Intro Electronics Electricity PDF

DELMAR PUBLISHERS
Division of Litton Education Publishing, Inc.
Copyright
1971
(T)
By Technical Education Research Center,
Copyright
all
is
claimed until June
1976.
1,
by
portions of this work covered
will
be
in
Inc.
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Number:
75-162292
PRINTED
IN
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Published simultaneously
Delmar Publishers,
in
Van Nostrand Reinhold,

The
Canada by
a division of
Ltd.
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was
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formed pursuant to a grant from the U.S. Office of

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The opinions expressed
herein, however,
do
not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the

U.S. Office of Education, and no official endorsement
by the U.S. Office of Education should be
inferred.
Foreword
The marriage of
electronics
and technology
New
technical personnel in today's industries.
with combination
many
devices of
optical
skills
Increasingly, technicians
kinds
who work
one of
is
who want
The most
pations.
many
with systems and
who
is
preparing for a career
technology.
This manual
for students
for
This need for combination
also in electronics.
especially significant for the youngster
is
new demands
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, and
must be competent
in industrial
creating
occupations have emerged
requirements well beyond the capability of
skill
technical specialists.
is
a series of closely related publications designed
the broadest possible introduction to technical occu-
effective use of these
manuals
is
combination textbook-
as
laboratory guides for a full-time, post-secondary school study program that

provides parallel and concurrent courses
in electronics,
mechanics, physics,
mathematics, technical writing, and electromechanical applications.
unique feature of the manuals
in this series is
the close correlation of
technical laboratory study with mathematics and physics concepts.
studied by use of practical examples using
topic
is
tions.
The reinforcement obtained from multiple
modern
Each
industrial applica-
applications of the concepts
has been shown to be extremely effective, especially for students with widely
diverse educational backgrounds.
Experience has shown that typical junior
college or technical school students can
make
satisfactory progress in a well-
coordinated program using these manuals as the primary instructional material.
School administrators
manuals to support
programs
in
such fields
or quality assurance.
will
common
as:
be
interested
first-year
in
the potential
of these
core of studies for two-year
instrumentation, automation, mechanical design,
This form of technical core program has the advantage
of reducing instructional costs without the corresponding decrease
power so frequently found
in
in
holding
general core programs.
This manual, along with the others
in
the series,
is
the result of six years
of research and development by the Technical Education Research Center,

Inc.,
(TERC),
quarters
in
a national
nonprofit, public service corporation with head-
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
as a direct result of
community
It
has undergone a
experience gained with students
in
number of
revisions
technical schools and
colleges throughout the country.
Maurice W. Roney
///
The Electromechanical Series
TERC
is
engaged
cal Technology.
in
an on-going educational program
The following
titles
in
Electromechani-
have been developed for this program:
INTRODUCTORY
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/MOTOR CONTROLS

ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/DEVICES
ELECTRONICS/AMPLIFIERS
ELECTRONICS/ELECTRICITY
MECHANISMS/DRIVES
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
UNIFIED PHYSICS/FLUIDS
UNIFIED PHYSICS/OPTICS
ADVANCED
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/SERVOMECH AN ISMS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/FABRICATION
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/TRANSDUCERS
ELECTRONICS/COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRONICS/DIGITAL
MECHANISMS/MACHINES
MECHANISMS/MATERIALS
For further information regarding the
its
EMT
program or for assistance
in
implementation, contact:
Technical Education Research Center, Inc.
44A
Brattle Street
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
iv
Preface
Technology, by
its
very nature,
such, the laboratory portion of
Electronics/Electricity
is
is
any technology program
circuits,
vitally important.
in
modern technology.
The topics included provide exposure
DC
is
intended to provide meaningful experience
electric circuit analysis for students of
flow, simple
As
a laboratory-oriented activity.
to basic principles of current
AC
an introduction to
and
circuits, resonance,
transformer coupling.
The sequence of presentation chosen

expected that individual instructors
than the given sequence.
The
is
by no means
may choose
particular topics chosen for inclusion in this
primarily for convenience and
economy
inflexible.
It is
to use the materials in other
of materials.
volume were selected
Some
instructors
may
wish to omit some of the exercises or to supplement some of them to better
meet
their local needs.
The
many
materials are presented in an action-oriented format combining
of the features normally found
sociated with a laboratory manual.
1.
An INTRODUCTION which
and often includes
2.
3.
in a textbook with those usually

Each experiment contains:
identifies the topic to
a rationale for
list
which
be examined
doing the exercise.
A DISCUSSION which presents the background,

techniques needed to carry out the exercise.
A MATERIALS
as-
identifies
all
theory,
of the items needed
in
or
the
laboratory experiment.
(Items usually supplied by the student

such as pencil and paper are not included in the lists.)
A PROCEDURE
4.
which presents step-by-step instructions for performing the experiment. In most instances the measurements are
done before calculations so that all of the students can at least
finish making the measurements before the laboratory period ends.
5.
An ANALYSIS GUIDE which offers suggestions as to how the

student might approach interpretation of the data in order to
draw conclusions from it.
6.
PROBLEMS are included for the purpose of reviewing and reinforcing the points covered in the exercise. The problems may be
of the numerical solution type or simply questions about the
exercise.
Laboratory report writing forms an important part of the learning

To serve as a guide in this activity,
process included in this manual.
instructions for preparing reports as well as sample reports are included for
student use.
Students should be encouraged to study the textual material, perform

the experiment, work the review problems, and submit a technical report pn
each topic. Following this pattern, the student can acquire an understanding
valuable on
of, and skill with, basic electric circuits that will be extremely
students should be concurrently enrolled
technical mathematics (algebra and trigonometry).
For best
the job.
a course in
results, these
These materials on basic electricity comprise one of a

prepared for technical students by the
TERC EMT
staff at
series of
volumes
Oklahoma
under the direction of D.S. Phillips and R.W. Tinnell,

principal author of these materials was R.W. Tinnell.
University,
An
Instructor's
Data Guide
is
available
for
in
State
The
use with this volume.
Mr. Kenneth F. Cathy was responsible for testing the materials and compiling
the instructor's data book for them. Other members of the TERC staff
valuable contributions
made
in
the form of criticisms, corrections, and
suggestions.
It
is
sincerely
this series, the instructor's

will
volume as well as the other volumes in

data books, and other supplementary materials
hoped that
make the study
this
interesting
of technology
and rewarding for both
students and teachers.
THE TERC EMT STAFF
TO THE STUDENT
Duplicate data sheets for each experiment are provided
in
the back of
performthe book. These are perforated to be removed and completed while

experiment
They may then be submitted with the
ing each experiment.
analysis for your instructor's examination.
VI
Contents
experiment
experiment
METER CONNECTIONS
METALLIC CONDUCTORS
experiment
RESISTOR LINEARITY
11
experiment* 4
ELECTRIC POWER
16
experiment
SERIES RESISTANCES
20
experiment
SOURCE RESISTANCE
27
experiment
PARALLEL RESISTANCES
32
experiment
SERIES-PARALLEL RESISTANCES
38
experiment
MULTISOURCE NETWORKS
43
NETWORK THEOREMS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGES
48
61
experiments
METER CIRCUITS
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES
CAPACITOR CHARGING
OSCI LLOSCOPE MEASUREMENTS
ALTERNATING CURRENT
experiment 18
INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
100
experiment 19
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
106
experiment 20
SERIES IMPEDANCES
113
experiment 21
PARALLEL IMPEDANCES
120
experiment 22
AC POWER
126
experiment 23
SERIES RESONANCE
132
experiment 24
PARALLEL RESONANCE
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
140
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
TRANSFORMER MATCHING
LABORATORY REPORT WRITING
157
experiment 10
experiment 11
experiments
experiment 13
experiment 14
experiment 15
êxperiment 16
experiment 25
experiment 26
experiment 27
appendix
56
70
76
82
88
94
148
164
173
SAMPLE EXPERIMENT
INFORMAL REPORT
179
FORMAL REPORT
183
175
vii
METER CONNECTIONS
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
This laboratory course,
deepen your understanding of

your attitude and performance
This
course.
first
like
many
electrical principles.
will introduce some of the basic techniques to be used throughout the

the connection and reading of basic meters will be considered.
are perhaps the basic

measuring devices encountered in electrical
The three
quantities
most
While the basic technique for measuring voltage is very simple, there are a number
of details which tend to complicate
fre-
quently measured with an ordinary meter are

pressure (voltage),
electrical
what.
flow
ments
1.
measured
in
may
pressure or voltage
the technique
is
but
in
any
in
DC
case,
substantially the same.
Voltage, being a type of pressure,
ured
the same
way
as
any other
2.
meas-
is
in-
will select be-
voltage,
DC
as:
current,
This switch should be set at

(in
this case,
voltage).
The instrument will frequently have a

range selector switch to choose the operating
range of the meter.
Typical
markings for a range selector are 1000V,

250V, 10V, 2.5V, etc. The range selec-
pressure.
That is, we connect the meter directly between the two points whose pressure difference we wish to measure. As an example, let
us suppose that we wish to measure the voltage
To do
etc.
AC
the appropriate position
microvolts (juV), millivolts (mV),
volts (V), or kilovolts (kV);
This switch
number of functions such
voltage,
ohms,
be
sonie-
instruments have a function selec-
twee n
DC
it
most
as follows:
is
Many
tor switch.
individually.
Electrical
satisfactory procedure for
struments
and the opposition to flow (resistLet us consider each of these measure-
(current),
ance).
greatly on
in it
DISCUSSION. Meters
electrical
intended to reinforce, extend, and
is
experiment
In particular,
laboratories.
others,
The success of the course depends
tor should be set to the range
which
exceeds the voltage to be measured.

there
is
any doubt about the
just
If
size of the
we
voltage to be measured, the range selec-
attach the lead wires of the meter directly to
tor should be set for the highest range
at the terminals of a battery.
the
two battery
terminals,
so,
see figure
(1000V
1-1.
in this case).
METER
Fig.
1-1
Measuring Battery Voltage
EXPERIMENT
ELECTRICITY/ELECTRONICS
METER CONNECTIONS
METER
HORN BUTTON
Measuring Current Flow Through a Horn
Fig. 1-2
3.
Virtually
all
be located directly
in
Electrical current meters
meters have a mechanical
zero adjustment screw.
of flow of electricity.
This screw will
It
should
meter, very
zero with the meter discon-
much
may be employed.
with a voltmeter
ation.
mary form the procedure
Voltmeters are sensitive to the polarity

of the voltage being measured; there-
some
care
In using a
current
the same procedure as used
nected and in position for normal oper-
fore,
measure the rate
such, a current meter
through the instrument.
be adjusted so that the meter pointer
4.
As
must be inserted into the electrical circuit in a

manner which allows the current to flow
below the meter face
the center of the instrument.
indicates
METER INSERTED
INTO THE
CURRENT PATH
In
sum-
is:
DC
current.
1.
Set the function selector to
2.
Set the range selector to the appropriate
must be taken to con-
range or a higher one.
nect the positive meter lead to the posi-
and the negative
3.
Check the mechanical zero adjustment.
the negative terminal.
4.
Observe polarity requirements.
connected, the range
5.
Insert the
tive voltage terminal
meter
5.
When
lead
to
the meter
selector position
range,
if
is
is
necessary,
moved
to a lower
selection
to get a readable
6.
if
meter and correct the range

necessary.
Read the appropriate
scale.
indication.
6.
Many meters have several

on their face. Some care
insure that the reading
is
scales
is
should be emphasized at this point

that a current meter will almost certainly be
damaged if it is connected as a voltmeter.
marked
It
required to
taken from the
Current meters must be inserted into the cur-
which corresponds to the settings

of both the function and range selectors.
scale
rent path as
shown
in figure 1-2.
EXPERIMENT
METER CONNECTIONS
METER
Measuring Horn Resistance
Fig. 1-3
In
using a meter to measure the resist-
one uses many of the same
trical device,
niques used
in
Indeed, the
initial
tech-
side of the
5.
measuring voltage and current.

steps in preparing to meas-
1.
Set
That
the
6.
leads
and
set the
Disconnect the device whose resistance

to be measured from any other circuit,
and connect the meter leads directly
function
ohms
scale.
Separate the meter
is
is:
voltage position.
special
ohms
range selector to the desired range.
ure resistance are identical to those described

previously.
on the right
until the pointer reads zero
ance (opposition to current flow) of an elec-
selector
to
the
DC
(Some meters have
position
which
is
across the terminals of the device.

7.
used
Read the resistance of the device on the
instead.)
ohms scale in units of ohms, kilohms,

or megohms as determined by the range
2.
Set range selector to the Rxl position.
selector setting.
3.
Check the mechanical zero adjustment.
From
this point on, the
procedure varies from
the one discussed previously as follows:

4.
A
used
sketch illustrating the connection to be
in
measuring
resistance
is
shown
in
figure 1-3.
Hold the meter lead wires together so

that the probes are touching.
The meter
pointer should swing to the right side of

the scale. Adjust the zero ohms control
The three techniques described
previ-
ously should be adequate to handle most basic

electric laboratory experiments.
EXPERIMENT
METER CONNECTIONS
MATERIALS
DC power
variable
multimeter
supply, 0-30V
28V
base for pilot lamp
pilot
lamp (G.E. 313 or equiv.)
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
Using the multimeter, measure the resistance of the pilot lamp

value of your reading in the data table, figure 1-5, under R|_.
Connect the
circuit indicated in figure 1-4.
in its base.
Record the
DO NOT TURN THE POWER SUPPLY ON
DC
POWER
PILOT
SUPPLY
Fig.
3.
Lay the multimeter
flat
LAMP
The Experimental Circuit
1-4
on the bench so that the meter face
is
Connect the
horizontal.
meter leads across the lamp terminals.

4.
your data table

5.
The
Have the laboratory instructor check your experiment setup.

if
the setup
is
instructor will initial
correct.
Turn on the power supply and adjust the voltage to about 9V
until the
lamp filament
is
bright orange color (not white).
E^
(E
in step 13)
6.
Record the value of the voltage across the lamp
7.
Disconnect the positive lamp wire and insert the meter for current measurement. Leave
the range
8.
9.
selectors in the voltage
the data table as
measurement positions.
Have the laboratory instructor check your setup and
initial
your data table a second time.
Set the range and function selectors to the highest current range. Reduce the range selector one step at a time until the current value can be read. Record the value of the current
as
10.
and function
in
l<|
in
the data table. (This
Remove
is
in
step 13.)
the meter and reconnect the circuit as
in figure 1-4.
and range selectors for voltage measurement. Measure and record the
Record this voltage as E'<|. (E' 2 in step 13)
the power supply terminals.
11. Set the function
voltage at
12.
Set the meter upright so that the scale
is
vertical.
Do not
readjust the mechanical zero
adjustment.
13.
Repeat steps
6,
7,
9,
10,
and
11.
Record these data as E 2
and
E'
respectively.
E LECTRON ICS/E LEGTR IC ITY
14.
EXPERIMENT
METER CONNECTIONS
Return to step 5 and increase the power supply voltage until the lamp filament
produces a
white colored light. Lay the meter down. (Face horizontal.) Measure and record
the
lamp
(E3)
voltage.
meter
15.
Insert the
16.
Remove the
(E'
17.
18.
in
the negative lamp wire.
Measure and record the lamp current.
(I3)
meter, reconstruct the circuit, measure and record the power supply voltage.
Disconnect the meter and prepare the instrument for measuring the bulb resistance.
Disconnect the bulb from the circuit and quickly measure and record the bulb resistance.
(R'
RL
Ohms
Volts
'1
E '1
E2
'2
E '2
E3
'3
Ma.
Volts
Volts
Ma.
Volts
Volts
Ma.
First voltage
measurement
First current
measurement
r 'l
Volts
Ohms
checked by
circuit
Instructor
circuit
checked by
Instructor
Fig. 1-5
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
required.
turn
in
You
Since this
the
Data Table
experiment of the course, no laboratory report will be

should, however, answer each of the questions at the end of the experiment and
is
your answers and the data
first
table.
PROBLEMS
1.
Did the resistance of the lamp change during the experiment?

think it did?
2.
Were the values of E and E^ different? If so, by how much? Why do you think
1
this occurred? Were E and E' different? E and E' ?
2
2
3
3
When the lamp was glowing orange, was the current in the positive lamp wire the
same as the current in the negative lamp wire? Why do you think your answer is
3.
If
so,
why do you
correct?
4.
Did the position of the meter (horizontal or vertical) have any effect on
the value
of the readings?
5.
Why was
it
Why
is
necessary to
this so?
make the
final
bulb resistance reading quickly?
experimen
METALLIC CONDUCTORS
INTRODUCTION. Metallic conductors play a very important role in all of

current from
electronics. We use them to produce wire and bus bars to convey
are used directly in such
They
interconnecting
providing
loads for virtually
If
an electrical potential
electrons
proceed from the vicinity of one
atom to that of another atom in the

structure. At each encounter with a
atom, the free electrons give up
amount of energy
heat
in
we may conclude
fore,
metallic
the conductors
the form of heat.
small
verse
is
we
amount
There-
that the resistance of
area.
this conclusion
with the one
which
be expressed algebraically as
Ra A
the practical case
we almost always
work with conductors of
circular cross sec-
In
say the conductor has a
tion (wires).
of encounters that a free
electron has with the metallic
atoms depends
where d
tunities there are for electron-atom interac-
is
Or, in other words, the resistance
of a conductor
(Ft)
let
However, since the
directly proportional to the diameter
squared,
we can
rewrite the resistance equa-
R =
conductors and apply
pzjohms
(2.1)
each of them.
be twice as
much
as the electron drift of one wire alone.
Con-
total electron drift will
we can
is
the diameter of the circle and n
us suppose that
a fixed value of potential across
sequently,
cross section, the
tion for circular cross-section conductors as
the other hand,

identical
is
TTd
equal to about 3.14.
area
directly related to the length
of the conductor.
we take two
a circular
directly on the length of the conductor. That

is, the longer the conductor, the more oppor-
is
For
area will be
of resistance.
The number
The
to double
considerable
the current flow,
On
is
cited above leads us to a generalization
ance to the flow of current. Conversely, if

only a small amount of energy is required for
(C)
we have done
of the conducting
of their cross-sectional
Combining
may
tions.
one
directly related to the in-
amount of energy is
required to cause a given amount of electron
current to flow in a conductor, we say that
the conductor has a large amount of resist-
small
shall
This
supplied by the potential source.
all
available for current flow.
material
metallic
area
cross-sectional
energy must, of course, ultimately be
If
we
half that of
adding the second conductor
the
drift process, the free
During the
end.
tive
in
is
Actually,
conductor alone.
the conductor drift toward the posi-
in
In
of the pair of conductors
ap-
is
plied across a metal conductor, the free elec-
trons
components.
characteristics of these materials.
examine some of the important
DISCUSSION.
all
as well as
experiment,
this
and
point to point.
and heating elements
as coils, lamps, motors,
components
electricity
if
we can determine
the value of the constant
of proportionality (p).
say that the total resistance
EXPERIMENT 2 METALLIC CONDUCTORS
This constant (p) has been determined

experimentally for many different materials
and
is
often called the resistivity of the mate-
The
rial.
sistivity
table given in figure 2.1
of several
many
for
may
other materials
physics handbooks and
the
lists
common conductors.
SPINDLE
ANVIL
re-
Values
be found
in
some textbooks.
Resistivity
Material
(ohms/mil-foot
at 20 C)
Copper
10.4
Aluminum
17
Iron
58
Nickel-Chromium
660
FRAME
Fig.
1.
2-2
The Micrometer Caliper
Place the wire to be measured between
the anvil and spindle of the micrometer.

Fig.
2-1
Resistivity
Rotate the thimble until the wire just
of Common Conductors
fits
The term "d 2 "

tor in circular mils
found
in
In
nearly
the area of the conduc-
and
quite
is
commonly
it
2.
2-1, the resistivity
ohms.
Let us now suppose we wish to determine the resistance of 1000 feet of an iron
wire which has a diameter of 100 mils.
Using
and give an erroneous diameter meas-
reading
(a)
is
_ Rp v
58x
2-
In this
ing times
1000
= 5.8 ohms
100x 100
experiment,
(b)
it
will
in
100 mils
(1
x 100 = 100
figure 2-2)
to this quantity add 25 mils times
number of sleeve marks showing

beyond the last digit (100 mils +
be necessary
25x
a micrometer.
For those not familiar with

micrometer, a brief outline for
measuring wire diameters follows:

figure 2-2 for
the
by:
the
to measure the
diameter of several wires with
the use of a
made
taking the largest sleeve digit show-
mils
1
Do
will flatten
Read the wire diameter on the sleeve

The sleeve has marks
every 25 mils and a digit every 100
mils.
The thimble has marks every 1
mil and a number every 5 mils.
The
equation 2-1 renders
r =p
R
and spindle.
and thimble.
ohms per mil-foot, length should

and the diameter in mils. The re-
sistance will then be in
anvil
urement.
in
in feet,
between the
not squeeze the wire as this
wire tables.
employing equation
should be
be
all
is
(c)
(Refer to
This
the micrometer.
figure 2-2)
add the setting of the thim(175 mils + 23 = 198 mils in
figure 2-2)
parts)
in
Finally,
ble.
names of the micrometer
3 = 175 mils
is
the reading of

MATERIALS
1
IVftjltimeter(VOM)
Steel rule, 12
1
1
5 Pieces of No. 30 Nichrome wire, 4, 6,
and 12
long
in.
Micrometer caliper (1 inch range)

Piece of No. 26 Nichrome wire, 8
1
1
in.
long
32 Nichrome
Piece of No. 34 Nichrome
Piece of No.
wire, 8
in.
long
in.
long
wire,
2 Sheets of linear graph paper,
long
1
in.
Piece of No. 28
Nichrome
wire, 8
div.
in.
per
8, 10,
10x10
cm
long
PROCEDURE
%
Identify the 4-in. piece of No.
30 nichrome
wire.
Using the
steel rule, carefully
and record
the length of the nichrome section as accurately as possible
measurement
(figure 2-4). See figure 2-3 for an illustration of how this
the data table
it
in
is
to be made.
COPPER CONNECTOR
COPPER CONNECTOR
NICHROME WIRE
MEASURE THIS LENGTH
Fig.
2.
3.
measure
Measurement of Wire Length
2-3
different locations.
With the micrometer caliper measure the diameter of the wire at three
Record each measurement.
the data
Compute the average value of the three diameter measurements and record it in
table.
4.
5.
it in the data table.

Using the multimeter, measure the resistance of the wire and record
compute
Assuming that the resistivity of nichrome is the value given in the discussion,
the measured length and

the value of the resistance of the wire using equation 2.1. Use
table.
average diameter in this calculation and record the results in the data
6.
7.
and 12-inch pieces of No. 30 nichrome wire.

length.
On a sheet of linear graph paper, plot the measured resistance versus the measured
the vertiThe length should be plotted along the horizontal axis and the resistance along
Repeat steps
through 5 using the
6-, 8-, 10-,
cal axis.
8.
9.
10.
11.
On
the same sheet, plot the
computed
resistance versus the
measured length.
8-inch pieces of No.

the same way, determine the length and average diameter of the
data table.
26, 28, 32 and 34 nichrome wire. Record all data in the
In
As before, measure and compute the resistance of each piece of wire.

