University of Toronto Press

An Introduction to Latin-American Philosophy of Law

Author(s): Josef L. Kunz
Source: The University of Toronto Law Journal, Vol. 15, No. 2 (1964), pp. 259-282
Published by: University of Toronto Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/825283
Accessed: 27-10-2015 15:32 UTC
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AN INTRODUCTION TO LATIN-AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
JOSEF L. KUNZ*

IN 1939 theAssociationofAmericanLaw SchoolscreateditsCommittee

taskwas to
The committee's
on TwentiethCenturyLegal Philosophy.
of
which
would
a
volumes
and
edit
series
giveEnglishtranslations
prepare
of
law
of this century.This
of the outstanding
European philosophies
a
of
the
committee
since
its
member
creation,was chargedby his
writer,
with
task
of
in
the
1942
preparinga volumeon contemporary
colleagues
to it. His
an introduction
ofwriting
of
and
Latin-American
philosophy law,
at theverybeginning,
researchlastedforabouttenyearsand he discovered,
thatpractically
nothingwas knownof thistopiceitherin theUnitedStates
or in Europe,and thatevenin Latin Americano adequateworkexisted.
Afterpuba pioneering
Hence his researchbecameby necessity
enterprise.
his
book
on the
in
1950
of
he
licationofhisvolume translations,' presented
subject.2At the requestof the UNIVERSITY OF

TORONTO LAW JOURNAL,

he

which must be short,but which can

an introduction,
is now offering
of 1963.
examinethetopicfromtheperspective
I
of law may be said to date
Latin-American
philosophy
Contemporary
fromthe end of the FirstWorldWar. It was precededin the wholeof
whichhad
Latin Americaby a long periodof sociologicaljurisprudence,
of
the
nineteenth
the
middle
startedin somecountries
century,
by
already
from1875 to 1925. In colonialtimes,naturally,
but predominated
Spanish
But withthe begininfluenceand Catholicnaturallaw was predominant.
of Spain was replaced
the influence
movement,
ningof the independence
in all cultural
influence
an
of
influence
the
France,
extraordinarily
deep
by
a
to
certain
nineteenth
of
the
whole
the
extent,
and,
century
fields,lasting
natural
Catholic
the
of
the
end
the
to
century
eighteenth
presentday.By
up
law was replacedby the "classic"naturallaw, the droitde la raison,and
indeAll the leadersof Latin-American
Frenchrevolutionary
philosophy.
At
of
that
Rousseau.
with
this
imbued
were
especially
philosophy,
pendence
*Professoremeritus,College of Law, Universityof Toledo, U.S.A.
1Latin-American Legal Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1948), vol. III. This volume contains English translationsof writingsby Luis Recasens
Siches, Carlos Cossio, Juan Llambias de Azevedo and Eduardo Garcia MAynez.
2JosefL. Kunz, Latin-American Philosophy of Law in the Twentieth Century (New
York UniversityLaw School, 1950); also published as La Filosofia del derecho LatinoAmericano en el siglo XX (Buenos Aires, 1951), Spanish translation by Luis Recas6ns
Siches.
259
Vol. XV, No. 2, 1964

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260

THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTo LAW JOURNAL

of the nineteenth
the beginning
Latin America,alwaysfollowing
century,
Continental
Europeantrends,again followed,althoughsomewhattardily,
the Europeanreactionagainstclassicnaturallaw and towardspositivism,
in theformofA. Comte's"philosophic
againunderFrenchleadership,
positive."The influence
Latin America,even
of Comtewas deep throughout
in
butit was particularly
sometimes
penetrating
politicsand religion,
strong
of
Mexicoand Brazil.DuringthiswholeperiodLatin-American
philosophy
law was a positivistic,
jurisstrictly
sociological-biological
anti-metaphysical,
the ideas of
prudence.ApartfromComte,Spencer'stheoryof evolution,
Darwinand Haeckel,theItalianscuolapositiva,
itselfbasedon Comte,the
German"ethnological"
in Brazil,the"teleoand,particularly
jurisprudence,
of
Rudolf
all
exercised
logical"jurisprudence
greatinfluence.
Jhering,
Latin America.We
Works of this type were abundantthroughout
mentionas an outstanding
book
of
the
the
Argentinian
professor,
example
CarlosOctavioBunge,3whichformanyyearsdominatedthephilosophical
attitudeof theBuenosAiresLaw School.He was a strongadherentofthe
oflaw; a
is forhimthegenerating
Austrian,
principle
Gumplowicz:victory
law
the
is
the
of
is
a
victor;objective
obligationof
subjectiveright
power
thevanquished.
In Brazil,Comtismin philosophy
of law had itsseat in thenorth:the
"School of Recife."From Tobias Barretoto the presentday thereis in
of law. Thereis Tobias BarBrazila long line of sociologicalphilosphers
ofSpencerthanthatof Comteand a
reto,4rathermoreundertheinfluence
forLaw." Therewas thegreat
and his "Struggle
deep adherentof Jhering
juristClovis Bevilacqua,the drafterof the BrazilianCode. There was
of law at thebegintheoutstanding
Brazilianphilosopher
SylvioRomero,5
with
who triedto combineSpencer'sevolutionism
ning of thiscentury,
Therewas PedroLessa6at the Law Schoolof
Kant's theoryof cognition.
Sao Paulo.
II
oflaw, as stated,maybe said
Latin-American
Contemporary
philosophy
to beginwiththeend oftheFirstWorldWar.Firstofall,we mustindicate
oflaw. Whereas
and Brazilianphilosophy
a splitbetweenSpanish-American
abandonedin SpanishAmerica,sociowas completely
Comte'spositivism
is dominantup to thepresentdayin Brazil.Thereis,
logicaljurisprudence
on the linesof
a
of the old sociologicaljurisprudence
continuation
first,
continuator
Comteand Spencer.Ivan Lins7seemsto be themostorthodox
8El derecho: ensayo de una teoria juridica integral (1909). The French translationhas
the significanttitle,Le Droit c'est la force.
4Questioes vigentesde philosophia e de direito (Pernambuco, 1888).
5Ensayo de philosophia do direito (2nd ed., Rio de Janeiro,1916).
6Estudos de philosophia do direito (2nd ed., Slo Paulo, 1916).
7IntrodufGoa estudo da philosophia: a concepGdo do direito e da felicidade perante a
moral positiva (Rio de Janeiro, 1939).

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LATIN-AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

261

of this tradition.He has writtenmuch, but his later writingsshow a tendency to go beyond Comte, to combine theoretical,axiological, and sociological jurisprudence,and thus to go toward an "integral" jurisprudence.
Yet in general the characterof contemporarysociologicaljurisprudencein
Brazil has changed. Whereas beforethe end of the FirstWorld War it was
mechanical,biological,or ethnological,thatis, to use a distinctiondrawnby
Roscoe Pound, "early," it is now sociologicaljurisprudence"in the stage of

in the"stageofunification."
maturity,"
As prominent
of thismodem,contemporary
sociological
representatives
philosophyof law in Brazil we may name Hermes Lima,8 Carlos Campos,9

Eusebiode QueirosLima," and last,notleast,Francisco

Djazir Menezes,"o
Pontes de Miranda.12Their conceptof law is one of fact: the realm of law

is in thesphereof"isness,"notof"oughtness."
The conceptofa legalnorm
is neithernormative
noraxiological,butfactual.We maythinkof thetitle
of a book by a prominent
memberof the Scandinavianschoolof "legal
realism": "Law as a Fact." Carlos Campos is an important
sociological
thinker
of
who triesto showthefactorswhichdetermine
theinterpretation
statutesby thecourtsand comesto theconclusion
thatall juridicaltheories
a
are only techniquesto satisfythe interests
of men and are, therefore,
is
Lima
of
a
situation
in
the
social
product
general
givenepoch.Queiros
influenced
also opposedto
strongly
by Spencer,strictly
anti-metaphysical,
what he calls the "metaphysics
of Kelsen," and adopts the functional
methodof Leon Duguit.Thereis also a revivalof the olderschoolin the
north.The principal representative
is Pinto Ferreira.13A great admirerof

Pontesde Miranda,influenced
by psychoby Germannaturalscientists,
of the "Vienna
semantics,
analysis,behaviorism,
by the "Neo-Positivism"
of
based on the principles
Circle,"he wantsa "scientific"
jurisprudence
fratera
for
and
He
determinism.
stands
monism,evolutionism,
"universal,
and feudal
nal, solidary,
pacifistChristian
messageagainstall superstitions
old
ideas,againstthe established
myths."
BraThere can be no doubtthatthe mostoriginalworkof present-day
zilianphilosophy
oflaw are thetwobigvolumesbyPontesde Miranda.He
is voluminous,
and in his attitudeextreme.Reading thesetwo
difficult,
volumesis no easyjob fora lawyer,
fortheyaboundin lengthy
in
quotations
highlytechnicallanguagefromall fieldsof naturalsciences,and are fullof
and complicated
ofhigher
formulas
geometrical
figures,
diagramsofphysics,
A scienceof law whichwantsto be a sciencemustbe a
mathematics.
law
naturalsciencelike physicsor chemistry.
Free fromall metaphysics,
mustbe studiedin thereality
as a factamongfacts.
8IntroduGdoa ciencia do direito (6th ed., Rio de Janeiro,1952).
9Sociologia e filosofiado direito (Rio de Janeiro, 1943).
l?IntrodufGoa ciencia do direito (3rd ed., Rio de Janeiro, 1952).
11Principios de sociologia Juridica (4th ed., Rio de Janeiro, 1936); Teoria do estado
(4th ed., Sio Paulo, 1943).
12Systemade ciencia positiva do direito (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1922).
13Introdufdo a filosofiacientifica (1951).

