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Metal Casting
Sand casting
Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary
mould material.
The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of
other materials, such as clay and water, to improve
mouldability and cohesive strength, and are then
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the
desired casting.
The pattern must be removed before pouring, the
mold is usually made in two or more pieces.
An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of
the mold through the sand and connected to a
system of channels called runners.
Contd.
Contd
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Casting Terms
piece moulding.
Contd
Contd
sand.
Core: Used for making hollow cavities in castings.
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Padding
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the
mould cavity.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in
casting so that hot metal can f low back into the mould
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due
to solidification
Contd
IES-2001
The main purpose of chaplets is
(a) To ensure directional solidification
(b) To provide efficient venting
IES-1996
Which of the following methods are used for
obtaining directional solidification for riser design
1.
2.
3.
Employing padding
IES 2007
Which one of the following is the correct
statement?
Gate is provided in moulds to
(a) Feed the casting at a constant rate
(b) Give passage to gases
(c) Compensate for shrinkage
(d) Avoid cavities
Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications.
The main modifications are
The addition of pattern allowances,
The provision of core prints, and
Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained
by casting and hence are to be obtained by further
processing
06-11-2014
Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
Shrinkage allowance
All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps
bismuth.
This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which
Contd
Pattern Allowances
Cast Iron
10 mm/m
Brass, Copper, Aluminium 15 mm/m
Steel
20 mm/m
Zinc, Lead
25 mm/m
IES-1995
IES-1999
(a) Aluminium
(c) Steel
(c) Obtained
(d) Copper.
by
promoting
directional
solidification
(d) Made by providing chills
06-11-2014
Draft
To reduce the chances of the damage of the mould
outer surfaces.
Draft is always provided as an extra metal.
DRAFT ALLOWANCE
Shake Allowance
At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped
Distortion Allowance
A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and
therefore is likely to be distortion prone.
Pattern Materials
Wood patterns are relatively easy to make. Wood is not
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Types of Pattern
IES-1994
Which of the following materials can be used for
making patterns?
1. Aluminium
2. Wax
3. Mercury 4. Lead
Types of Pattern
Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings. When the contour of the casting makes its
withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth
of the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two
parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope.
Types of Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to
splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of
the pattern along with the gating and riser systems
are attached separately to the metal or wooden
plates along with the alignment pins. They are
called the cope and drag patterns.
Types of Pattern
Types of Pattern
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Types of Pattern
Follow Board Pattern
This type of pattern is adopted for those
castings where there are some portions, which
are structurally weak and if not supported
properly are likely to break under the force of
ramming.
Types of Pattern
Sweep Pattern
Cooling Curve
IES-2008
The pattern adopted for those castings where there
are some portions which are structurally weak and
are likely to break by the force of ramming are
called:
(a) Loose piece pattern
(b) Follow board pattern
(c) Skelton pattern
(d) Single piece pattern
Types of Pattern
Skeleton Pattern
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood
is used for building the final pattern by packing
sand around the skeleton. After packing the
sand, the desired form is obtained with the help
of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
generally for very large castings, required in
small quantities where large expense on
complete wooden pattern is not justified.
Fluidity
The ability of a metal to f low and fill a mold is known
as f luidity.
Pouring Temperature
The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring temperature or the amount of superheat.
Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity.
Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however. At
high pouring temperatures, metal-mold reactions are
accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to permit
penetration.
Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills the
mold cavity but also fills the small voids between the sand
particles in a sand mold.
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Core
Used for making cavities and hollow projections.
All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal
and are therefore subjected to much more severe
thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result the
core sand should be of higher strength than the
moulding sand.
p 5.0 g / cm
501.28
70.75
5 1.417
06-11-2014
Core Sands
molasses, etc.
Contd
IES-2002
Assertion (A): In CO2 casting process, the mould or
core attains maximum strength.
Reason (R): The optimum gassing time of CO2
through the mould or core forms Silica Gel which
imparts sufficient strength to the mould or core.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
sands.
Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the moulding
sands
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O), and
Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O nH2O).
Water: Clay is activated by water.
06-11-2014
Other Additives
Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
Pitch if used up to 3% would improve the hot
strength.
Saw dust up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by
IES-2008
Small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled
on the inner surface of mould cavity is called
(a) Backing sand
(b) Facing sand
(c) Green sand
Other Sands
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the
refractory material found in the mould. This is made
up of used and burnt sand.
Green Sand: The molding sand that contains
moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
should have enough strength so that the constructed
mould retains its shape.
Dry sand: When the moisture in the moulding sand is
completely expelled, it is called dry sand.
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06-11-2014
Casting Yield
IES-2002
In the grain -size determination using standard
charts, the relation between the given size
number n and the average number of grains 'N'
Casting yield
(a) N = 2n
w
100
W
(b) N = 2n-l
(c) N = 2n + 1
(d) N = 2n + 1
Gating System
Gating System
Contd
11
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IES 2011
In light metal casting, runner should be so designed
that:
1. It avoids aspiration
2. It avoids turbulence
3. The path of runner is reduced in area so that
unequal volume of f low through each gate
takes place
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
IES-1998
A sand casting mould
assembly is shown in
the above figure. The
elements marked A
and B are respectively
(a) Sprue and riser
(b) Ingate and riser
(c) Drag and runner
(d) Riser and runner
IES-1998
Which of the following are the requirements of an ideal
gating system?
1. The molten metal should enter the mould cavity with as
high a velocity as possible.