2
Compute the value of d for each of the 8-inch wires. Record this value
circular mils in the data table.
as the area in
12.
Using the equation
13.
On
Record
A=
compute the
cross-sectional area for each of the 8-inch wires.
this value in the data table.
the second sheet of graph paper, plot the measured resistance versus the area
in cir-
cular mils.
14.
On
15.
Also plot the computed resistance versus the area
the same sheet of graph paper, plot the measured resistance versus the cross sectional
area.
in
circular mils.
Area
Wire
Length
Cross
Dia.
Dia.
Dia.
Ave.
Cir.
Sect.
(First)
(Second)
(Third)
Dia.
Mils
Meas.
Comn
r \ TPS
CO
in.
No. 30
in.
No. 30
in.
No. 30
10
in.
No. 30
12
in.
No. 30
in.
No. 26
in.
No. 28
in.
No. 32
in.
No. 34
Fig.
2-4
The Data Table
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In analyzing the data obtained in this experiment, you should first consider
whether or not the measured resistance was found to be directly related to the conductor length
and inversely related to the cross-sectional area. Also consider the extent
to which the computed
and measured resistance agreed with one another.
In
both cases, use your plots to verify your conclusion.
PROBLEMS
1.
What would be the
2.
resistance of
copper bus bar has
long.
What
3.
How many
4.
is
35
in.
the resistance of the bus bar?
feet of No. 18 iron wire
is
Hint:
Use area
length of No.
What
and
is
4 copper wire
is
its
new
If its
by 0.5
in
required to produce 43
certain conductor has a resistance of 57 ohms.
would be the
6.
20 copper wire?
a rectangular cross section of 0.1 in.
cross section doubled, what would be

5.
of No.
is
ft.
ohms
of resistance?
length were halved and
its
resistance?
found to have
resistance of an equal length of No.
a resistance of 0.2
22
ohms. What
iron wire?
"Resistance versus Cross-Sectional Area"?
10
and
square inch.
the difference between a plot of "Resistance versus Area
a plot of
in.
in
Circular Mils"
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
type
RESISTOR LINEARITY
<<
There are two basic types of resistances
the linear resistor which maintains
is
operating conditions.
depending on
In this
The other
its
in
common
use in electric circuits.
resistance at a relatively constant value
One
under normal
type, the nonlinear resistor, has a resistance value which changes
operating conditions.
its
experiment,
we
shall
examine
this property of linearity
which separates the two types
of resistors.
DISCUSSION. As mentioned above,

resistor
value
is
of
stances.
device
resistance
If
which has
the resistance of a device
then the current through
ble
the voltage across
effect
was
is
it
is
will
doubled.
con-
we
plot the current through a linear
resistance
versus the voltage across
result will
be similar to one of the
figure 3-1. This plot illustrates
dou-
it,
the
lines in
two important
characteristics of linear resistors:
This
19th century
Georg Simon Ohm, who expressed
scientist,
it
it
noted by a
first
If
constant
under normal circum-
stant,
if
a linear
The E-l plot of a linear resistor

a straight
algebraically as
2.
is
a/ways
line.
The slope of the E-l plot
is
inversely
proportional to the ohmic value of the
E = IR
(3.1)
resistor, that
the
This relationship has since become
Ohm's Law and
is
known
is,
the
the steeper the slope of
smaller
the
resistance.
as
considered to be one of the
The value of
foundational concepts of electric theory.

0.7
line,
termined from the
a linear resistor can be deE-l
plot
by choosing any
11
12
i-
m W
is
VOLTAGE
Fig, 3-
E-l Plots
7
<E)
(VOLTS)
of Linear Resistors
11
13
EXPERIMENTS RESISTOR LINEARITY

- 0.5 amps, for example)
(I
and finding the corresponding voltage by projecting the current value onto the E-l plot
value of current
then
R-|,
down
to the voltage axis.
(for
8.5
R'2=-^= 28.3 ohms
(forl = 0.3A)
(2.5 volts for
5 volts for R2, and 10 volts for
R3
in
(for
= 0.6A) R =
2
The resistances may then be

computed using Ohm's law (eq 3.1):
figure
3-1).
In addition to
R<l
from
vary
^|=20 ohms.
in
In the case of a nonlinear resistance, the
change.
the
as operating conditions
The
changing from point-to-point,
region-to-region.
is
If
resulting
That
the ohmic value of
current
change
AE 2
E2-E2
be different at each point.
R2
For example,
Consider, for
3-2
the
in
2"
Al 2
(3.2)
l'2- l2
at
sistance
example, currents of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.6 amps.
Fig.
(Al)
is:
several points along the curve, the resistance

will
also
E-l
Figure 3-2 shows nonlinear E-l plots.
we compute
may
This regional
called the
plot of such a device will not be a straight

line.
= 18.6 o hms
the selected region.
range.
Or, in other words, the resistance
varies as the voltage or current varies.
11
dynamic resistance (r)

The dynamic resistance in a region may be determined by dividing the voltage change in the range (AE) by
resistance
ohmic value changes
the resistance of a nonlinear device
= 2 5 = 5 ohms, R2 = 5
Qg= 10 ohms,
0I5
R3 =
= 50 ohms
= 0.1 A) R' =
2
E-l Plots
0.1
in
let
us
the range between
and 0.3 amps.
of Nonlinear Resistors
12
compute the dynamic
re-
currents of
_AE 2 _
r
2"
8,5 - 5.0
E2
Al7 7T|J
ance
3.5
=
0.3 - 0.1
EXPERIMENTS RESISTOR LINEARITY
= 17 5 ohms
02
"
is
only approximate.
suffice for the present
ure 3-1
Similarly, the
dynamic
Al 2
and constant.
E'2
11
-8.5 = 2.5
0.6-0.3
Ig-lfc
vice to change.
If
an increase
temperature
3-2 does)
r
not only
in
in
we
the resistance increases with

(as
Ri
in figure
say the material has a positive
temperature coefficient
from one another, but also differ from

the static resistance R 2 R 2 and R 2 Actually,
Conversely,
if
the
resistance decreases with an increase in tem-
differ
perature (R 2
method of determining dynamic
the increase
is
that causes the resistance of a nonlinear de-
0.3
Notice that the values of dynamic
it
temperature resulting from increased current
= 8.3 ohms
this
fig-
linear resistors
is
In virtually all cases,
E2
Investigation of
reveal that for
will
however,
the dynamic and static resistances are equal

resistance effective be-
tween currents of 0.3 and 0.6 amps
AE 2
It will,
resist-
rial
in figure 3-2)
we
say the mate-
has a negative temperature coefficient.
MATERIALS
2 Multimeters
(VOM)
DC power supply 0-30V

150 ohm 10W resistor
Glo-Bar resistor (GC 25-912 or equiv.)
28
Lamp
volt pilot
lamp (GE 313 or
equiv.)
base for pilot lamp
3 Sheets of
linear
graph paper
(10 x 10div. per cm)
PROCEDURE
1.
Using one multimeter to measure current and the other to measure voltage, connect the
circuit
shown
in figure 3-3.
CURRENT! METER
VOM
DC
150n
POWER
10W
SUPPLY
RESISTOR
Fig.
3-3

13
VOLTMETER
EXPERIMENT 3 RESISTOR LINEARITY

2.
Starting with the
DC power
current for voltages of 0,
2,
supply set for zero output, measure the resistor voltage and
etc. up to 24 volts.
Record this data in the data
4, 6,
table (figure 3-4).
Do Not Exceed A
Note:
3.
From
the measured values of voltage and current compute the resistance at each data point.
Record the values

4.
Current Of 0.5 Amps! (glo-bar resistor may!)
in
the data table.
Using the measured quantities, compute and record the dynamic resistance
in
each interval
between data points.
150
E
Ohm
I
Ri
28V
Glo-Bar Resistor
Resistor
Fig.
R2
3-4
The Data Table

14
Pilot
Lamp
R3
EXPERIMENT 3 RESISTOR LINEARITY
ohm
and
5.
Replace the 150
6.
Replace the glo-bar resistor with the
7.
On a
8.
Using a second sheet of graph paper, plot the voltage versus the static resistance of the three
with the glo-bar resistor and repeat steps
resistor
28V
pilot
lamp and repeat steps
2, 3,
and
3,
2,
4.
4.
single sheet of linear graph paper, plot the volt-ampere (E-l) curve of the three elements.
elements. Plot voltage as the abscissa and the resistance as the ordinate.
9.
On
a third sheet of
graph paper, plot the voltage versus the dynamic resistance of the three
elements.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The

tween
linear
curves plotted
and nonlinear
resistances.
experiment graphically depict the differences be-
in this
In
your analysis of the data, you should consider both
the type of differences that are revealed and the extent of these differences.
PROBLEMS
1.
certain heating element requires 3.2
What
2.
If
is
amps when
it
is
connected to 120
volts.
the resistance of the element?
the heating element
in
problem
has a cold resistance of 76 ohms,
is
its
tem-
perature coefficient positive or negative?

3.
A
is
4.
current meter reads 1.2 amperes
when
there
is
50mV
across
its
terminals.
What
the resistance of the meter?
When
flow.
flow.
1000 ohm
resistor
second unknown
What
is
is
connected to a power supply, 0.33 amps
resistor
the value of the
is
is
observed to
connected to the same source and 0.1 amps
unknown
15
resistor?
ELECTRIC PO WER
experiment
INTRODUCTION. As
an electric current flows through a conductor, some of the energy being
conveyed by the current

this dissipation
current,
and
and
dissipated in the
is
which energy
form to another.
is
heat.
consider
how
converted from one
experiment,
In this
An
above, the
algebraically as
is
is
(in
during
shall
examine
which
(in watts),
(in joules),
conversion
and
takes
is
be de-
vides that
E = IR
which,
into eq. 4.1, provides
substituted
if
Similarly
2R
(4.2)
from Ohm's law
the
-i
place
Substituting
seconds).
may
termined by recalling that Ohm's law pro-
P =
the electrical power
the energy converted
time
relationship
alternate
P.JS
where P
we
related to the circuit voltage,
is
it
to thermal
electrical
Power may be defined
energy.
form of
described as the
In the case cited
was from
conversion
shall
resistance.
DISCUSSION. Power can be

rate at
we
particular
in
relationship
this
into
4.1
eq.
leads to
At
this point,
current involved
we should
recall that
the conversion
in
the
v
defined as
is
(4.3)
These three equations
(4.1, 4.2,
and 4.3)
are frequently referred to as the basic electri-
from which
cal
power
relationships.
They provide us with

ways of determi-
three convenient alternate

ning the
where
is
current, and
Q is
charge
Substituting this expression
power definition
coulombs.
into the
gives us:
However, we
defined
for
in
power being converted
tric circuit.
To
relationships,
illustrate
in
an
consider the circuit
shown
figure 4-1.
Q
know
that voltage can be
1A
as:
10V
r = ion
Therefore, power can be determined by

P = El
Or
in
sipated
elec-
the use of these three
(4.1)
other words, the electrical power

in a circuit
is
dis-
equal to the product of
the circuit voltage and the circuit current.
Fig, 4-1
Simple Electric Circuit
in

EXPERIMENT 4 ELECTRIC POWER
ELECTRO DYNAMOMETER
VOLTAGE
SOURCE
LOAD
RESISTOR
Fig.
If
the loss
in
by the
dissipated
any
with
the wires
one
is
resistor
of
the
4-2
ignored, the
may
Connecting the Wattmeter
power
three
basic
The
instrument.
be determined
power
circuit.
are constructed in such a
of the voltage
(They
P = El = 10 x
2
l
R =
E2
r~
= 10 watts
10= 10
connected
are
When
instrument).
the
common
the
same point
watts
together
inside
the
using a meter of this type,
connections must be attached to

in
the test circuit.
++
= 10x 10 = in
10watts
To
some
In
The instrument most commonly used to

measure electrical power is the electrodynamometer. In effect, the instrument employs
That
4.1.
is,
it
circuit
in
either
cases,
current connections
equation
on the other
Many wattmeters
way that one terminal
and current coils is common.
part of the
ate
equations.
P=
voltage terminals
hand must be connected across the appropri-
may
the
voltage or
be attached to the
way which
causes the
meter
pointer to deflect backwards from zero.
In
such an event, either the current or the volt-
measures both
age connection of the wattmeter should be
voltage and current and indicates their product.
reversed.
Since both a voltage and current measuring
current connections will result in the same
connection
is
required,
necting the wattmeter

4-2
shows the
proper
some caution
is
necessary.
connection
in
con-
Reversing both
the voltage and
backward deflection.
Figure
of
an
electrodynamometer.
The current measuring section of the

is
very much like any
electrodynamometer
As
in the case of an ammeter, the current

terminals of the wattmeter must be connected
so that the circuit current
passes through the
other ammeter
limit
in
it
has an upper current
As with
damage the
which must not be exceeded.
other ammeters,
17
that
it
is
possible to

instrument by allowing too
flow through
In
it.
much
therefore possible to have a

very large current and a small voltage, the
product of which does not exceed the power
current to
the case of an ammeter,
however, the violent off-scale reading serves

as a
warning to the user that the current
large.
is
too
The electrodynamometer, on the other
hand, reads out the product of the voltage and
current.
It
range
of
the
therefore
may
is
The wattmeter
user
of an overthe
warn
not
instrument.
current condition.
MATERIALS
(VOM)
Multimeter
Electrodynamometer (0-20 watts)
75
ohm 20
watt resistor
DC power
Vacuum tube
supply (0-30 volts)

voltmeter
(VTVM)
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
Assemble the
test circuit
4.
figure 4-3.
(fig.
DO NOT TURN THE POWER SUPPLY ON

circuit for correct connection,
and
initial
4-4).
Turn on the power supply and advance the voltage sufficiently to cause a slight deflection
on each instrument. Observe each meter to insure that it is deflecting properly.
Increase the voltage until the voltmeter reads about
age (E)
5.
in
Have the laboratory instructor check your

your data table
3.
shown
in
column
20
volts.
Record the value of the
volt-
of the data table.
Measure and record the values of the
and power
circuit current
(I
and
P<|) in
column
of
the data table.

6.
Remove
in
7.
the resistor from the circuit and measure
column
of the data table.
Replace the resistor
its
in
ohmic
value.
Record
this value as
the circuit.
power supply wires and reconnect them with the opposite polarity.
P'<|
in column 1. Observe the effect of reversed
polarity on the voltmeter and ammeter then return the connections to the original polarity.
Carefully disconnect the
Record the reading of the wattmeter as
WATTMETER
ADJUSTABLE
DC POWER
SUPPLY
Fig. 4-3.

18
8.
Increase the
power supply output
voltage reading as E
9.
10.
Repeat steps 5 and
in
6,
the data table column
Again increase the power supply output,
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Repeat steps 5 and
I,
R and
time
this
column
in
Record the
volts.
2.
recording the data as
Record the value of the voltage as E
about 25
until the voltmeter reads
until
column 2 of the data table.

the voltmeter reads about 30 volts.
P<|
in
3.
I,
R and P-| in the data table column 3.
compute
and
record ?2 = El.
1,
Similarly, using E and R, compute and record in column 1 P4 = I^R.
In like manner, compute and record P4 = I^R.
Repeat steps 12, 13, and 14 first for column 2 values and then for column 3 values.
6, entering these
Using the values of E and
in
data as
column
Column
Column 2
Column 3
E
I
R
p1
P2
P
P4
4-4
Fig.
The Data Table
P
i
Circuit checked
bv
(Instructor)
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In
drawing your conclusions from the results of this experiment, you should
consider whether or not there was good agreement between the measured and
power
in
each of the three cases.
observed the effect of reversed polarity

these effects?
computed values of
In step 6, you
on each of three meters employed; how do you explain
How does
your data support your conclusions?
Did the resistor value change during the experiment?
(Use your data to support
your answers.)
PROBLEMS
1.
Assume
that a resistor of exactly 75
the applied voltage
and
2.
fill
in
has been used
in
the experiment and that
has been exactly 20, 25, and 30 volts. Prepare a
values for each space
Compare your
ohms
new data
table
computed from these assumptions.
idealistic data to
those collected
each compare?
19
in
the experiment.
How well
does
expert' men
INTRODUCTION. Among the
SERIES RESISTANCES
several
ways
in
which
may
elements
electric circuit
interconnect
is
one which requires the same current to flow through two or more components. Such an arrange-
ment
called a series circuit
is
experiment,
In this
we
shall
examine
several of the characteristics
of simple series circuits.
DISCUSSION. As mentioned above,

electrical
circuit
one
is
which the same

two or more com-
While this defining statement
bit difficult to visualize,
Figure 5-1
should
make
is
very important.
it
somewhat more
two
At the same time,

both resistors must equal
voltages.
Expressed algebraically,
the source voltage.

this condition
it is
of these
the voltage across
in
current must flow through

ponents.
sum
a series
is:
+
T =E 1
E2
(5.1)
sum
of the voltage
understandable.
Or
other words, the
in
drops
in
a series circuit
must equal the
ap-
plied voltage.
This condition
in
an alternate form
algebraic
Fig. 5-
that
all
to
that this
must flow through both

turn to the source. This
is
way
really
the voltages
It
is
If
and R 2 then rethe type of arrange-
R-|
that E
should be observed
nothing more than an
we
may
E1 =
IR-|,
and E 2 = IR 2 we
have
+ IR 2
or by factoring out the
on the
T=
IR
to each of the resistors,
Applying
we
IR
see that:
Then
However,
right side
be gained by considering
the voltage across each element.
E1 =
alter-
return to equation 5.1 and recall
= IR
T
Ohm's law
The
series
called a series circuit.
insight into the characteristics of
series circuits
as:
around a
of describing eq. 5.1.
IR
Some
frequently called Kirch-
law and may be stated
sum of
is
=0
the figure, one observes
of the current flowing from the source
ment which
is
ET
circuit is equal to zero.
Simple Series Circuit
nate
Referring
as:
+ E
2
This relationship
hbff's voltage
frequently expressed
is
*1
inspection
and
of
by
E 2 = IR 2
is
if
l(R<|
the result
20
is
divided
is
R-|
the
+ R2
each side of the equation
the circuit reveals
that the voltage across both resistors
I,
T =
+ R
2
(5.2)
which
tells
EXPERIMENTS SERIES RESISTANCES
us that the total resistance in a
sum of
series circuit is equal to the
the series
resistors.
In
The way
the circuit resistances.
power
may
distributed
is
returning to equation 5.
some
we may
cases,
wish to
know
the
in
which the
be investigated by
+
T =E 1 E 2
voltage across only one of the resistors in a

circuit, say
that
is
E2
in figure 5-1 for
necessary
that
is
example. All
we observe
If
we
multiply each term
the result
that
the equation by
in
Eo=IRo
EtI = Eil + Enl
and
Since Eyl
equal to the total
is
supplied by the source while

(P<|)
(P
Combining these two
is:
dissipated by
R 1 and E 2
R 2 we may write
dissipated by
relations gives us:
power (P T
the power
is the power
E<|l is
= P 1+ P
(5.5)
for the simple series circuit of figure 5-1.
2"r t
R2
Series circuits are at times constructed
both
using
Ry
However, since
= R
1
may
write E
in
+ R2
(eq. 5.2),
we
the form:
e 2~ e
linear
Such nonlinear
found
in
shows
a very simple
Figure 5-2
example of
a circuit of
the nonlinear type.
what
frequently
These
circuits
(5.3)
trytr:
describes
nonlinear elements.
electronic applications.
analyzed
in a
is
may
be
number of ways, but the most
popular approach
This equation
and
circuits are very
is
a graphical one.
frequently
called the voltage divider action of the series

circuit
and the fraction
R 2 /(R
+ R
2
is
called the voltage division ratio.
By applying very
also arrive at the
result in the case of
(LINEAR)
relationship for
E
1
we can
E<|.
The
similar steps,
would
12V
be:
LAMP R 2
(5.4)
Electrical
power
is
cu !t fr the
source and
supplied to the
is
distributed
(NONLINEAR)
cir-
among
Fig.
21
5-2
Nonlinear Series Circuit

Let us suppose that figure 5-3
plot of the nonlinear element (R2)
(Ignore for the
cuit.
construction
The curved
I
moment
is
the
E-l
in
the
cir-
the straight
line represents all of
the values of
which can flow through R2 for values of E2

If
for various values of
find the single value of
the requirements of both
second
may
line
IR-,
while E 2 =
IR
= E
T
-,
IR* we
have:
IR 2
is
satisfy
and R2.
called the load line of R-j
This
and
be identified by rearranging equation 5.1
to the form:
E1 = E
T -E 2
dividing each term by R-j, the relationship
becomes:
E^ we could
which would
R<|
By
we could
plot another line representing the values of

<|
since
lines.)
within the range of the curve.
through R
And
However, we know that

tuting this fraction for
simplifying, renders
= E2/R2-
on the
Substi-
right side
and
may be
This
rearranged into the form
plotted by drawing a straight line from the

value of E j on the voltage axis to the value
E j/R j on the current axis of the R E-l plot
2
ET
(See figure 5-3)
With the load

This
an equation of the form y =
is
which
(m)
is
The
a straight line.
is
- 1/R
mx +
is
while the x mtercept (found by letting
is
the load line
E /R
T
is
of
R-j
constructed,
(I) and the

R 2 (E 2 may be read by projecting the intersection of the R
2 E-l plot and
the load line onto the two axes, as shown in
potential across
equal
= Ey. This
2
2
of Rj and Ej, It may be
)
line
the values of the circuit current
slope of the line
the y intercept (b)
zero and solving for E
b,
at E
The value of E 1 may then be determined using equation 5.1 or Ohm's law.
figure 5-3.
MATERIALS
MultimetersiVOM)
Wattmeter (0-20W)
Variable
150
DC power
ohm
75 ohm
supply
resistor
resistor
28V pilot lamp

Lamp base
Sheet of linear graph paper
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the simple
series circuit
shown
in
figure 5-4.
DC
POWER
SUPPLY
Fig.
2.
5-4
The Linear Experimental Circuit
Set the power supply output to about 30 volts.

in
Measure and record
this quantity as
Ey
the data table. (Figure 5-6)
3.
Measure and record the circuit current
4.
Measure the voltage across each of the resistors and record the value across the 150
resistor as E and the value across the 75 ohm resistor as E
^
2
(I) in
23
the data table.
ohm
Using the wattmeter measure and record the total input power (Pj), the power dissipated
by the 75 ohm resistor (P^, and the power dissipated by the 150 ohm resistor (P 2 ).
Disassemble the circuit and measure the ohmic value of each resistor. Record these values
R 1 and R 2 for the 75 and 150 ohm resistor respectively. Also measure and record the
value of R j, the total series resistance.
as
Set up the circuit shown
in figure 5-5.
DC
POWER
PILOT LAMP
SUPPLY
Fig.
8.
5-5
The Nonlinear Experimental Circuit
Starting at zero, measure and record the lamp voltage and current every 3 volts up to
30
volts.
9.
Remove
the meters from the circuit and connect the 75
ohm
linear resistor in series with
the bulb across the source.

10.
Set the source voltage to about 30 volts.
Measure and record
this value as
E'j
in
the
data table.
11.
Measure and record the circuit current
(T),
the resistor voltage
(E'-j),
and the bulb
voltage (E'2).
12.
Using the specified values of
13.
From the computed value of Rj and the measured value

value of the circuit current
14.
R<|
and R 2 compute and record the value of Rj.

