying boots:

1. Comfort - boots must be of the right size and soft inside to prevent blisters and other
injuries
2. Support - depending on the user, boots must be ankle-high to prevent sprains or low-cut to
allow for more freedom of movement. Boots must also have a good traction. This is also
related to backpack weight; the heavier the pack, the more support is needed
3. Durability - boots must be properly glued and stitched so it will not be damaged or
destroyed after just one climb
4. Special features - like waterproof lining or air pumps; nice to have but make boots more
expensive

Avoid drying boots in direct sunlight to keep the material in good condition and maintain the
waterproofing

You may stuff newspaper inside your boots to absorb water and moisture while you leave them
out to dry

It is advisable to wear two pairs of socks when hiking for better cushioning especially when
breaking-in new boots. The socks should not however be too thick that it hurts the toes.

Sleeping Bags
o

The ideal sleeping bag is light and compact but effective enough in providing protection from the
cold. It is usually filled with synthetic materials.

Mummy Bags

Rectangular Bags

Mummy sleeping bags are narrow at the feet, wide at the shoulders, are tapered, and
have an insulated hood. Although the design is restrictive to movement, it is popular for
its many advantages such as its efficiency in retaining body heat, lightness, and its being
more compactable compared to rectangular bags.

These sleeping bags offer more space for movement but retain less body heat. They are
also more bulky and are heavy for backpacking.

Basic Care for the Sleeping Bag:

Keep your sleeping bag clean to avoid having to wash it. Every time you wash a bag, it
loses a little of its loft and thus, loses some of its insulating capability.
If necessary, only wash your sleeping bag according to the manufacturer's instructions.
You can hand-wash sleeping bags in a bathtub. Always handle a wet sleeping bag
delicately because the weight of the water can tear the baffles, which will render all the
"draft tubes", "differential cuts", and "shingle constructions" useless.

Air-dry your sleeping bag without any exposure to heat. If you hang the sleeping bag up
to dry, make sure it has plenty of support so the baffles don't tear. Several parallel
clotheslines will work.
Shake out and fluff up your sleeping bag before you use it to increase the loft and make it
more effective in insulation.
If possible, leave out the sleeping bag or store it inside a big pillowcase instead of the
compression sack it comes with. Too much compression of the down will break down the
loft.
When placing the sleeping bag in its compression sack, however, do not fold or roll it as
that establishes stress points; instead, stuff it in.

A malong may be used as an alternative to a sleeping bag.

Clothing
o

The amount and type of clothing to be brought depends on the number of days you will stay in the
wilderness, activities in the planned itinerary (e.g. swimming), and the expected weather
condition.

Ideal outdoor clothing should be able to provide protection from the hazards of outdoor living and
is compact and light.

Avoid military clothing or clothes with camouflage designs.

A suggestion would be to bring three sets of clothing for a climb; one set for trekking, one set for
camp wear, and one set for going home.

Some climbers use the clothes they wear at camp for going home. However, if these get wet you
wont have a dry set of clothes for going home.

Wear any comfortable and light shirt that you would not mind being drenched in sweat or stained
with mud. Dri-fit shirts are highly recommended; they dont hold a lot of water and dry up easily to
prevent you from getting cold because of a drenched shirt.

To lessen the number of clothes to bring, use the principle of layering:

Base Layer

Layering is the process of wearing several thin layers of clothing to help regulate the heat
around your body. Layering works by heating the dead air spaces around your body,
thus creating better insulation compared to only wearing a single layer. In extremely wet
conditions, its better to wear layers of wet clothes than frequently change into dry
clothing.
However, in some conditions where it is extremely wet and cold, it is sometimes better to
remove wet layers to prevent the quick transfer of cold from the air to your skin.