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262

THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LAW JOURNAL

ContemporaryBrazilian philosophyof law is relativelyclose to the sociological jurisprudenceand "legal realism" which prevails in the United
States. Braziliansare well acquainted with the work of the leading philosobut only
phersand philosophersof law in the United States.It is interesting,
Austhat
German
and
such
the
Austrian
of
as
natural,
philosophers law,
trian sociologistof law, Eugen Ehrlich,who exercisegreat influencein the
United States, should also do so in Brazil; on the other hand, thinkers
whose influenceis overwhelmingin Spanish America are less influentialin
boththe United Statesand Brazil.
of conCompared with what we will have to say on the characteristics
temporaryphilosophyand philosophyof law in Spanish America, it is
obvious how differentBrazilian philosophyof law is today fromthat of
Spanish-speakingLatin America. Yet a warningis necessary.Justas in the
United States,so in Brazil, sociologicaljurisprudenceis prominent,but not
alone. As in the United States, thereis a Neo-Thomisticjurisprudencein
Brazil, and the newer philosophies,those of "the phenomenologicalmovement," which dominate present-daySpanish-Americanphilosophyof law,
have appeared in Brazil too. During these last decades there has been a
great deal of workdone in Brazil outsideof sociologicaljurisprudence.
III
At the beginningof the nineteenthcenturylegal positivismbanished
natural law from philosophyof law, and famous positivisticthinkersdeclared natural law to be dead. But the Encyclical "AeterniPatris" of Leo
XIII of August4, 1879, became the startingpointfora revivalof Catholic
natural law. A Neo-Thomisticphilosophyof law, strictlyon the lines of St.
Thomas Aquinas, came into being. Neo-Thomisticphilosophyof law restrictsnatural law, in the sense of St. Thomas and Francisco Suirez, to a
relativelyvague prinrelativelysmall numberof the highestand, therefore,
ciples which, it is true,are immutable,but whose application is subject to
change,accordingto the particularconditionsof a timeand nation.Natural
law is not consideredto be a duplicationof positivelaw, the existenceof
which is held to be absolutelynecessary.Neo-Thomismalso rejectsthe idea
of a rivalrybetween natural and positivelaw. Modern Neo-Thomismhas
sometimesexhibitedthe weaknessof doing nothingbut restatingthe philosocentury;but it has
phy of St. Thomas whichwas developedin the thirteenth
the
of
oftenrecognizedthe necessity restating philosophyof St. Thomas for
present-dayproblems,as the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" has laid down:
"vetera novis augere." Catholic natural law is importantin the United
States in the many Catholic law schools. There are great Catholic law
schoolsin Europe, such as at Paris, Fribourg,Louvain. There are important
philosophersin Europe, such as Jacques Maritain, Heinrich Rommen,'4
des Naturrechts
14DieewigeWiederkehr
(Leipzig,1936).

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LATIN-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

263

Jean Dabin."5 The renaissanceof natural law at the turn of the twentieth
centurybecame more and more pronounced,and it flourishedin formsdifferentfromNeo-Thomisticphilosophy.There were scholars,such as Leon
Duguit or Georges Scelle, opposed to natural law who, nevertheless,
operated with principlesof natural law. This generalrevivalof natural law was
also closely related to the newer philosophiesof Neo-Kantianismand the
so-called "philosophies of the phenomenologicalmovement." Within the
Neo-Kantian School of Marburg,Stammlerdevelopedhis "naturallaw with
a variable content."Withinthe Vienna School of Hans Kelsen, AlfredVerdross followed,in his philosophyof law, the "philosophia perennis"of St.
Thomas and of Suarez.
The trendtoward natural law was fed frommany sources.Natural law
influencesflowedfromthe Baden Neo-Kantian School. There was a strong
connectionbetween natural law and all typesof "intuitionist"philosophy:
Bergson,phenomenology,theoryof values, existentialism.
Stronginfluences
lead fromBergsonto Neo-Thomism.Maritain is a discipleof Bergson.Husserl'sphenomenologyleads via Brentanoto Neo-Scholasticism.Modem NeoThomists everywhere,and thus in Latin America,are oftenstronglyunder
the influenceof this modern philosophy.There is a "Catholic phenomenology," there is a "Catholic existentialism,"following,of course, not the
lines of Heidegger, but of Jaspers and Gabriel Marcel. Much influence
comes fromMax Schelerand Nikolai Hartmann.
The tendencytoward natural law is a consequence and an expressionof
the great crisisof the Occidental world. Even such unwelcomephilosophies
as the pessimistic,atheisticexistentialism
of Heidegger and the "pessimisme
of
his
French
Paul
Sartre,mustbe admittedto pordisciple,Jean
integral"
this
crisis.
Two
world
the
crueltiescommittedin
unheard-of
wars,
tray
great
thesewars and by totalitarianstates,the whole period in which we are condemned to live, naturallyhave given an enormousimpetusto the revivalof
natural law. In such periods of horror,fear, and despair,men feel that a
complete ethical indifferencecannot suffice.Men long for salvation, for
values on whichtheycan rely.Hence Rommen speaks
eternal,supra-positive
of the eternalreturnof naturallaw. Hence, afterthe war, new Neo-Thomistic systems,as that of Messner,'6or workson otherfoundations,as thoseof
Helmut Coing.17 Hence the late Sir Hersh Lauterpacht, an adherent of
Kelsen, confessedhimselfdrawn to the classic natural law, as far as fundamental human rightsare concerned,under the impact of the atrocitiescommittedagainst the Jews. Hence the repudiationof his formerrelativismof
values by Gustav Radbruch in his philosophyof law of 1950.18Hence newer
15In his Thiorie ginirale du Droit (2nd ed., 1953) Dabin clearly stated that natural
law is not law, but ethics. See JosefL. Kunz, "Jean Dabin et Hans Kelsen," Milanges en
Honneur de Jean Dabin (Brussels, 1963), vol. I, pp. 149-69.
16Das Naturrecht (1950).
17Die obersten Grundsaetze des Rechts (1947); Rechtsphilosophie (1949).
I8Rechtsphilosophie (1950).

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264

THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LAW JOURNAL

adherents
ofnaturallaw in theUnitedStates,likeLon Fuller,Jerome
Hall,
EdmondCahn,19Edgar Bodenheimer,20
whoseworksare ofspecialinterest
in Latin America.21Hence, the new excellentNaturalLaw Forum,22a
Catholicreview,whichendeavoursto bringthewholeproblemof natural
lines.
on wideand objective
law oncemoretoa fulldiscussion
fromthe UnitedStatesand Europehave had their
All theseinfluences
in an
in Latin America.Naturallaw philosophy
is there;naturally,
effects
a
it
is
Catholic
Neo-Thomistic.
There
is
continent,
large
overwhelmingly
in the philosophy
literature
of law in Latin America,alNeo-Thomistic
thoughonlya fewnamescan herebe given.In Mexico,whereratherstrong
tensionsexistedbetweenthestateand theCatholicChurchduringcertain
OswaldoRoblescan be namedas the
phasesof the MexicanRevolution,
ofSt. ThomasAquinas.In Argentina
the
restorer
of
perennis"
"philosophia
we wouldliketo nameAlfredoFrageiro,theauthorofmanydistinguished
workon the
and Manuel Rio,23who, in his recentmonumental
writings,
but also givesa sketch
of humanwill,definesthe Catholicattitude,
liberty
sinceclassicalGreece.
ofall theotherdoctrines
in Brazil.A reaction
There is also a Catholicnaturallaw philosophy
setin withFarias Brito24
who,froman
positivism
againstthe dominating
of
became,undertheinfluence
positivism,
originaladherentof evolutionist
Much
of religiousfaithand mysticism.
the fearof death,a representative
abouthimin recentdays,in Braziland in Spain.The dishas beenwritten
in this
was theleadingthinker
Farias
of
Brito,
Jacksonde Figueireda,
ciple
we
of
law
Catholic
the
in
Brazil.
philosophers
Among
present-day
respect
mentionAlceun de AmorosoLima,25who writesunderthe pseudonym
Trist'o de Althayde.
mentionmust
In the LatinAmericaof theSpanishlanguage,particular
thereis the
of
law.
First
be made of twogreatNeo-Thomistic
philosophers
review
of
the
valuable
the
director
also
Colombian,CayetanoBetancourt,26
ofmodern
oflaw is symptomatic
Ideas y Valores,whosebookon philosophy
It standsstrictly
Neo-Thomism.
by the doctrineof St. Thomas,but also
The authorsees
takesa positivestandwithregardto modernphilosophies.
i19The Sense of Injustice (New York, 1949).
20Jurisprudence(1940).
21See Luis Recasens Siches, "Dos ius naturalistas norteamericanos de nuestros dias:
Cahn y Bodenheimer," in Dianoia: Anuario de Filosofia (Mexico City, 1962), pp. 3-41).
22Edited by the Catholic Law School of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana.
23Perspectivasactuales del dereco natural (Buenos Aires, 1939); La libertad humana:
Anthroposy Anagke (1955).
24Base fisica del espiritu (1912); El mundo interior (1914). On Farias Brito see Teofilo Cavalcanti, "A filosofiajuridica de Farias Brito," Revista Brasileira de Filosofia, III,
no. 2 (1953), pp. 225-41; also the writingsof the Spanish professorat the Universityof
Sevilla, Francisco Elias de Tejada, "Farias Brito na filosofiado Brasil," Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia, VI, no. 1 (1952), and As doutrinas politicas de Farias Brito (Sao
Paulo, 1952). Recent works are Djazir Menezes, Evolucionismo e positivismona critica de
Farias Brito (1962), and Carlos Lopez de Mattis, O pensamento de Farais Brito: sua
evolucao de 1895 a 1914 (1962).
25IntroduGaoao direito moderno (Rio de Janeiro, 1933).
26Ensayo de una filosofiadel derecho (Medellin, 1937); Introduccidn a la ciencia del
derecho (BogotA, 1953).

