Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Linguistics Program
20/10/2012
Part 1
1-What
2-What
3-What
4-What
is language (Revision).
is historical linguistics (philology or historicism).
linguistics is not (traditional grammar).
is modern linguistics (principal characteristics).
Part2: Major structuralism school
5-Geneva school (European structuralism with De Saussure).
6-The Prague School (functionalism).
7-American structuralism with (Bloomfield).
Part 3:
8-Structuralism and phonology.
9-Structuralism and morphology.
10-Structuralism and syntax.
Part 4: Post-Structuralism
11-The American linguist Zelling Harris ->teacher of Chomsky.
12-Generativism with Chomsky.
Reference:
-Allen, J.P.B and Corder, SP (1918) papers in applied linguistics Oxford
University Press.
-Berry, N (1997) Introduction to systemic linguistics London. Batsford
-Bolinger, D (1968) aspects of language New York Harcourt Brace.
-Chomsky, N (1957) Syntactic Structures The Hague Mouton.
- Crystal, D (1971) Linguistics Penguin Books.
-De Saussure, F (1915) Cours de Linguistiques General (Paris Payot).
- Loyons, J (1970) New Horizons in linguistics Penguin Books.
- Napoli, D.J (1996) Linguistics: An Introduction Oxford University Press.
-The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language by David Crystal
(1995) Cambridge University Press.
-Naom Chomsky by Wolfgang Sperlich (2006) Reakton Books LTD.
-Chomsky Ideas and Ideals by Neal Smith (1999) Cambridge University
Press.
-An Introduction to Linguistics and Language Studies by Ann Mc Cabe
(2011) Equimos.
- Whats linguistics: An Introduction by Napoli, D.J Oxford University Press.
-Modern linguistics. The results of Chomsky Revolution by Smith, N and
Wilson, D Harvest Press.
- An Introduction to Linguistics by Loretto Todd 1987 Longman York Press.
1
Linguistics
Linguistics
DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE
Language is a means of communication that is used by the members of
the same society, community (milieu).
Language is a social as well as individual phenomenon
It enables human beings to communicate orally or in writing.
Language reflects (mirrors-give an idea) the culture of the society of
speaker who use it.
Its the primary system through which all the components (elements) of
the culture are expressed.
Spoken language is primary and universal, no group of people without
spoken language has never been discovered.
All human beings in a given community speak well enough and
understand to carry out (to do-to perform) the basic activity of life. Many of
these same people cannot read or write. There is no primitive language.
Every language in the world is rich enough and sufficiently complete for
its speaker.
-Every language speaker can produce an infinite number of sentences,
he also has the competence to recognise all the sentences of the language.
-Writing is considered as secondary system derived from speech and not
complete in many ways (no rhythm, no intonation, no stress no gestures.
The fundamentals (principals-characteristics) of language:
1- Language is a sound
2- Language is linear (successive succession of word e.g: I go to London,
one word after another)
3- Language is systematic (we have to respect an organized structure of a
sentence it shoul be meaningful.
4- Language is a system of system (there is morphology,
syntax.....................etc 5 levels)
5- Language is arbitrary
6- Language is conventional
7- Language is creative
8- Duality of pattering (double articulation) that relate the sub systems of
sound with the sub systems of meaning. (economic)
Linguistics
Language
is
used
to
give
an
idea
about
culture/
Reflecting
Linguistics
Interactive
informative
Communication
(function)
Askingresponding
*In any communicative situation
channel
Speaker ==== listener
(encode)
msg
(decode)
We have to share the same code to understand each other.
Sometimes there is a gap because of: disorder of language (they dont
pronounce correctly for that there is no understanding)
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE:
Language is sound: speak comes before writing
Linear: e.g: I go to London => one word after another => succession of
words
Systematic: combination of words according to rules which must be
respected (grammar, structure)
System of systems: phonology, phonetics, syntax, semantics,
morphology.
Arbitrary: there is no direct relationship between the shape/object and the
noun e.g: window there is no connection between the object and the name
given to this object.
Conventional: agreement between people to call things for example
people agreed to call window in this way.
Creativity: using rules we can produce an infinite number of sentences.
Double articulation: (duality of pattering)
System relates two systems
Sound
meaning
Small number of sound=> we can produce=>a large number of units
(words, sentences)
Sounds in any language are limited
Economic: with small number of words we can produce an infinite number
of sentences.
5
Linguistics
Linguistics
HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
Historical linguistics is the study of language change and how different
languages have developed over time because in the course of history
languages have been subject for change. The study of language change
over time, among the most famous figure of historicism we can mention:
Jasperson, Herman and Sumpson (most important).