Its the clothing next to skin. Perspiration is a natural component of exertion and a base
layer helps regulate your body temperature by wicking moisture away from your skin so
that it can evaporate or be passed through the other layers.
Examples of which are synthetic, mid-weight, wool gloves, and dri-fit clothing

Insulation Layer

Also known also as the mid layer, it minimizes conductive heat loss.
Examples of which are a fleece jacket, wool sweater, or fleece pants.

Outer Layer

Also known as the "shell"; it shields from rain and wind.

It also available in hard-shell and soft-shell hybrid.
Examples of which are ponchos, raincoats, or windbreakers.

To protect the lower body, leggings are preferred over pants. Pants are heavy especially when
they are soaked in the rain. Leggings, however, are not necessary; shorts are sufficient.

Wear your whistle or name tag when the Team Leader tells you to.

Optional items are a cap, hat, bandanna, or shades. Applying sun block before a trek is also
optional.

Survival Kit
o

This lightweight and compact kit should contain emergency food enough to sustain you for a few
days as well as other survival items like a knife, signaling devices (whistle and/or a small mirror),
a Morse Code guide, and elemental protection gear (blanket, matches, etc.).

Toiletries
o

These include toothpaste, toothbrush, toilet paper, wet wipes, and other sanitary supplies.

Water Containers
o

Several plastic bottles with varying capacities are needed: large ones for group water and small
ones for trail water.

Water bladders are good water containers; they are flexible, collapsible, and reusable.

Mess Kit
o

Flat and compact plastic containers like Tupperware or a cutlery set are necessary for meals.

Knife
o

Folding knives or Swiss Army knives are recommended. Foot-long survival knives are heavy and
are not necessary.

Whistle and Name Tag

o

Both should be worn by a climber to facilitate rescue and identification in the event of an
emergency.

Headlamps
o

Small but powerful headlamps with extra batteries and bulbs should be part of a
climber's gear. LED headlamps are lighter and more battery efficient. Halogen headlamps
perform better in foggy conditions. There are hybrids between these two.

Personal First Aid Kit

A triangular bandage and medications for fever, diarrhea, allergies and other ailments should be
brought along with bandages, water purification tablets, disinfectants and insect repellents. This
will be discussed in more detail in Mountaineering Module IV.

Fire Starters
o

Lighters, matches and candles. These should be waterproofed (e.g. put inside an empty film
case). Candles should be short and fat so that it won't easily topple.

Camp Footwear
o

Slippers or sandals; for comfort and convenience at the campsite. It is also an essential for
minimum impact camping.

Earth Pad
o

This is a rubber mat used by the camper as a barrier against water and the cold from the ground.
It should be large enough to accommodate the upper body.

Mother Bag
o

A main plastic bag that is used for waterproofing equipment inside your pack, or for your pack
itself.

Repair Kit
o

Ordinary and nylon threads, safety pins, needles, extra buckles and locks, duct tape and
necessary adhesives should be included as part of the personal gear.

This is for use in situations when equipment, such as shoes or tent parts, breaks down.

Plastic Bags and Rubber Bands

o

These are used to waterproof and store equipment. Bigger plastic bags (or trash bags) are
needed for keeping garbage.

Other Essentials
o

Wallet, cellular phones, and other items specifically needed for the climb. Always remember to
waterproof valuable electronic essentials.

Optional Items
o

Items like umbrellas, cameras, tripods, stools, rain covers, and trekking poles may be brought for
added convenience.

2. GROUP EQUIPMENT
Group equipment is divided among the climbers in a group or a team. Group equipment varies in
size and in weight therefore load distribution among the members should be based on capability and not
equality.
Tent

Must be lightweight and accompanied with a groundsheet that serves as a waterproof layer
between the ground and the tent floor. When set up, the ground sheet must be folded outwards
towards the ground to prevent water from seeping inside the tent.

Tent parts include the tent body, tent poles, pegs, guy lines, and a flysheet. For more detailed
information, refer to Mountaineering Module II.

Stove and Cooking Utensils

o

A light, compact, and refillable stove must come with a stackable cook set or a pot and frying pan.
Avoid aluminum cookware.