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LATIN-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

265

in the distinctionbetween concept and intuition,as made by phenomenology,a returnto the ancient doctrineof Scholasticismand is a jubilant
followerof Scheler, who is to him the philosopherof our time richestin
ideas and suggestions.Then of great value also is the workof the Mexican,
Rafael Preciado Hernandez.27 His is a highly interestingbook, strictly
Neo-Thomist and yet verymodem. The author is influencedby Maritain,
School (Renard,
by G6ny, Le Fur, Dabin, and the French Institutionalist
in
and
The
modern
Max
book
its
Scheler.
is
Delos),
repudiationof
by
of
natural
in
its
restriction
of
content
natural
the
"classic"
law, in its
law,
to
of
and
a
between
natural
and
a
dualism
rivalry
positivelaw, in
opposition
of
natural law,
character
so-called
insistence
on
the
ethical
the
its
basically
an
of
law.
and in the author'slongingfor "integral"philosophy

IV
What has characterizedSpanish-Americanphilosophysincethe end of the
FirstWorld War is, first,its reflectionof the crisisin pragmatist,positivistic
influenceof Comte.That
thinkingand thenitsrepudiationof thelong-lasting
is what givesSpanish-Americanphilosophytodayitsunity,what distinguishes
it fromthe Spanish-Americanphilosophythat obtainedup to the end of the
First World War, and what distinguishesit also from the majority of
Brazilian philosophiesof the presentday. This reaction against positivism
followedthe trend of European Continentalthinking.But the differenceis
that it did not followagain French,but ratherGerman and Austrian,thinking. In this respect, Latin America owes much to her mother country,
Spain, where Jose Ortega y Gasset, the "European" Spanish philosopher,
wanted, to quote his own words,to "enrich Spain with the streamof German intellectualtreasures."He foundedin 1922 in Madrid the Revista de
Oriente and inspired Spanish translationsfromthe works of leading Gerwere also forthe
man and Austrianthinkers,translationswhich,therefore,
benefitof Spanish America. The foundationof the Revista de Oriente,
writesthe Mexican philosopher,Leopoldo Zea, "terminatedFrench philosophical influencein Spanish America." Spanish-Americanphilosophyfollowed the European trendof reactingagainstComte's positivismin thesame
two stagesas ContinentalEurope did. The firststagewas the returnto Kant
and, later,the reactionagainstthe logical Neo-Kantianismof the Marburg
School by the Baden Neo-Kantian School, and then,by the newer philosophy of the phenomenological movement: phenomenology,theory of
values, existentialism.
Only the briefestsketch can be given here.28The returnto Kant was
27Lecciones de filosofiadel derecho (Mexico City, 1947).
280n contemporarySpanish-Americanphilosophy,see, among Spanish-Americanliterature: Frondizi,Panorama de la filosofiacontempordnea (Cuaterno Minerva, Buenos Aires,
1944); Francisco Romero, Filosofia contempordnea (2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1944);
Samuel Ramos, Historia de la filosofiaen Mexico; Jose Gaos, Antologia del pensamiento
de lengua espaiiola en la edad contempordnea (Mexico City, 1945).

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266

THE

UNIVERSITY

OF TORONTO

LAW JOURNAL

basic. The great philosopherwho initiated the critique of positivismin

Argentina,and introducedKant into Argentina,was Alejandro Korn, an
Argentinianof German extraction.He has become, in the words of LatinAmerican writers,"the patriarchof the modern philosophicaltraditionin
Argentina."Creativeliberty,the titleof one of his mostimportantbooks,is
at the verycentreof his thought.His directsuccessor,Francisco Romero,is
the outstandingphilosopherof our time in Argentina,a great and original
thinker,and of greatinfluenceall overSpanish America.
While there are importantphilosophersin Uruguay-Carlos Vaz Ferreira,Antonio M. Grompone-and in Peru-Alejandro O. Deustfia-it is
in Mexico that, as in Argentina,we find great philosophers.We mention
Alfonso Reyes, literarycritic,poet, diplomat,philosopher,a typicallyHispanic combination.He belongsto the Mexican philosopherswho, in consequence of the Mexican Revolution, have developed a nationalist and
"americanista" philosophy,which stands for the intellectualequality of
Latin America with Europe. A great "americanista" is also Jos6 Vasconcelos, a great and original thinkerwho proclaims the unity of IberoAmerica,who predictsthat out of the mestizosof Latin America will come
a "cosmic race," who stresses,in oppositionto the Pan-Americanismsponsored by the United States,Bolivar's Ibero-Americanism.
Philosophicallyhe
is the great antagonistof Comte and positivism.He moves, first,toward
Marburg Neo-Kantianism,and then, in oppositionto it, he arrivesat his
and anti-pragmatist
own anti-intellectualist
system,whichhe calls "esthetitic
intuition.The Mexican Neobuilt
emotional
a
monism," philosophy
up by
thinkerof greatestHiscalls
"the
Vasconcelos
Oswaldo
Thomist,
Robles,
not
a
"Europeanizing"thinker.
panic-Americanoriginality,"
Mexico also had Antonio Caso. In his philosophicaldevelopmentwe see
reflectedthe developmentof the whole of recentphilosophy.Educated in
the philosophyof positivism,it was Caso who definitively
destroyedthe rule
to
the
Adherent
in
Mexico.
of Comtist positivism
Marburg Neo-Kantian
a
follower
of intuitionism,
became
a
took
stand
School, he later
against it,
in the form
of
later
intuitionism
the
emotional
firstin the formof
Bergson,
the
He
reached
of
Husserl.
of the intellectualintuitionism
theoryof values
humanism."
Caso is, in
"new
of
the
and the philosophy
and existentialism,
a
not
the words of his disciple,Samuel Ramos,
great philosopher,that is,
not an originatorof new ideas and new philosophicalsystems,but a great
The outstandingmodern
philosopherin the sense of an originalinterpreter.
the
Mexican philosopheris Samuel Ramos,
disciple of Caso and Vasconfound
have
also
celos. These newerphilosophies
entryinto Brazil,wherethe
"new
humanism" is Euyalo
the
most importantphilosopherrepresenting
Cannabrava.
V
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LATIN-AMERICAN

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OF LAW

267

phy of law operates.Alreadyin 1913 Spanish-Americanwriterscould state

that the prestigeof the positivisticphilosophyof Comte was vanishing,that
positivismwas slowly retreatingunder the impact of the philosophyof
Kant. In Germany,the reaction against positivismthroughNeo-Kantianism set in by 1870, but it reached Latin America only at the end of the
FirstWorld War. At that timethe Marburg School of Neo-Kantianismand
the powerfulGerman Neo-Kantian school of philosophyof law dominated
Latin America. Cohen, Natorp, Cassirerwere the leading philosophers.The
Neo-Kantian school of philosophyof law of Marburg29emphasizedthe logical and formal.It held that Kant had giventhe real, the criticalphilosophy
in his Critique of Pure Reason, but that in his ethicsand legal philosophy
he remained within the old-fashionednatural law. Hence his ethics and
legal philosophyhad to be broughtup to the level of his Critique of Pure
Reason. The greatestinfluencethat these thinkersin philosophyof law
exercised in Spanish America was throughRudolf Stammler.The Argentinian, Enrique Martinez Paz, professorof philosophyof law at the Law
School at Cordoba, introducedStammlerinto Argentinaand was himself30
a full adherentof Stammler.It was Stammlerwho in Germanyhad broken
the predominanceof Comte's positivismand who, in turningto philosophy
of law, had accented the logical and formal.His philosophyof law deals
with two great problems: the "pure formsof legal thinking"-the concept
and definitionof law, in a word, analyticaljurisprudence-and the "idea of
law"-the value of justice. But the idea of justice,the problemof the "just
law" universallyconceived, is necessarilyformal. As applied to different
concretesituations,it can produce different
"just laws"; hence,his theoryof
natural law with a variable content.It is in connectionwith the second
problem that Stammlerhas been praised in Europe and Latin America as
the "restorerof philosophyof law"; for as philosophyof law was mostly
identicalwith natural law, it has oftenbeen held that since the positivistic
reactionagainstnaturallaw at the beginningof the nineteenthcenturythere
has been no philosophyof law. That explainswhy Stammlerenjoys such a
greatreputationamong Spanish-AmericanNeo-Thomisticthinkers.
In Italy, as a branch of the German Neo-Kantian philosophyof law, the
scuola neo-criticawas founded by Igino Petrone and had overcome the
influenceof the older scuola positiva. Of the membersof the Italian neocritical school particular influencewas exercised in Spanish America by
Giorgio del Vecchio.3"
But the greatest,and overwhelming,influence exercised in SpanishAmerican contemporaryphilosophyof law is that of Hans Kelsen, the
29The work on the historyof recent German philosophy of law, Larenz, Rechts- und
Staatsphilosophie der Gegenwart (2nd ed., Berlin, 1933), was translated in Madrid into
Spanish in 1942 and much studied in Spain and Spanish America.
30Enrique Martinez Paz, Sistema de filosofiadel derecho (3rd ed., Buenos Aires, 1940).
31Del Vecchio's Lezioni del diritto (5th ed., Rome, 1946) has been translated by Luis
Recasens Siches, "con extensas notas originales" (3rd ed., Mexico City, 1946). Essays of
Del Vecchio or collections of his essays have been translated in Mexico and in Spain, the
latter with excellent introductionby GalIn y Gutierrezand Legaz y Lacambra.