Historicism has 5 main concerns
1-To describe the changes in languages
2-To reconstruct the history of languages and determine their relationship
(relatedness) and group them into language families
3-To develop theories about how and why languages change
4-To describe the history of speech communities
5-To study the history of words (etymology)
Sub field of historical linguistics (branches):
1-Comparative linguistics: concerned with comparing languages to
establish their historical relatedness, reconstruct the prehistoric protolanguages and establish language families.
2-Etymology: study of the history of the words, when they entered a
language, from what source (origin) and how their forms and meanings
have changed.
3-Dialectology: is the study of linguistics dialect and the varieties of
languages.
4-Morphology: it study the internal structure of words and how they
changed over time e.g: old English & modern English.
5-Syntax: its the study of the internal structure of sentences and the rules
for constructing them e.g: old English we didnt use auxiliary verb in
question like: you know? NOT- do you know?
6-Phonology: its study the phonemic system of the language and the
sound change over time e.g: in old English: we didnt say house but hoos.
7-Symantic: studies the change in the meaning of words and sentences.
Linguistics
Comparative linguistics
Diachronic
Linguistics
Linguistics
10
Linguistics
Traditional grammar
T.G pays more attention to the
written form of the language
T.G is prescriptive
T.G is interested more in syntax
T.G puts emphasis on grammar
than on any other aspect of the
language
T.G deals with language mostly
from the diachronic point of view
No notational conventions were
used
Linguistics
Linguistics puts emphasis on the
spoken medium
Linguistics is descriptive.
Linguistics has a broader scope for
research
Linguistics analyses all the aspects
of language
Linguistics assumes that
synchronic study has a priority over
diachronic study
Specific notational conventions
used to refer to the date of
language.
11
Linguistics
Modern linguistics
Modern linguistics is a scientific study of language, it follows a scientific
methodology and procedures (steps). Steps are:
1-Objectivity: the linguist should observe the language, set up by
hypothesis, test them and then accept or reject them accordingly; he should
also study language away from his personal judgement or feelings.
2-Descriptivism: the linguist tries to describe and explain how a language
works and not to impose norms (standards) on people on how it should work
or what is correct or incorrect (it is explanatory)
3-Consistency: the absence of contradictions between the different parts
of the total statements (its a sort of link between the parts)
4-Exhaustivism: the adequate (complete) treatment of the different
element of the language from the smallest to the highest, from sound to
sentence.
5-Economy: the linguists should use short statements and use as few
terms as possible.
6-Systematicness: the linguists should be selective and should give
organization to his work by concentrating on one aspect of his subject
matter.
7-Explicitness (clarity) any scientific methodology should explain things
in a clear way i.e each data should be clear.
8-Specticism (there is doubt): the linguist should always discuss and requestion the truth of the statements, they should prove it, base his
experience.
The linguistic should always discuss and re-question the truth for its
statements, he should take as little as possible for granted and examine
language as for the 1st time i.e the ability to be verified in time and space.
9-The linguist should never pay attention to the laymens ( someone who is not trained
in or does not have a detailed knowledge of a particular subject ) prejudices (judgement-opinion)
e.g: it is wrong to say that classical Arabic is purer than the Algerian Arabic
12
Linguistics
(not based on scientific methodology), but the linguistic should say give me
the evidence.
Questions:
The linguists are scientific (should use short sentences and go to the point)
What is the difference between empiricism and rationalism?
Empiricism: all language comes from experimentations (opposed to
rationalism):
1-observation
2-make hypothesis
3-make experimentation (to check)
Rationalism: based on reason of mind (its logical)
2-The linguists should study language for sake of language? Study
language for itself (how language is .......................and how it works) no in
relation with other fields or language, the purpose is for that language.
Microlinguistics (or core linguistics): phonology (study the level of
language), phonetics, morphology, syntax, lexicology, semantics and
pragmatics.
Macrolinguistics: (major branches deal with sub-fields derived from social,
cutural............)
Sociolinguistic, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, evolutional linguistics,
applied linguistics, computational linguistics, psycholinguistics.
13
Linguistics
16/12/2012
Geneva school European Structuralism
De Saussures major dichotomies are :
1-Synchronic/Diachronic
4-signifiant/Signifi
2-Langue/Parole
5-Prescriptive/Descriptive
3-Syntagmatic/Paradigmatic
Language:
Saussure studies language for itself
Saussure studies language as a living phenomenon
Language is a dynamic social activity which people use to communicate this
def..........
Language is a system of signs.