,
of Ej,
compute and record the
I.
Use equation 5.4 to compute the value of

puted value of Rj.
24
E-j.
In this calculation,
use
Ej and
the com-
Ej and
15.
From the value
16.
Using only computed values, calculate
17.
With the
18.
On
19.
Construct the 75
the computed E^, determine the value of
results of step 16
P-|
and equation
E2
using equation 5.1.
and ?2-
5.5,
compute the value of Pj.
a sheet of linear graph paper, plot the E-1 curve of the lamp.
data
in
ohm
load line on the E-l curve and determine
I'
and
E'2.
Enter these
the "computed" column of the data table.
With the
20.
of
results of step^l9,
compute the value of
E'-j.
LINEAR CIRCUIT VALUES

Qty
Computed
Measured
NONLINEAR CIRCUIT VALUES
E1
Qty
E2
1'
Computed
't
T
E'l
Pi
P
Measured
"1
R2
RT
E-l
PLOT DATA
E
Volts
12
15
18
Fig.
5-6
The Data Table
25
21
24
27
30
C nSldermg the results obtained
^ this experiment, you should compare

each case. Are the two values
relatively close to each
other? Doyourresults indicate that the
techniques used in computation were
reasonably effective?
1?
thp measured data to the

u
the
computed data
in
PROBLEMS
1.
Three
resistors of 100, 150,
source.
If
and 200 ohms are connected

the power dissipated by the 150 ohm resistor
voltage across the
200 ohm
What
3.
Derive the equation for E^ given
4.
What
is
the value of the source voltage
the
is
resistor?
2.
is
in series
in
in
problem
1?
the discussion as eq. 5.4.
power output of the source
26
in
problem
1?
across a voltage
0.5 watts,
what
is
the
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
SOURCE RESISTANCE
would be convenient
It
the operation of circuits attached to
we shall examine one of
it.
if
every electrical source were perfect and did not affect
Unfortunately, this
DISCUSSION. When the
current drawn from
If
we
factor
wide range, the terminal voltage of the source
the result
This variation
also.
in
El on
cancel
an electrical source varies over a relatively
tends to vary
not the case.
is
In this
experiment
the characteristics of a source which does affect external circuit operation.
out
R|_
the extreme right and
both
of
righthand
terms,
is
source
voltage with current can be explained by con(6.1)
sidering a resistance to be in series with the
Figure 6-1 shows a schematic
source voltage.
From
representation of this situation.
AAAr
may
known.
see that the
be determined
The source
if
the load
and load voltage are
resistance, source voltage,
we
this relationship,
value of R
s
voltage
is
the only one of
these quantities which presents a measurement
problem.
Since
we normally cannot go
a source, the value of E
TERMINALS
OF THE
SOURCE
the source terminals.
when no current
However,
is
most
in
minal voltage
is
inside
must be measured
at
This can only be done
flowing from the source.
practical cases,
if
the
ter-
measured with no load, the
value will be sufficiently close to the actual
Fig. 6-1
Source With Internal Resistance
By applying Ohm's
law,
we
is
equal to
Rs
it
can
be used for de-
sistance in series with
internal source re-
any
practical voltage
supply has a definite effect on the amount of
is
power that
=E S -IR S
EL
that
The presence of the
Kirchhoffs law can
be applied to the loop to determine that the

load voltage
termining R s
see that the
voltage developed across the internal source

resistance
of
va)ue
amount
of
a source can deliver to a load.
power
dissipated
The
by the load
in
figure 6-1 will be
Solving for
R s renders
ES
s
~E L
I
(6.2)
Es
EL
II
However, voltage divider action requires E|_

But since
= El/R|_, we can write
Rs =
EsR L
to be
ELR L
E L"
27
<R S +
RJ
Es
EXPERIMENT 6 SOURCE RESISTANCE

Squaring this expression and substituting
it
for
= c2
=E
P.
<R S
+R L
(6.3)
we
E s and R
power
is
versely proportional to R|_ as
R s were
between
)<
voltage
not simply
it
The nature of the
zero.
would be
squared
Expressed
relationship
of the resistance.
Figure 6-2 shows such a
plot (the solid line).
circuit
algebraically
this
We
(R S+ R
L
(6.4)
)
differ,
the question of efficiency arises.
reaching a
%eff. =-
maximum
x 100
decreases as R|_ increases.
Returning to the circuit diagram
(fig.
tions 6.3 and 6.4 for P
6-1)
should be observed that the total power is

the sum of the load power and the power
it
dissipated by the internal resistance.
Or
in
general
we
(6.5)
and substitute the relationships given
T =
If
define percent of efficiency as
observe from the plot
initially increases
is
Since the total power and the load power
that as the resistance increases from zero, the
to the total
c 2
PT =
if
R|_
when Rl= R then

s
(E/)
in-
and P L can perhaps best be

understood by plotting the power as a function
power
under
nonzero values,
are constant
see that the load
a source
The value of the total power can be determined by taking the ratio of the source
resistance.
If
damage to
overload conditions.
the power expression gives:
E|_2 in
heat which can cause
That
difference between the
equa-
and Pj
respectively,
L
the percent of efficiency becomes:
is
% ef f
x 100
(6.6)
+ p
s
in
plot of the percent of efficiency
The
in
figure 6-2 (dotted line).
other words, the total power will
not equal the
in
load
two
is
power.
the power
sipated as heat within the source.
It
is
dis-
served that at
this
is
at
6-2
It
should be obthe efficiency
50%.
Load Resistance
28
(RJ
shown
maximum power
PERCENT EFFICIENCY
Fig.
is
EXPERIMENT 6 SERIES RESISTANCES
MATERIALS
1
Multimeter
Audio
signal generator
Resistance decade box
2 Sheets of linear graph paper
PROCEDURE
1.
Inspect the audio signal generator and determine
put
level,
and
set the
AC
2.
Set up the multimeter for measuring
3.
Turn on the audio
4.
Connect the multimeter across the audio

about 10
volts.
how
to turn
it
off
and on, adjust the out-
frequency of the output.
signal generator
Record
and
voltage.
set the
frequency for 100 Hz.
signal generator
ohms
5.
Set the resistance decade box for 2000
6.
Connect the resistance decade box across the audio

multimeter connected as before.
opposite the R[_ = 2000
output and adjust the
this value in the data table (Fig. 6-2) as
ohms
Es
level
to
of resistance.
signal generator
Record the output voltage
output and leave the
(E|_)
in
the data table
entry.
decade box to
1800 ohms and record the output voltage
7.
Set the
8.
Repeat step 7 for resistance decade settings of 1600, 1400, 1200, 1100, 1000, 900,
800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 50, and 0 ohms.
9.
10.
resistance
(E
L ).
mmediately disconnect the resistance decade box.
Compute the
value of the internal resistance of the audio signal generator for each data
point and enter the results
in
the appropriate data table space.
Use eq. 6.1 for
this cal-
culation.
11.
Compute
the value of the load power for each data point and record the values
in
the
data table. (Use eq. 6.2)

12.
Using equation 6.4, compute and record the total power being produced by the audio
signal generator at
13.
On
each data point.
a sheet of linear
Plot resistance
graph paper, plot a curve of the load resistance versus the total power.
on the x
axis
and power on the y
29
axis.
EXPERIMENT 6 SOURCE RESISTANCE
E s = Volts
Rs
pl
pT
%eff.
2kJ2
1.8kft
1.6kn
1.4kft
1.2kJ2
1.1kS2
LOkft
goon
soon
700J2
600J2
500ft
40on
30on
20on
ioon
5012
Fig.
14.
15.
On
6-2
The Data Table
the same sheet of graph paper, plot a curve of load resistance versus
Compute
load power.
the percent of efficiency for each data point using equation 6.6 and record the
values in the data table.

16.
Using a second sheet of linear graph paper, plot the load resistance versus efficiency.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In
your analysis you should consider to what extent your
consistent with the theoretical ones.
If
your
results differ
they did.
30
from the
results
theoretical, explain
were
why
EXPERIMENT 6 SERIES RESISTANCES
PROBLEMS
1.
What percentage
of the
this value different

2.
If
its
3.
efficiency
is
117 volt
at
power did the load power reach?

maximum load power?
Why
is
746 watts, what would be the value of current

motor if the motor output was 1/4 horsepower and
equivalent to
electric
was 90%?
certain 90-volt battery supplies
the voltage across a

4.
total
from the efficiency
one horsepower
drawn by
maximum
84
volts to a
1000 ohm
load.
What would be
500 ohm load?
What would be the maximum power
that the battery
to a load?
31
in
problem 3 could supply
expert' men
INTRODUCTION.
PARALLEL RESISTANCES
possible to interconnect electric circuit elements in such a
It is
same voltage must appear across two or more elements.
way
that the
In this
experiment we
Rj
the total effective resistance of
shall
examine the
characteristics of this type of circuit.
DISCUSSION.
connecting
If
the resistance of the inter-
wires
negligible,
is
the
where
circuit
is
Substituting these
the parallel resistors.
shown in figure 7-1 is arranged so that the

same voltage is applied across each of the
lationships into eq. 7.1
re-
gives us:
resistors.
This type of circuit connection

a parallel circuit
Examination of the
reveals that the three

all
come from
is
called
circuit
But since
branch currents must
The sum of these
the source.
all
of the E j
divide each term by E j
are equal,
we may
and have:
currents will therefore equal the total source

current.
Or, in algebraic terms:
RT
+
1
be
to
the
we
(7.2a)
take the reciprocal of each. side of the
equation,
requires that the various currents
related
resistances
+ =r-+
R 2 R3
(7.1)
If
Ohm's law
R<|
we
arrive at:
source voltage and the
by
(7.2b)
'1
(
l
Either equation, 7.2a or 7.2b, allows us to de-
termine the value of the total effective
-IS
sistance of the circuit.
'23
<A>-
Fig. 7- 1
Parallel Circuit
32
re-
A
interest
arises
connected
7.2a
which
case
special
is
when only two

In
in parallel.
EXPERIMENT 7 PARALLEL RESISTANCES

of
We may,
particular
therefore, conclude that
resistors are
such a case, equation
= P
1
+P 2
+ P
3
(7.4)
becomes
for a parallel circuit.
1
Rj
R2
R<|
now
Let us
common denominator on
Taking the lowest
consider the current flow at
one of the branch junctions of the
circuit in
At the top of R 1 is
marked with an A. The current
23) flow-
figure 7-1.
the right gives us
a junction
(1
ing in the line to the right of point
R2
+Ri
R1 R2
Then taking the
is
flow-
away from the junction and is equal to

(l
I3).
+
is also flowing away from the
2
ing
I<|
reciprocals,
we have
junction,
while
junction.
The law governing current flow

was
junction
flowing
is
toward the
hence
called
is
Kirchhoff's
The law may be
Current Law.
at
formulated by Gustav
first
and
Kirchhoff
(7.3)
ly
stated as
follows:
This form
than
more than two
is
can be
and current flow away
R3
figure 7-1,
in
from a junction
re-
R 2 and
R-|,
whole
considered
alge-
braic sum of the currents at the
junction will be equal to zero.
thereby arriving at the
total effective resistance for the
is
be negative, then the
to
can be combined and then their result
combined with
considered to be pos-
tion
itive
resistors, eq. 7.3
For example,
current flow toward a junc-
In a circuit con-
used by successively considering pairs of

sistors.
If
perhaps more convenient to use

7.2a or 7.2b.
eq.
is
taining
is
circuit.
Applying Kirchhoff's current law to junction
The power
tribute itself
among
examine the way

tributed,
let
a parallel circuit will dis-
in
in
the various elements.
which the power
is
above renders
To
+It7 -
dis-
O2 +
I3)
= 0
us return to eq. 7.1

or
"T
If
we
=l
2 +I 3
"l
multiply every term
voltage, E
Comparison
is
source while Eyl-|,

dissipations of
reveals
that this expression
Kirchhoff's current law
T T =E T
R^
+ E
T 2
I
+E T
is
of
identical to equa-
tion 7.1.
I
the power supplied by the
and Eyl are power

3
R 2 and R3 respectively.
E-|-l
= 0
by the source
the result will be:
However, Eyly
" "2 " '3
2,
The current in a parallel circuit

manner similar to voltage division
circuit.
circuit
33
Let
shown
us
divides in
in a series
consider the two-element
in figure 7-2.
J
Fig.
7-2
Since the voltage across each element

to the applied voltage
we
Two-Element
is
Parallel Circuit
The conductance
equal
see that
is
(G) of an element (in mhos)
given by:
r-1
T R T =l 1 R 1
Equation 7.2a can, therefore, be rewritten

1
using conductances as
"r
1
Gj =
Substituting the relationship for
eq. 7.3,
we
Rj
have:
=
'l
G-j
+ G2 +
Gg
given in
and the
total
Rx=
T
(7.5)
'T R + R
1
2
Alternately, the similar argument for
resistance
2 ren-
Similarly,
ders:
may be found by
1
+ G2 + G 3
G-,
Ohm's Law may be expressed
in
terms of conductance as
it)
'2- T
l
= EG, E
(7.6)
r^tr:
or
Parallel circuits are,

In
dealing with
parallel
circuits,
it
by combining
is
sometimes convenient to use the conductance
of the elements rather than their resistance.
figure 7-3.
34
linear
on occasion, formed
and nonlinear elements.
simple circuit of this type
is
shown
in
Or
"1
(LINEAR)
Fig.
7-3
(NONLINEAR)
Nonlinear Parallel Circuit
Analysis of nonlinear parallel circuits
or from the
ones.
The current flow through

the nonlinear element may be found from
the E-l plot as indicated by the dotted construction on figure 7-4.
With the branch
currents known, the total current may be
a nonlinear element.
Total effective resistance and
The current flow through R<| may be determined either by Ohm's Law, l<| = E /R
T 1
found using conventional methods
is
somewhat more involved than simple linear

However, some insight into the operation of the circuit may be gained by considering the E-l plot of the two elements.
Figure 7-4 shows the E-l plots of a linear and
determined using Kirchhoffs Current Law.
currents are known.
VOLTAGE
Fig.
7-4
E-l Plots
E-l plot.
<E>
of the
35
Parallel
Elements
power may be
after the
EXPERIMENT7 PARALLEL RESISTANCES

MATERIALS
1
DC power
Variable
75
ohm
ohm
250 ohm
Glo-bar resistor
150
(VOM)
2 Multimeters
1
supply
resistor
resistor
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure the exact values of

(the
150 ohm
Record
resistor).
2.
Construct the circuit shown
3.
Adjust the
DC
R<|
250 ohm
(the
resistor),
R2
(the
75
ohm
and R 3
resistor),
these values in the data table, figure 7-5.
in figure 7-1.
supply for an output voltage of about 15
volts.
Record the value (Ej)
in
the data table.

4.
Measure and record the values of
and R 2
l^,
I3,
,
and the current
in
the line between
(I23)-
5.
Disconnect the source and measure the value of Rj. Record the results
6.
Remove R3
in
7.
(the
150
ohm
resistor)
and measure the resistance
(R<|
in
the data table.

ar, d
2 ) f ^1
R2
parallel.

resistor (R
in
figure 7-3 using the
250 ohm
resistor (R<|)
Adjust the source voltage to the value established
9.
Measure and record the currents
ly, \\,
and l'2
in
in
step 3.
the data table.
Disassemble the test circuit and set up the equipment to take

resistor.
and the glo-bar
).
8.
10.
R-|
Construct your
own
Measure and record
12.
Plot the E-l curve of the glo-bar resistor
measured value of
R-j,
data for the glo-bar
data table to record the values.
11.
E-l
E-l plot
up to
plot data for the glo-bar resistor
on
a sheet of linear
draw (no additional measurements
a voltage of 16 volts.
graph paper.
Using the
are necessary) the E-l plot
on
the same set of axes.

13.
Using the method described
in
the discussion, graphically determine
Kirchhoff s Current Law, determine

14.
Compute
15.
With
16.
Use the measured value of
ly.
Ey and
and
Using
Record these data as computed values.
the total resistance using eq. 7.2b and record
eq. 7.3,
\\
it
in
the data table (Rj).
effective resistance (R-|
the computed value of
result in the data table.
36
2 ) of
R-j
and R 2
Ry to compute
ly.
in parallel.
Record the
Qty
Measured
Computed
250 ohms
R2
75 ohms
150 ohms
R 12
"1
"3
'23
t
1
'?
't
Fig.
17.
18.
Compute
Ij
The Data Table
using measured values of
Ej and
Rj.
Record the value
Apply Kirchhoff's Current Law and the computed values of

value of 23. Record the result
1
19.
7-5
in
T and
Ij
the data table.
to determine the
the data table.
Use the current division relationships and

23 to determine 2 and 3
l
in
in
Record the values
the data table.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In this analysis of these data, consider the extent to
values agree with the
computed ones. What would be the most

ured data and how large would these be?
likely causes
which the measured

of error
in
the meas-
PROBLEMS
1.
The
total effective resistance of three parallel
elements has a resistance of 93 ohms.
elements is 27 ohms. One of the

The other two have equal resistances. What
ohmic values?
Compute the power dissipation of each resistor in the
periment Also compute the total power using E and
T
T
conform to the requirements of equation 7.4?
are their
2.
37
linear portion of the ex.
How well do these values
experimen
INTRODUCTION. Many
elements
may
in this
type of
DISCUSSION. There
employ both series elements and parallel

experiment we shall examine methods of analysis which
electric circuits
practical
the same network.
in
be used
SERIES PARALLEL RESISTANCES
In this
circuit.
are a
number of
The
alter-
nate approaches one can take to analyze the

series-parallel circuit
shown
in
R34,
result,
parallel
is
then combined with the
element R 2 as shown
,
figure 8-1.
in figure 8-2(b).
RoR
2 n 34
'234
R 2 + R34
Finally, the total effective resistance,
by combining
determined
element R
series
R234
Rj,
with
is
the
-j.
RT =
Thus reducing the
+ R
234
R-|
circuit to the single
element
of figure 8-2(c).
With
the
known, the
Fig. 8-
Series-Parallel Circuit
Perhaps the most traditional method

to start with the elements farthest
is
Ohm's Law.
then
be
from the
An
current, Ij, can be found
The branch currents may
determined and the voltage drop
alternate
would be to write
method to the circuit in figure 8-1, we would first combine the

two series elements R3 and R 4
Applying
total
using
this
quantity desired.
for
Rj
method of
circuit solution
a circuit equation for the
For example, the equation
can be written by starting at the source
and reasoning as follows:
Rj must
plus the parallel combination of
R 34 = R 3 + R 4
The circuit would then be reduced

shown in figure 8-2(a).
to the one
R T - R, +
R2R
|S^
T
34
(b)
Fig.
8-2
Simplifications of a Series-Parallel Circuit
38
( )
equal R
R 2 and R34.
34
+ R
34
AW
R
and voltage
resistance
across any individual element computed.
source and simplify the circuit by combining

elements.
total
However, R34
R4
Ry
so
In
like
sum
of
R3 and
be
will
RT
equal to the
is
EXPERIMENTS SERIES-PARALLEL RESISTANCES
both simple series and parallel
In
the total power dissipated
=R
+
3
R 3+ R 4
R 2^ R
R 2+
of
power
ments.
may
dissipations of the
some
expedient to apply the more
tradi-
it
tional
approach from
This relationship also applies
is
be derived.
Or,
A
may
voltage and current laws.
Since R and R34

2
the voltage (E ) across R
2
2
must equal the voltage (E3 + E4) across R34.
(8.4)
frequently encountered application of

is
the one which arises
single source.
Figure 8-3 illustrates
such an application.
parallel,
in
2 = E3 + E4
(8.1)
Similarly, the total voltage (Ey)
sum
of the voltages across R
Since E
1
8.2
the
out of the need to supply several voltages
from
be carried out by applying Kirchhoffs
in
this point on.
Analysis of a series-parallel circuit
E4 =
ele-
is:
T =P +P 2 + P 3 + P 4
series-parallel circuits
the
sum
individual
case of a series-parallel circuit. That
in
cases,
are
circuits,
equal to the
manner, the equation for any other
circuit quantity
also
is
and E
2
= E + E
1
2
IjR^
<|
must equal
^R^
<
8 2>
-
E3 = 2 R and
3
l
R 4' we can rewrite equations 8.1 and
as:
'l
R2 =
Ej =
Also,
we
'2 R 3
+ '2 R
4
JR 1 +
|-,R
(8 1a)
-
(8.2a)
see at the junction of the branches
8-3
Fig.
Voltage Divider Circuit
that
The
l
+ >2
<8 3
-
analysis of this type of voltage divi-
der circuit
>
any other
8.3)
l2>-
unknowns
They can be solved
(lj,
for the
l-|,
may
series-parallel
same way
arrangement.
as
How-
one should notice that the resistances

across which E<| and E
are applied are not
2
shown
and
may
unknown
currents using conventional algebraic methods.

With the currents determined, the other circuit quantities
carried out in the
ever,
These three equations (8.1a, 8.2a, and

form a set of three simultaneous linear
equations with three
is
in
the circuit.
of course be determined using
R L1
be computed.
39
The value of the loads
E
=
1
and
R L2

MATERIALS
DC power
supply
Variable
Multimeter
75
ohm
resistor
ohm
150 ohm
250 ohm
100
resistor
resistor
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record
2.
Assemble the
in
the data table, figure 8-5, the value of each of the resistors.
shown
circuit
network. Record the value
in figure
in
the data table.
-vw
A'
Fig.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8-4
Connect the source to points

Record
8-4 and measure the total effective resistance of the
this value as
Ej
in
and A' and
about 30
volts.
the data table.
Measure and record the voltage across each

Similarly, measure
set the source voltage to
resistor (E-j across
and record the current through each
E2
across R2, etc.)
resistor.
Use the measured values of the individual component currents and voltages to determine
the power dissipated by each resistor. Record the values as measured data.
7.
Using the measured values of power and eq. 8.4, determine the total circuit power and
record
8.
it
as a
measured value
in
the data table.
With the measured values of the individual

resistance
and record
it
as a
computed
value.
40
resistors,
compute the
total effective circuit
Measured Values
Qty.
Computed Values
R1
250 ohms
R2
100 ohms
R3
150 ohms
R4
75 ohms
ET
30 volts
E,1
E2
E3
E
'
'1
'2
'3
l4
P
1
P2
P3
P
4
Fig.
9.
The Data Table
Use the measured values of Ej and the resistance to determine computed values for the
individual
10.
8-5
component
voltages, currents,
and powers.
Take the sum of the computed values of power and record

total
as the
computed value of
power.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. An
methods of
it
important part of the objective of this experiment
analysis appropriate for use with series-parallel circuits.
In
is
to examine
examining your data, you
should place particular emphasis on the extent of the validity of the analysis techniques used.
Specifically, you should consider the extent of agreement between your computed values and the
measured ones.
41

PROBLEMS
1. A certain
voltage divider of the type
shown
in figure
8-3 has a source voltage of
and E 2 are 190 volts and 90 volts respectively, while

1
20mA. What are the values of R lr R and R ?
2
3
E
volts.
1f
2 and
,
250
h are
all
2.
In
Problem
1,
what
total
power
is
delivered to the loads?
How much power
the source supply?
3.
What
are the values of the load resistances in
4.
What
is
Problem 1?
the total effective resistance connected across the source
42
in
Problem
1?
must
%M MULTISOURCE NETWORKS
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
many
In
practical cases, electrical
and electronic
circuits involve
which more than one source supplies current to a network. In this experiment we
an analysis technique which is appropriate for use in such a case.
in
DISCUSSION. A good example of two sources
common
sharing a
load
of an automobile.
is
Figure 9-1
is
the loop
schematic
summing the
Each voltage
representation of such a circuit.
shall
examine
any point and proceeding around
starting with
the charging circuit
arrangements
voltage drops and
rises.
assigned the algebraic sign of
is
the polarity on the input side of the particular
element.
E^
is
Thus,
and E3 are positive while
E<|
negative.
The loop equation may be transformed

by observing that
=
E-j
E3 = I3R3
and
R1
Making these substitutions renders

l
Fig. 9-1
might think of E
A as the automobile battery and Eg as the charging device (generator
R-j
for the loop including Eg, R2, and
R3
the load (headlights,
'2 R 2
+I 3 R 3- E B = 0
<
common way
lyze the operation of such a circuit
is
elements
to ana-
To
write a loop equation
we
the circuit,
in
it is
write other loop equations.
to write
illustration only,
loop and nodal equations using Kirchhoff's

laws.
92
-
>
etc.).
Since these two loops include
Perhaps the most
will be:
and R2 would then
be the internal resistances of the sources while
R3 would be
(9.1)
manner, the equation
In exactly similar
We
or alternator circuit).
R 1 + 3 R 3 -E A = 0
l
Multisource Network
that there
first as-
is
of the
For purposes of
worthwhile to observe
is
loop formed by E
A
a third
The loop equation
R2, and Eg.
sume directions of flow for each of the currents If, 2, and I3. Then mark the polarities
it
all
not necessary to
R^,
for this third
loop would be:
of
the voltage drops across each
(This has been
done
in figure 9-1.)
select a closed loop, such as the
element.
We
then
one formed
by E^,
R-j
voltage
law the sum of the voltage drops
from equation
available
may
+E B -E A
= 0
may
by subtracting equation 9.2
9.1
and therefore does not
contain any circuit information not already
have:
This equation
-l 2 R 2
also be arrived at
around this loop must be equal to zero, we
-E A
Inspection will reveal that this equation
and R3. Since from Kirchhoff's
E1 + E
3
from equation
9.1
and
9.2.
= 0
Because equations 9.1 and 9.2 contain
be readily arrived at by
three
43
unknowns
(l-j,
I2,
and
I3),
it is
neces-
EXPERIMENT 9 MULTISOURCE NETWORKS

sary to find a third independent equation
these three quantities.
Such
a third
Solving the nodal equation for
in
and substk
tuting into the loop equation renders:
equation
can be written for the circuit node (or junclocated at point 0.
tion)
This equation
will
41
15l
10= 0
be:
and
Ij
+ 2
l
= 0
(9.3)
- 17l
21
1
The
and 9.3) may now be solved simultaneously

for the current values.
known, any other
- 12
= 0
Multiplying the lower equation by 2 and then
With the currents
circuit quantity
may
two equations
subtracting the
gives
be
found.
49I3+ 14 = 0
Since
volved,
it
somewhat inperhaps worthwhile to work

technique
this
is
is
through a numerical example.