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268

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founderof the "Vienna School," the creatorof the "Pure Theoryof Law."
His worksare translatedin Spain and Spanish America;32numerousbooks
and studieson Kelsen and his Pure Theory of Law are continuouslypublishedin manypartsof Spanish America.33"
VI
Spanish-Americanphilosophyalso followed,as stated,the second turnin
European Continentalthinking,a reactionagainst the Marburg School of
Neo-Kantianism,dominantup to the end of the nineteenthcenturyin Germany. This reactionhad startedin Europe by 1900 with Husserl. Marburg
Neo-Kantianism,which had begun in Germanyby 1870, had reached Latin
America,as we have stated,onlyat the end of the FirstWorld War. But the
second reaction,the so-called newer philosophiesof the phenomenological
movement,reached Latin America more quickly.This is a consequence of
many factors: there were Ortega y Gasset's Revista del Oriente and the
Spanish translationsof these German philosophies;therewas later the circumstancethat, as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War, many important Spanish philosophersand philosophersof law leftSpain and settledin
Spanish America,particularlyin Mexico; and a numberof young Spanish
Americans studied in Europe directlyunder these European philosophers
and philosophersin law, and later introducedthem into theirnative countries.
These philosophiesarose fromthe greatcrisisof the Occidental culture.A
tendencytoward the concrete,toward substantiverichness,toward eternal
values and natural law-in a word, toward metaphysics-began to dominate philosophicalspeculation.This tendencyattacked the merelylogical,
and what was called "formalistic"thinkingof the Marburg Neoscientific,
We have seen that the Mexican philosopherCaso went
School.
Kantian
consecutive
steps,fromMarburg Neo-Kantianismtoward
throughall the
of JoseOrtega
A
similar
the "new humanism."
developmentis characteristic
a
of
the
Neo-Kantian
Marburg School, had
y Gasset, who was originally
studied under Cohen and Natorp, and later developed his own theoryof
cognition,his "perspectivism"or the "philosophyof the pointof view" and,
independentof Heidegger, created his "philosophyof life," his philosophy
"accordingto vital reason."
The reactionagainst Marburg began with Edmund Husserl,the creator
32See particularly H. Kelsen, General Theory of Law and State (Cambridge, Mass,.:
Harvard University Press, 1945); Spanish translation by Eduardo Garcia MAynez,
Teoria general del derecho y del estado (Mexico City, 1951).
33See the recent critical article by Argentinian, Roberto F. Vernago, on Kelsen's
"basic norm": "La funci6n sistematica de la norma fundamental," Revista Juridica de
Buenos Aires, I/II (1960). The influence of Kelsen on many contemporarySpanishAmerican philosophers of law is clear. The review, Estudios de Derecho, Universidad de
Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia, contains in vol. XX, no. 60 (Sept., 1961), six articles
as a Kelsen Festschrift,
"Homenaje a Kelsen."

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LATIN-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

269

of phenomenology.
It is also ofgreatimportance
in contemporary
SpanishAmericanphilosophy
of law. Two of Husserl'sprincipalworkshave been
and many
translated
intoSpanishbySpaniardswholaterlivedin Mexico,34
studieson Husserland phenomenology
have been publishedin Spanish
But whereasMarburgNeo-Kantianism
has producedgreatsysAmerica.35
temsof philosophy
of law, phenomenology
has,up to now,no suchrecord,
have been made to
althoughin Europe and in SpanishAmericaattempts
a
law.
of
philosodevelop phenomenological
philosophy
Spanish-American
Husserl'smeritin therealmoflogic,butthey
phersof law have recognized
oflaw; onlypartsof
have nottakeneverything
ofhisintotheirphilosophy
his philosophy,
such as the doctrineof "essences"as ideal,a prioribeings
whichcan be capturedbyintellectual,
and hisdoctrine
"eidetic,"intuition,
locatethe law
order
to
been
taken
over
in
have
of "regionalontologies,"
the
of
universe.
the
among objects
because the dominating
has also become important,
Phenomenology
and
of
have been developed
the
values
existentialism,
philosophies, theory
forconof
is
characteristic
The greatimportance values
phenomenologically.
on
based
very
temporary
philosophy;thereare manytheoriesof values,
andDewey's"instrudifferent
fromscholasticism
topragmatism
philosophies,
of values"holdsagain an
and his "transvaluation
mentalism."
Nietzsche36
Greatalso was the
eminentplace in contemporary
thinking.
philosophical
of Bergson'sintuitionism
and vitalismin SpanishAmerica;transinfluence
can be seenin
lationsof hisworkshave beenpublishedthere.His influence
of law as Manuel G. Morente,Fransuch philosophers
and philosophers
is
ciscoRomero,AntonioCaso, EduardoNicol,Jos6Gaos; buthisinfluence
Austrian
thinkers.
of
German
and
before
the
receding
impact
a reaction
The influence
of theBaden Schoolof Neo-Kantianism-itself
and
Windelband
not
be
overlooked.
School-must
the
against
Marburg
of the Baden School. Rickerthad
Rickertare the leadingphilosophers
taughtthatthereis a realmofnatureand a realmofvalues,butthatbetween
relatedto values.
themthereis a thirdrealm,the realmof culture-reality,
sciences-and
Hence scienceswhichdeal withnature-the "nomothetic"
scienceswhich deal with the singularand unique--the"idiographic"
notofscience.Culsciences.The studyof valuesis thetaskof philosophy,
turalsciencesstudytherealmof realityrelatedto values.This "philosophy
of
in Germanschoolsof philosophy
of culture"has also foundexpression
are Emil Lask, FritzMunch,Max Ernst
law. Its principalrepresentatives
GustavRadbruch,all of whomhave been transMayer,and, particularly,
latedand studiedin Spainand SpanishAmerica.
34lnvestigaciones 16gicas, translation by Jos6 Gaos and Garcia Morente, and Meditaciones cartesianas, translationby Jose Gaos (Mexico City, 1943).
35E.g. by Francisco Romero; by the late Colombian philosopher of law, Eduardo Nieto
Arteta; by the Spaniard, Xirrau; by Antonio Caso; and by Jos6 Gaos.
36See Garcia Barcena, Estampa espiritual de F. Nietzsche (1944); Molina, Nietzsche
dionisfaco y asceta: su vida y sus ideas (Santiago, 1944); Miguel Reale, Nietzsche y el
valor de la filosofia(1945).

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Anothername of great influencein Spanish America is Dilthey,37whose

workwas continuedby Eduard Spranger.Diltheyis primarilya historianof
the spirit.Whereas Husserlwants to make philosophya rigorousscience,for
Dilthey philosophyis impossibleas a science. Of great influencewas his
dichotomyof explanationand "comprehension"as the methodof the cultural sciences.Such comprehensionis not possibleby pure reason,but only
by "comprehending"intuition.Only such intuitionist
capturingof senseand
can
to
a
lead
Weltanschauung.Dilthey'sconceptsof comprehenmeaning
sion" and "structure"play a greatrole in Spanish-Americanjurisprudence.
While thereare many theoriesof values, perhaps the most influentialis
that developed by Max Scheler and continued by Nikolai Hartmann.
Scheler's theoryof values was developed phenomenologically.But starting
with Husserl, Scheler went his own and very different
path. Originallya
his resultsare
but
Husserl's
Neo-Kantian, he embraced
phenomenology,
very differentfrom Husserl's. The rigorousscience of Husserl became in
Scheler's hands metaphysics,often stronglyCatholic; and this partlyexplains whyNeo-Thomistswere often,to quote the word of Cayetano Betancourt, "jubilant followersof Scheler." Scheler took fromHusserl the "regional ontologies"and the "essences,"to whichhe added values. Values are
for him ideal objects, not created, but only discoveredby men. But they
cannot, contraryto Husserl,be capturedby intellectual,"eidetic," but only
by emotional intuition.Scheler opposed the "formalism"of Kant's ethics
and postulated a "material ethics of values," the subject of a work later
writtenby Nikolai Hartmann. The ideas of thesemen on the objectivityof
values, the necessarypolarity of values, and the hierarchyof objective
values had the greatestinfluencein Europe and Spanish Americaon philosophy and philosophyof law. There is no doubt that this philosophycorresponded to deep longingsin a periodof totalcrisisof Occidental culture.
The development of these newer philosophies,which had started in
Europe by 1900 with Husserl's phenomenology,reached its climax with
The latterhad many forerunners:Ortega y Gasset
modern existentialism.
triesto trace it back to Goethe. Maritain writesthat St. Thomas of Aquinas
philosophers."
was, "to use a fashionableword,one of the 'mostexistentialist'
atheisticexistenOne must not forgetthat thereis not only the pessimistic,
tialism of Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre,but also the existentialismof
Jaspersand Gabriel Marcel. Perhaps the most immediateforerunnerwas
the Dane, Kierkegaard.It is amazing how theworksof Kierkegaard,largely
unknownsince theywere writtena hundredyearsago, have been translated
and studiedeverywhereduringtheselast fewdecades. There is a Portuguese
translationof Kierkegaard.
All greatnew systemsof philosophyhave appeared in timesof crisis,when
a las ciencias
37Diltheyhas been translatedin Mexico by EugenioImaz: Introduccidn
del espiritu(1944); Psicologiay teoriadel movimiento
(1945). See also Roura Parella,
Sprangery las cienciasdel espiritu(MexicoCity,1944).