2. It should facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity.
3. It should be able to prevent the absorption of air or gases
from the surroundings on the molten metal while
flowing through it.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES 2011
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the lists :
List I
List II
A. Top gate
B. Bottom gate
C. Parting gate
3. Turbulence
D. Step gate
Codes
A
(a) 3
(c) 3
B
4
2
C
2
4
D
1
1
(b)
(d)
A
1
1
B
4
2
C
2
4
D
3
3
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mold cavity
Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
Aspiration in the gating system as the system never
runs full
Less turbulence.
Sprue Design
Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten
A t Vt A c Vc
A t Ac
Vc
Vt
Contd
hc
ht
Where H = actual
sprue height
and ht = h + H
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06-11-2014
Gating ratio
Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area: Runner area:
Ingate area.
For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio of 1: 2: 2 or
oxidation defects.
IES-2005
The gating ratio 2: 8: 1 for copper in gating system
design refers to the ratio of areas of:
(a) Sprue: Runner: Ingate
(b) Runner: Ingate: Sprue
(c) Runner: Sprue: Ingate
(d) Ingate: Runner: Sprue
IES-2003
A gating ratio of 1: 2: 4 is used to design the gating
system for magnesium alloy casting. This gating ratio
refers to the cross section areas of the various gating
elements as given below:
1. Down sprue 2.
Runner bar 3.
Ingates
The correct sequence of the above elements in the
ratio 1: 2: 4 is
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1,3 and 2
(c) 2, 3 and 1
(d) 3, 1 an 2
Chvorinovs rule
IES-1994
Assertion (A): In a mould, a riser is designed and placed
so that the riser will solidify after the casting has solidified.
Reason (R): A riser is a reservoir of molten metal which
will supply molten metal where a shrinkage cavity would
have occurred.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
or
For cylinder
of diameter D
and height H
V
V
1.25
A
riser
A casting
V D2H / 4
2
A DH 2 D
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06-11-2014
IES 2011
IES-1998
A
A
(b ) t k
V
(d ) t k
A
(c ) t k
(b) 20 seconds
(c) 28.30 seconds
Where K is a constant
(d) 40 seconds
IES-2006
According
to
Chvorinov's
equation,
the
IES - 2012
Modulus Method
satisfactory.
MR = 1.2 Mc
Modulus = volume/Surface area
In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a
15
06-11-2014
Caines Method
Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to
the riser.
A
D2
D2
4
V
AV
Casting
Riser
Vriser
Vcasting
X = Yb c
Chills
External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity, high-thermalconductivity material that are placed in the mould (adjacent to
the casting) to accelerate the cooling of various regions.
Chills can effectively promote directional solidification or
increase the effective feeding distance of a riser. They can often
be used to reduce the number of risers required for a casting.
Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed within the
mould cavity to absorb heat and promote more rapid
solidification. Since some of this metal will melt during the
operation, it will absorb not only the heat-capacity energy, but
also some heat of fusion. Since they ultimately become part of
the final casting, internal chills must be made from the same
alloy as that being cast.
IES-1995
Directional solidification in castings can be
improved by using
(a) Chills and chaplets
(b) Chills and padding
(c) Chaplets and padding
(d) Chills, chaplets and padding.
Cupola
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for
melting cast iron.
In hot blast cupola, the f lue gases are used to preheat the
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the
furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola. Coke is fuel and Lime stone
(CaCO3) is mostly used f lux.
Cost of melting low.
Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to
produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
Steel can be also prepared in cupola by employing
duplexing and triplexing operations.
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06-11-2014
IES-1997
Assertion (A): Steel can be melted in hot blast cupola.
Reason (R): In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to
preheat the air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in
the furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
IES - 2012
Statement (I): Cupola furnace is not employed for
melting steel in foundry
Statement (II): The temperatures generated within a
cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Ladles
Two types of ladles used in the pouring of castings.
Crucible Furnace
Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace.
The crucible is generally heated by electric resistance
or gas f lame.
Induction Furnace
The induction furnaces are used for all types of
materials, the chief advantage being that the heat
source is isolated from the charge and the slag and f lux
get the necessary heat directly from the charge instead
of the heat source.
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06-11-2014
Pouring time
CA
2A
A g 2g
hm h m H
mm2
tB
m
ct 2gH
Contd
Casting Defects
h
H=h- m for bottom gate
2
hc 2
=hfor parting line gate
2hm
hC
hm
hm
hm
Top gale
top gate
bottom gate
Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the
trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases
evolved during the pouring of the casting.
The defects in this category can be classified into
blowholes and pinhole porosity.
Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present
in the casting on the surface or inside the casting.
Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of
molten metal.
Mold shift.
Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the
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06-11-2014
Scab
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould
Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with
Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand
Swell
Under the inf luence of metallostatic forces, the mold
wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension
of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will
correct this defect.
Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold can prevent this defect
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06-11-2014
GATE-2009
Mold Shift
known as
(a) Cold shut
(b) Swell
(c) Sand wash
(d) Scab
IES-2001
Scab is a
(a) Sand casting defect
(b) Machining defect
(c) Welding defect
(d) Forging defect
IES-1998
Assertion (A): Stiffening members, such as webs
and ribs, used on a casting should be liberally
provided.
Reason (R): They will provide additional strength
to a cast member.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
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06-11-2014
IES-2005
IES-1997
IES-2009
In which one of the following furnaces most of the
non-ferrous alloys are melted?
(a) Reverberatory furnace
(b) Induction furnace
(c) Crucible furnace
(d) Pot furnace
IES 2011
Contd..
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