circuit
three current equations (9.1, 9.2,
shown
from which
Consider the
in figure 9-2.
l
= -0.29 amps
4a
Substituting this value back into one of the
loop equations provides
and
9-2
= 3.57 amps
similarly,
Fig.
= 3.86 amps
Typical Multisource Circuit
Current directions and polarities have been
marked and the loop equations
The
are:
fact that I3
worth noting.
tive sign
4^ + 1513-10=0
tion
is
The
is
that I3 actually flows
opposite to that shown
Similarly, the positive signs
and
number
a negative
is
significance of the nega-
in
in
the direc-
figure 9-2.
(now shown) of
1^
2 indicate that they do indeed flow
in directions indicated in the figure.
and
2I
- 12 = 0
2 - 15l 3
The nodal equation
in this
case
~ '2 " '3
= 0
With the values of the currents determined, the individual element voltage drops,
is
power,
'l
etc.,
may
tomary methods.
44
be computed using the cus-
EXPERIMENT 9 MULTISOURCE NETWORKS
MATERIALS
2 Variable
DC power
supplies
250-ohm
150-ohm
100-ohm
Multimeter
75-ohm
resistor
resistor
resistor
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure the ohmic value of each of the
resistors
and record the values
in
the data table
(figyre 9-4).
2.
in
figure 9-3.
"4
ioon
-WNr-
-AAAr
I50n
250H
Fig.
3.
As
9-3
The Experimental Network
accurately as possible, set the value of E A to 30.0 volts and
multimeter to measure
Do
these voltages.
Eg
to 24.0 volts. Use the
not rely on the voltmeter contained
in the
power supplies.
4.
Measure the current flow through each

for the current through R<j;
resistor
2 through R 2
and record.it
in
the data table.
manner, measure and record the voltage drop across each
5.
In similar
6.
Disconnect both sources and replace source Eg with a short

effective circuit resistance
(R^) from the
E^
(Use
l<|
etc.).
E^
resistor.
circuit.
Measure the
total
end.
end and measure the resistance (Rg) from the Eg end.
7.
Similarly, short circuit the
8.
Using the measured values of individual element voltage and current, compute the power
dissipation of each element
9.
and record the values as measured data.
With the measured values of source voltage and current, compute the power supplied by
each source (P^ and Pg). Record these values as measured quantities.
45
EXPERIMENT 9 MUL TISOURCE NETWORKS
Qty.
Measured Value
Computed Value
30 volts
30 volts
24
24
volts
volts
R1
100 ohms
R2
150 ohms
R3
250 ohms
R4
75 ohms
RA
RB
h
'2
'3
'4
E1
E
E4
P
1
T
Fig.
9-4
The Data Table
Determine the
total network power dissipation (P

T by taking the sum of
component powers. Record the result as a measured value.
)
vidual
all
of the indi-
Use the specified values of resistance and voltage. Write loop and
nodal equations for the
and record the results as computed data.
circuit currents
46
EXPERIMENT 9 MULTfSOURCE NETWORKS
With the currents from step
12.
1 1
and the specified values of
compute the values
resistance,
of the individual element voltage and power.
Assuming Eg to be shorted, compute the value of
13.
R^
using the specified values of the
resistors.
compute Rg.
14.
Similarly,
15.
Compute the
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
total source
In evaluating the results of this experiment,
the measured values to the
RB
tion
power (Pj) by taking the sum of P A and Pg.
computed
ones.
In particular,
you should
in
general
consider the significance of
Were these the values of load applied to each of the sources? Did the
found in step 10 agree with the source power in step 15?
compare
R^
PROBLEMS
1.
Discuss the conditions which must exist
in
figure 9-1 for the value of I2 to be equal
to zero.
2.
Write loop equations and solve for the values of
l^, I2,
and
I3 in the circuit
shown
in figure 9-5.
3.
Repeat problem 2 with the positions of the 10kfi and 20k2
200V
Fig.
9-5
Circuit for
47
Problem 2
and
total circuit dissipa-
resistors reversed.
experimen
INTRODUCTION.
10
NETWORK THEOREMS
theorems are
In electricity,
techniques of circuit analysis.
It
little
more than formalized statements of
theoretically and empirically.

in
In this experiment, however, we

examining the utilization of the theorems rather than their proof.
DISCUSSION.
The four most commonly
countered network theorems

1.
Thevenin's Theorem.
Any
only
containing
tances and sources
by
a single
en-
are:
network
may
two-terminal
resis-
be represented
and constant
voltage source connected in series.

2.
Norton's Theorem.
Any
network
only
containing
tances and sources
by
Superposition
flow caused
circuit
sum
by
is
resistor
examples we
first
given in figure 10-1.
determine the current
(l
Let us
through the load
L
R L using each of the circu it theorems
)
above.
AAA,
resis-
and constant
in
parallel.
The current
sources
in
equal to the algebraic
source taken
separately in turn
while the remaining sources are replaced
4.
for the
circuit
consider
component currents from
of the
each
several
the most appropriate one
is
be represented
connected
is
The
shall
listed
linear
Theorem.
by
branch
it
two-terminal
a single linear resistor
current source
3.
may
rem, whether
be primarily interested
shall
for the problem or not.
linear
linear resistor
useful
of course, possible to establish these theorems, either
is,
10-1
Fig.
Circuit
Used in the Example
their respective internal resistances.
Delta-Wye Transformation.
Any
1.
three-
terminal network (sometimes considered
Thevenin's
Theorem.
Thevenin's Theorem,
To apply
we disconnect
in a
the load at points
delta configuration can be converted to a
compute the open
circuit voltage
four-terminal network) which
corresponding
wye network and
is
between
vice-
versa.
applied
one
of
the
network
some explanation before
requires
shown
points as
in
figure 10-2.
i-r^VVV
Each
the
and A' and
in circuit analysis.
theorems
AAA,^
R
may be
Perhaps the best way
it
to explain their uses
is to work through a circuit

example with each theorem in turn.
It should be understood that in a
particular
problem one theorem may be more appropriate
'
10V
15V
"
analysis
than another.
purpose
is
In
Fig.
48
ion
AAAr
AAAr
the following examples, the
to illustrate and explain each theo-
10f2
10-2
The Circuit with the Load Removed
The
total
resistance
in
EXPERIMENT
the circuit will
+ R 2 + R3 +
RT =
NETWORK THEOREMS
10
be
R4 =
30 + 20 + 10 + 10 = 70SI
The
total current will be
E B" E A
'T'
RT
70
= 0.071
4A
be
Finally, E s will
From
The Thevenized Circuit
10-4
Fig,
this
circuit
we can compute
E s" E B" 't r 2 " 't R 4~
15- 1.428-0.714= 12.858

Next we determine the
across points
Eg with
short circuits as
2.
circuit resistance
and A' by replacing
shown
12.858
= 0.1 098
117.15
Rs + R L
volts
E^
and
l|_
by
As above, we
must develop an equivalent circuit
Norton's Theorem.
we
To develop
using Norton's theorem before
in figure 10-3.
determine
can
l|_.
the equivalent circuit one proceeds

just
with Thevenin's Theorem
as
until the values of
found.
and R are
s
Then the value of Norton's
constant
current generator
is
de-
termined by
Fig.
10-3
Circuit for Determining R
Rcs =
will
"
The Norton's equivalent

10-5
The value of R s
_ E s _ 12.858 " n
U 749
Rs
17.15
may now
circuit of figure
be drawn.
be
(RT + R 3 (R 2 + R4)
)
R 1 + R2 + R3 + R4
s
17. 15^
(30+
30 +
(20+
10)
(40) (30)
20+ 10+
10
70
10)
17
1KO
A'
The Thevenized equivalent circuit of

10-1 can now be drawn as in figure
figure
10-4.
Fig.
49
10-5
The Norton's Equivalent Circuit
EXPERIMENT
NETWORK THEOREMS
10
The value of the
may now
load current
be
R2+R4
determined.
^=
SR S +R
0.749
'LA =l TRpfR
117.15"
= 0.1098
If
is
Superposition Theorem.
ing the superposition
eliminate
In apply-
consider that R
in
0.0366
figure 10-6b.
MV
all
their internal resistance.
0.1587-^^=
is restored to the circuit and E

A
removed, then the circuit appears as in
but one source at a

time by replacing all other sources
by
+ R/
source E
B
we
theorem,
<
Let us
figure 10-1
is
the internal resistance of source E

A
while R
is the internal resistance
2
source
of
Eg
source
Eg.
If
we
eliminate
(by short circuiting
the circuit
shown
as
is
in
it),
figure
10-6a.
Fig.
-AA/V-
10V
100ft
LA
AW
10ft
The
10-6a
can
RT
=R2 + R4 +
r
R<L
+R
1
1
Rg)
> 20 + 10
+ R
3
<
100
be found
>
= 58.6ft
by conventional
R1 + R
3
= 0.256
R|_ + R^ + R3
R 3 + R/
RiL
P
r
+10
f4Q
'T^- ^6 -0-256 A
component caused by E
A
methods.
Ro+
3
EB Shorted
Circuit With
now
LB
R T = Ri1 +
RjjRj +
as before
ion
AAAr
load current
circuit analysis
EA Shorted
^Lb) mav now be determined
EA
Fig.
Circuit With
The component of the load current due to
ion
30ft
10-6b
-VSAr
jf
+ R
,
30+ 10= 100(20

o+
+R
1
0 =
)
40
= 0.0732
140
6305n
The net current through R

L may now be
computed by
50
=
1
LA + LB
1
- 366
- 7 32
0.
098
EXPERIMENT
In general electricity,
Thevenin's
then by substitution
per-
is
NETWORK THEOREMS
10
we
find,
haps the most frequently encountered of the

three theorems.
In electronics,
'1W + R 2W
Norton's Theorems are ex-
Thevenin's and
R 3D
however, both
R 3D
<
R 1D +
2D>
+R 1D +R 2D
tensively used.
Another
Delta-Wye Networks.
4.
ful
transformation technique
is
next
consider
use-
Let
that
ignoring terminal
us
terminals
and
3,
and
3,
of converting a delta network into
equivalent
its
Let
vice-versa.
consider this
us
the
of
derivation
R 23W = R 2W + R 3W
wye network and
equations with the help of
R 1D R 2D + R 3D*
R 1D + R 2D +R 3D
<
transformation
and, n 23W
figure
10-7.
Let
next
us
consider
terminals
ignoring terminal 2:
R 13W = R 1W + R 3W
R 1D + R 3D)
R 1D + R 2D +R 3D
R 2D
and, n 13D
2
WYE NETWORK
NETWORK
DELTA NB
(b)
(a)
Subtracting
Fig.
First,
let
us consider terminals
network.
each
equivalent,
Delta-Wye Networks
10-7
<
If
the
circuits
are
to
we
R<|
obtain,
R 12W" R 23W = R 1W + R 2W* R 2W + R 3W*
and 2 of
R 23 equivalent from
the
<
<
be
n 1P
n + Ron)
*3P (Ri
2D'
R 3D + R 1P + R 2D
*
equivalent, then,
R 1D R 2D + R 3p)
R 1D + R 2D + R 3D
<
R 12W = R 12D
So,
In
diagram
a (ignoring terminal 3),
and
in
12W
diagram
find,
1W + R 2W
1W"
n 3W-
R 2D R 3D " R 1D R 2D
R 1D + R 2D +R 3D
b,
120
= R
we
R 3D R 1D + R 2P)
R 3 D +R 1D + R 2D
and assuming Ri 2 y\/
And by adding the R13

above, we obtain,
is
to be equal to
R-|
2R 1W-R
2 d*
51
equivalent to the
2R 2D R 3D
1d
+R 2D
+ R 3d
EXPERIMENT
NETWORK THEOREMS
10
And,
can,
to
by
similar
technique,
be
determined
be:
R 2D R 3D
1W
R 1D
+R 2D +
Using the same approach,
R 3D
R 1D _
we then can
R 2D~
R 2W
1W
de-
termine the delta circuit equivalents for
and R 3W
R 1W R 2W + R
2W R 3W + R 1W R 3W
R 1W R 2W + R 2W R 3W + R 1W R 3W
R 2W
R 1D R 3D
R 1D + R 2D + R 3D
R 3D~
R 1W R 2W + R 2W R 3W + R 1W R 3W
R 3W
R 1D R 2D
R 3W~
R 1D + R 2D + R
3D
These above equations can also be very useful
The
wye-to-delta
equations
transformation
in
the analysis of various circuits.
MATERIALS
2 Multimeters
DC power
2 Variable
1
75
ohm
(VOM)
supplies
100 ohrn
resistor
150
ohm
resistor
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record
in
2.
Assemble the
shown
3.
Adjust the source voltages E A and
circuit
the data table (figure 10-11) the values of the three resistors.
in
figure 10-8.
Eg
to about 25 and 15 volts respectively.
Record the
values of the voltages in the data table.
"2
JWSr-
AAAr
I50n
75ft
25V
15V
loon
Fig.
10-8
The Test Circuit
52
EXPERIMENT
10
NETWORK THEOREMS
the 100
L through
4.
Measure and record the value of the current
5.
Measure and record the value of the voltage (E L ) across the 100
6.
Disconnect the 100
ohm
it
in
in
and
A'.
ohm
load.
load.
Measure the open
circuit
the data table.
the data table.
10-9. The resistance

Disassemble the test circuit and connect the circuit shown in figure
the power
R s can be formed using the values of resistors specified in the materials list. Set
monitor
to
connected
voltmeter
supply to the value of E s measured in step 6. Leave the
the value of E s
9.
it
ohm
resistance (R s ) and
Using Thevenin's Theorem, compute the value of the effective source
record
8.
load resistor at points
voltage between the points (E s ) and record

7.
(I
Do not connect the
load resistor in this step.
that the
Connect the load and measure the value of the load voltage and current. Be sure
value of E s
is
maintained during this step.

record the value of the Norton's equivalent current
(l
).
10.
Compute and
11.
circuit shown
Disassemble the Thevenized circuit and construct the Nortonized
10-10.
Fig.
Do
10-9
not connect the load resistor
in figure
in this step.
The Thevenized Circuit
Fig.
53
10-10
The Nortonized Circuit
EXPERIMENT
10
NETWORK THEOREMS
12.
Adjust the voltage E until the current meter reads the value of
13.
Connect the load and measure the values of

current
is
held to the value
computed
in
and
l|_
E|_.
Be very sure that the source
step 10.
14.
Disassemble the Nortonized equivalent circuit and reassemble the original test
15.
Set the voltages E

A and E
16.
Replace the
to source
18.
levels
measured
Remove the E B source from the network and

record the load current
17.
B to the
Eg
Eg
source,
(I
in
circuit.
step 3.
replace
it
with a short
Measure and
circuit.
LA due to the E A source alone.

)
remove the E source, and determine the load current

A
(l
LB due
)
alone.
Determine the net load current from the values of the component currents.
Record
this
value as measured data.

19.
Using the appropriate technique

based on the specified values of
Qty
Computed
in
R-j,
each case, compute the remaining data table values

R 2 R|_, E A and Eg.
,
R2
150
'L
75
100
25V
15V
Measured
Thevenized
Nortonized
Circuit
Circuit
Qty
>
Superposition
'L
'LA
'lb
'l
Computed
Measured
Fig.
10-11
The Data Table
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The purpose of this exercise has been to demonstrate use
tiveness of the three network theorems. In considering the significance of your
data,
examine the extent of agreement between the various values of Ei and
54
and
effec-
you should
EXPERIMENT
10
NETWORK THEOREMS
PROBLEMS
1.
In the
network shown
Thevenized resistance
2.
if
in figure
0-1 2,
what would be the open
R4 were considered
Determine the values of

10-12 if R were the load.
6
and R s of the Norton's equivalent
40n
12
Circuit for
55
and
the load?
50^
Fig. 10-
circuit voltage
Problem
circuit for figure
expert men
WHEATSTONE BRIDGES
INTRODUCTION. The wheatstone

experiment we
shall
bridge circuit
is
very widely used
examine the operation of the bridge
circuit
in
measurement work.
In this
under balanced and unbalanced
conditions.
DISCUSSION. A wheatstone bridge circuit is

composed of two delta networks having one
common
Therefore, at balance
Figure 11-1 shows a typical
side.
The center
bridge network.
is
usually a current meter.
is
in
we have
E 3= E
resistance (R|_)
When
the bridge
or
the condition called balance, the current
T R
1
+ R
3
+ Rg
T R + R
2
from which
R2
R4
Taking the reciprocal of each side gives
R2
R 1 + Rg
Fig.
11-1
R4
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
through R|_ (the current meter)
is
zero.
which may be rewritten
For
as
condition to exist, the voltage drop across

R|_ must be zero.
Or in other words, the
this
potentials at each end of R

other.
(E
This
across
across R4.
will
L must equal each

only occur when the voltage
R 3 is equal to the voltage (E

4
With zero current flow through
)
and
finally
subtracting
*!
R3
Tr^Tr^
from
each
side
provides
R|_, the values of E3 and E

4 may be found
by voltage divider action to be
E 3- E
=tt^+
R2
(11.2)
R4
This equation gives us the condition that
and
result in a
When
will
56
be
will
balanced bridge.
the bridge
is
not balanced, there
current flow through R
|_
(the current
The amount of
meter).
determined
shown
in
by
figure
EXPERIMENT
this current can
Thevenizing the
bridge
WHEA TSTONE BRIDGES
1 1
be
as
1-2.
Fig.
1-3
Determining
Rs
The Thevenization of the bridge may now be

as shown in figure 1 1-4.
completed and drawn

Fig.
11-2
The open
Bridge With the
circuit voltage (E
Load Removed
at the load ter-
minals will be
Es =
E3
E4
Substituting the relationships from equation

11.1 gives us
Fig.
=EC Tr
s
The Thevenized Bridge
1-4
ft*
EC
+ r
3
Tr 2 +r 4
The current through the load

be determined by
(l
now
can
which may be written as
-E Tl/
3
+ R
R S +R L
"4
R 2 + R4
In
And the source
resistance
R s of the Thevenized
can be found by replacing
circuit
Ej with
short circuit and redrawing the circuit as

figure
Rs
of
is
many
practical applications, the value
so small (R|_
be neglected.
In
in
figure
The
be seen to be
R 1 R3
R
+ R
J
very large) that
may
it
such an application the
cir-
1-2.
usual application of the bridge as a
measuring device
RS =
is
cu it diagram of the bridge becomes that shown
in
1-3.
may then
is
implemented by making
three of the legs fixed resistances
R2 R4
(R^ R 2 R3
,
for instance).
R 2 + R^
The remaining
resistor (R
is
variable used to sense the quantity to be meas-
57
EXPERIMENT
WHEA TSTONE BRIDGES
1 1
ured (temperature, force, or pressure, for exSince R-j and R3 are fixed values, E3
If
ample).
also be a fixed value
will
When
this
the case, E
is
portional to the
varies
if
will
R4
is
very small compared to
R2 + R4, we
can write this as
L is very small.
be directly pro-
AE 4 =E T
amount (AR 4 by which R 4

value. From the dia)
from the balanced
^2 AR 4
(R 2
+R 4
:
>
gram we see that
Now
R4 + AR4
:
AE 4 =E Tr
since
E3
constant,
is
2+ r 4 + A R 4
E
new
be the
will
amount
=AE 4
Therefore,
form
R4 +
*E 4 =E T
Then
happens that
value of voltage at the junc-
R 2 and R 4 after R changes by the

4
AR 4 We may rewrite this in the
tion of
it
AR 4
-
substituting equation
-E,
11-1
for E
4 we
or in other words, the output voltage (E
have
the
ar 4
c
Tr 2 +r 4 + ar 4
R4 +
R4
R2
common denominator
Finding the
bridge
change
in
is
directly
proportional
to
of
the
R4.
+R 4
and sub-
For the specific circuit of figure 11-2

and when E is defined as E = E - E
s
s
3
4 then
E will increase with a decrease in R
s
4 and
likewise E will decrease for an increase in R
s
4
tracting gives us
R qAR>i
C
T(R 2
+ r4 +
AR 4 )(R 2
+ R4
MATERIALS
DC power supply
Variable
Multimeter
ohm
75
100
resistor
ohm
150
ohm
resistor
250 ohm
resistor
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record the ohmic value of each of the specified
2.
Assemble the
circuit
shown
in
figure
1-5.
58
resistors.
Use the resistance decade box for R

L
EXPERIMENT
E
Fig.
1-5
3.
Set the
4.
Measure and record the load current
5.
Remove
level
of E
WHEA TSTONE BRIDGES
The Test Circuit
to about 15 volts and record the value
in
the data table.
the meter from the circuit, then measure and record each of the currents
(through R^,
2 (through R 2 ), 3 (through Rg), 4 (through R 4 ), and
l
6.
11
Disconnect the load and measure the open circuit load voltage E
s
l-j
7.
Remove
8.
Connect the multimeter to measure the open
9.
Measure and record the value of the open circuit load voltage (E for R values of 100,
s
4
200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, and 1000 ohms.
ohm
the 100
resistor (R
4 and replace
)
it
with the resistance decade box.
circuit load voltage.
10.
Connect the 100

of the values of R
ohm
4
resistor as the load.
given
Measure and record the voltage (E

L for each
)
step 9.
in
11.
Using Thevenin's Theorem, calculate the value of
12.
Write Kirchhoff
13.
Calculate the percent difference between each pair of
14.
On
Law equations and
L with the circuit as
solve for each of the currents
Similarly, plot the value of
it
was
measured
59
in
step 5.
values.
axis) versus the
axis).
R 4 versus E on
L
in step 4.
computed and measured
sheet of linear graph paper, plot the value of R (along the

4
ured values of E (along the

s
15.
second sheet of graph paper.
meas-
EXPERIMENT
1 1
WHEA TSTONE BRIDGES
Measured
Computed
Percent
Data for Load
Values
Values
Difference
Voltage Plot
Qty
R4
Ou
Ohms
100
4
b
250H
200
10012
300
OV
400
500
'l
1
'1
600
In
'2
700
hO
800
900
't
1000
11-6
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
open
ohm
The Data Table
In the analysis
circuit load voltage
of these data you should consider the extent to which the

was directly proportional to the variation in value of R
4 Did the 100
.
load change the extent of proportionality?
If so,
why?
PROBLEMS
1.
What would be the

in
total resistance of the circuit
on the supply (Ej)
if
the bridge
the experiment were balanced?
2.
What would be the Thevenized
3.
Why
4.
Assume
are the values
found
that the bridge
inside an oven.
If
in
in
resistance of the bridge at balance?
problem
and problem 2 different?
the experiment
the bridge
is
is to be used to measure the temperature

balanced at 400F and each volt of E in step 9 is
equivalent to a change of 10F, what was the
experiment?
60
maximum
temperature reached
in
the
experimen
INTRODUCTION.
12
METER CIRCUITS
Basic electric meters play a vital role in any electrical laboratory situation.
experiment we
this
shall
examine the
In
ammeter, voltmeter, and
internal circuitry of an elementary
ohmmeter.
DISCUSSION. The most commonly encountered type of instrument movement is the

permanent-magnet moving-coil
system.
simplified sketch of this type of instrument
shown
the coil will be
T-|
m Nd
is
in figure 12-1.
PERMANENT
MAGNET
POINTER
= Fd = Bl
is
is
the diameter of the
number
the
point
is
that B,
coil.
coil
and d
The important
N, and d are constants
The torque
given meter.
on the
of turns
in a
therefore directly
is
proportional to the current:
Tl-K,l m
This torque
is
torque of the
directly
through
MOVING COIL
SPIRAL
That
spiral spring.
generates
type
opposed by the counter-
directly
proportional
which
spring of this
countertorque
its
to
which
is
angular distance d
moves from
end
rest.
is,
COUNTERTORQUE
SPRING
T~2
Fig.
12-1
Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil
Instrument
coil,
iron
DC
it
current
will
just
tend to rotate about the soft
core due to simple motor action.
overall result of the
the pointer swings up scale until the coil torque
passed through the moving
is
two opposing torques

that when current flows in the moving coil,
The
is
As
equals the spiral spring countertorque.
The meter pointer comes to
The
force acting on each wire of the coil will be
F = Bl
where B
is
is
the coil length and
rest
when
T2 = T 1
or
the flux density established by the
permanent magnet,
is
= 1^2$
K2 m
m
The meter
the current.
reading,
6,
is
therefore directly
proportional to the coil current.
coil
This
situ-
ation allows us to build a meter with linear
Since this force acts on both sides of the

simultaneously, the total torque acting on
scale markings.
61
EXPERIMENT
WHEA TSTONE BRIDGES
1 1
SWITCH
In
12-2
Fig.
many
current to
Shunted Instrument
practical cases, the
be measured
12-3
Fig.
amount
of
Figure
enough to
cause the torques to come to balance beyond
typical
(off scale) the range of the scale marking.
resistor
such an event,
it
is
is
large
In
reasonable to consider the
possibility of diverting a portion of the

current
is
The value of the
series
selected so that a voltage within
the adjustable range of the source will cause

full scale current to flow through the
meter.
For example,
twenty
fixed resistor.
12-3 shows a circuit for deter-
instrument.
around the meter movement.
Figure 12-2
with the meter shunted by a
Rm
mining the approximate value of R

m for
shows
a circuit
Determining the Value of
mA
E T is adjustable from zero to

and the meter has a zero to
range, we might choose R-j as
if
volts
Applying the current division principle,

we see that the current through the meter
movement
will
10
be
0.001
= 10k ohms
r +
(12.1)
Ft
The source is set for

meter. The switch
other words, the current through the instrument will be directly proportional to the
In
total current
constant
if
the values of R and R

s
(linear).
could, therefore, be
is
now
on the
closed and R
2
is
adjusted until the meter reads exactly onehalf the full scale value. The value of R
is
are
now
The scale of the meter

marked to indicate values
equal to R
With R
m known, we
may now find the

value of a shunt resistance to provide any
desired full scale current reading.
Equation
of lj directly.
If the value of R
m is known, values of
R s can be calculated to provide any desired
current measurement range greater than the
basic range of the
a full scale reading
12.1
may
be solved for R as follows:

s
'm-'TR s +
movement.
62
Rm
(12.1)
EXPERIMENT
First
multiply both sides of
by(R s
+R m
equation
tional to the current
):
m R m" 't R s
will
R s terms on the
collect
't r s~
'm R s
(l
we wish
If
'm R m
and divide by (lj -
to the meter
than
to measure values of voltage
Em
at
full
scale,
shown
a multiplier resistance as
mRm
turn
that the deflection
necessary to connect the meter
T-'m
in
meter de-
the
voltage.
left:
R s terms,
Rs
to
proportional
be directly
greater
Now factor the
and the current
we may conclude
flection,
directly propor-
is
proportional
directly
is
+
'm R s
Then
meter voltage
Since the
12.1
METER CIRCUITS
12
it
only
is
in series
with
in figure 12-4.
The value of R v required to change the full

scale indication from E
m to Ej may be found
):
by observing that
Ej
=R m
Rs
R v + R m~
_-^TL
rn
Let
us
current meter
that
how
illustrate
may
we wish
or
the
mA
meter to
measure currents up to 100 mA.