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LATIN-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

271

old-established
faithsand valueswerebeingattackedand new valueshad
notyetestablished
and
themselves.
That was thecasewhenGreekmythology
the holinessof law were attackedby the Sophists:the new philosophies
ofthepheappearedwithSocratesand Plato.In thissensethephilosophies
movement
are
the
of
crisis
of
Occidenthe
nomenological
philosophies
great
tal culture.The nineteenth
had
a
been
of
in Occicentury
century optimism
dentalculture,
whichwas takento be practically
theonlyculture,
embracing
moreand moreof theworld.Today we see a worldofmanycultures,
and
attacks
culture.
the
of
the
Occidental
Prime
Minister
The
open
against
SovietUnionhas voicedhisprogramme
"to buryus." Andyethistory
shows
thatgreatcultures
haveperished,
in thelastanalysis,
notfromattacksfrom
from
but
weakness
within.
about
Occidentalculture
Doubts
the
outside, by
can alreadybe foundin Pascal. Kierkegaardvoiced themstrongly,
but
in
the
middle
of
the
at
nineteenth
was
that
hisvoice
writing
optimistic
century
timenot heard.Nietzscheforesaw,long ago, withthe eye of genius,the
"transvaluation
of all values." At the timeof the outbreakof the First
WorldWar,thebeginning
oftheupheavalofthepresent-day
world,Oswald
des Abendlandes;hiswork
Spenglerpublishedhis twovolumesUntergang
was translated
intoEnglisheuphemistically
as "The Declineof theWest,"
whereasUntergang
in Germandoes not mean "decline,"but "fall."And
are disSpengler'sideas have takenhold on many,evenwhilehistheories
ofOswaldSpengleralsoin ArnoldToynbee.
puted.Thereis something
Here we come to Martin Heidegger38
and his influencein Spanish
America.Heidegger,
a discipleof Husserl,developedhisexistentialism
pheHe triedto applythephenomenological
methodto human
nomenologically.
existence.He was not interested
in essence,but in existence;forman's
existence
or
even
his
essence.
He wantedto givean "analysisof
is,
precedes,
existence."Existing,
notthinking,
is thebasicconcept.This analysisbegins
withtheeveryday
ofbanality,"dominated
"existence
ofanxiety
bya feeling
But
man
can
and
"concern"
become
an
also
"care,"
(Angst)
(Sorge).
"authenticego" throughresoluteness
in thefaceof death.Heideggerleads
us to an atheistic,
attractedby Death
existentialism,
primarily
pessimistic
and the Nothing.He wrotein an impossible
un-German
German,greatly
admiredbyhisadherents.
His principal
workwasSeinundZeit ("Beingand
of
in SpanishAmericais the philosophy
Time"). Also of greatinfluence
Gasset
kind
of
and hisparticular
existentialism.
JoseOrtegay
38His influencecan be seen in Romero,Canabrava,Nicol, Zubiri,Gaos, and others.
The Spaniard,Zubiri,the Argentinian,
Astrada,the Peruvian,Wagnerde Reyna,were
disciplesof Heideggerin Europe. Carlos Cossio's "egologicaltheoryof law" is also
indebtedto Heidegger,particularly
to his conceptof "temporality."
Gaos has achievedthe
the impossibleGermanof Sein und Zeit intoa faithnearlyincredibletaskof translating
ful, nearlyequally bad Spanish (El ser y el tiempo,Mexico City,1961). See also the
in the
critiqueof Heidegger'sideas in JulioEnriqueBlanco's"Mitografia
heideggeriana"
reviewEstudiosde Derecho,Universidadde Antioquia,Medellin,Colombia,nos. 146, 151
(Oct.-Dec. 1962), pp. 580-616, 771-812 (a thirdpartis to follow).

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272

THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LAW JOURNAL

VII
We have now the philosophicalelementson hand which explain not only
contemporarySpanish-Americanphilosophyof law in general,but also the
particularplace of Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law in thisphilosophyof law.
As stated earlier,Kelsen's influenceis, by far, the strongest.It would be
easy for this writerto give hundredsof quotationsto show that this is so.
Often the convictionis voiced that Kelsen is the juristof the twentiethcentury.The Latins thinkthat the Pure Theoryof Law is a productof intrinsic
greatnesswhich will remainincorporatedin the thinkingof jurists;that,to
quote one phrase, all philosophyof law in the futurewill have to be a
dialogue with Kelsen. But the strongpositionwhich the newerphilosophies
of the phenomenologicalmovement,as a reactionespeciallyagainst Marburg Neo-Kantianism,hold in contemporarySpanish-Americanphilosophy
of law has not been withoutimpacton Kelsen's Pure Theoryof Law.
The work of the Cuban, Antonio S. de Bustamantey Montoro,39is, in
general, no more than a very clear restatementof Kelsen's principal doctrinesin Spanish. In his prefacethe author accepts Kelsen's doctrines,but
voices a longingto transcendKelsen's relativism.Can we of thisgeneration,
the Cuban author asks, accept Kelsen's dictumthat law can have any contentwhatever?Can we be satisfiedto regardlaw as a mere form,a social
of law in its nakedness,Kelsen protechnique?Exactlyby his demonstration
vokes in us a "new thirstforjustice." These remarksare, in a way, symptomatic of the attitudeof many Spanish-Americanphilosophersof law toward
a docthe Pure Theory of Law. That theoryis for them a starting-point,
that
think
but
it
also
a
is
trineof whichmuch may be accepted,
target.They
the
and
substratum
that
the
Kelsen's theoryis not sufficient,
sociological
that
evaluationof the law mustbe included; and, accordingly,
philosophical
relativismmustbe overcome.In varyingformsand degreestheytryto retain
Kelsen's theoryof law, but to go beyondhim in philosophy.As Carlos Cossio
in his earlierwritingsstated: "To go beyond Kelsen withoutabandoning
him." They have tried,again in varyingformsand degrees,to combineKelsen's theorywith phenomenology,with the theoryof values, or with existentialism.
When this writer,twentyyears ago, startedhis pioneeringinvestigations
into the terra incognita of Latin-Americanphilosophyand philosophyof
law, the questioncould be asked: Is therea Latin-Americanphilosophyand
philosophyof law, in the sense of expressingat the same time originaland
typicallyLatin-Americanthought?And he could quote negativeanswersby
Latin-Americanwriterswho had asked that question themselves.But the
in 1963, as the Mexican philosopher,Leopoldo Zea, who
situationis different
asks the same question today,statesin his stillmodest answer. Firstof all,
interestin philosophyand in philosophyof law has increasedtremendously
39Teoria general del derecho (2nd ed., Havana, 1940).

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LATIN-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

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and thisincreasedinterestis in itself,as Leopoldo Zea correctlysays,a sign

ofapproaching
Institutes
ofphilosophy
oflaw havebeenfounded,
maturity.
coursesin philosophy
of law and introduction
to law are widelygivenin
Latin-American
law schools.Manylaw reviewspublishstudiesin thisfield;
of law, even yearbooks,
have appeared.
particularreviewsforphilosophy
Not onlythenumberofstudents,
butalso thenumberofmenwho dedicate
theirlifeto teaching,
and researchin philosophy
oflaw,have
investigation,
Thereis an enormousamountof workdonein transgrownsubstantially.
and philosophies
of law of the world.
latingall importantphilosophies
of law has notonlyreacheda veryhighdeSpanish-American
philosophy
of all the philosophies
of law,includinga muchgreater
greeof knowledge
with the thinkingof the English-speaking
counacquaintance than formerly
tries,but has also made many importantstudieson thesephilosophies,given
valuable critiques, made new interpretations,contributed many new

Greatthinkers
have appeared;originaland brilliant
bookshave
thoughts.
been written.
And thisdevelopment
has by no meansbeen restricted
to a
but
can
be
in
seen
all
the
few,particularly
countries,
important
SpanishAmericanrepublics.

In Cuba, priorto thecomingofthepresent

Marxist-Leninist
dictatorship,
of
law
a
had
philosophy
gained particularly
prominent
positionin thelast
few decades.Stammlerhad greatinfluence,
but morerecently
Cuba has
been strongly
undertheinfluence
of Kelsen.Pablo Desvernines
y Galdos,40
who played an importantpart in Neo-Kantian thinkingin Latin America,

is influenced
on
by Stammler.CarlosAzcaratey Rosellwroteinterestingly
thedifferent
in Europefromposischoolsand theirprincipalrepresentatives
tivismto themodemtheory
ofvalues.4' AtaulfoFernandezLlano wroteon
Kelsen's normativetheory.42
There was the alreadynamed AntonioS.
ofthephilosophy
Bustamante
But
oflaw in
y Montoro.43 therealrenovator
is
Cuba EmilioFernandezCamus,fundamentally
inspiredby the ideas of
Kelsen.44

In Guatemalait was EnriqueMufiozMeany45

whohas themeritofhavof law in CentralAmerica.He showsthe
ing inspiredstudiesofphilosophy
influence
of Kant,of Scheler,Hartmann,and Ortegay Gasset.JoseRoelz
on thelinesofphenomenology,
moves
ofvalues,and of
thetheory
Bennet46
but contributes
existentialism,
interesting
personalpointsof view.In Peru
witha youngerPeruvianscholar,Julio
JuanBautistade Lavalle,together
40Estudiosfundamentalesdel derecho (1928).
41De Bergson al neotomismo (1933); Estudios de la filosofiadel derecho (Havana,
1943).
42La doctrina normativade Kelsen (Havana, 1937).
43See his La fenomenologia: de Husserl a Heidegger (1933), and Introduccidn a la
ciencia del derecho: vol. I, Nociones preliminares (2nd ed., 1942); vol. II, Tecnica
juridica (2nd ed., 1945); vol. III, Sociologia jur'dica (2nd ed., 1945).
44Filosofia juridica contempordnea (Preface by Hans Kelsen; Havana, 1932); Lecciones de filosofiadel derecho (Preface by Luis Recas'ns Siches; 2 vols., Havana, 1945).
45Libertad metafisicay libertad juridica (1943); La definicidndel derecho (1944).
46El problema de la seguridad en la estimativajuridica (1941).