First Aid Kit

o

This is separate from the personal first aid kits to be brought by each climber.

This must contain essential medical supplies such as bandages and medicine and must be stored
in a waterproof container. It must be checked every climb by the medic. This will be discussed
further and in more detail in Mountaineering Module IV.

Bolo
o

A sharp bolo with a safe grip should be brought along to be used for hacking and chopping if
necessary. This should come with a sheath. For more details, refer to Mountaineering Module II.

Rope
o

At least two rated, hawser-laid or a kern-mantle ropes 11 mm in diameter, and about 100 to 150
feet long is ideal especially for situations including river crossing. For those without river crossing,
one rope is enough. For details on ropesmanship, refer Mountaineering Module II.

At least two accessory ropes that are 3 mm in diameter and about 30 feet long. This is mainly for
situations that call for anchoring.

Climbing Hardware
o

At least two carabineers, ideally D-shaped with locking gates, that are to be used in rescue
situations.

For more technical climbs, rock climbing equipment may be needed.

Map and Compass

o

A topographic map of the area must be accompanied by a base-plate compass to help facilitate
land navigation. For more details on map and compass use, refer to Mountaineering Module III.

Trowel
o

Used for digging cat holes. Use one that is lightweight and durable.

V. PACKING OF EQUIPMENT
The maximum weight that you will carry should not exceed a third of your body weight. Strive for the
lightest possible load without sacrificing essential equipment and supplies.

 Loosen all the straps of the pack before packing anything inside to maximize load capacity.
All equipment which may be affected or damaged by water should be waterproofed by wrapping and
sealing them in plastic bags. It is advisable to double-waterproof clothes. Use a garbage bag or mother
bag as an inner lining for the pack to provide additional protection.
Pack your water outside your mother bag.
Headlamps may be stored with their batteries taped at the ends to avoid accidental and unwanted drain
or discharge.
Pack hard-edged items such as stoves or cookware properly so they don't poke your back or rub holes
in the pack or other gear.
Light items should be packed at the bottom and away from the frame while heavy items should be close
to the frame in order to be closer to your center of gravity.
A balanced and stable pack is one that will not topple when left standing alone.
Things which are needed more often (rain gear, trail food, trail water, first aid) must be packed at the
top or side pockets for easier accessibility.
Classification of equipment:
o

Cushion (A) Light and bulky items which are only used at
camp such as your sleeping bag, thermal clothing, etc.

Light to Medium Weight (B) Includes the stove, pot, pan,

clothes, etc

Heavy (C) Items like your food, tent part, water, and such
must be packed as close to your center of gravity as possible.
The group water is usually packed nearest the back. Heavy
items for a males pack are located in a slightly higher
position than in a girls pack.

Essentials (D) Items such as rain gear, first-aid kit, trail

food, garbage bag, slippers, and such should be placed on
top or in the lid of the pack. Packed lunch, however, should
be placed only on top of the main compartment of the pack,
not in the lid.

A. Fitting A Pack
First, loosen all the straps.
Next, throw on the pack by lifting it, placing it on a knee, and then on your back.
The sequence of tightening the straps depends on your personal preference or comfort.
If you prefer to have a tighter hip belt, buckle and cinch the hip belt first; make sure the padding is
centered on the hipbones.

 If you prefer to have a tighter sternum strap, buckle and cinch the sternum strap first and then adjust
the rest of the straps accordingly.

B. Basic Light Packing

Start reducing weight with the three heaviest pieces of equipment: the tent part, sleeping bag, and
backpack - choose lighter models. This reduces pack weight the most.
KISS: Keep It Small and Simple
o

Use smaller and lighter versions of regular items such as toiletries.

Bring just the right proportions of consumables.

Remove unnecessary packaging; repack your things if possible.

Avoid canned food; they are heavy and add to trash.