suppose
Rm
has
been
The
the
value
of
To
Further,
measured and found to be 50 ohms.
that
R v~
range of a
be changed by assuming
use
to
(12.2)
illustrate,
'm
mA, R m =
(12.3)
us presume
let
wish to use the meter

(l
Rm
in
the
last
that
50ft) to measure 25 volts
The required value of R v
full scale.
required shunt resistance will be
Ej
R s- R m|
=(5Q)
0.001
0.1
Rv "
-0.001
"
Rm
25
0.001
50
= 25,000- 50 = 24,950ft
= 50 (0.011) = 0.55 ohms
It
-wv
of course, possible to construct an
is,
instrument having several ranges by using a

range selector switch and appropriate values
METER
of shunts.
MOVEMENT
E
The
basic
instrument
may
APPLIED
VOLTAGE
also be used as a voltmeter.
We know from Ohm's Law
that the voltage
across the meter will be
F
L m = 'm R
nm
I
Fig.
63
12-4
we
example
Voltmeter Circuit
will
be
EXPERIMENT
METER CIRCUITS
12
The sensitivity (s) of a voltmeter is

defined as the ratio of the meter resistance
Rm
to the full scale voltage E
That
ZERO ADJUSTMENT*
is
R
In
the above example, E
sensitivity of the instrument
50
= 1000
OQg
METER
MOVEMENT
50 mV, The
is
is
^^JJNKNOWN
^'^RESISTOR
then
ohms
per volt
BATTERY
We
can observe that

m = E m /R m or in
= 1/s
Equation 12.3 may
m
therefore be rewritten as
l
other words,
Fig,
Series
The value of R
v
When an unknown
(R x
-R m
R v = sE T
is
Ohmmeter
R v = sE T
R m = 1000 x 25
and
A',
the circuit current will be
(12.4)
in
value of resistance
connected between points
the example above could

have been determined by
_!!>._
s
R + R + R
,.
50
If the instrument is to work
properly, then
the reading of the meter must be the same
value as that of R
We may solve the above
= 25,000 - 5 = 24,950fi
As
12-5
the case of the ammeter, a multirange voltmeter may be constructed using a

range selector switch and appropriate multi-
x>
in
equation for this value by first multiplying

each side by (R + R + R ):
x
Q
m
plier resistors.
IR
circuit as
may
source
If
shown
included
is
in
the
meter
+ 'R +
0
figure 12-5, the instrument

be used to measure resistance.
in
Then, subtracting
To
set
up the instrument, one short

A and A' and adjusts
IR
circuits the test points
R Q for
full
scale
(I
= E
b
R Q + R m from each
I
-l(R 0+ R m
side,
deflection.
This reading
corresponds to a resistance {R
x
measurement of zero ohms. The value of R
(full
'Rm-E b
scale)
>
which
Finally,
dividing
both sides by
I,
we have
produces
this
result
is,
of
course,
Rx =
Eb
T" (R o +R m>
(12.6)
(12.5)
From
64
this
equation
we
see that
R x (the
EXPERIMENT
12
METER CIRCUITS
=
i
Fig.
meter reading)
is
12-6
*n
Nonlinearity in an
not directly proportional to
scale will therefore not be linear.

a
plot
of
meter current
As
in
Scale
reading
ohmmeter
Figure 12-6
(I)
Ohmmeter
meter
The marking of the ohmmeter
the current.
shows
(R x
as
the case of other
ohmmeter may have
versus
well
as
typical
scale.
basic
meters,
an
several ranges.
MATERIALS
1
0-1
mA
Multimeter
18-in. piece of
12-in. steel rule
meter
1
Variable
DC power
No. 30 nichrome
supply
0kfi-2W
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Examine the meter and
2.
Check the mechanical zero adjustment of the meter and
3.
Turn on the variable
identify the positive and negative terminals.
DC power
supply and allow
it
to
set the pointer for a zero reading.
warm
up; set the output for zero
volts.
4.
Connect the power supply, 10k2
5.
Carefully increase the
resistor
and meter movement
power supply voltage
65
until the
in series.
meter reads 1.0 mA.
EXPERIMENT
METER CIRCUITS
12
6.
Connect the resistance decade box directly across the meter movement.
7.
Adjust the resistance decade box until the meter reads 0.5 mA.
Record the setting of the
resistance decade box as R
8.
9.
Disassemble the setup.
Connect the
shown in figure 12-7. Set the DC supply for zero output and
use the
box for the 2kfi resistor. Connect the nichrome wire shunt using
circuit
resistance decade
6" of No. 30 nichrome
about
wire.
DO NOT CUT OFF THE SURPLUS NICHROME WIRE
-VNAr
2kfi
DC
SUPPLY
6"
0-1
SECTION
mA
METER
#30 NICHROME
WIRE SHUNT
SURPLUS
NICHROME
MULTIMETER
Fig.
10.
until the multimeter reads 10 mA.

If the 0-1
meter
deflects off scale, check the connection of the
shunt wire and shorten it if necessary. The
mA
scale.
14.
15.
when 10
mA
is
flowing
in
the circuit.
By
mA
DC supply, read and record the meter indication

of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0
and 10.0 mA.
adjusting the
(l
Disassemble the setup.
Connect the
circuit
plier resistor,
Rv
Set the
DC
(|
for circuit
Carefully measure and record the length of the shunt

wire.
shown in figure 12-8. Use the resistance decade box

The DC supply should be set for zero volts.
supply to 10.0 volts as indicated by the

multimeter.
should not indicate

16.
full scale
mA meter and lengthen the shunt wire a small amount. Reconnect

meter and observe its reading. Repeat this process
until the meter reads full
The multimeter should still read 10 mA.
currents
13.
meter should not read
mA
Disconnect the 0-1

the 0-1
12.
The Experimental Ammeter
Slowly increase the voltage

0-1
11.
12-7
WIRE
for the multi-
The 0-1
mA
meter
full scale.
Reduce the setting of the resistance decade box until the 0-1
The multimeter should still read 10.0 volts. Record the
mA
meter indicates
final value
66
full scale.
of the multiplier, R
By varying the
17.
EXPERIMENT
voltage, read
METER CIRCUITS
12
and record the meter indication (E

m for voltages (Ej) of
9.0 and 10.0 volts.
)
1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0,
0-1
mA
METER
Fig.
12-8
The Experimental Voltmeter.
Ammeter Data
'm
'T
Ohmmeter Data
Voltmeter Data
Rx
(mA)
(volts)
(ohms)
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
100S2
3.0
3.0
500fi
4.0
4.0
1k2
5.0
5.0
10k2
6.0
6.0
20kfi
7.0
7.0
40kfi
8.0
8.0
40kfi
9.0
9.0
60kfi
10.0
10.0
100kft
R
l
Rm
Rs
Rs
Rv
Rv
Eb
Eb
(Meas)
(Comp)
(Meas)
(exp)
(exp)
(comp)
(Meas)
(Comp)
Fig.
12-10
The Data Table
67
EXPERIMENT
METER CIRCUITS
12
wv
1Gkfi
FIXED RESISTOR
RESISTANCE
DECADE
BOX
0-1
D.C.
mA METER
SUPPLY
A'
Fig.
12-9
The Experimental Ohmmeter
18.
Disassemble the voltmeter circuit and set up the circuit shown
19.
Short circuit the points
and A' and adjust the
meter. Measure and record the voltage, E

b
20.
Remove
the short from points
the percent of
maximum
R x of 100ft, 500ft,
21.
22.
23.
full scale
reading on the
and A' and connect the resistance decade box. Read

deflection of the meter and record this value as R
for values of
0/o
1kft, 5kft, 10kft, 20kft, 40kft, 60kft,
m and the meter

(comp) required for a 10 mA range.
and 100kft.
full scale current,
Compute and record
the value of the resistance of the nichrome wire shunt R (exp) using
s
the measured length of the wire and a wire table.
With the measured value of R

m and the meter
value of a multiplier resistor, R
24.
supply for a
Using the measured value of R

value of R
DC
in figure 12-9.
full scale current,
v (comp) necessary for a 10 volt range.
Use equation 12.5 to determine the voltage necessary to construct an ohmmeter

with R
Record this value of E (comp).
b
value of 10k.
25.
On
three separate sheets of linear graph paper, plot
versus R i.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In analyzing these data,
versus
m Ej versus E m
,
you should consider two main
and R
points.
These
points are:
a.
How well do the various computed values compare with the corresponding measured values?
b.
Are the curves plotted consistent with appropriate mathematical analysis?
68
EXPERIMENT
12
METER CIRCUITS
PROBLEMS
1.
Using a
mA meter with an
an assortment of
DC
ranges of 0-1
2.
Make a sketch of
3.
What was the
4.
Explain
in
resistors,
internal resistance of
draw
100 ohms, a 10.1 -volt battery and
a neat circuit diagram of a single instrument with
mA, 0-1 0 mA, 0-10 volts, and 0-100kft. (Show
all
values.)
a meter scale that could be used with the instrument in problem one.
sensitivity of the voltmeter circuit used in the
your own words
why
an ohmmeter scale
69
is
experiment?
nonlinear.
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
it
results.
.T
In this
In general electrical laboratory
09868
emP ' yed
experiment we
shall
examine
in
work, voltmeters and ammeters play a central

m3king measur ements does have an effect on the
this aspect of laboratory
DISCUSSION. Let
us suppose that we have a

simple series circuit like the one shown
in figure 13-1.
Further suppose that we wish to
measure the voltage across, and the current
through the resistor R

2 The two parameters
which we wish to measure will be equal to
.
in
work.
we may
figure 13-2 or
elect to
make both
measurements simultaneously employing

ther figure 13-3(a) or 13-3(b).
method of
figure 13-2
If
ei-
the separate
is
used, the results will
R! + R 2 + Rj
(13.2a)
be
=
I
R.j
+ R
2
(13.1a)
and
and
Eo=E T
R 2 RV
Ri
R+ Ri R 2 +R 2 R
1
E-5
= E
i
R 1 + R2
(13.2b)
V
(13.1b)
When we undertake to actually measure

two quantities, we are faced with a
choice.
We may decide to make the meas-
where R, and R are the resistances of the

v
current meter and the voltmeter respectively.
these
urements separately using the circuits shown
Fig. 13-1
Equation 13.2a would be exactly equal

if R
were zero ohms. On the
other hand, we can compare equations
13.1b
to 13.1a only
Simple Series Circuit
70
Current Measurement
(a)
Fig.
and 13.2b most favorably

indeed.
If
Rv
is
much
13-2
if
Rv
is
(b)
Measuring
Quantities Separately
very large
comes the same
larger than either
+ R2RV
That
We
racy
is,
uring
R 1 RV
+R
R2
+R 2 R V ^R
RV
as 13.1b.
or
R2, then the denominator of 13.2b can be

seen to approach R-jR
Voltage Measurement
+R 2 R V
see then that the conditions for accu-
when
I
using the separate
method
of meas-
and E 2 are that the current meter
should have the lowest possible resistance,

while the voltmeter should have the highest
Rv
if,
>
possible resistance.
and R 2
we choose to make both measurements

simultaneously, we must choose one of the
circuits shown in figure 13-3.
If
When
this
is
the case, R
cancels
in
the nu-
merator and denominator and eq. 13.2b be-
(a)
Short Shunt
Fig.
13-3
(b)
Long Shunt
Alternative Simultaneous Meter Connections
71
EXPERIMENT
No
E
13
E2
10mA
3 volts
2.48 volts
9.1
Fig. 13-4
Long Shunt
Short Shunt
Separate Meas.
Meters
mA
E2
2.24 volts
mA
9.68
7.24
2.9 volts
mA
Data From the Example
Let us examine each alternative in turn.

The short shunt method of figure 13-3a will
R Rv + R 2 Rv
+ R R +R|R v +R 2 R v
1
v
ET
C
Eo=
2
R R 2 +R R
1
give us results of
(13.4b)
and
I
(13.3a)
R2Rv
Ha + Rt +
R2
+R v
and
=
R| +
= E
C
Eo=E
T
2
R2
TR
R 2 +R 1 R| + r 1 R v + R R v + R 2 R v
I
R2Rv
(13.4a)
R 1 R 2 +R 1 R V +R|R 2 +R|R V
Once
(13.3b)
again
we observe
that these results are
not equal to the ones found before. How,

ever, in this case too, if R| = 0 and R =
v
Inspection
of
then the results become equal to the original
equations reveals that
these
case.
would differ both from the original circuit and from the results of the separate measurement method. However, if R| = 0
and R v = , then these results become the
same as the original conditions.
these results
all
fairs
10.0
ohms and R 2 = 300 ohms.

volts, R
1
Moreover, suppose that R| = 100 ohms and
R v = 1000 ohms. The results of the four cases
If
would then be as given in figure 13-4.
00
each
=
=
chosen,
then
are
0 and R v
R|
13.2b,
Ej =
= 700
allowing R v to be so large that R v + R 2 in

Eq. 13.3a will be approximately R v only. R v
then cancels in Eq. 13.3a and 13.3b becomes
equal to
Let us suppose that
example.
This conclusion can be seen by removing

terms involving R (they will be zero), then
which may
Perhaps this rather confusing state of afwill be clarified by tabulating a numerical
of the four sets of results are equal to the
"No Meters"
condition given
in
figure 13-4.
be simplified as
before.
From
In
will
should be apparent that the choice of meter

characteristics and technique can have con-
the case of the long shunt circuit of
figure 13-3b, the current
the discussion and example above,
it
and voltage readings
siderable effect on measured results.
be
72
EXPERIMENT
13
MATERIALS
2 Multimeters
mA
0-1
Variable
(VOM)
permanent-magnet, moving-coil meter
DC power
supply
10kl2
5kJ2
2W
2W
resistor
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Compute
the value of a multiplier resistor to be used with the 0-1
volt voltmeter circuit.
Record
Rv
this value as
in
mA
Construct the voltmeter using the resistance decade box as the multiplier.
3.
Assemble the
shown
0-10
in a
the data table, figure 13-5a.
2.
circuit
meter
figure 13-4.
in
R
1
WV
Fig,
4.
Set the
DC power
13-4
supply for an output of about
2 volts.
Record
this quantity as E
the data table. (Fig. 13-5a)

5.
Set up the multimeter for measuring
DC
current and insert into the circuit at point
in
in
figure 13-4.
6.
Measure and record the
7.
Connect the voltmeter, constructed
in
readings of both the current meter
2 and the voltmeter (E 2
8.
step 2, across the 10k resistor only and record the
in
figure 13-5b.
Reconnect the voltmeter across both the current meter and the 10k
readings as E and
2
2
l
9.
circuit current as Ij in the data table, figure 13-5b.
Move the voltmeter

tor only.
resistor.
Record the
to the position required to measure the voltage across the 5k2 resis-
Record the readings
as
and E
73
-j
in
the data table.
EXPERIMENT
Rv
13
Ri
R2
't
Meas
Meas
Meas
Comp
Fig.
Multimeter
Qty
Comp.
13- 5a
Comp
Const.
E2
Si
Comp
Comp
Circuit Data
Multimeter
0-1
VOM V
meter
mA
&
&
&
Multimeter
't
h
E
'i
E
E
i"
'2
E2
'2
E2
E 2"
Fig.
10.
Instrument Comparison Data
Again move the voltmeter to indicate the voltage across both the 5k2 resistor and the
current meter.
11.
13-5b
Record the meter readings as ^ and

I
E-j' in
the data table.
Remove
the current meter from the circuit and measure the voltage across the 5k2
resistor
and the 10k2
resistor
individually.
Record these values
as E<|"
re-
and E2",
respectively.
VOM
12.
Repeat steps 5 through
13.
Disconnect the voltmeter circuit constructed

the circuit at point
1 1
using the
of figure 13-4.
74
to measure the voltages.

in
step 2
and
insert the 0-1
mA
meter into
14.
EXPERIMENT
13
Repeat steps 6 through 11 using the multimeter for the voltage measurements and the
mA meter for the current readings.
0-1
15.
16.
17.
Disassemble the test circuit and measure and record the ohmic values
of R
Record the values in figure 13-5a.
and R 2
Calculate and record (in figure 13-5a), using only the applied voltage and the measured
resistance values, the circuit current and the voltage drops across each of the resistors.
Determine and record the sensitivities of the constructed voltmeter.

S j in the data table, figure 13-5a.
Record
this value
as
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
a.
To what extent
you should consider the following points:

did the measurement techniques used affect the results?
b.
Does instrument
c.
Was one technique superior to the others? Why?

Is the sum of the two readings taken in step 1 1 equal
d.
sensitivity
have an effect on measurement accuracy?
to.
the applied voltage? Explain why.
PROBLEMS
1.
Assume
that the resistances
nected
2.
in
13-5 were
50 and 100 ohms instead of 5kfi

current meter and the multimeter (voltmeter) were conlong shunt across the 100 ohm resistor, what should the readings
be?
and 10kfi.
If
the 0-1
What would be the
in figure
mA
results in
problem
if
75
the meters were connected short shunt?
was perhaps the
Electrostatic charge
INTRODUCTION
14
experiment
DISCUSSION. The
of charge on
a single
electron
is
in capacitive c.rcu.ts.
is
that the capacitance
very small,
unit called a
usually deal with a larger
One coulomb is equivalent to the
0=
coulomb.
charge of 6.24 x 10
We
can
electrons.
define electric
current
as
(I)
number of coulombs of charge
the
being
of time: that
passing a given point per unit
is,
as the
head
(14.1)
we could
amount
time
in
the current
is
of
charge
in
in
amperes,
coulombs,
is
and
ratio
since
of the capacity to the pressure
can hold
is
This
We
electricity.
electrical
capacitance
quantity
of
charge
is
10,000
gallons.
ft.
Electrical
material that a container
high
has a
two conductors
material
can, therefore, define

as
(in
of
the
coulombs)
to
the
is
capacitance
exists
are separated
is
by
whenever
a dielectric
The value of capac-
proportional to the area of
to
the conductors and inversely proportional
The capacitance of the tank
14-1
ratio
the
{insulator).
itance in farads
capacity of
Fig.
in fact,
(14.2)
called the capacity of the container.
tank 20
is
directly
is
what we,
the
t
For instance, we might say that a cylindrical

water
head
pressure
the
seconds.
The amount of
gal/ft.
express the capacitance
pressure (in volts). That
where
500
tt
related to the level.

in
was
^^=1^^==
2U
height
Alternately,
do
observed electrical Ph e " omen "

this experiment we shall exam.nethe
the
the quantity of water required to raise
say
could
For this tank we
level one unit.
basic unit of electric charge
However, since the amount
the electron.
we
In
in electricity.
holdâ pStion of vast importance

and distributed
manner in which charges are stored
SJ
is
first
Charging a Capacitor
76
EXPERIMENT
Fig.
the distance between them. That

6
14-2
ELECTROSTA TIC CHARGES
14
Capacitors in Parallel
However, we see from equation
is,
It
where the constant of proportionality,
e,
14.1
that
Therefore,
is
called the permitivity of the dielectric.
Q T = Q +Q 2
1
If
as
we connect
shown
in
a capacitor across a source,
must account for the charge distribution
14-1, current will flow
figure
momentarily into the capacitor, making the

voltage across
it
parallel
In
circuit.
charge delivered by the source
equal to the source voltage.
sum
The charge stored by the capacitor can be
in
other words, the total

is
equal to the
of charges on the individual capacitors.
found using equation 14.2.
From equation
is
coulombs, C
in
we observe
that
CE
QT = C T E,
Q
14.2,
in
is
farads,
and E
Q<|
C-|
E and
Q2
= C E.
2
is
in volts.
Substituting the
CE
products into equation
14.3 gives us
If
we
place
two
(or more) capacitors in
parallel across a source, as in figure 14-2, the
currents flowing at junction
C T E = CÊ + C 2 E.
can be seen
to be related by
Dividing each side by E renders
t =i 1 +
Ci + c
(14.4)
C-|
If
we multiply each
side of this equation
by
t,
the result will be
which, of course, means that the total capacitance
T t=
l<|t+
2t
of
equal to the
77
several
capacitors
sum of the
in
parallel
is
individual capacitances.
EXPERIMENT
ELECTROSTA TIC CHARGES
14
across
series
in
figure
series
capacitors
we can connect
Alternately,
source
Capacitors in Series
14-3
Fig.
indicated
as
Substituting these relationships into the one

involving voltage yields
in
simple
14-3.
Since the circuit
connection, the current through each
is
QI= Q 1
C-p
element
is
C2
identical:
is,
that the
charges are
They may,
'i
we have determined
However,
That
Q2
C-]
therefore,
equal
(Eq.
all
14.5)
this case.
in
be canceled
in
each
term, providing
And
we
if
multiply these quantities by
J_
t,
C-|
we have
l
or
in
T t= 1^=
This
equation
(14.6)
c2
informs us that
in
series
connection, the reciprocal of the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals
other words,
of the individual capacitances.
Op
which
Q<l
and the
the source are
that
us
tells
capacitor
all
the
total
equal
(14.5)
Q2
charge
on
While equation 14.6 holds for any number of series capacitors, it is unusual to have
more than two in series at one time. There-
each
charge drawn from
in value.
we may
fore,
taking the
Returning to figure 14-3,
rearrange
common
14.6
by
we may observe
J_
that
C-|
But,
equation
denominator,
T =E 1+
from equation
Qt
c;
14.2,
Q
E1 =
c2
(14.7)
o[
andE
Q2
which
2"C^-
sum
78
is,
of course, the familiar product over
equation.
EXPERIMENT
14
MATERIALS
1
Wrist watch with a sweep-type second
Single-pole, single-throw switch
Multimeter (internal resistance 10
hand (supplied by the student)

1
Variable
2 10juF
DC power
600V
oil filled
supply
megohms
or above)
capacitors
VOM
0
DC
switch
volts
Fig.
14-4.
PROCEDURE
shown
14-4 using a single capacitor.
1.
Connect the
2.
Short circuit the capacitor with
3.
Set the
4.
Adjust the source voltage for reading of 10.0 volts on the
5.
circuit
VOM
in figure
to the 15-volt
DC
a clip lead.
range and close the switch.
Determine the input resistance of the

the meter to give the reading set
NOTE: The
in
VOM. Compute the current that must
step
4.
Record
following steps (6 through 9) will require
smoothly.
do them
circuited
It is,
therefore, suggested that
for data.
and
the
7.
At the chosen time, quickly remove the short
8.
As the capacitor
DC
starting
To
flow through
in part 1.
before they can be carried out
several times before attempting to
always start with the capacitor short-
point on the seconds scale of your wrist watch.

circuit
from the capacitor.
charges, the charging current (and therefore the

offset this effect,
source to maintain the
be done smoothly.
skill
10.0 volts.
Choose some convenient
of the
some
you practice
6.
tend to decrease.
this value as
In practicing the operation,
VOM reading
VOM.
VOM
you
will
VOM
reading) will
need to gradually increase the output
reading at 10 volts.
It is
very important that this
EXPERIMENT
9.
14
After the capacitor has charged for 90 seconds

the experimental
(1
minute, 30 seconds), open the switchiy
circuit.
of the data table.
10.
Record the charging time (T)
11.
Using the charging current and time, compute the total charge on the capacitor(s) and
record
12.
in
it
Remove
part
the data table.
VOM
the
Be careful not to touch the

that would allow some of the charge to leak off through your body.
and the capacitor(s) from the
capacitor terminals as
13.
in
circuit.
Quickly measure the voltage stored by the capacitor.
Do
to the capacitor longer than necessary to get the reading.
not leave the
Record
VTVM
connected
this value as
in
the
data table.
14.
Using the values of
and
E,
compute the capacitance of the capacitor and record
it
in
the data table.