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THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LAW JOURNAL

theworkof the Swissscholar,Du PasAyastay Gonzalez,has translated

In
of law is Rafael
Venezuela
the
leadingfigurein philosophy
quier.47
contribution
has beenmade by the
Pizani.48 In Ecuadora veryimportant
"Introduction
to Philosophyof Law" of JorgeVillagomezYepes.49In
Vicente
has been
contribution
Teran;sobut the mostimportant
Bolivia,
made thereby the workof Rafael Garcia Rosquellas."1He is a strong
adherent
ofKelsen.
of
In Colombiatheoutstanding
legalphilosophy
figurein contemporary
was
was thelate EduardoNietoArteta.52
moderntendencies
His thinking
ofCarlosCossio
basicallyinspiredby Kelsenand Husserl,buttheinfluence
is also clear.Like Cossio,he wishedto overcomeKelsen,withoutleaving
and the
was directed
towardtheunionofphenomenology
him.His thought
Pure Theory,a task alreadyattemptedwithinthe "Vienna School" by
Kaufmannand FritzSchreier.BasicallyNietoArtetaacceptsKelsen'sPure
ofa
Cossio,as thediscovery
it,following
Theoryof Law. But he interprets
is
for
Cossio
Pure
That
the
is
of
juriTheory
merely
why
logic "oughtness."
in a
dicallogic,notscienceoflaw. Kelsenhimself
rejectedthisinterpretation
latter
the
on
which
at
San
Arteta
with
Nieto
conversation
Francisco,
long
of law is givenin an extensive
made an extensive
report.His philosophy
endedhislife
seriesof studiesand articles.But thisscholar,who tragically
which
of
the
solution
reached
never
a
occupiedhim,
problems
by suicide,
in Colombia
also
We
have
to
mention
neverachieveda philosophical
system.
Mantilla
B.
and AbelNaranjoVillegas.54
RafaelCarrillo53
Recently
PinedaB"
as he
of law. Undertheinfluence,
on philosophy
has publisheda textbook
RadGustav
Du
Claude
Recas'ns
of
Luis
himself
Siches,
states,
Pasquier,
an
he
and
Carlos
Cossio, represents "integral"theory
bruch,MiguelReale,
and value.
towhichlaw is dialectically
oflaw,according
norm,conduct,
and
a
of
law
of
The leadingphilosopher
veryoriginalone,is
Uruguay,
of
a
follower
Husserl,buttakesfromhim
JuanLlambiasde Azevedo."He is
His principal
onlythe conceptsof "essences"and of "regionalontologies."
in the
workis "Eideticsand Aporeticsof the Law." He is not interested
butonlyin thephilosophy
form,butin theessenceoflaw,notin thetheory,
47Introduccidn a la teoria general y a la filosofiajuridica (Lima, 1944). The preface
by Lavalle is highly interestingand the often extended notes by both translatorsare very
valuable.
48Principiosgenerales del derecho (1941).
49lntroduccio'na la filosofiadel derecho (Quito, 1946).
50Temas para una introduccidna la ciencia del derecho (1944).
51Bases para una teoria integral del derecho (1943); Curso abreviado de filosofiadel
derecho (1951).
52His work consistsfor the greatestpart of articlespublished in Argentinian,Colombian,
and Mexican reviews.
53Ambienteaxiologico de la teoria pura del derecho (Bogota, 1947).
54Filosofiadel derecho (Bogota, 1947).
55Filosofiadel derecho (Medellin, Colombia, 1961).
del derecho (Buenos
56Eiditica y aporetica del derecho: prolegdmena a la filosofia
Aires, 1940; English translationby Gordon Ireland in Latin-American Legal Philosophy,
pp. 401-58); El pensamiento del derecho y del estado en la antiguidad desde Homeros
hasta Plat6n (Buenos Aires, 1956).

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LATIN-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

275

of law-in theontologicaland axiologicalproblemsof law. WithHusserl,

of theessences,
Llambiasassumestheexistence
bythephenoapprehended
of
method
intuition.
which
The
deals
with
theseessences
science
menological
is theEidetica.The essenceoflaw Llambiasdescribes
in theseterms:"The
law is a bilateraland retributive
ofdispositions,
madebyman
positive
system
fortheregulation
of thesocialconductof a groupofmen,and as a means
of realizingthe community
values." Law is a phenomenon
of mediation
betweenvalues and human conduct.From the problemof essenceand
existence(validity)of law theauthoradvancesto theontological
problem,
theplace of law in thegeneralsphereof objects,and comesto theconclusionthatlaw is a spiritual
object.Havingintuitively
capturedtheessenceof
law in the"Eidetica,"Llambiasarrivesat the"Aporetica,"
thepurescience
of theproblemsraisedby thephenomenon
oflaw. A recentworkofLlambiasis a bigvolumeon Greekphilosophy
fromHomerto Plato.
VIII
The twoleadingSpanish-American
as faras philosophy
oflaw
countries,
is concerned,
and Mexico.Afterthelongruleof
are, no doubt,Argentina
Comte'spositivism,
Neo-Kantianism
held a strongpositionin Argentina.
of Stammler
The influence
was particularly
strong.SegundoLinaresQuinwrote
on
of
Stammler's
of law. The man who
tana57
problems
philosophy
introducedStammlerintoArgentinaand was also in his own worka full
adherentof Stammler,
thedistinguished
was,as we havementioned
before,
of
Martinez
Alberto
Paz.
philosopher law,Enrique
J.Rodriguez58
playedan
in
known
role
Neo-Kantian
of
the
important
making
philosophy law, parin SouthAmerica.AnibalSanchezRoulet59wroteon
ticularlyStammler,
fourbookson "Introduction
Lask. At theend of thethirties
to Law" were
in
Martin
Ruiz
Moreno"o
of
Law
T.
the
Schoolof
published Argentina.
BuenosAiresis a highlydistinguished
of
who
a
written
has
philosopher law,
numberof valuableworks.EnriqueR. Aftali6nhas written,
with
together
FernandoGarcia Olano,61 an excellentand much-read"Introduction
to
Law." A critiqueis madeof Comte'spositivism,
whichhad ruledArgentina
forso long.The authorsnotetheabsolutepredominance
ofKant and NeoKantianism,as well as the tendencyto returnto naturallaw (Stammler,
Del Vecchio,RecasensSiches).
of law in
the manyinteresting
figuresin philosophy
Notwithstanding
and earlyfifties
theoutstanding
namein theforties
was thatof
Argentina,
57La prdctica del derecho en la filosofiastammleriana.
58See, among his many writings,La filosofiadel derecho de Kant (1924); De Kant a
Stammler (1925); Stammler (1926); La filosofiadel derecho de Stammler.
59Emil Lask y el problema de las categoriasfilosdficas(1942).
60El pensamiento filosdficojuridico de los griegos (Buenos Aires, 1939) ; Filosofia del
derecho-teoria general e historiade las doctrinas (1944); Vocabulario filos6fico(Buenos
Aires; now in 3rd ed., 1962).
61Introducci6nal derecho (4th ed., Buenos Aires, 1939).

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276

OFTORONTO
THE UNIVERSITY
LAWJOURNAL

CarlosCossio.02
He introduced
KelsenintoArgentina
and becamethehead
of theArgentinian
"KelsenSchool."Stimulated
revoluthe
Argentinian
by
tionof 1930,he beganhisworkwiththeinvestigation
of thepureconcept
and therelevant
ofrevolution
function
ofKelsen'shypothetical
basicnorm.
later
in
his
he
actual
becauseof
was
Also,
writings,
by
inspired
happenings,
oflaw mustbe closetothepracticeoflaw. He
hisconviction
thatphilosophy
oflaw
dealtwithproblems
of"lacunae"in thelegalorder,theinterpretation
of
creative
charthe
the
hermetic
the
the
courts,
by
legalorder,
completeness
acterof judicial decisions,all themesof Kelsen.He hailedKelsenas the
greatest
juristof theepoch,a scholarofgenius,whosePureTheoryofLaw
butrepresents
oflegalsciencewhich
not
a revolution
is
justanothertheory,
we
eternalvalue.Butalreadyin hisseriesofmonographs
has an irrevocable,
frombutin contradiccan see pointswherehis theory
is notonlydifferent
tionto Kelsen.It wasin 1944,in hisbook"The EgologicalTheoryofLaw,"
of
discussion
ofhisphilosophy
timea systematic
thatCossiogaveforthefirst
whichfollowedsoonafter.Cossio'sphilosolaw, developedin laterwritings
oflaw,toshapean "Argentocreatean originalphilosophy
phyis an attempt
to hisownwords,it is basedon three
of law. According
tinian"philosophy
and HeidegKelsen'sPureTheory,Husserl'sphenomenology,
philosophies:
Husserl
takes
the
From
he
existentialism.
methods,
phenomenological
ger's
FromHeideggerhe takes
thetheory
of objects,and theregionalontologies.
and the distinction
the "existing,"the Da-sein,the "being-in-the-world,"
of
time.But also thephilosophy
and "existential"
between"chronological"
culthat
and
'structure"
of
"comprehension,"
Dilthey,Dilthey'sconcepts
is basicfortheegological
turalsciencesmustnotexplain,butcomprehend,
theoryoflaw.

LikeLlambiasand RecasensSiches,Cossiostartswiththeproblemofthe
essenceoflaw and itsplace amongtheobjectsoftheworld.Law is forhim
ofculturalobjectsis,
a culturalobject.The adequatemethodofknowledge
But amongtheculof
method
the
had
as Dilthey
comprehension.
taught,
of
the
the
turalobjectshe distinguishes "objects
world,"theproductofthe
that
ofman,and the"egological"objects, is,humanactionin which
activity
Law is an egologicalobject,hence
humanconduct,as such,is articulated.
is human
the name of his theory.Law, on the basis of phenomenology,
fromDel
a formulation,
actionin itsintersubjective
stemming
relationship,
Hence theobjectofthe
of Cossio'stheory.
Vecchio.This is thecornerstone
scienceof law is humanconduct,notnorms.But as all scienceis cognition
The logicmustbe
in law, bylegalconcepts,
logicis necessary.
by concepts,
adequateto itsobject.The onlyadequatelogicis thelogicof "oughtness"
discoveredand developedbyKelsen. Kelsen'sPure
whichhas been definitively
Theoryof Law is not scienceof law but only"juridical logic." The object of

62El concepto puro de revolucidn (Buenos Aires, 1936); La plenitud del ordanamiento
juridico (1939; 2nd ed., 1945); La teoria egoldgica del derecho (Buenos Aires, 1944);
El derecho en el derecho judicial (1945); Panorama de la teoria egol6gica del derecho
(1949); Teoria de la verdad juridica (1954) ; Los valores juridicos (1956).