Diachronic study is the total study of Synchronic study
19th century diachronic study of language? Development of language
(De Saussure 1st who gives that name) and examine the evolution of
language through time.
20th century synchronic linguistics? The study of language at a
particular point in time not all the time, as a living whole (un tat de
langue)
Saussure
emphasizes
on
Study language for language
Synchronic study
(social code)
Utterance => pronounced (sentences, words...)
Dichotomies
Language system
Dichotomies
Syntagmatic (distributional)
Paradigmatic (substitutional)
The combination of words
Dichotomies
Signifiant
Signified (semantic image)
Combination of letter e.g: c.u.p
The meaning e.g: a cup
acoustic image
The name is the result of convention
Dichotomies
14
Linguistics
Diachronic - Development of
language (De Saussure 1st who
gives that name)
Questions:
De Saussure is the chief runner of structural linguistics
What is semiotics?
Is the science of linguistic signs.
What is the definition given to language by De Saussure?
He was the 1st to consider language as a system of signs and also a
structure.
2-What is the difference between syntegmatic and Paradigmatic?
Syntagmatic (distributional) combination of words according to rules.
Paradigmatic (substitutional) substitute words that can replace another
word but must be from the same category.
3-What is meant by syntagmatic relationship?
Words are combined to form a meaningful sentence under specific rules.
What is syntagme?
Sentence itself (the construction, the combination, the structure itself)
What is paradigmatic relationship?
Replacing (substituting) words from the same category?
What is meant by paradigm?
class of element that share grammatical function (equivalent in function)
What is meant by dichotomies?
Dichotomies means 2 opposite aspect of same things (like *2 face of a coin)
or opposite pairs.
De Saussure is a scientific linguist
What was the basic
........................................................................................................................................................................
Linguistics
independent.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................
3Syntagmatic/Paradig
Axis of
matic
combination
(Select the rules)
1Paradigmatic
Synchronic/Diachron
relationship
ic
Studying language
equivalent in
function)
De Saussures
major dichotomies
2-Langue/Parole
Competence
performance
(spe
16
4-signifiant/Signifi
Signifier/ Signified
/
Sign
form
meaning
sound
concept/idea
acoustic
semantic
Image
image
/tebl /
Feburary, 2013
Second year (all groups)
Duration: 2 hours
First Examination in Linguistics
Choose one of the following questions (20pts)
Question 01:
Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the contribution of F.DE Saussure in the
development of Modern Linguistics
Question 02:
Traditional Grammar is prescriptive rather than descriptive.
Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the above statement.
Best of luck
Correction
Rules in the exams of Mme Benzerouk
Pay attention to your style of writing (use the techniques you have learned in the other modules
e.g: writing: introduction, 2 paragraphs at least, concluding
Be careful the spelling and grammatical mistakes
Dont forget the punctuation and cohesions
Dont give the same examples seen in class with Madam Benzerouk.
Never use abbreviation like lg for language and st for sentence.
Topic 1:
It is about what De Saussure bring like language is a system of system, a structure and a living
phenomenon + dichotomies
Topic 2:
It is not a comparison between traditional grammar and modern linguistics
Question 01:
Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the contribution of
F.DE Saussure in the development of Modern Linguistics
07/04/2013
American structuralism Bloomfield
Spoken language is important
American Structuralism appeared as a reaction to traditional grammar. It
started with the book of Bloomfield entitled Language
Language is considered as a structure
Study is scientific: Step up hypothesis then verification in order to draw a
conclusion (to generalise the rule to the rest..)
Bloomfield wanted to study word and sentence structure both belong to
grammar.
He made the difference between syntax and morphology
The relationship existing within the sentence and between sentence and
other sentences
Introduced the notion of form class (category) that have similar function
Open close: form class of verb which are substitutional (we can change
them) Saussure said paradigm
Bloomfield Studied language in terms of stimulus-response
Bloomfield studied language from a behaviouristic approach (based on
behaviourism. Stimulus and response (Pavlovs experience was the 1 st who
study it)
American Structuralism is corpus based, Bloomfield reject the isolation we
should study language as a whole no separation of data.
American
Structuralism
is
taxonomic
we
observe
we
describe-
Banniery cut
(done by two-step
by step-always per
2)
Immediate
constituent The young
(subject+predicate)
girl
eats a kiwi
The
Analyse this
sentence
young girl
Complementation
young
girl
Ultimate
(final)
constituent
cannot go
eats
modificati
on
a kiwi
eat
kiwi
John
ran away
ran
away
Questions
-Origin of American structuralism?