15.
Repeat steps
through 14 using the other capacitor and record the results
in
part 2
of the data table.

16.
Repeat steps
through 12 using the two capacitors
in
parallel.
Record the data
in
part 3 of the table.

17.
Measure and record the voltage across each capacitor, (E 1 and E 2 ).
18.
Using
(Q<l
19.
and C 2 from parts 1 and 2 respectively, compute the charge on each capacitor
and Q 2 and record it in the data table.
C-|
Using the appropriate equation from the discussion (14.3, 14.5), compute the value of
the total charge (Qj).
20.
Compute the percent
21.
Using the value
22.
Using the values of
Qj
difference between
Qj
and Qj.
and the appropriate voltage, compute Cj.
C 1 and C 2 found
in parts
and
2,
compute Cj with the appropriate
equation from the discussion (14.4, 14.6, or 14.7).

23.
Compute the percent
24.
Repeat steps
tions for
C T and
Cj and
Cy.
through 12 and 17 through 23 using the two capacitors
this data in part
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
difference between
4 of the
in series.
Record
table.
analyzing this data, pay particular attention to the validity of the equagiven in the discussion. Also, discuss the method used to measure the
In
charging current.
80
EXPERIMENT
QT
Part
c2
Part 2
QT
C1
14
E2
El
Q2
Diff
Diff
QT
Part 3
QT
E1
E2
Part
F/gr.
Q2
Qi
74-5
Diff
CT
qt
CT
Diff
CT
The Data Table
PROBLEMS
1.
Consider two series capacitors charged from a source such that
QT
If
we
Q<l
Q2
carefully disconnect the capacitors and reassemble
charges (which are equal)
become
+
Q2
additive.
That
would seem then that by reconnecting them

much charge as was supplied by the source.
2.
20
i^F
capacitor
connected across
What
will
is
how
parallel, their
^
this
way we can
retrieve twice as
this could possibly be true.
charged to 100 volts.
10
in
2Q T
It
Write a paragraph explaining
them
It is
then removed from the source and
uF capacitor which has been
similarly charged to
200
volts.
be the voltage across each capacitor after the charges redistribute?
81
INTRODUCTION When a
is
of time
charged through a resistance, a predictable amount
relationship
In this experiment we shall examine the
charge.
capacitor
required to transfer a given
between charge and time
in
an
CAPACITOR CHARGING
15
experiment
RC
is
circuit.
DISCUSSION. Consider the simple RC
for
Substituting E Q /R into this relationship
renders
circuit
of figure 15-1.
At the
the
instant
voltage
when the switch S

the
across
capacitor
closed,
is
(15.2)
zero.
is
even
Since Kirchhoff's law must be satisfied
must
voltage
at that instant, the full source
As the capacitor
charges, the value of the
charge increases according to
initial
be impressed across the resistor. The
be
therefore,
current in the circuit must,
Q C = CE
.fo
I
'O
<
15
and must eventually reach the value,
Q C = CE 0
As the capacitor begins to charge, the voltage

In
across the resistor tends to decrease.
words, the current in the circuit de-
At
other
this
equation
point
1
5.2 for
creases as the capacitor charges.
the current from changing

charge
by varying the voltage, it is possible to
the capacitor at a constant rate.
If
we prevent
we can
Q c and
CE Q
into
get
CE o=lf*
Canceling E 0 and solving for r renders
r= RC
Fig. 15-
substitute
An RC
Charging Circuit
82
(15.3)
EXPERIMENT
fn
By Kirchhoffs
other words, the time required to charge
the capacitor at a constant rate to a voltage
capacitor
EC
to
seconds
if
in
is
ohms and C
is
in
law,
the voltage across the
is
Q can be found by taking the

product of R times C. Time, r, will be in
equal
CAPACITOR CHARGING
15
=E 0 -Er
Ep
Substituting the value for
farads.
into this
re-
lationship gives
length of time (r =
The
above
RC
one time constant for the
called
is
RC) discussed
E c = E o " E 6 -r/RC
o
circuit.
As mentioned above, if no attempt is

made to hold the charging current constant,
it
decrease
will
the
as
capacitor
or
(15.6a)
charges.
Figure 15-2 shows a plot of current versus
time
are
the
for
condition
where
EQ
and
15-1
where
= n
\
is
will
the
is
in
figure
closed at r = 0, then the equation
describing the capacitor voltage
Ec = E0
(1
e-^/RC) +
becomes
E] e
-r/RC
or
number 2.718.
circuit current given in
voltage
is
(15.4)
RC
the natural
With the
15.4,
a relationship
fc
-r/RC _ Z_
-r/RC
e
voltage E| before the switch
initial
constant.
The equation describing such
the capacitor has been charged to an
If
equation
drop across the
Ec =
resistor
e,
+ (E Q
- E|) (1 - e
- r/RC
)
(15.6b)
be
Using this equation, the value of the voltage

IR = E
-t/RC
across the capacitor
(15.5)
time
Fig.
15-2
Current in an
83
r.
RC Circuit
may
be found for any
EXPERIMENT
we
If
connect
in
it
take
a
in
CAPACITOR CHARGING
15
capacitor
charged
circuit of the
The
and
voltage
when the switch
through the resistance
And
according
according to the relationship:
r/RC
c o e"
Ec = E
c
(15.7)
fc
will
decrease
the
Using this equation, we may determine
time, r,
voltage across the capacitor any
to
-t/RC = !o -t/RC
R
._.
1
current will be
subsequent current
the
as
" 'o e
Fig.
vary
and capacitor are in

the capacitor voltage will ateo change
'o
and
initial
will
since the resistor
parallel,
such a case, the
resistor
r/RC
E R = IR = E 0 e-
is
closed.
In
the
according to
type shown
15-3, the capacitor will discharge
figure
across
15-3
it
discharges.
An RC Discharge
Circuit
MATERIALS
DC power
Variable
Multimeter (11
supply
megohm
resistance
10juF
Switch (SPST)
Watch with sweep second hand (supplied

by student)
or above)
1
oil-filled
capacitor
PROCEDURE
1.
Connect the
2.
Compute
3.
circuit
shown
in figure 15-4.
the value of one time constant and enter
Short circuit the capacitor with a

for a VOM reading of 12.0 volts.
clip lead, close
84
it
in
the data table (Part
1).
switch S, and adjust the power supply
EXPERIMENT
CAPACITOR CHARGING
15
0-30V
10juF
DC
POWER
SUPPLY
Fig.
4.
15-4
Quickly remove the short circuit from the capacitor and allow to charge for one time
Keep the
constant.
VOM
reading constant at 12.0 volts by continuously adjusting the
source voltage. At the end of one time constant, open switch
5.
Using the
VOM,
S.
measure and record the value of the capacitor voltage (E

in Part 1 of
c
this measurement quickly and do not leave the meter connected
)
Make
the data table.
across the capacitor longer than necessary.
6.
Determine the meter input resistance and compute the value of the charging current.
Record it as Q in the data table (Part 1).
l
7.
Using
Q and the charging time, compute and record the value of the charge
on
'
the capacitor.
8.
Using
and E c compute the capacitance of the capacitor.
Record the
result in the
data table.
9.
10.
Compute and record
Reconnect the experimental

of step
1 1
the percent difference between E n and E.

circuit as before (figure 15-4)
re-establish the conditions
3.
Remove
the short circuit from the capacitor and record the
the value of the power supply output this time.

reading every 30 seconds for 10 minutes.
12.
Compute the
13.
Using Kirchhoff's law, E
14.
and
Starting at
Record these values
value of the circuit current for each
= E
- E
Q
R
VOM
VOM
in
reading.
0,
Do not change
record the
VOM
part 2 of the data table.
reading taken
compute the capacitor voltage
in
step
for each
12.
VOM
reading taken
in
On
sheet of graph paper, plot the values of current and capacitor voltage
single
step 12.
versus time.
85
EXPERIMENT
15
ELECTRONICS/ELECTRICITY^
CAPACITOR CHARGING
VARIABLE
DC POWER
SUPPLY
VOM
Fig.
Assemble the
15.
circuit
15-5
shown
With the switch closed,
16.
The Second Experimental Circuit
in figure 15-5.
power supply
set the
this value in the data table, part 3, opposite
17.
Open
18.
On
VOM
the switch and record the
for a
VOM
reading of 12.0 volts.
Record
0.
reading every 30 seconds for 10 minutes.
second sheet of graph paper, plot the values of the capacitor voltage taken
in
step 17 versus time.
C and the meter input
resistance for R, plot the equation
19.
Using the measured values of E Q
20.
on the sheet of graph paper used in step 14.

r/RC on the sheet of graph paper used
Similarly, plot E c = E 0 e"
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In
in
step 18.
the analysis of these data you should discuss the extent to which the
plots of the equations (steps
20 and 21 agreed with the

)
plots of the measured data.
PROBLEMS
1.
How many
time constants are required to charge a capacitor to
95%
of the supply
voltage?
your answer
2.
Is
3.
Draw
in
problem one true for any values of R, C, and E 0 ?
a sketch of the voltage across the capacitor
shown
changes position every second.
Fig.
15-6
Circuit for
86
Problem 3
in
figure 15-6
if
the switch
RC
EXPERIMENT
E0
Ec
15
CAPACITOR CHARGING
Diff
12.0V
Part
ER
,(Min)
(VOM)
Ec
(Min)
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.5
4.5
5.0
5.0
5.5
5.5
6.0
6.0
6.5
6.5
7.0
7.0
7.5
7.5
8.0
8.0
8.5
8.5
9.0
9.0
9.5
9.5
10.0
10.0
Part
Part 2
Fig.
15-7
The Data Table
87
s
experimen
OSCILLOSCOPE MEASUREMENTS
16
INTRODUCTION. The cathode ray oscilloscope
is
used as an instrument of electrical measurement

we shall examine the operational techniques
about as much as basic meters. In this experiment

appropriate for use with this instrument.
DISCUSSION. The
in
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
cathode ray tube (CRT).

of
employed
essential device
such
tube
shown
is
is
When
3.
fluorescent screen,
the
The operation of the CRT can be explained by considering three basic sections:
screen in a
the
If
we apply
horizontal
voltage
across
plates
deflection
in
the
known
the
that the spot
to measure voltage.
bent away from the negative plate

and toward the positive plate. This
The operation
tends to cause the
beam
will
to
tube.
Similarly,
the
of a practical oscilloscope
functional block diagram
The
vertical deflection
(on the lower
left
BASE WITH
HORIZONTAL
CONNECTING
DEFLECTION
PLATES
VERTICAL
DEFLECTION
PLATES
hi
v
J L
BEAM DEFLECTION
SECTION (2)
ELECTRON GUN
(1)
Fig.
6-2.
16-1
control circuits
of figure 16-2) allow us to
the vertical deflection.
applied to them.
SECTION
in figure
position the spot vertically and to calibrate
and magnitude of the voltage
PINS
shown
vertical
deflection plates can bend the beam

up and down depending on the polarity
hori-
can be better understood by considering the
move
and forth horizontally across
back
the
beam
the
moves on the screen can be used
be
deflection section, the
to
applied
vertical deflection plates.
the extent of the deflection per volt is

for a particular CRT, then the distance
If
along the length of the tube.

2.
light
manner dependent upon
voltages
zontal and
The electron gun generates a narrow

beam of electrons which is directed
spot of
spot on the screen moves on the
light
strikes the
is
16-1.
figure
beam
generated indicating the location of

the beam. The overall effect is that the
pictorial sketch
in
the electron
Pictorial of a
88
FLUORESCENT
SCREEN (3)
CRT
EXPERIMENT
The horizontal deflection control circuits

provide the same functions as the vertical
circuits,
but
in
16
2.
"sweep
circuit" because
4.
The
spot
input volt.
focus
in
the
This control must
be calibrated before the oscilloscope
and
used to
bration
voltages to
will
measure voltages.
be
discussed
oscilloscopes
have
the
The Sync
or
following
(Int-Ext) switch determines

started
is
by some external
(EXT)
signal
position.
6.
The
in
by the input voltage (INT) position
functions:
1.
Cali-
later
thisv^cperiment.
5.
intensity.
The operational controls of most common

of
vertical
of vertical displacement
whether the scope sweep

types
scope.
Vertical Gain Selector controls
per
side.
operate the various circuits and also allow
the
trace
provides a means of
is
of
the
amount
The power supplies provide

control
of
the
sweeping the spot from side to
the
of
face
Vertical Gain Vernier adjusts the
called the
sometimes
it
the
direction.
us to view the vertical deflection as a function

is
The
size
voltage
varies linearly with time, thus allowing
of time. This function
Vertical Position control locates
down on
3.
which
The
the starting point of the trace up and
the horizontal direction.
The time base generator supplies a
Intensity
control
regulates the
The Sync Amplitude control
deter-
mines the value of voltage at which
brightness of the trace.
the trace
starts.
POWER
SUPPLIES
FOR CRT
TIME
BASE
AND OTHER
GENERATOR
CIRCUITS
VERTICAL
DEFLECTION
DEFLECTION
CONTROL
CONTROL
CIRCUITS
CIRCUITS
HORIZ.
VERT. INPUT
HORIZ. INPUT
COMMON
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
Fig.
16-2
Functional Diagram of a
89
CRO
EXPERIMENT
The
7.
Sweep
Horizontal
a coarse
Selector
adjustment of the sweep
The Sweep Vernier Control
8.
adjustment of the sweep
the
The Horizontal
10.
cates the position
in
possible
sharpest
line
to
panel
be used
of
AC
number of more
AC
must
be
scope calibration
known
is
AC
value of
(CAL)
specialized
calibrated.
In
is
few cases
present on
a calibrate
the Vertical
Such an arrangement
allows the calibration voltage to be applied

to the input by placing the switch in this
position.
vertical
Basically,
Once the scope
achieved by applying a
is
calibrated, the Vertical
Gain Vernier setting must not be altered as
voltage to the vertical
this
input and adjusting the Vertical Gain Selector

and Vernier for a convenient amount of
deflection.
position
In a
Gain Selector switch.
be accurately
measured with an oscilloscope, the

deflection
to-peak) sine wave.
These, however, are
voltages can
some
In
square voltage wave
is
via
cases the
a
other cases the calibration voltage may be
peakvolts
6.3 volt-rms (approximately 17.8
this experiment.
beyond the scope of

Before
the
form of an accurately known amplitude.
voltages
The measurement of time periods

The viewing of AC wave shapes
a
calibration
in
terminal.
calibration voltage
uses of the oscilloscope.
would
from
For example, suppose the scope
The
calibration.
the
change
Vertical Gain Selector switch
may be changed
position to position provided the de-
flection-sensitivity value
marked off into squares which are

0.1 in. high and we apply an AC voltage
to the vertical input; which we know as
10 volts, peak-to-peak. Now, if the Vertical
face
voltage
front
has three
the oscilloscope
general,
There are
= 17.5 volts
Most oscilloscope manufacturers provide
main functions:
measurement
1. The
3.
(deflection) =
on the scope
2.
sensitivity)
And we can say we have measured

unknown voltage.
face.
In
input and
con-
should be adjusted for the
It
= (deflection
(5 volts/in.) (3.5 in.)
trol regulates the distinctness of the
trace.
If
p p
starts.
Astigmatism
and
Focus
The
11.
sweep
be
we now apply an unknown
lo-
the horizontal
direction at which the
said to
peak-to-peak value of
trace.
Position control
now
can
observe a deflection, of say, 3.5 in., we
a
conclude that the unknown voltage has
adjusts
the
is
voltage to the vertical
of
value
the example
in
calibrated.
rate.
rate.
of
length
physical
The scope
is
a fine
is
The Horizontal Gain control
9.
ELECTRON ICS/ELECTR
16
is
appropriately cor-
is
rected for each
It
2.0
inches
will
be
the
high,
Deflection sensitivity =
deflection
should also be noted that some
loscopes use a
Gain Selector and Vernier are adjusted until

the trace on the face of the scope is exactly
sensitivity
That
oscil-
is,
the
probe attached, subsequent voltage readings

with the 10-to-1 probe must be corrected by
voltaqe
10-to-1
probe.
probe divides the input voltage by a factor

of 10. If the scope is calibrated without the
multiplying
def|ect^ on
VoltS
10
new
position.
r= 5
in.
*This material appears in a McGraw-Hill publication,

and is reproduced with permission of the publisher.
10.
+c/ n
volts/in.
.
them by
EXPERI
90
ENTS
Alternating current can be measured

ELECTRICITY - ALTERNATING CURRENT,
IN
with
an
by
oscilloscope
passing
first
known
current through a resistor of
then
EXPERIMENT
the
value and
measuring the voltage drop across
The current
is
of
16
horizontal
the
distance,
flection factor
horizontal
de-
is
it.
then given by
Horizontal
f
CyC e
= n V.
Deflection of one cycle
Deflection
'
Factor
ms = in
10ms/m
16.6
^T^6K
In using the oscilloscope for
time measurements we must calibrate the horizontal

deflection as a function of time.
we
Sweep
switch Horizontal
input,
the
is
in
0.83
then the period of the signal
is
if
60 Hz
in.,
And
its
frequency
signal
used
is
^
60
1
= 8.3 ms
in.)
is
ratio.
then the time of one complete alteration
=(Horiz. defl. factor) (Horiz. sweep per cycle)
= (10 ms/in.) (0.83
and
Horizontal Gain controls are adjusted for a
For example,
produce
signal of
Selector
convenient time-to-displacement
now
complete cycle
applied to the vertical
Sweep
Horizontal
is
to
duration
unknown duration
a signal of
this
Selector to one
of the internal sweep positions.
known time
To do
If
observed
is
In
sec = 16.6 ms.
r 8^10-3= 120 Hz
addition to the
discussed
above,
the
two measurements
oscilloscope
is
very
valuable for general wave shape observation to
the
If
sweep controls are
so that one
set
cycle of the input voltage occupies 1.66
detect irregularities
in
form.
Calibration
is
not always required for this type of viewing.
in.
MATERIALS
1
Oscilloscope
Multimeter (with P-P voltage ranges)
Audio
signal generator
PROCEDURE
1.
Turn on the scope and
set the controls as indicated
a.
Intensity
b.
Vertical position
c.
Horizontal position
d.
Sync switch
e.
Horizontal sweep selection
full
below:
clockwise
-
midrange
midrange
Int
horizontal line should
now
any sweep position
be present on the scope face.
If it is
not, ask the instructor
to check the scope.

2.
Make the following adjustments:

a.
b.
c.
Set the vertical gain selector to a midrange

position.
Adjust the intensity and focus for a sharp horizontal
Set the
horizontal
gain for a
line
the scope face.
91
line.
length of about two-thirds of the width of
EXPERIMENT
16
controls until the trace

Adjust the vertical and horizontal position
d.
is
centered on
the scope face.

3.
4.
oscilloscope.
Calibrate the vertical deflection of the
have difficulty, ask the instructor for assistance.
This step
is
very important.
If
you
follows:
Prepare the scope for 60 Hz viewing as
Hz.
to the position which includes 60
Switch the Horizontal Sweep Selector
a.
complete
Horizontal Sweep Vernier such that one
b Readjust the Horizontal Gain and
It may
across just 1.66 in. of the CRT face.
cycle of the calibration signal is spread
'
for a stable presentation.

be necessary to readjust the Sync Amplitude
shown
in figure 16-3.
5.
Connect the
6.
Adjust the
7.
60 Hz and the output

Set the audio generator frequency to
its full
circuit
VOM
for reading
AC
peak-to-peak (P-P) voltage.

level
to about 20 percent of
value.
8.
peak-to-peak voltage.
Using the oscilloscope, measure and record the
9.
record
Measure the period as accurately as possible and
0.
From the
it
as
in
the data table.
of the generator output

period measurement, compute and record the frequency
11.
the
Record the peak-to-peak generator voltage as indicated by
12.
Compute
13.
Compute the percent
the
determined
percent
difference
VOM.
between the two values of peak-to-peak voltage.
the value
difference between the generator frequency setting and
in step 10.
OSCILLOSCOPE
AUDIO
GENERATOR
.VERTICAL
INPUT
Fig.
16-3
92
14.
Change the generator
EXPERIMENT
settings to
16
100 Hz and 30 percent output and repeat steps 8
through 13.
15.
In similar
manner, take data for generator settings of
a.
120 Hz and 40% output.
d.
b.
/c> 200 Hz and
60%
output.

f.
Gen
Gen
Output
Freq.
Level
60 Hz
20%
100 Hz
30%
120 Hz
40%
150 Hz
50%
200 Hz
60%
250 Hz
70%
400 Hz
80%
600 Hz
100%
P-P
(Scope)
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The
E p-p
(Scope)
(Scope)
(VTVM)
16-4
%
E
Diff
Diff
(f)
P-P
The Data Table
primary objective of this experiment
use of the oscilloscope to measure voltage and time.
is
to
become
familiar with the
In analyzing the data, particular attention
should be given to the extent to which this objective was satisfied.
PROBLEMS
1.
certain oscilloscope
horizontal deflection
is
is
calibrated to read
calibrated to read 5
30
ms
volts per
per cm.
If
cm
with 10:1 probe.
the 10:1 probe
is
The
replaced
with a 1:1 probe, what would be the amplitude and period of the voltage shown
in figure 16-5?
Fig.
93
16-5
Waveform for Problem
experiment
17
While unidirectional currents are very useful
INTRODUCTION.
electronic devices, they

electrical
ALTERNATING CURRENT
distribution
do present
number of
currents,
direction.
the
In
In
equation 17.1, e
the same
at
any time,
is
always
This condition
is
in
caused by the
fact that the polarity of a given
always the same.
An
DC
source
alternating voltage
is
value.
a result, virtually
experiment we
all
shall
circuit theory.
the case of unidirectional
flow
As
In this
accomplished with alternating currents.
is
operating electrical and
distribution difficulties.
examine some of the basic principles of alternating current
DISCUSSION.
in
t.
Em
is
is
the value of the voltage
maximum
the peak or
should be noted that the peak-to-
It
peak value
on
twice the value of E m
is
F
= 2E
c
^tn
p-p
the other hand goes through a repetitive cycle
(17.2)
of polarity changes.
most frequently encountered alternating voltage is in the form of a sinusoid
The
The
variation of such a voltage with time
illustrated in figure 17-1.
Such
a voltage
co
the angular velocity of the sinusoidal
is
wave
co
is
in
radians per second.
The
value of
given by
is
may
Co
27rf
(17.3)
be described by the equation
where
e = Em
(17.1)
sin cot
Fig.
17-1
f is
the frequency of the alternations
Hertz (cycles per second).
Sinusoidal Voltage
94
in
17-2
Fig,
Occasionally
we wish
length of the voltage

units (seconds).
EXPERIMENT
A.C. Current in a Res/stive
to deal with the
wave
17
Load
The equation
directly in time
ALTERNATING CURRENT
for the current may, therefore,
be written as
we refer to
the time of one complete cycle as the Period
of the wave.
This length of time can be
seen to
beT
In
such a case,
in
m sin
cot
(17.6a)
figure 17-1.
The time of one period
is
The instantaneous power delivered to the

load resistor can be found by the usual means:
related to the
frequency of alteration by
2 =
R
p = EI =
^-
(17.8)
(17.4)
If
sistive
we connect an AC source
load,
to a
Substituting equation 17.1 and/or 17.6a into
re-
this
as indicated in figure 17-2, the
power relationship
gives us
instantaneous current that flows will be de-
termined by Ohm's Law,
9
_ m
p = -p- sin* cot
.
(17.5)
From trigonometry we know