Remember to never sacrifice safety for a lighter pack.

C. Other Packing Techniques
Use compression bags to compact and squeeze the air out of clothes or sleeping bags. Ziplock bags
may be used as an alternative to compression bags.
Place smaller objects in stuff sacks for easier access and organization.
VI. TRIP TO JUMP-OFF POINT
In every trip, it is important to know the modes of transportation the team will be utilizing to get a basic
idea of how much the budget will be allotted. Always consider the number of participants and their
backpacks.
A.

General Guidelines

If youre susceptible to motion sickness, bring and take the necessary medication an hour or two
before the ride. Prepare yourself of the discomforts of third world traveling; its usually crowded,
bumpy, dirty, and anything can happen.

Avoid wearing any jewelry or flashy wristwatches; it may attract crime.

If possible, make a reservation or buy your tickets beforehand. Inquire about cargo fees and excess
baggage fees. Some liners charge fees for bikes and backpacks.

It is suggested to assign a member to be the load master or watcher to manage the loading and
unloading of gear. This also heightens the security of all equipment.

At every station, be considerate and remember that chairs and tables are meant for people and not for
your backpacks.

It is always an advantage to arrive at a station early so you can reserve seats (only if it is allowed).

In loading, always prioritize the larger packs first. Smaller packs are easier to hand-carry just in case
space is not available anymore.

Whether the team is a small group or large one, always seat yourselves together. It will be easier to
keep track of everyone and of group payments when necessary.

Some modes of transportation will load your packs on a roof rack. Make sure your packs are
waterproofed through mother bags or rain covers. Some climbers bring elastic cords for extra
securing. All cash and valuables should be hand-carried in one bag.

When renting out any means of transport, check if it is in top form to bring you to the jump off point.
Having a roof rack is always a plus. Make sure that you agreed on a reasonable price before moving
on. Most drivers allow you to make a down payment of half the agreed price and follow up with the
other half when you get to your destination.

B. Courtesy Calls

Before heading off to your destination, its important to make your intentions known to the nearest
barangay or local government unit. This way, the town folk will not be alarmed by the presence of
strangers in their area. Remember that diplomacy can go a long way.

You will also be oriented by the locals about the general security of the area and general condition of
the route that you will be taking. Find out if there is any park fee that needs to be paid before going up
the area.

Use this as means of inquiring about the weather and situation of the area as well.

C. Public Transportation

Buses
o

Utilize the bottom compartment of the bus for your backpack only if is free of holes and leaks on
the floor.

If the bottom compartment is already full and you have no choice but to bring the backpack into
the bus, head towards the very back of the bus. Most buses have ample space for your backpack
either in front of your seat or behind it.

You can also utilize the isle for your backpack; just make sure that you leave enough space for
other passengers to pass through.

Jeepneys
o

Tricycles
o

There are provincial jeep rides that allow passengers to ride on top of roof racks. Given the
chance, make sure to hold on tight and expect a bumpy ride.

Tricycles are also another way of getting from one distance to another if the distance is quite
near. Usually, two to three people along with their packs can fit comfortably inside one tricycle
(this depends, of course, on the size and type of tricycle which differs from province to province).

Habal-Habal or Skylab

This is a mode of transport where a motorcycle is modified to be able to carry at least one
passenger or around 10 passengers together with their belongings. This is done through installing
wooden or bamboo planks on the back of the motorcycle to be able to transport a large amount of
people especially in narrow roads that make it difficult for other modes of transport.

Airplanes
o

Place rock climbing equipment and hardware at the top section of your pack for easy access
because it is always subject to inspection.

All kinds of stove fuel, pressurized containers, lighters, nail cutters, pocket knives, and food are
subject to confiscation. If possible, avoid bringing these items; instead, purchase them after your
arrival at the destination.

If applicable, disassemble stoves, let them dry, and leave the cap open before you pack it so no
traces of fuel odor will emit; lessening the inspection hassle.