Anthropologist Franz Boas who was interested in Indian tribess
languages.
Then Bloomfield
-How did Bloomfield consider language?
As structure as De Saussure, he Bloomfield accepted something and
rejected others.
-What do you mean by scientific methods? Empirical study based on
observation.........etc.
- American structuralism is descriptive?
Its modern so descriptivism (study how people use the language)
-Major contribution of Bloomfield to structuralism:
Immediate constituent.
Language is considered as a structure
Studying language scientific: Experience-> hypothesis -> verification-> in
order to draw a conclusion (to generalise the rule to the rest)
Bloomfield wanted to study word and sentence structure both belong to
grammar.
Made difference between syntax and morphology
The relationship existing within the sentence and between sentence and
other sentences...................?
Introduce the notion of form class (category) that have similar function.
..................... open close form class of verb which are substitutional (we can
change them) Saussure called them paradigm.
7- Mentalism: Behaviourism considers language as a kind of Behaviour in
terms of stimulus response. Mentalism considers language as related to the
mind and not to an external stimulus.
2.2. American structuralism : L. Bloomfield
2.2.1.Behaviorism and Science
Behaviorism was a school of psychology. According to this school science can only deal with
physical facts. Statements must be based on these physical characteristics. Thus, science must
observe, describe physical facts and induce descriptive generalizations.
2.2.2. Language : Stimulus and Response
Human behaviour is studied in terms of stimulus and response, consequently linguistic
behaviour becomes also a pattern of stimulus and response, where language plays a mediating
role.
2.3. American and European structuralism
American and European structuralism had the same objective : describe and classify linguistic
units, though they do not share the same perspective. European structuralists deal with
Saussure's notion of langue, whereas Americans' perspective derived from the limitations of
their behaviorist method.
3.1.1 European Structuralism
The method that a science should follow is called Descriptive Grammar. It is based on
observation
description (of data)
classification
Speech
S-> The girl feels hungry
Response -> The girl asks John to pick on apple.
S-> Jack hears the girls request.
R-> (Response to the stimulus) picking the apple a giving it to the girl.
-> physical response: movement of linguistics
-> Linguistic response: mental movement
Difference between American and European structuralism
They shared number of features in studying language both insist in the
structural uniqueness of each language; share a number of features in
insisting upon the necessity of treating each language as a more or less
coherent and integrated system.
They emphasized on the structural uniqueness of individual languages.
They were working on the same thing. They didnt know each other but they
shared the same point of view.
Saussure
Bloomfield describes language in term of stimulus approach.
Difference between them in studying language:
American Structuralism focused on Indian language, they consider that
language is a living phenomenon, they went into the field.
De Saussure: focused on Indo European language. They didnt go to the
field.
The
Young girl
eats
An apple
The
young
Girl
the
eat
s
an
Apple
young
girl
eat
s
an
apple
Ultimate constituent (last stage)
Chomsky->add transcription
There are 5 major grammatical
2-Complementation: Direct object, indirect object.
21/04/2013
Morphology: in 1859 by august Shleider
Branch of grammar that study
Derivational (lexical) morphology
Know+ledge=knowledge
II-Inflectional morphology
To write: writes, wrote, ..
Notion of morpheme
Lexical (nouns-verb-obj..)
Free Functional
(articles,
prepositions,
conjunction
morphem
Derivational (affixes, prefix, suffixes,
es
boun infixes
d
Inflectional (tense, plurality, marks,
possessives
Morphological description (Bloomfield?)
The boys wildness shocked his teachers
Function morpheme lexical morpheme derivational inflextional morpheme
lexical morpheme inflectional morpheme derivational inflectional lexical
Morphemes and allomorphs
Ed
/id/
/d/
/t/
es
/s/
/z/
/es/
Take->took
Cut-> cut (zero morpheme )
Questions?
-Origin of morphology
Linguistics Greek philosophers
-Whats the definition of morphem?
Small
Introduced by Bloomfield and made different bound
-Difference between modern Morphology and traditional Morphology.
Derivational and reflectional morphology
e.g: How many ............in phonology
- Contribution of Bloomfield
* Developed morphology
* Sentence...
* Difference between free and bound morphem
Greek psychology ................. in Greek and .
Morphology is composed of morphology: shape of word (form)
Morphology is composed of logy......: study how they are...
Study or the internal structure of word, formed......
2 majors school..............
*Traditional morphology: interested in 2 major: description of the form of the
word e.g: quickly quick+ly
*Classifying sth
*Structural morphology as a reaction of traditional grammar: we can
describe word into categories according to grammatical function e.g: the
word impossible is composed of impo and ssible....hapiness
For Bloomfield morpheme is the smallest unit is..........grammatically ..;
(grammatical function) can be meaningful but if we add........