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277

the scienceof law is humanconduct.Legal normsare merelyintellectual

of humanconduct.We can, therefore,
representations
approachlaw without anyreference
to norms.Thisis thesecondpillaroftheegologicaltheory
oflaw.
On thisbasisCossiofoundedhisown"CossioSchool."A greatnumberof
his youngdisciples,readyto swearon theirmaster'swords,have triedto
enhanceCossio'sprestige.
Cossiois undoubtedly
a highlygiftedpersonality,
a manfanatically
devotedtophilosophy
oflaw,and an indefatigable
debater.
But he is also a man ofgreatvanityforhimself
It is his
and forArgentina.
a theoryof law,sufficiently
different
fromthatof
prideto have established
Kelsen to be spokenof as "original,"and as an original"Argentinian"
The egologicaltheory
hasbeenstudiedin LatinAmerica.It hasinflutheory.
encedmaturescholarsin Argentina,
in
suchas Aftali6n;ithas wonconverts
Portugal,suchas Brandao.But therehas been a greatdeal of propaganda
aroundthe "Cossio School,"and Cossioresorted
to lessthanfairmethods
whenKelsenacceptedhisinvitation
to cometo BuenosAiresin 1948 fora
lecturein French.Alreadysometimebefore,a strongopposition
to Cossio
had developedin Argentina.
Studiesand critiquesof Cossio'stheoryhave
beenpublishedin Argentina
by
byRicardoSmith,byRobertGoldschmidt,
his own disciple,a man of greattalent,JulioCuetoRua,63 and by others.
The excellentphilosopher
of law, AmbrosioL. Gioja,64originally
a direct
collaborator
ofCossio,butalsocloseto Kelsen,has abandonedtheegological
theory.An excellentand penetrating
critiqueof the theorywas made in
oflaw,RafaelPizani.65
The egological
1951 bytheVenezuelanphilosopher
most
has
been
philosooutstanding
Spanish-American
theory
rejectedby
phersof law, suchas RecasensSiches,EduardoGarcia Maynez,Llambias
de Azevedo,MiguelReale.
at BuenosAiresin 1948,
When Kelsen arrived,at Cossio'sinvitation,
him
a principle,
and in hisarroCossio,in his polemicalway,whichis for
gant,overbearing
language,putbeforeKelsenthedilemma,eitherto admit
of the egologicaltheoryor to refuteit "annihilatingly."
the superiority
and showedin an articlewithhisusual
Kelsenchosethesecondalternative
hisdeadlyironyand penetrating
in polemicalwriting,
poweroflogimastery
on which
ofCossio'stwoprincipal
thewholeuntenability
cal analysis,
theses,
is based.Withoutthesetwothesesthe
Cossio'sclaimto originality
primarily
no morethan a
egologicaltheoryof law would be, as he stateshimself,
rehashof the Pure Theoryof Law. These two thesesare, of course,the
thesisthatKelsen'stheoryis notscienceof law, but merelyjuridicallogic,
ofthelatter
and thatlaw is conduct.Kelsenshowstheabsoluteuntenability
thesis.He showsthat Cossio confusesthe factthatlaw regulateshuman
63Julio Cueta Rua, "Estudio critico sobre el libro 'La teoria egol6gica del derecho' de
Carlos Cossio," 3 Revista del Colegio de Abogados de Buenos Aires (1944).
64Kant y el derecho (Buenos Aires, 1945) ; La arquitectonica del conocimientojuridico
(1945).
65Reparos a la teoria egol6gica (1951).

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THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LAW JOURNAL

conductwiththeobjectofthescienceoflaw,namely,
legalnormsbywhich
oflaw
thelaw regulates
humanconduct.The storyoftheegologicaltheory
it has beenquietaround
is a rathersad story.Sincethemiddleofthefifties
theCossioSchool.

IX
of law holdsa particularly
In Mexico philosophy
highplace and has
was overof Comte'spositivism
achievedgreatresults.The longinfluence
The latterplaysnaturallya greatrole. Neocome by Neo-Kantianism.
intoMexicoby Francisco
Kantianismof theBaden Schoolwas introduced
into
also
translated
Windelband's
who
"Historyof Philosophy"
Larroyo,
Guillermo
in
his
field
Whereas
is
primarily generalphilosophy,
Spanish.
of law and is the
interested
in philosophy
HectorRodriguezis primarily
oftheMarburgSchoolofNeo-Kantianmostfanaticand orthodox
adherent
ism. He has translated
the principalworksof Cohen and someworksof
ofthe"Philosophical
He
mostofthecontent
himself
writes
Journal
Natorp.
of the Neo-Kantiansof Mexico." In his own workshe followsmainly
where
Stammlerand Kelsen." Mexico is, at the same time,the country
German
both
of
the
between
Neo-Kantianism
thereexistsa deep split
ofthephenomenologischools,on theone hand,and thenewerphilosophies
of Larroyo
on the otherhand,as manypolemicalwritings
cal movement,
of law,
and Rodriguezshow.Thereis a richline of Mexicanphilosophers
as we have
That is partlytheresult,
and newnamesare alwaysappearing.6'
and
remarked
earlier,of the relatively
manyeminentSpanishphilosophers
oftheSpanish
oflaw who settledin Mexicoas a consequence
philosophers
who has
mentionJuanJos6Bremer,68
Civil War. We would particularly
and whoseprinciofStammler's
written
an excellent
philosophy,
exposition
oflaw in an effort
thelogicaland theaxiologicaltheories
pal workconsiders
is thebookby
oflaw." Interesting
to overcomethembyan "integral
theory
GenaroSalinasQuiroga69on thenewroutesoflaw, givinga surveyofthe
ofjurisand ofthesystems
movement
ofthephenomenological
philosophies
A great
Siches.
Recas6ns
and
Del
of
Kelsen,
Stammler,
Vecchio,
prudence
In
Rafael
oflaw has beenwritten
workin philosophy
Rojina
by
Villegas.70
66Fundamentosde la jurisprudencia como ciencia exacta (1937) ; Etica y jurisprudencia
(Mexico City, 1947).
Manuel Terin Mata; La idea de la justicia y el principio de la seguridad
67See Juan
juridica (1941), and Juricidady antejuricidad (1942) ; Luis de Garay, Que es el derecho?
(1935), and Hans Kelsen y la teoria pura del derecho (1938); Rail Rangel Frias,
Identitad entre estado y derecho en la teoria juridica de Kelsen (1938); Gabriel Garcia
Rojas, Sobre la indefinicion del derecho (1938); Trinidad Garcia, Apuntes de introduccion al derecho (2nd ed., 1941); Yolanda Higareda Loyden, Filosofia del derecho: la
teoria pura del derecho y el derecho positivo (1954).
68Teoria o1gica, teoria axiol6gica, y teoria integral del derecho (1933).
69Las nuevas rutas del derecho (1942); Sociedad y derecho: filosofia del derecho
(1959).
70lntroduccidny teoria fundamental del derecho y del estado (2 vols., 1944); Teoria
juridica de la conducta (Mexico City, 1947) ; Introducci6n al estudio del derecho (1949).

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his "Introduction
and FundamentalTheoryof Law and State,"in two
a
he
volumes, gives surveyofall systems,
includinga surveyand critiqueof
the sociologicaljurisprudence
of BenjaminCardozo,Roscoe Pound, and
Timasheff.
He is primarily
influenced
by Kelsenand RecasensSiches,but
is an independent
thinker
whohas hisownideasand makeshisowncontributions.
Eduardo Garcia Maynez,71a Mexicanof cosmopolitan
outlookand an
Antonio
accomplishedlinguist,studiedin Mexico underthe philosopher
of
studiesunderAlfredVerdrossat the University
Caso, did postgraduate
Vienna,and studiedin GermanyunderSchelerand Hartmann.Returning
as a youngmanfromhisstudiesin Europe,he dedicatedhimself
to philosoWe see,
phyof law and has entereduponan academiclifeofachievement.
the influenceof Kelsen,of Verdross'leaningtowardCatholic
therefore,
naturallaw, of phenomenology,
and of thetheoryof valuesof Scheler.In
hisearlywritings
he accepted,to a certainextent,
ofKelsen.
thepuretheory
But theformalfoundation
oflaw in Kelsen's"basicnorm"doesnotsuffice;
therealproblemis thatofthe"ultimate"foundation
oflaw and he feelsthat
thisproblemcan onlybe solvedthroughScheler'stheoryof values.In his
laterdevelopment,
whileretaining
hisadherenceto Schelerand Hartmann,
he has becomemoreand moreinterested
in logicaland axiomaticproblems
oflaw and has alsobecomemuchcloserto Kelsen,whose"GeneralTheoryof
Law and State"he has so magnificently
translated
intoSpanish.By giving
an exposeof juridicalaxioms,suchas, thata legalnormcannotorderand
at thesametime,he insists
thatthelaw hasalso an ensemble
ofuniprohibit
versalprinciples,
whichdo nothave theiroriginin statutes,
law,
customary
or thedecisions
ofthecourts,
butare axiomsa priori,or,to speakwithLeibof law,
niz, are "des v6ritesde la raison."In his book on the definition
withthereproachofKant thatjuristshavenotyetreacheda definistarting
tionof the objectof theirscience,he believesthatthisfailurecan be exjuristshave had in mindthreedifferent
plainedby the factthatdifferent
to apply
law. He attempts
objects: valid law, naturallaw, and efficacious
the "perspectivism"
of Ortega y Gasset.But as thiswriterhas critically
shown,thisis not an applicationof Ortega'sperspectivism.
Accordingto
Ortega,if threepersonslook fromdifferent
pointsat the same landscape,
whathe seesfromhispoint,all threemaybe right.
and everybody
describes
But in Garcia Maynezthethreepersonslookat threedifferent
landscapes.
norcan it lead to an integraltheoryof
This is not Ortega'sperspectivism,
law.
ofphilosohisgreatknowledge
work,through
Throughhisindefatigable
his
of
his
and
the
through eminent
phy
philosophies law, through teaching,
and all over
in
has
influence
Mexico
Garcia
exercised
Maynez
writings,
71Ensayos filos6fico-juridicos,1934-1959 (Mexico City, 1959); Introducci6n al estudio
del derecho (1st ed., 1940; 7th ed., 1957) ; La definicidndel derecho: ensayo de perspectivismojuridico (1948); Los principios de la ontologia formal del derecho y su expresidn
simbdlica (1953) ; Lo'gica del juicio juridico (1955).