If you can manage, try to hand-carry most of your equipment (other than stoves) to lessen an
overweight pack. Most airlines allow up to 15-20 kilos of hand-carried bags depending on what
you indicated when purchasing tickets.

In the event that you cannot avoid bringing them, always place umbrellas, stoves, Swiss knives,
and other sharp objects in your check-in bags and remember to declare them to avoid suspicion
and succeeding confiscation.

When packing, avoid leaving any important items on the outer pockets because they can easily
fall off and get lost in the transfer.

Inquire of and comply to any additional guidelines for check-in and hand-carried bags or
backpacks to avoid complications (limitations on particular volumes of liquids, inspection of
gadgets, limitations on carried money, declaration of carried money, food, and sharp objects, etc).

Ship Liners, Ferry Boats and Pump Boats

o

These modes of transportation usually take more time to get you to your destination; know
beforehand how long the trip is going to be so you can bring some creature comforts to pass the
time.

Inquire if your ticket includes meals and beddings for the duration of the trip. If meals are not
included, bring your own meals. Ship meals are usually expensive.

Some shipping lines confiscate stove fuel, pressurized containers, lighters, and pocket knives.

Its an advantage to travel, at least, in pairs. If youre traveling alone and you need to leave your
pack, hide it where it is hard to reach or clip it to a beds bar and cover with a malong or ground
sheet. Always bring most of your cash and valuables with you.

Bringing a hammock is helpful just in case you ran out of a seat or bed.

Keep your malong, jacket, or sleeping bag accessible as a ships air-conditioning can sometimes
get really cold.

Smaller boats are generally more vulnerable to strong motion sickness; prepare accordingly.

Be aware that during bad weather, small boats are kept docked by local officials.

When renting out a pump boat, having a tarp roof is helpful to avoid the heat.

If your gear gets wet with sea water, rinse it with fresh water as soon as possible. Salt stains
when it dries up and may damage your equipment.

VII.TRAIL MOVEMENT
A. GROUP FORMATION

While trekking, line formation should be in single file. Overtaking must be avoided to prevent widening
the trail but if a need arises, courteously inform the climber in front of you that you need to overtake.

The distance between two climbers should be approximately 1.5 to 2.5 meters. During steep ascents
and descents, a 2.5-meter distance is encouraged to give climbers some space to negotiate the trail
and proceed along the groups pace. In the event that a climber may fall or slide, the gap will prevent
any other climbers from being hit and causing a possible domino effect.

Large groups can do compression stops to close long gaps between fellow climbers. Trekking in each
others line of sight heightens safety. Remember that compression stops are not rest stops; the climb
resumes immediately when the team is compressed.

During rest stops or compression stops, the Team Leader may opt to rearrange trail formation in
accordance to the pace of individual climbers.

B. TRAIL SIGNALS

One long whistle blast is the signal for stopping and two short whistle blasts is the signal for resuming
trek.

The only people who can give orders to stop or to proceed are the Team Leader and Tail Man.

Three long whistle blasts is the international signal for distress.

C. PACING

The pace of the team is set by the Team Leader, who is always positioned in front of the whole team,
or by the slowest climber, who can be positioned by the Team Leader behind him.

The Tailman is responsible for keeping the team together during the entire trek by bringing up the rear
and by reducing any gaps along the formation.

Always start with a slow pace that gradually increases to the desired pace of the team. Starting slow
would give the climbers enough time to warm up to avoid injury.

If a need to stop arises, inform the Team Leader or the Tail Man so that he can give the appropriate
signal to stop the team. In a large team with several groups, inform the Group Leader so that he can
relay the signal to the Team Leader or the Tail Man.

Maintain a constant and steady rhythm while trekking to keep your heart rate constant. This reduces
the quick onset of fatigue. On steep ascents, maintain the rhythm with shorter strides. On level ground
or on moderate slopes, maintain the same rhythm but take longer strides.