If
we
substitute
equation
result
17.1
this
relationship,
one
the
is,
is
that the sine
equal to one half of
minus the cosine of twice the
angle.
Therefore,
R
which
into
squared of an angle
in
is
__E
the value for e given
"
E m sin cot
Em
^^r- sin
cot
sin*
cot
(1-cos 2
cot)
of course, a sinusoidal current having
peak value of E /R. That

m
and
is,
P =
(17.7)
95
(1-cos 2
cot)
cos 2cot
EXPERIMENT
Fig.
However, since
we
resistor,
power than
dissipated
heat
more
are
plot the instantaneous
be
will
result
(shaded
in fig.
shown
as
17-3),
of
the cosine term
cot
in
we
P =
If
we
way
figure
as
equate
it
in
AC
is
and
an
AC
circuit to
and current
related to the voltage
average
in
DC
circuit.
DC
power:
p dc
P ac
in
We
be
the same
therefore
17-3.
power curve
see that the average
zero
is
if
The average power
2?r.
in
the average power
like
power versus time, the
taking the average of the
In
If
interested
we would
For the sake of consistency,
by the load
instantaneous power.
in
Instantaneous Power
17-3
the average power that
is
it
the
generates
ALTERNATING CURRENT
17
taken from
is,
And
therefore,
AC
if
we
power,
(17.9)
2R
substitute equation 17.10 for the
we have
P dc ~
we observe that the maximum instantaneous
power
Now
is
if
we
while substituting
Pr
then
the
maximum
= F
m m
I
1
2
I
is
related
|2 R
to this
instantaneous power by
the results are
"m
= 2 p
mM
average power
p
r =
R and E 2 /R for P dc
R and E^/R for P m
2
substitute
=1|2r
and
?=:
(17.10)
96
2 R
Solving for
and E respectively
=0.707
EXPERIMENT
gives
17
AL TERNA TING CURRENT
to understand that these values are

the ones
which produce the same average power
(heat-
V2
ing effect)
as an equal size
DC
voltage and
current.
and
E =
= 0.707 E
The average
(17.11)
resistor therefore
In
cuits,
applying these quantities to AC> circall them the effective or

RMS
AC
power dissipated by a
becomes
P=|2 effR^=(E
we
eff )(l eff )
(17.12)
current and voltage.
where
Most
AC
meters are calibrated to read
RMS values.
these effective or
It is
important
e ff
= 0.707
and E eff = 0.707 E
MATERIALS
1
Oscilloscope
Multimeter
AC ammeter
(VOM)
(0-0.5a)
Wattmeter (0-20 w)
Variable transformer
75-ohm
resistor (20 watts)
PROCEDURE
1.
Connect the
2.
Adjust the variable transformer for an effective voltage

reading of 36 volts on the
3.
Measure and record the peak-to-peak voltage with the

oscilloscope.
circuit
shown
in
figure 17-4.
117V
75ft
60 Hz
20W
VARIABLE
AC AMMETER
TRANSFORMER
Fig.
1 7-4
97
VOM.
(SCOPE
EXPERIMENT
17
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Em
P-P
%
/O Diff
U
II
(VTVM)
(scope)
1
i
(comp)
(meas)
Em
IT
1
1
36V
32V
28V
24V
20 V
(VTVM)
(wattmeter)
Pm
Diff
(comp)
(meas)
Diff
Diff
P
m
(comp)
36V
32V
28V
24V
20V
Fig.
17-5
Data Table
m from the value of E p p as measured

E m from the VOM value of effective voltage.
value of E
in step 3.
4.
Compute the
5.
Compute
6.
Compute the percent
7.
Record the effective
8.
value, compute the effective current.

Using the oscilloscope measurement and the resistance
9.
Compute the percent
circuit current as indicated
difference
load
Compute the
11.
Compute the maximum power
average
between two values of effective
circuit
effective voltage
currents.
and current.
resistance value.
using the oscilloscope measurement and the
2.
Replace the ammeter with the current
3.
Replace the
14.
by the ammeter.
power using the measured
10.
VOM
two values of E m
with the voltage
coil of
coil of
the wattmeter.
the wattmeter.
Record the wattmeter reading (average power).
98
Compute the peak power
15.
EXPERIMENT
6.
Compute the percent
difference between
7.
Compute the percent
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
using the wattmeter reading.
18.
17
two
values of average power.
two values of peak power.
7 for effective voltages of 32, 28, 24, and 20 volts.
the analysis of these data, you should consider primarily the extent to
which the data agreed with the mathematical relationships between E
E eff P, and P
m
In
PROBLEMS
1
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
50
what
2. If
shown in
What is the
circuit like that
of 168 sin 377t.
The
The
The
The
The
The
sin
is
figure
7-4 has a resistance of
kfi and an input voltage
value of:
input frequency?
effective voltage?
instantaneous current?
effective current?
average power?
peak power?
6280t
volts
is
applied to a circuit
the resistance of the circuit?
99
in
which 10~ 3
sin
6280t amps
is
flowing,
INTRODUCTION
'n^s
role ,r.basic
resistors, play a very important
Inductors, like capacitors and
of an mductor
we shall examine some of the basic characteristics
experiment
and the interrelationships between
DISCUSSION.
through
If
INDUCTI VE CIRC UITS
18
experiment
we
series
and
parallel inductances.
coil of wire, a
magnetic
can observe that
we
18.1
From equation
run an electric current

field will
If we now
be established around the coil.
current,
attempt to abruptly discontinue the
inducing a
the magnetic field will collapse,
as to
current into the coil in such a direction
current.
the
tend to prevent discontinuation of
di
L1
aPd 62 =
dt
di
2 "dt"
equation
Substituting these expressions into
18.2 renders
tends to
This property of a coil of wire which
is called
flow
oppose any change in current
The extent of
inductance of the coil.
et
= L
1
di
di_
+ L
dt
2 dt
self
this
self
inductance
in
given
circuit
is
defined mathematically by
e=L d~t
(18.1)
volts, L
where e is voltage across the coil in
is rate
di/dt
henrys, and
is the inductance in
at
which
the
changes
current
in
we apply equation
we see that
If
two inductors
shown in figure
as
are connected in series,
18-1,
whole
circuit,
amperes
per second.
If
18.1 to the
t- L t"dT
Therefore,
we may apply
loop:
Kirchhoff's voltage law to the enclosed
et
= e 1 + e2
(18.2)
Canceling di/dt renders
Lt
(18.3)
+ L2
inductances
from which we conclude that the
determine
to
added
in the series circuit may be
the total circuit inductance.

e
L2
1
Fig.
=L
18-1
Two
Let
parallel
18-2.
Inductors in Series
100
us
now
turn
our attention to
inductive circuit, as
shown
in figure
EXPERIMENT
equation above for
Then canceling
INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
18
each term,
in
and e 2
e-|
(18.5)
which
reveals
behave much
Fig.
Two
18-2
we
inductances
in
the special case of only
in parallel,
observe that
we may
two inductors
simplify (18.5) to
it="i +i 2
Moreover,
if
(18.6)
and/or 2 changes
i*]
in
that change must be reflected in
we may conclude
that
di
di
any way,
which
Therefore,
di<|
dt
Now
if
result
we
dT
now
the
is
familiar product over
to
this
only the case
(18.4)
dT
around one
point
we have considered
which the magnetic
in
coil did
not interfere
in
us
is
now
turn to the condition
two magnetic
dt
= _e_
L
fields
do
in
interact.
Consider the two coils shown
di
/dt
18-4 for
di /dt,
t
and di2/dt, respectively, renders
"
Lt
L2
Ll
And since the inductors

we may conclude that
et = e 1
We may
are simply in parallel,
=e 2
therefore
substitute
into
the
Fig.
101
18-3
Let
which the
18-3.
Substituting this ratio into
field
any way
with the field around another inductor.

solve equation 18.1 for di/dt, the
_di_
sum
equation.
Up
t
parallel
Indicators in Parallel
In
In this case
that
like resistances in parallel.
Two Coupled
Coils
in figure
EXPERIMENT
We
INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
18
describe such a condition by saying that
the magnetic fields of the coils are coupled
the current
If
induces a voltage
effect
one
in
in
changes,
coil
the second
it
This
coil.
termed mutual inductance and
is
is
described mathematically by
(18.7)
where
the mutual inductance existing
is
between the two

henrys as
self
is
coils.
is
expressed
in
coils:
that
the second coil changes,
the current
is, if
Kirchhoff s
t
it
di
two coupled
shown in figure
consider
series, as
in
coils
18-4.
'
di
dt
If
L-|
the sign of
connected
2M
is
2M
(+),
we
in series aiding;
we
(-),
+ L
2
say the circuit
(18.8)
say the circuit

if
the sign of
is
connected
is
2M
in
series opposing.
+ &2
e<|
must apply. However, e-| is now composed of

two components, one based on equation 18.1
and the other based on equation 18.7.
That
,v
which reduces algebraically to
is
iyti
by
By Kirchhoff s Law
et
di
M
M
+L^dt
M di
2dt
dt
_i_
HT
dt^
dt
Lt =
now
di
L tdT L
"11
equation 18.7.
connected
the
in
= L -^ renders
t
1
in
induces a voltage
into the first coil to the extent described
Let us
values
law equation and also substituting
inductance.
This mutual inductance works both ways

the coupled
Coils in Series
these
Substituting
in
Coupled
18-4
Fig.
Inductances are readily measured using
equation (18.1)
e =
di
L dt
is,
If
di
dt
j.
iv/i
we apply
a sinusoidal voltage
and the mag-
di
netic field does not reach saturation, then
dt
di/dt
becomes equal to
Similarly,
where
=L 2dt M -dT
is
co
is
the angular velocity
the peak current.
(27rf)
and
Substituting this value
into equation 18.1 gives us
The sign
is
determined by the direction
which the turns of wire on
wound.
If
both are
direction, the signs are
wound
in
(+);
and L2 are
L<|
wound
in
but
(18.9)
the same
in
if
E and
they are
opposite directions, the signs are
can be the effective values of voltage
and current.
(-).
702
Measuring
mutual
somewhat more
connect the
18-5,
inductance
(M)
However,
involved.
if
18
INDUCTI VE CIRCUITS
is
we
coils in series aiding, as in figure
and apply equation 18.9, the
2M
Li + L 2 +
*
1
we now
If
EXPERIMENT
is
E1
f-
col
one
reverse
result
coil,
the equation
becomes
+
L<|
l_2
2M
=
col'
Subtracting the two equations gives us
4M
=
col
col
or
=
4co
I,
(18.10)
"
l
2 /
which allows us to determine
fairly easily.
Fig.
18-5
First Step in
Measuring
MATERIALS
2 14-henry high
inductors
Multimeter
Transformer (1:1 turns
100-ohm
Ammeter (AC) (0-50ma,
ratio)
resistor
0-1a)
PROCEDURE
1.
Connect the
2.
Set the variable transformer output for an effective voltage (E

A ) across the 100-ohm
resistor of one volt
Compute and record the circuit I, in Part 1 of the data table.
circuit
shown
in
figure 18-6 using
one of the 14-henry inductors.
is/S/Si
-J
117V
VARIABLE
60 Hz
TRANSFORMER
Fig.
18-6

103
EXPERIMENT
INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
18
and record
Reconnect the voltmeter to measure the voltage across the inductor (Ei)
3.
this value.
4.
5.
Using equation 18.9, compute and record the value of
L-|.
steps
Replace the inductor with the other 14 H inductor (L 2 ) and repeat
table.
data
Record the values as 2 E 2 and l_ 2 in the
,
6.
Connect the two inductors
7.
Repeat steps
and L s
8.
10.
4.
inches.
and physically separate them by about 12
through 4 using the two
Record the data
series inductors as L.
as
s,
Es
the data table
in
E'
l'
s,
Lg.
Connect the two inductors

Repeat steps
in parallel
through 4 using the
and physically separate them by about 12

However,
parallel inductors as L.
in
inches.
step 2 use E A
= 2
and L in the data table.

p
p
the circuit shown in figure 18-6.
connect
and
windings
transformer
Identify one of the
connect the VOM across the
Replace the 100-ohm resistor with the AC ammeter and
volts instead of
11.
in series

Reverse the connections of one coil and repeat steps 6 and 7
and
9.
through
Record the data as
volt.
inductance.
12.
the ammeter. As before, record

Adjust the variable transformer for a readable current on
the values of l-|, E-| and L-| in the data table (Part 2).
13.
and 12 recording the data

Identify the other transformer windings and repeat steps 11
should be nearly equal, to insure meaningful results.)
[Note: E and
E and l_
as
l
14.
l_
in series
and repeat steps 11 and 12 recording the data
as
s,

Reverse one of the transformer coils and repeat steps 11 and 12
l
s,
16.
Connect the two windings

E s and
15.
E'g,
and
L'
With the values found

the data table (Part
in
compute L s and record
steps 4 and 5 and equation 18.3,
it
in
3).
difference between this
17.
Compute the percent
18.
Similarly,
19.
With the values of
20.
Compute
21.
With the values measured
last
compute the percent difference between

and
L-|
l_
(steps
4 and
5),
value of
l_
l_
(step 16)
compute L
and that found

and
in
step 7.
L' (step 8).

s
using equation 18.5.
10).
the percent difference between L p (step 19) and L p (step
in
steps 14 and 15,
compute
using equation 18.10.
Record
this value in the data table, Part 4.
22.
of L s (comp) and L's

23.
and L 2 (steps 12 and 13) and equation 18.8, compute the values
(comp) and record them in the data table.
Using the value of M,
Compute
the percent differences between the values found
steps 14 and 15.
104
in
step
22 and those found
in
E1
Li
EXPERIMENT
E2
'2
L2
Part
E1
Li
Ls
Es
II
(No Coupling)
L2
E2
'2
INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
18
Es
's
Ls
E 's
's
Ls
Part 2 (Coupled)
Diff
(Comp)
Ls
(Comp)
L
p
(Comp)
L'
Diff
L
P'
(No Coupling)
Part 3
Diff
L S'
Ls' Ls
Ls
Diff
(Comp)
L'
s
Diff
'"S'
'"S
S'
Part 4 (Coupled)
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
18-7
The Data Table
In considering the results of this
attention to the extent to which the equations given
experiment, you should give particular
in
the discussion predicted the measured
results.
PROBLEMS
1.
L3
Three inductors of 10, 8, and 5 henrys

are connected in series with no coupling
between them.
What
is
the total
=10H
in-
>M
ductance?
2.
What
are
L 1 = 5H
the two
possible
3H
values of
total inductance in figure 18-8?

3.
What would be the inductance
values
in
Problem 2 if L were in parallel with

2
the series combination of L-| and L ?
2
Fig.
105
18-8
Circuit for
L2 =
Problem 2
8H
experiment
ment we
is
shall
19
an alternating current
INTRODUCTION. As
opposition
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
encountered which
is
examine the characteristics of
called reactance (X).
is
case of an inductor
it
is
ductor
is
in
In the
form of opposition.
order to be consistent with Ohm's
Law, we define the inductive reactance as
In
it is
X L =-j-ohms
called
voltage across an
in-
is
and di/dt
ohms
= 27rfL
(19.2)
di
dT
the voltage, L
is
(19.1)
and we see that
XL
e=L
where
this
given by
.
In this experi-
called inductive reac-
tance (X L ), while for a capacitor

capacitive reactance (Xq).
The instantaneous
of
passed through a capacitor or inductor, a form
independent of the resistance of the element.
DISCUSSION. The opposition mentioned

the objective
is
is
the inductance,
or, since co
2?rf,
the rate at which the current
XL
= coL
ohms
(19.3)
changes.
di/dt for a sinusoidal
The magnitude of
current
Equation
is
9.2 indicates that the value of
the inductive reactance
fx
We may,
27rfl
is
directly proportion-
to the inductance and to frequency of the

current. Figure 19-1 shows a plot of the value
al
therefore, write the voltage equa-
XL
of
versus frequency.
tion as
Since
E = 2vrfLI
where E and
average, or
RMS
may
defined
XL
in
terms of
curthe ratio of inductor voltage to inductor

is expressed are
rent, the units in which X
be peak, peak-to-peak,
volts-per-amp or ohms.
values.
FREQUENCY
Fig. 19-1
we have
IN Hz
Inductive Reactance versus Frequency
106
EXPERIMENT
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
19
H
Z
LU
DC
DC
D
LU
O
>
Fig.
19-2
Voltage
and Current
tance and
Returning to the original equation
19.2,
we observe
an Inductor
in
we
and 19.3
XL
dt
where the
that
usually write equations 19.1,

in
the forms
= +j-~= +j 2?rfL = +jcoL
(19.5)
+j indicates the presence of the
90
phase shift between the voltage and current.
dt
In
itor,
we may
is
directly proportional to the voltage.
the voltage
is
= C
If
where
wave, then the current
a sine
is
and de/dt
be undergoing the greatest rate of change

when the voltage is at maximum. Figure 19-2
in a
capac-
de_
dt
the current,
is
current
write
other words, the rate of change of the cur-
rent
AC
the case of an
In
_e_
is
the capacitance
the rate of change of the voltage
will
shows
with time.
Following the same argument as used
plot of voltage and current which
we
with the inductor,
see that the
magnitude
satisfies this condition.
of de/dt for a sinusoidal current will be
From
this plot
and current are
we
tt/2
see that the voltage
de
radians (or 90) apart,
dt
and that the current
is
frequency and, for an
from which we have
dependent upon the
RL
circuit,
it
can be
E_
written
2?rfC
and, as before,
This phase shift between the voltage and

is
we
define the capacitive reac-
tance to be
(19-4)
current
= 2?rfCE
is
and
lagging behind the
voltage.
This phase angle
2?rfE
characteristic of an inductive reac-
107
2?rfC
coC
ohms
(19.6)
EXPERIMENT
Xc
in this
case
we
varies inversely with
Xc
the
shown
Capacitive Reactance versus Frequency
19-3
Fig.
However,
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
19
Measurements of reactance magnitudes

may be readily made by measuring voltage
or
and current and applying equation 19.1
see that the value of
C and
f.
plot of
would appear
versus frequency
as
19.5.
in figure 19-3.
The phase
Referring again to the equation

i
1
C
L
tances calls for a
that
de _ J_
somewhat more involved
Let us suppose that
dt
with the reac-
measurement technique. Consider the

loscope pictorial shown in figure 19-5.
dt
we observe
shift associated
we
oscil-
apply two voltages,
E v and E h to the vertical and horizontal

puts of the oscilloscope:
in-
The
rate of
change of the voltage
is
therefore
the curdirectly proportional to the value of

rent.
Ev = E 1
Figure 19-4 shows plots of voltage and
and
current which satisfy this condition.
As
there
is
in
the case of inductive reactance,
a tt/2 radian or
90 phase
shift.
Eh = E2
How-
for the phase shift,
To account
we
phase angle
usually write equation 19.5 as
x c = -jj=-i
The phase
angle
is
2?rfC
is
coC
again dependent
the frequency and, for a series
RC
0.
vertical
y = Ev
upon
circuit,
it
x = Eh
= tan " 1
XC
R
sin cot
and
written
(cot-0)
and horizontal deflection of

the spot on the CRT screen will be
The
sin
These two voltages have different magnitudes

and are displaced from each other by the
ever, in this case the current leads the voltage
by 90.
sin cot
sin (cot - 6)
E v and E h are the control constants introduced by the vertical and horizonrespectively.
(19.7)
108
EXPERIMENT
19
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
VOLTAGE
Fig.
tal
19-5
Phase Measurement with an Oscilloscope
control circuits of the oscilloscope times
the peak input voltages, E

1
solve these
and E 2
If
we
two equations simultaneously and
eliminate the factor
cot,
2xy cos 9
the result
is
E h EV
This
is
the equation of an ellipse whose
a function of the
phase angle
shows
one such
a sketch of
d.
tilt is
Figure 19-6
Fig.
ellipse.
109
19-6
Ellipse
on
CRT Screen
EXPERIMENT
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
19
In a practical case,
Referring to the equation for the ellipse,
we
see that
A,
when x = 0
sin
it
plished by placing a resistor
in-
in series
with the
under investigation. The size of this

comseries resistor must be small enough,
pared to the circuit values, that it does not
circuit
These values are then sub-
stituted into equation 19.6
most often
oscilvert the circuit current to a voltage for

loscope viewing. This can be readily accom-
(19.8)
This equation allows us to determine the

angle by measuring the distances y and E v on
the oscilloscope.
are
circuit
terested in the phase angle between the
convoltage and current. We must, therefore,
reduces to
or
we
and the value of
appreciably alter the circuit current.
6 computed.
MATERIALS
1
Audio generator
1-H inductor
Multimeter
75-ohm
Oscilloscope (with horizontal input)
Sheet linear graph paper
1-juF
resistor
capacitor
PROCEDURE
the circuit shown
Disconnect the ground link on the audio generator and assemble
terminals.
figure 1 9-7 using the balanced generator output
1.
in
SCOPE HORIZONTAL INPUT
AC VOLTS
LOAD
v^K. AUDIO GEN

fVTVM)WITH BALANCE
VJ*^/ OUTPUT
1juF
SCOPE VERT.
INPUT
75H
OSCILLOSCOPE
Fig. 19-7
Use particular care to connect the instrument

2
3*.
common
leads as
shown
in
the figure.
of 25 Hz.
Set the audio generator for an output frequency
reading of 6 volts (effective).
Adjust the audio generator output level for a
of data.
collecting
throughout the
value is E|. Keep this value constant
VOM
110
Thi
Move the AC volts

across the 75-ohm
4.
EXPERIMENT
lead of the
resistor.
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
19
VOM
from point B to point D and record the voltage (E

R
Return the lead to point B when this measurement is
)
completed.
Compute and
5.
record the circuit current and the capacitor voltage drop, E
Using the voltage and current, compute and record the value of the reactance as a meas-
6.
ured quantity.
Using equation
7.
19.2 (or 19.6) and the generator frequency, compute and record the
value of the reactance (computed).