Definition
A morpheme is minimal linguistic sign (De Saussure significant/signified) we
have a sign is a unit that has 2 forms add meaning.
Bloomfield has add the notion of Free morpheme cant stand
Bound morpheme must be attached to a bound morpheme
e.g: happy ness
modern morphology: can be divided into 2
*derivational: study of a lexical formation of words: I have by mean of
affixation suffix
sings
*inflectional the change may be in form and in meaning e.g:
sang
helpfull/helpless
sing
sung
Study the.......... of the form of the word
singin
8 inflective forms
gs
But for cut there is an exception only 3 forms
cuts
-4 inflective forms:
cut
S plural, er comparative, ist superlative, s possessives cu
t
cutting
To Conclude:
Modern linguistic is ..;
-The derivation of the word
-The inflection of the word
-Compounding......hotel/motel
Contribution of Bloomfield:
5 majors contributions
Introduced the notion of morpheme minimal.. linguistic sign
Introduced the distinction of bound and free morpheme
Mad task of morphology, made it simple
Made task of morphology ........ determiner
Unfaithful -> 2 bound morpheme un+faithfull
4- difference between grammatical and lexical morpheme
Reader-readers-lexical?
5- Allomorphs: difference realisation of the same morpheme.
The environment in which it occurs
Whats is syntax?
It is a combination of morphemes, set of clause, phrases in order to make
sentence
We follow given order to provide given meaning
Bloomfield
(ICD) looking for structure
Chomsky
Grammaticality of sentence
Sentence grammatical/ungrammatical
Arrangement: morphemes are arranged in given order to provide the
meaning
Syntactic rules: determine how kind of morphemes are combined together
to get grammatical sentence (we say that sentence is well formed)
When the sentence is not grammatically (we say that the sentence is not
grammatically or ill-formed)
All these according to syntactic rules
Phrase structure rules
5 reasons to use syntactic rules
1- Syntactic help speaker to make judgement on the quality of sentence
2- Help the speaker to guess the ambiguity, whether the sentence is
ambiguous or not=> sentence has double meaning.
Visiting relative is boring => out of context
Action of visiting is boring/or the relative is boring
3-determine how morpheme are combined together (the right order of
morpheme)
Determine different part of sentence => how morpheme relate together
this is V+S+C
Determine difference between sentence
In immediate constituent analysis
Help us to show how are basic units are combined together (find structure)
Discovery of this structure
Discovering part to discover
Structure
Eeach morpheme
Group
Sub-group
Smallest unit
We analysis from the immediate constituent to the ultimate constituent.
Free structure rules.
Transformation generative grammar of rules
Concerns with syntactic ability or grammatical competence of speaker to
identify whether sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical
Syntactic ability
Chomsky prefers arrows diagrams, symbols => to give certain rules to
analysis.
The constructors
5 majors features
NP+VP
NP->Determine (NP+NP)
VP->V or [V+VP]
Recursive rules => using and we can make infinit number of sentence
We can join many NP by and, or
s-> NP+VP => from this rules we can generate infinite rules
e.g the girl eats an apple.
S->NP+VP
NP->Determiners+N
VP->V+NP
NP->Det+NP
Determiner->The+an
Analysis of Chomsky
V-> eat+s
He writes rules
Phrase structure analysis
Phrase marker
Three diagram
Phrase
Go further in analysis => there is derivation.
We go derive from sentence to small ultimate smallest unit=>called
morpheme.
Syntax: in Greek syntax means arrangement of words.
Is it any order? Not random
Syntax move from one level to another level.. a particular order to convey
meaning.
Syntactic rule (chomesky phrase structure rule)
Help to see whether the sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical
Well formed or ill formed
Determine the rule
5 majors ..........: help speaker or list to make judgement
To make the judgement whether it is ambiguious or not
Visiting relative can be boring (in exam change this exam)
Help us to determine: kind of morpheme
How this morpheme....
Relationship between morphemes and between sentences (preposition...)
Contributions
ICA help us to discover the structure (we analyse the construction into sub
group -> S.G to reach ultimate constituent till we get exact structure of our
sentence).
For Chomsky talks about the sentactic rules
Syntactic sentence from
Talks phrase structure rule
Analys sent by tree diagram (phrase marker)
We analys until we reach the final morphem)
Talks about deep structure (intensive transformational generative grammar)
From this rule we can produce (S->NP+VP)
I can apply this rule to...