Occasionally, for as low as 2,000 meters and usually above 2,800 meters, there is oxygen shortage in
the air and this may cause mountain sickness, also known as altitude sickness. The symptoms include
lack of appetite, nausea, and debilitation. The immediate remedy is getting more oxygen into the brain

by slowing the pace or by acclimatizing. This will be discussed further and in more detail in
Mountaineering Module IV.

If a heavy fog is present while trekking, distance between the climbers must be kept shorter. Always
make sure that you can see the person in front of you and behind you. Remember, the team must stay
together.

D. TREKKING TECHNIQUES

In path finding on a mountain, the ridgeline on the map is almost always followed. As much as possible
avoid following gullies and waterlines; water always takes the shortest way possible and, therefore, the
steepest way.

Prevent muddy spots from turning into 10 to 20-foot-wide mud highways. Be sure to stay on the trail
even if it is muddy or wet. If you walk around the mud the trail will widen and become even muddier in
the process. Mud is part of the backcountry challenge; expect it and hike through it. It is not that
difficult. You can even use a stick, walking staff, or trekking pole to help gauge the depth of the mud
and to help you with balance.

Foot prints will also tell you how deep mud is. Its faster to step on someones foot print than exploring
an alternative path.

If your boot got stuck on the mud, just step backwards to let it free.

On steep trails, boot skid marks also tell you that someone already slipped there so avoid it if you can.

Logs are generally slippery especially when wet so the option of walking on the ground beside the log
lessens the chances of an accident.

If a log or a fallen tree is blocking the trail, check if it is safe to pass then either crawl under or walk
over by stepping on joints of branches. If it is not passable, make a detour.

When stepping on roots or branches, remember that they are possibly slippery especially when wet or
covered in moss; avoid them if possible.

During river crossings, bend your knees and face the current. Move in the direction perpendicular to
the flow of the water current.

Unfasten the hipbelt and the sternum strap while crossing strong rivers and streams; whether on top of
a bridge, over rocks, or through water. This allows you to escape easily in case you fall into the water.
The backpack tends to float so it must be removed because it forces the person under the water.

Avoid stepping on obstacles and loose rocks. You might twist your ankle and slip. Wet and mossy
rocks (usually green) are very slippery so avoid stepping directly on top of it. Set your foot in between
rocks instead for better grip. In case your foot gets stuck in between rocks, pull it free by stepping
backwards.

During descents, learn to step with your heel first or the side of your foot before taking another step in
order to maintain balance. This also prevents your toes and toenails from hurting since pressure
against it will be lessened.

If the terrain is too steep and slippery, face the wall or ground and step downwards as if you are going
down a ladder.

When it is necessary to hold on to roots and vines, be sure they are stable, won't easily snap, and
have no thorns.

E. TRAIL SIGNS

There will be times when you have to communicate with other members of your team or even other
teams during a climb through the use of natural materials to make trail signs. The use of marking paint,
flags, colored ribbons and straws are easily seen but it is discouraged because of their impact on the
environment.
o

Go this way:
Rocks

Dont go this way:

Block the wrong trail with twigs or grass only

Danger:
Rocks

Grass

Grass

Twigs

Twigs

Sometimes, climbers use three rocks stacked in a rock cairn as a trail sign of where to go since two
rocks stacked in a rock cairn are easily caused by nature and are less noticeable.
o

However, the disadvantage of this is that it is often difficult to distinguish cairns that signal the
right path and those that signal danger. As such, it is recommended to still keep your eye out for
danger around the area whenever seeing rock cairns comprising of three or more rocks.