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THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LAW JOURNAL

LatinAmerica.His Introduccio'n
al estudiodel derecho,nowin itsseventh
has
been
as
a
textbook
edition,
adopted
byall thelaw schoolsofMexico,by
mostlaw schoolsof CentralAmericaand bythelaw schoolof San Marcos
at Lima, Peru.But he has also in manyotherrespects
doneverymuchfor
in Mexicoand LatinAmerica.He is
oflaw and itsdevelopment
philosophy
and fosters
whichare donewith
himself
an excellent
translator
translations,
and effectand beautifully
greatefficiency
printedin Mexico.He has been
and is theDirectoroftheCentrode EstudiosFilos6ficos
oftheNationalUniat
in the wonderful
Ciudad Universitaria
versityof Mexico, established
and DirectoroftheBulletinofthiscentre
MexicoCity.He was thefounder
and
of philosophical
studies.For manyyearshe directedthe outstanding
of
Director
and
And
is
founder
Letras.
he
the
review,
important
Filosofiay
whichcarriesthe PlatonicnameDianoia, first
the yearbookof philosophy
and
publishedin 1955 and now in 1962 in itsseventhvolume,a beautiful
America.
of
Latin
in
the
whole
achievement
excellent
a
publication, unique
LuisRecasensSiches72
was bornin GuatemalaofSpanishparentsand was
of Madridhe studied
takenin earlychildhoodto Spain. At theUniversity
workwithGiorgiodel
underJoseOrtegay Gassetand did postgraduate
and
in Germany,
ofRome,withRudolfStammler
Vecchioat theUniversity
ofVienna.After1932 he was a profeswithHans Kelsenat theUniversity
at Madrid,but leftSpain because of the
sor at the CentralUniversity
at theLaw
in
Civil
settled
War,
Mexico,and becamea professor
Spanish
numberof
a
lived
for
Later
Mexico.
he
of
the
of
National
School
University
Human
in
the
a
officer
he
scientific
was
where
yearsin New York City
and
Nations
United
of
the
taughtat New
RightsSectionof theSecretariat
in
his
returned
to
Law School; he later
York University
professorship
Mexico.
and
studentof philosophy
A Spaniardof universaloutlook,a profound
an excellent
of law, a man of highesttalent,a greatlinguist,
philosophies
a man of a wealthof
and enthusiastic
an indefatigable
worker,
translator,
ideas,he has donegreatand admirablework.Even in hisearlywork,pubof
lishedin Spain,he showeda trendtowardan encyclopaedic
knowledge
the
work
came
with
rich
this
of
climax
of
A
first
law.
publication
philosophy
ofthreeprinand Law." It consists
ofhisgreatbook,"HumanLife,Society,
In the
and
of
jurisprudence.
axiological
law,
analytical,
cipalparts:ontology
firstparthe examinesthe place of law amongthe generalobjectsof the
to therealmofnaturenorto thatofpurevalues.
world.Law belongsneither
a formofobjecLaw is partofhumanculture.Law is a specific
significance,
72La filosofiadel derecho de Francisco Suarez (1st ed., Madrid, 1927; 2nd ed., Mexico
City, 1947) ; Direcciones contempordneasdel pensamientojuridico: la filosofiadel derecho
en el siglo XX (Barcelona, 1928); Los temas de filosofiadel derecho en perspectiva
histdrica y visidn del futuro (Barcelona, 1934); Estudios de filosofiadel derecho (Barcelona, 1936; 3rd ed., Mexico City, 1946); Vida humana, sociedad y derecho (1st ed.,
Mexico City, 1940; 3rd ed., 1945; English translation in Latin-American Legal Philosophy, pp. 1-341) ; Nueva filosofiade la interpretacidndel derecho (Mexico City, 1956);
Tratado general de filosofiadel derecho (Mexico City, 1959).

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281

tivatedhuman life; contraryto Carlos Cossio, law is a complex of normsof

a special type. In his analyticalphilosophyof law or theoryof law he is a
critical followerof Kelsen. In his legal axiology he tries-and this is an
original contribution-to found Scheler's objective theoryof values in the
philosophyof life of his teacherOrtega y Gasset. Here we are at the problem of the justificationof law. Recasens recognizeswith Kelsen that this
problemtranscendsthe theoryof law, but it is, accordingto him, unavoidable. For law is necessarilyrelated to values. Spanish individualismis the
the "person" in law, participatingin an
author's heritage.He distinguishes
inferiorrank of values in which all individualsare equal, generalized,schematized, typified,from the "real, authenticego," the unique individual,
participatingin a realm of singleand individualvalues, superiorin rank to
law and state. But as a true democrat and a Catholic who puts human
dignityhighest,he insiststhat the securityguaranteedby the legal orderis
the conditiosine qua non forthe fulfilment
of one's real and unique life.
In 1956 Recasens publisheda verydifferent
work: "New Philosophyof
the Interpretationof Law." It shows the influenceof a closeracquaintance
with the common law, American sociological jurisprudence,and "legal
realism," gained duringhis years in New York City. This book takes as a
the distinctionbetweenthe "academic" and "non-academic"
starting-point
of
philosophies law. An example of the firstis Kelsen's Pure Theoryof Law,
the otherstemsfromattorneys-at-law
or judges. The two schools are often
hostileto each other.Recasens holds that both approaches are perfectly
justified.But he also shows that both are oftenin agreementon problemsof
capital importance,such as, forinstance,the necessarilycreativefunctionof
the judge.
In 1959 Recasens publishedhis monumental"General Treatiseof Philosophy of Law"; and now his equally monumentalwork,"Panorama of Juridical Thought in the TwentiethCentury"is in the press.Recasens Siches has
exercisedwide-reachinginfluence.We have no doubt that he is one of the
foremost,if not the foremostphilosopherof law in the whole world of Hispanic culture.

X
In the last twentyyears a new centre of philosophyof law has been
formedin Brazil-a centreon modernlines, not followingthe sociological
jurisprudenceprevailingin contemporaryBrazilian philosophyof law. This
centreis situatedat Sao Paulo and itsinspiratoras well as itsleading philosopher of law is Miguel Reale. He is the successorof the sociologicalphilosopher of law, Pedro Lessa, in the chair of jurisprudenceat the Law School of
Sao Paulo, traditionally
the "Harvard Law School of Brazil." Miguel Reale73
730 estado moderno (Rio de Janeiro, 1934); Fundamentos do direito (Sio Paulo,
1940); Teoria do direito e do estado (1940); Filosofia do direito (2 vols., 3rd. ed., Sio
Paulo, 1962).

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282

THE

UNIVERSITY

OF TORONTO

LAW JOURNAL

has donemuchforthegrowth
ofphilosophy
oflaw in thestateofSao Paulo
which
and in Brazil; he has foundedtheBrazilianInstitute
of Philosophy
under
assisted
Renato
Cirell
"Brazilian
his
the
direction,
edits,
Czerna,
by
Reviewof Philosophy,""7
a highlyinteresting
witha richand
publication
valuablecontent.He convokedtheFirstBrazilianCongressof Philosophy,
whichtookplace at Sao Paulo in 1950,"7and preparedthe International
whichtookplace at Sao Paulo in 1954,as a partof
Congressof Philosophy
the festival
thefourthcentenary
of Sao
of thefoundation
commemorating
and all philosophies
of law; he
Paulo. He is a greatstudentof philosophy
and has
intoPortuguese,
does muchto translateoutstanding
philosophies
written
a greatdeal himself
the climaxof his work
sincethe late thirties,
of Law" whichattaineditsthird
beingthetwovolumesof his "Philosophy
oflaw. That
editionin 1962.His thought
is basedon the"threedimensions"
an axiological,
thereare thesethreedimensions,
and, hence,an analytical,
and a sociological
Thismeans,Reale tells
iswidelyrecognized.
jurisprudence,
that
of
the
the
word
"law"
is
delimited
us,
significance
bythreeelements:
a
fact.
But
of
these
elements
is notyetan
three
value, norm,
recognition
for
which
Reale
stands.
In
Reale critiof
this
sense
"integral"theory law,
and
in
the
in
Roscoe
Pound
JuliusStone,who
callyinvestigates trichotomy
has built up his great work on The Province and Function of Law entirely

followsalso fromthe
He mentions
thatthistrichotomy
on thistrichotomy.
workofKelsen;butforKelsen,he says,axiologicaland sociological
jurispruso thatthereis no integration.
dence is alwayssomehow"metajuristic,"
the"trialism"
ofLaskand ofRadbruch,ofSantiRomano
Reale investigates
of Ortegay Gassetand GarciaMaynez.
and Hauriou,the "perspectivism"
in a normative
orderof
ofsocialelements
But all thatis notyetintegration
values.Here new problemsopen up whichhe investigates.
MiguelReale
thinker.
He is a greatand original
exercises
wideinfluence.
74RevistaBrasileira de Filosofia; latest numberXII, 49 (1963).
75Anais do primero congressode filosofia(2 vols., Sio Paulo, 1950).

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