It is confusing to place trails signs in the middle of the fork; instead place it where it is easily seen
towards the desired direction. Trail signs should be ideally placed on every bend so it would be also
visible for night trekking.
Wrong

Right

F. REST STOPS

Different situations call for different lengths of rest stops

o

Level Ground
5 minutes of rest for every hour of trekking

Ascent
5 minutes of rest for every 30 minutes of trekking on moderate slopes
5 minutes of rest for every 15 minutes of trekking on steep slopes

Descent
5 minutes of rest for every hour of trekking

Once rest stops begin, do not sit down immediately. Cool down for 30 seconds before sitting in order
to stabilize your heart rate. This allows your blood to keep moving instead of staying in the muscles;
preventing possible nausea or fainting.

Check your backpack before resuming the trek.

Immediately heed the signal of the Team Leader. Always be ready by the time the Team Leader gives
the 2 short whistle blasts.

G. OTHER TRAIL REGULATIONS

When trail blazing, avoid cutting too much vegetation; keep it to a minimum. Preserve the natural state
of the environment as much as possible. Make sure you shout Hacking! to inform the rest of the team
that you are trail blazing.

Inform the person behind you of imminent danger or obstacles along the path.

When the team is not sure of the way, several members appointed by the Team Leader should scout
the area for the right trail.

Side trails not in use should be closed using trail signs like dead logs, sticks or branches as obstacles
to prevent people from taking those trails.

"Short-cutting" a switchback is bad trail etiquette because it kills vegetation and loosens soil creating a
new trail straight up and down the hill which will, in time, get large and hollowed out from erosion.

If necessary, cut sharp thorns and poisonous plants found along the trail to make the path safer.

It is the duty of the climber behind you to see to it that the flaps, belts, and knots on your pack are not
loose. Pick up anything dropped by the person in front of you.

If you get lost, do not panic. Assess your position and then backtrack to find the right trail.

In case of an accident, keep the situation comfortable and relaxed. Administer first-aid and transport
the victim to the nearest hospital or clinic. This will be discussed further and in more detail in
Mountaineering Module IV.

VIII. SANITATION
A. WASHING

Bring a roll of toilet paper or a pack of wet wipes to limit the use of water.

Use only biodegradable soap or shampoo. However, we discourage entirely the use of soap and
shampoo in the mountains.

Never wash directly at the water source. Get water from the water source and bring it at least 200 feet
away from any water source, trails, and camp sites.

Wash mess kits and cook sets right after eating if there is a water source. However, if there is none,
use toilet paper or wet wipes.

B. CLEANLINESS

Never litter on the trail or at the campsite. Keep all trash in your pockets or in your backpack.

Pick up garbage even if it is not yours.

Smoking is strictly prohibited during the climb. It takes 20 years for cigarette butts to degrade.

Always have a trash bag.

Every member of the group should be responsible for his/her own garbage; this includes all the waste
of their assigned meal.

Practice garbage segregation.

Do not bury your garbage in the outdoors even if some of it is biodegradable. Food items left in the
campsite or along the trail would attract animals and ants. The food can also potentially affect the
health of the animals and alter the environmental patterns in the mountain.

We do not want to reinforce the locals behavior of collecting trash from climbers. Politely refuse if a
local asks you to leave your trash with them. If, however, they tell you that they intend to recycle the
plastic containers and tin cans, give your recyclables to them; giving them these items is better than
bringing these back home and just throwing these away.

Latrines should be designated at locations far from water sources to avoid polluting them and set
preferably downwind from the campsite.

Remember to urinate and defecate 200 feet away from water sources, trails, and camp sites.

IX. WATER

Water is essential for every climb. It is used for drinking, cooking, and cleaning. The main formula of
the amount of water to bring on a climb is 2 liters per day for group water. Therefore, for a two-day
climb, at least 4 liters of water must be brought by each climber. For a three-day climb, 6 liters must be
brought. This formula excludes the trail water (at least 1 liter) for use while trekking.

While keeping the formula in mind, adjust accordingly depending on your preferences and on the
weather. For example, increase the amount of water you will bring if hot weather is expected and/or if
it is in your nature to consume more water to keep yourself appropriately hydrated.

Never ask water from other people. For example, if you bring 4 liters of water on a two-day climb,
strictly maintain that 2 liters is for your personal use and the other 2 liters is for group water.

There are times when you are tempted to sneak drinks from the assigned group water and later ending
short of a pint or two to finish off cooking your rice and for your groups consumption.

Be considerate of your group; do not consume group water and making it insufficient for use in
cooking.

Make sure you are fully hydrated before the climb.

Avoid drinking in huge gulps but in sips instead also learn to tolerate a certain period of time, ideally
hours, without any water intake.

Drinking too much of water will induce an abrupt lowering of body temperature and will cause a heavy
feeling. By only drinking small amounts of water, you allow your body to retain more water and reduce
the excess loss of nutrients when water is released.

Replenish water from clean and swift flowing streams. If you doubt the potability of the water, filter out
foreign particles by using a clean cloth, boil for ten minutes, then dissolve purification tablets in it or
use a water purifier.

To improve the flat taste of boiled water, aerate it by pouring it back and forth from one container to
another and allow it to stand for a few hours, or add a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of water
boiled.

APPENDIX A
FOOD PRESERVATION
Food preservation is necessary in mountain climbing because food might spoil after at least an
overnight stay in the mountains.
Dried or preserved food (i.e. tocino, tapa, bacon, and other cold cuts) may do without the mentioned
food preservation technique. For cold cuts, it is best if one buys those which are in vacuum sealed
packs. Canned goods are not recommended unless for emergency rations
A. Meat Preservation (Beef, Pork, Chicken, Lamb, etc.)
For 1 kilo of meat
o
o
o
o
o
o

Cut meat into strips or cubes

Boil meat in half a cup of vinegar
Add 2 tablespoons of salt
Add enough water to cover the meat
Add other spices if desired (i.e. onion or garlic)
Cook before packing to further prevent spoilage

This preservation does not give the meat an unappetizing taste or smell; the meat would still retain its
natural flavor. The meat could still be cooked according to any kind of dish or recipe in camp as if it
were raw or fresh.
Do not store raw meat in the backpack if it is to be stored in the cargo of buses as heat provides
humidity that makes meat spoil more easily.
Keep meat dry by dehydrating it through frying; it lasts even when not using vinegar this is the idea
behind smoked foods.
B. Vegetable Preservation
Moisture and humidity enables bacteria in food to spoil the food more easily
Wrap in newspaper and then in plastic in order to prevent rotting through moisture.
For leafy greens, leave one end of the newspaper wrapping open and exposed to air.

APPENDIX B
Leave No Trace Guide to Including Your Pets
Many recreational and outdoor areas especially abroad are open to pets.
Spending time outdoors with pets responsibly requires specific Leave No Trace skills and ethics.
1. Know Before You Go
Know site-specific regulations beforehand
Use a map, bring a small first aid kit, and bring additional clothing
Wear good shoes and boots
Always have a leash for your pet
Carry plastic bags that you can use to pick up your pets waste
2. Pick Up Poop
Pet waste can be a serious problem outdoors
Pet waste smells can be a health hazard for people (particularly children) and other animals, and is not
natural to any environment
Cleaning up after your pet helps protect water sources, plant life, and habitat for native animals
Some areas supply bags that you can use to clean up after your pet
Plastic grocery bags or newspaper bags will work
3. Manage Your Dog
Keeping your dog in control protects your pet, other visitors and their pets, and local wildlife
Check with the local government officials or land managers about area leash requirements
If leashes are required, use them
Respect private property by not allowing your dog to wander from designated trails or off-leash areas
Always manage your dog, for his sake and yours
4. Be Considerate of Others
Pay attention, expect to encounter others and be curious
Yield to all
Others may not appreciate your dogs company; always ask before allowing your dog to approach them
Excessive barking is never in style, let natures sounds prevail

Source: https://lnt.org/blog/pet-principles-leave-no-trace-guide-including-your-pets