8.
Compute
9.
Using the vertical and horizontal gain controls, adjust the oscilloscope for a viewable
ellipse
the percent difference between the
two values of
reactance.
on the screen. Read and record the distances y and E y from the
ellipse.
10.
Using equation 19.8, compute and record the value of
11.
Compute and record the
12.
Change the audio generator frequency to 50 Hz and repeat steps 3 through

In
13.
like
sin 6.
value of the phase angle between the voltage and current
(0).
11.
manner, repeat steps 3 through 11 for frequencies of 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,
600, 700, 800, 900 and 1000 Hz.
Remove
14.
15.
the capacitor from the experimental circuit and replace
it
with the inductor.
Repeat steps 3 through 13 using the inductor. Record the data
in
Part 2 of the data table
(figure 19-8).
On
16.
a single
sheet of linear graph paper, plot the values of the measured reactance versus
frequency.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In the analysis of these data,
between the equations given

In particular,
in
you should consider the extent of agreement
the discussion and your experimental results.
consider the reasons for any variation
in
phase angle with frequency.
PROBLEMS
1.
At what frequency
is
the reactance of a 0.5 juF capacitor equal to that of a 0.5
inductor?
2.
certain circuit element
tance.
If
is
known
to be either a pure capacitance or a pure induc-
the reactance of the element
400 Hz and 500
Hz, respectively, which
is
found to be 397.5Kf2 and 318KS2
is it?
111
What
is its
value?
at
EXPERIMENT
REACTIVE CIRCUITS
19
EXPERIM ELECTRON ICS/ELECTR
xc
I
er
E
l
6V
25
6V
50
6V
100
6V
200
6V
300
6V
400
6V
500
6V
600
6V
700
6V
800
6V
900
6V
1000
(meas)
Hz
6V
25
6V
50
6V
100
6V
200
6V
300
6V
400
6V
500
6V
600
6V
700
6V
800
6V
900
6V
1000
XC
(comp)
Ev
a
u
bin v
xL
E
Diff
EL
ER
(meas)
Diff
(comp)
Ev
Sin 9
Fig.
19-8
The Data Table
112
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
complex quantity.
In
DISCUSSION.
In
SERIES IMPEDANCES
experiment we
in a series circuit
shall
examine the manner
to provide this
our number system there
20-1
relation
illustrates
between
real,
From
plex numbers.
observe that the
graphically
real
this
well as
numbers and the
The opposition that
all
tem.
It
is
imagi-
all
There
tances.
The complex numpossible
number
after
1.
Resistance and capacitive reactance

Resistance and inductive reactance
the pattern of figure 20-1, the inter-
in
and capacitive
Resistance, inductive reactance, and
Because any practical inductor has some
figure 20-2.
winding resistance, the third of these possibilities
and reactances (imaginary
quantities) are independent of each other
20-1
reactance
Graphically,
the case of the numbers, the resistances
Fig.
Inductive
capacitive reactance
relation of these various types of opposition
quantities)
four conceivable
reactance
opposition
(real
are, of course,
reac-
sys-
plex
can be represented as shown
consider only
2.
includes real opposition (resistance),
(impedance).
shall
combinations:
a circuit offers to
exactly like the
experiment we
combinations of resistances and
4.
in
possible combinations of resistance
In this
series
imaginary opposition (reactance), and com-
As
in-
and reactance.
3.
current
The complex impedance
inter-
diagram we should
however, include both and
AC
complex impedance.
combinations of both.
an
is
reac-
imaginary, and com-
nary ones do not overlap.

bers,
the
current by a circuit
which resistances and
cludes both the resistances and reactances as
two types of numbers may be

combined to form complex numbers. Figthese
ure
in
do not overlap.
More-
are both real and imaginary numbers.

over,
AC
the general case, the opposition offered to an
In this
tances are combined
20
does not
arise in practicality.
Let us
consider the remaining three possibilities
and
turn.
The Imaginary Numbers
Fig.
113
20-2
Electrical
Impedance
in
EXPERIMENT 20 SERIES IMPEDANCES
Fig.
20-3
Series
Consider the series

figure 20-3.
RC
RC
Fig.
Circuit
shown
circuit
By applying Kirchhoff's
law,
in
we
It
is
Impedance of an
20-4
write the impedance
= e + e
R
c
(20.1)
Since the voltages across the resistor and ca-
we can
polar form as
in
R-jX c
t
Circuit
apparent from this diagram that
see that
RC
= ZZ^fi_
(20.3)
should be evident from the above discussion that the impedance is a vector quantity
It
and
must
be
accordingly
treated
any
in
calculations.
pacitor are
RL
Analysis of the
e
= iR
the total voltage
and
is
=
c i(-jX c
ure 20-5
is
very similar to that of the
i(-jX
The
in fig-
RC
cir-
cuit just discussed.
therefore
=iR +
shown
be
total voltage will

e
et
circuit
=e R
Therefore
And
if
we
iZ=iR +
define the circuit impedance (Z)
according to
Ohm's Law, Z =
/i,
we may
i(+jX L )
and
write
Z=
iZ
= iR +
i(-j'X
R + jX L
(20.4)
But since the current is the same throughout

a series circuit, we can cancel the current factor in each term.
The impedance
is,
therefore,
Z=R-jX c
If
we
plot this equation on a set of
imaginary coordinates, the result

in figure
(20.2)
is
as
real-
shown
Fig.
20-4.
114
20-5
Series
RL
Circuit
hi
+jx.
Fig.
20-6
Impedance of an
vector diagram of the
two components and
the impedance would be as shown
From
20-6.
The
in figure
diagram we see that
this
Fig.
Rj_ Circuit
we can
this circuit
shown
is
The voltage loop equation
in
for
is
write the impedance as

e
ZLQ = R + jX|_
An RLC Circuit
20-8
third practical combination
figure 20-8.
= e + e + e
R
c
L
(20.5)
which can be rewritten as

In
some
a practical
inductive circuit, at least
part of the circuit resistance
the winding resistance of the
a single reactive
tion
as
= iR + i(-jX
c + i(+jX L
)
From which we
far involve
component which is frequenwe plot the current opposi-
see that the
impedance
Z = R +jX L -jX c
is
(20.6a)
If
versus frequency
would be
iZ
coil.
Both of the cases discussed so

cy dependent.
would be
shown
in
for
each,
or
the result
Z=R
figure 20-7.
|x
Fig.
20-7
Impedance Versus Frequency, RL and

115
+ j(X
L
-X c
RC
Circuit
(20.6b)
this
The vector diagram of the impedance

case is as shown in figure 20-9.
On
the basis of this pictorial
may
the impedance
we observe
in
that
+i<x
be written as
ZZ+0 = R+j<X L
-X c
-x c
<
(20.7)
should observe that the reactive component of this impedance is equal to the differ-
We
ence between
XL
and
Xc
Fig.
be either inductive, capacitive, or zero depending on the frequency. A plot of impe-
Notice that at the point
the various possible conditions.
20-10
Impedance
Frequency,
vs.
RLC
Circuit
MATERIALS
1
Multimeter
1-H inductor
Oscilloscope
250-ohm resistor
Audio generator
1-juF
1
1
capacitor
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
Assemble the
circuit
DC
shown
resistance (R c ) of the inductor.

in figure
the reactive com-
f
Q
=
R. Above f Q the cirponent is zero and Z
capacitive.
cuit is inductive and below f Q it is
dance versus frequency (figure 20-10) shows
Fig.
Impedance of an RL Circuit
20-9
and may, therefore,
20-1
1.
116
AUDIO
GENERATOR
BALANCE
OUTPUT
B
Fig.
20-11
3.
Disconnect the ground strap so that the generator
4.
Connect the
5.
Set the generator controls for an output frequency of 50 Hz and a voltage of about
VOM
operating with a balanced output.
to measure the effective voltage across the
0.5 volts across the

it
is
250-ohm
throughout the following
resistor.
Record
250-ohm
this value of voltage
resistor.
(Ep) and maintain
steps.
6.
7.
Measure and record the generator output voltage (Ej).
8.
Using the circuit current and voltage, determine the circuit impedance magnitude (Z
RL
Circuit Data
Hz
ET
circuit current
(I).
RC =
XL
Meas
Meas
Comp
Comp
Comp
50
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
600
Fig.
20- 12
The Data Tables

117
Diff
Diff
J.
RC
ER =
Circuit Data
Hz
ET
XC
Meas
Meas
Comp
Comp
Comp
Diff
Diff
a
(7
50
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
600
RLC
Hz
Circuit Data
ET
Meas
Meas
"cXL
Comp
xC
Diff
Diff
Comp
Comp
Comp
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
600
Fig.
9.
Connect the oscilloscope
20-12
common
Data Tables (continued)

lead to point A, the vertical input to point B,
horizontal input to point C. Adjust the scope for an ellipse on

10.
11.
and the
the screen.
Using the oscilloscope pattern, determine and record the impedance angle
phase angle between the circuit current and voltage.
(6).
This
is
the
Using the generator frequency and the component values, compute and record the value
of the circuit reactance(s) (X L and/or
X c ).
118
12.
Using the total circuit resistance and reactance

cussion,
in
the appropriate equation from the
impedance magnitude and
circuit
dis-
angle.
13.
Compute and
14.
Repeat steps 5 through 13 for frequencies of 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, and
600
15.
On
record the percent difference between the pairs of values of
Z and
0.
Hz.
a single
sheet of graph paper, plot curves of resistance, reactance and impedance mag-
nitudes versus frequency.

16.
Replace the inductor with the
17.
Add
18.
On
the inductor
in series
a single sheet of
juF
capacitor and repeat steps 5 through 15.
with the capacitor and repeat steps 5 through 14.
graph paper, plot R,
X L X c and Z
,
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
which the
circuit
versus frequency.
you should carefully consider the manner in

impedance magnitude and angle were measured and the extent to which these
In the analysis of these data
measurements agreed with the calculations.
Also, consider the
manner
in
which the impedance
varied with frequency.
PROBLEMS
1.
What would be the
series
impedance of
5K2
resistor
and
50 H
coil at 1.2
Hz?
2.
What would be the effective current through a 14 H choke whose winding resistance
is 470 ohms if it is connected to a source having.an output of 250 sin 754t volts?
3.
At what frequency would the
coil in
problem 2 have the same reactance
as an
jliF
capacitor?
4.
What would be the

itor in
problem 3
series circuit
at the
impedance of the
frequency found
119
in
coil in
problem 3?
problem 2 and the capac-
PARALLEL IMPEDANCES
experiment
INTRODUCTION. As
connected
the case with
is
experiment we
In this
in parallel.
priate for use with such
DC
complex impedances are frequently

consider analysis techniques which are appro-
resistances,
shall
parallel circuits.
This equation should be recognized as
Consider the network shown
complex equivalent of the one for
the
in figure 21-1.
parallel.
sistance in
The impedances, Z 1
|0
we
are
see
all
|9j
connected
anc
z2
^3
'
in parallel;
therefore,
Of
special interest
two
only
from Kirchhoff's law that
parallel
is
the case
+ 2+ 3
where
Zj Wj
the
of
term
is
Cancelling
in
each
Z 1^1
Z1
1*1
Z2
|02
(21.2)
+ z-
1.1
.J
Z3
|2
Let us suppose that the Z 1
calculations.
branch
z7]
It is
renders
e_j
Tfcr
perhaps worthwhile to work through

a numerical example to illustrate how the
complex quantities are handled in actual
i-:
the total effective impedance
network.
ZT
^3and
^2
which may be algebraically rearranged into

the familiar product-over-sum form
Z2
Z 1 \h
that
'2
becomes
zt e T
From Ohm's law we know
which
present.
in
impedances are
In such a case, equation 21.1
re-
figure
in
21-1
is
composed of
75 mhy coil having a winding resistance of

250 ohms, and that the Z 2 branch is a 0.2 mfd
Figure 21-2 shows the circuit
capacitor.
(21.1)
diagram of this circuit arrangement.
'T
I
'2
s
Z
Z
1
Fig.
21-1
A Complex
120
Z
2
Parallel Circuit
E LECTRON ICS/E LECTRICITY
EXPERIMENT 21 PARALLEL IMPEDANCES
R c = 250ft
e= 100
sin
6280T
I
21-2
Fig.
Finally, let us
suppose that
we
from the 100
sin
6280T
compute the current
volt source.
Using
4.
and Z 2 [02_,
Z-j
mine Z T
flow
will
10
as follows:
"
Z1
Using the source voltage, determine

the effective source voltage and the
.707 E
co=
27rf
f=
1[^1
,250 +
m = 707x1 00 =70.7 volts
22^2
42.3 x 104 l-28
m
Z T[!T
250
325
-j
= 6280
4
_ 42.3 x 10 L=2S!
6280 = 6280 = innnu

1000 Hz
Z 2l g 2
1^1
532l62 x 7951-90
470 -j 795
source frequency.
E=
deter-
We may
Z
1.
0.2juF
Typical Complex Parallel Circuit
wish to deter-
mine the effective current which
C =
L = 75 H
~ZT
4101^5^
6^8
Z T [0y = 1040 24 ohms

1
2.
Using
XL=
L and C, compute
f,
2?rf L
= 6.28 x
X L and Xq.
3 x 75 x
Using
5.
-3
xC
2irfC
-|
and
compute
I.
70.7
6.28x10 3
= 0.068 1-24' amps
x2x10-7
While the computations
somewhat
Using Rq, X|_ and Xq, compute

|0
Zjdj,
1040 24
= 795 ohms
3.
and
= 470 ohms
-
Z-|
tially
2-2 ^2-
[0^ = R c +
XL
= 250 +
-j
One should
notice,
shift
impedance need not be
is
substan-
involved,
less
in
however, that
the total
than the individual
branch impedances.
= 532 |62 ohms
Z 2 \e 2 =-jX c =
lengthy, the technique
due to the phase
470
example are
appropriate for use with resistances
parallel.
in this
There
795
is
be employed
= 7951-90 ohms
shown
121
an alternate method which

in
may
analyzing circuits of the type
in figure 21-1.

define the admittance (Y) of a
we
If
Determine
3.
= 795 1-90
circuit to be equal to
Y=-^-mhos
Determine
4.
(21.3)
Y
Y
then equation 21.1 becomes
YT
Y2
Z-,
ohms
and
Y<|
then
it
complex quantity,
follows that the admittance
is
Y -- L-
also
2"Z 2
795 1-90
= 0.001 26 |9(F =+j 0.00126 mhos
Y [d_
is
0.000165 mhos
-j
in
the form
(21.4)
complex and may, therefore, be written
where
Y2
532162
= 0.00088
is
as before.
= 0.001875 1-62
Y 3 mhos
Since the impedance
ohms, Z 2
= 532 [62^
Z<\
is
the
j8
mhos
real part of
(21.5)
the admittance and
called the conductance of the circuit.
the other hand,
is
the imaginary
of the admittance and
is
Determine Yj.
5.
0,
YT =
component
+j
Y2
= 0.00088
-j
0.00165
0.000126 = 0.00088
-j
0.00039
termed the suscep-
YT
tance of the circuit.
The previously
Y<|
on
cited
example can be
6.
0. 00096
Determine
L24! mhos
I.
solved using circuit admittances as follows:

I
Determine E = 70.7
1.
volts, F
= 1000Hz
= 70.7LQ! x 0.00096L24
EY
0
.
= 0.068 1-24 amps
as before.
While this method
Determine
2.
ohms
XL
= 470 ohms,
Xq
= 795
as the
are
as before.
first
is
about the same length as
method, the actual computations
somewhat
simpler.
MATERIALS
1-H inductor
Audio generator
Multimeter
10juF capacitor
Oscilloscope
75-ohm
Resistor
Linear graph paper
the
DC
resistance of
(oil filled)
resistor
the 1-H inductor used
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record the winding resistance (R c of the 1-H inductor
2.
in figure
21-3.
122
7sa
AUDIO
GENERATOR
WITH
BALANCED
OUTPUT
Fig.
21-3
3.
Set the generator for an output frequency of 10 Hz.
4.
Set the generator output for an
5.
Compute and
6.
Measure and record the magnitude of the voltage across the inductor.
7.
Using the data from steps 5 and 6, determine and record the magnitude of the inductor's
RMS
voltage of one-half volt across the
75-ohm
resistor.
record the magnitude of the circuit current using the values from step
4.
impedance (Z
meas ).
8.
Using the oscilloscope, measure and record the phase angle

across the inductor and the current through
(0
f
I
EL
Meas.
Meas.
Z
Comp.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Fig.
RC =
Data from Inductor Circuit
Hz
meas between the voltage
it.
21-4
The Data Table

123
Comp.
Diff
Diff
9
Data from the
Hz
Meas.
Meas.
RC
Circuit
Z
Comp.
Diff
Dltt
Comp.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Data from the
Hz
Meas.
Meas.
Parallel
Combination
Z
Comp.
Comp.
10
20
30
40
50'
60
70
80
90
100
F/'gr.
27-4
The Data Tables (continued)

124
Diff
Diff
9.
Using the component values and

angle (0
comp of the circuit.
)
compute and record the magnitude (Z

comp and phase
(Omit the 75-ohm resistor).
f,
10.
Compute and record
11.
Repeat steps 4 through 10 for generator frequencies of 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90,
and 100 Hz.
12.
Remove
the inductor from the experimental circuit and replace
resistance
1
3.
14.
the percent difference between the pairs of values of Z and
and the 10-juF capacitor
in series
between points
and
it
0.
with the inductor's
B.
using the inductor's resistance capacitor instead of the inductor.
1 1
Connect the inductor to points
and B
(in parallel
with the inductor's resistance and the
10-juF capacitor).
15.
Repeat steps 3 through 11 for the
16.
On
RC
a single sheet of
circuit,
and
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
combination of the inductor and the
parallel
RC
circuit.
graph paper plot curves of the impedance magnitude of the inductor,
parallel
combination versus frequency.
In analyzing these data consider
each of the following points:
a)
What
b)
Does your plot of the impedance agree with the plots of the individual branches?
Were the phase angle measurements as accurate as the impedance magnitude
measurements?
c)
How
d)
75-ohm
effect did the
resistor
have on the results?
could the circuit admittances have been measured?
same
results be the
if
Would the experimental
admittances were used instead of impedances?
PROBLEMS
1.
Compute
the circuit admittance for each of the three experimental circuits at
frequencies of 10, 50, and 100 Hz.

2.
Use the admittances from problem

circuit
3.
4.
impedances
How do the
On
a
values
at 10, 50,
in
and equation 21.3 to compute the experimental
and 100 Hz.
problem 2 compare with the values measured in^he experiment?
the experimental plot of impedance magnitude vs frequency, there should be
frequency where
parallel
IZ
Also at this resonant frequency, the plot of the
IZ|_ L
combination of the impedance should be
maximum
greater than the
magnitude of either individual impedance.

If
these
impedances were purely
resistive
the parallel combination of this
frequency would be equal to one-half the value of either resistance since they
are equal.
Ri R
R Ri
Ri
R1 R2
=
=
= ~2~
2R 1
R-, + R
R1 + R1
2
-|
RT
-|
Since the winding resistance of the inductor used

extra resistor, explain
why
is
approximately equal to the
the value of the plot of the parallel impedances does
not agree with the value of purely
resistive elements.
125
experiment
INTRODUCTION. Due
AC
circuit, the
shall
AC POWER
to the phase shift between the voltage and current that
power applied
examine the power
S S
to the circuit
relations in a
AC
may
complex
connected
AC
be
than expected.
less
may occur
In this
in
an
experiment we
circuit.
to a circuit containing only resistances, the
In this circuit the current and voltage will be

90 apart, as indicated by figure 22-3. The
circuit current will be in phase with the volt-
instantaneous power
DISCUSSION.
If
an
source
The instantaneous power
age.
the resistance wil
is
p =
be
p =
we sketch the voltage, current, and power,
dissipated by the load
2
l
The value of p
is
R =
1/2Pm
Pm
is
the
are effective
maximum
(RMS)
(22.2)
If
AC
source
shown
Consider,
for
example,
call
will
we measure
in a
be negative
either e
be equal to zero.
the effective voltage and
the circuit
press
it
Voltage, Current,
in
and Power in a
126
We
product the reactive (or imaginary)
this
to
the circuit, and
units called
VARs
reactive).
22- 1
when
purely reactive circuit, their prod-
power supplied
in figure 22-2.
Fig.
will
uct will, in general, not be equal to zero.
is
purely reactive (either capacitive or inductive), the conditions mentioned above do not
hold.
both positive or
values and
current
If
figure 22-3, will
The average power taken over one
rants).
instantaneous power.
the load attached to the
in
are
are negative (second and fourth quad-
complete cycle
where E and
as
negative (first and third quadrants).
or
2
P = EI = E /R =
ei
shown
when e and
be positive
the result would be as indicated in figure 22-1.

In such a case (resistive loads), the average
power
be
(22.1)
ei
and therefore,
If
will still
dissipated by
Resistive Circuit
we
ex-
(for volt-amps-
EXPERIMENT 22 AC POWER
In
and
circuit containing
both reactance
resistance, the phase angle
between the
voltage and current will have some
value between 0 and 90.
22-4
Figure
shows a
sketch of the voltage, current, and power
in
such a case.
case
still
is
The instantaneous power
age and current by p =

Fig.
22-2
Purely Capacitive Load
In this case,
will
not be as greatas
the purely resistive case.
In this instance,
we have
Fig.
22-3
Fig.
Voltage, Current,
22-4
and Power in
Voltage, Current,
it
three separate quantities to consider:
a Purely Reactive Circuit
and Power in a Complex
127
ei.
the average power taken over one
cycle will be positive;

in
in this
related to the instantaneous volt-
Circuit
The Apparent Power
a.
(P
app ),
RMS
the product of the
which
is
We may
therefore write
voltage and
ET
current,
b.
E
app = T
The Average Power

power
(22.3)
volt-amps)
(in
(P
which
ave ),
is
ET
P ave
+
T =E R T
l
=E R'T
(22.4)
(inwatts)
quantities discussed above,
P
p
app
The Reactive Power (P x ), which is the

imaginary power supplied to the circuit,
Px = E X
now
Let us
VARs)
(in
(22.5)
consider a circuit
this last set of conditions
is
impedance of the
Z = R +
in
we
EX
Also,
we can
write
=Pâve -HP x
may be
(22.7)
expressed
in
the
express the average power as

P
r
ave
=Pr app
a cos0
(22.8)
circuit will be
or
X|_
we may
which
appropriate. Fig-
where
If
figure
form of a right triangle as shown in
22-6, which is called "the power triangle."
ure 22-5 shows one such circuit.
total
(22.6)
EX
power-related
since these are the three
This relationship
The
loss in the circuit resistance,
And
c.
again multiply each term by lj
Now, if we
we have
the
=E R
is
= E
6
t't cos
ave
(22.9)
the phase angle between E j and lj.
multiply each term by the value of the
circuit current, the result
=
TZ
TR +
some cases the cosine of 0

the power factor (pf) of the circuit;
is
In
TX L
cases,
we may
is
called
in
which
write
pf =
(22.10)
cos0
However, we observe that
TZ
= E
T
IjR = Ep
and
and
l
TX L
= Ex
Pave
=E T'T<P f
{22 11)
"
>
REACTIVE
POWER
IN VARS
AVERAGE POWER
Fig.
22-5
A Complex
Fig.
Circuit
128
22-6
IN
WATTS
The Power Triangle
In
the case of a
tive
AC
DC
circuit or a purely resis-
circuit, the value of 6
fore, pf
= cos 0 =
1.
is
reactive
As an
zero. There-
In the case
of a purely
AC circuit,
we observe
result, then,
overall
equation 22.1
8 = 90 and pf = cos 0 =
holds for
all
cases.
MATERIALS
1
Oscilloscope
Multimeter
10-juF capacitor
AC ammeter
250-ohm
Wattmeter
resistor
(20 watt)
PROCEDURE
shown
1.
Assemble the
2.
Set the variable transformer for a total circuit voltage of about 100 volts
3.
Measure and record the values
4.
circuit
in figure
22-7.
of:
a.
The
circuit voltage (Ej)
b.
The
circuit current
c.
The
voltage across the resistor (Ep)
d.
The voltage
j)
across the capacitor (Eq)
Replace the ammeter with the current
coil of
the wattmeter.
2500
1
Fig.
22-7

129
RMS.
0.
that
common
Connect the
5.
Value
Quantity
to
side of the
wattmeter voltage
C and connect the remaining
point
coil
voltage coil
lead to measure:
ET
the resistor and the
a.
The
It
capacitor.
Er
b.
to the circuit (P ave ).

The capacitor voltage only and record the average
eC
r
Record the average power supplied
power supplied to the capacitor
ave
voltage across both
6.
Move the wattmeter
voltage coil leads to the points
measure the voltage across the
necessary to
(Pq).
Record the power dissipated by the

P
resistor.
(Pp).
resistor
C
Using the oscilloscope, measure and record the phase
7.
D
r ave
P
P
8.
angle
between
Using
the
circuit
appropriate,
app
circuit
current
and
voltage
and
current
Ep,
Ey,
or
(0).
Eq, as
compute and record P ave P app and P^,
Compute and
9.
the
the
record
using 0 measured in step
circuit
power factor
(pf)
between
two
7.
Pf
1
0.
Compute the percent

values of P
p
r
value of
2.
Compute Zj
using
13.
DlTT
p Ann
15.
Compute the
(P
16.
ave
C and
F.
= R - jXQ.
Record lj
the data
in
the percent difference
in
value of P
app using
lj and
Ej and
T comp.
T comp.
app comp).
Compute the percent
difference
between P app and
com P-
The Data Table
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
P
using
comp).
Compute
p app
22-8
14.
Diff
app
(I
Zj
Xc
lj using lj = Ej/Zj.
Compute
table
Comp.
p
r
Compute the
Comp.
ave
11.
't
the
ave
Fig.
difference
Diff
an d Pxappy
In
How
the analysis of these data, consider carefully the difference between
ie resu ts
'
'
compare to the
130
relationships specified in the discussion?
PROBLEMS
1.
In
given circuit the average
power
is
the circuit voltage and current are

what is the magnitude of:
If
a.
b.
c.
2.
3.
Ip a
The power factor?

The circuit reactance?
The phase angle between the
complex
circuit,
why
is
circuit voltage
resistance
is
1.05
amps
respectively
and current?
the apparent power always larger than the average power?
certain circuit containing an inductor
factor of 0.630.
measured and found to be 47.3 watts.

117 volts and
How
and
a resistor
is
found to have
can the power factor be changed to 1.00

12.9K and the input frequency is 1000 Hz?
131
if
power
the circuit
experiment
23
SERIES RESONANCE
INTRODUCTION. When a resistor, capacitor, and

may be found at which the reactive components
experiment we
shall
DISCUSSION.
Let
shown in figure
two reactances
mined by
XL
examine the
23-1.
in
consider
us
circuit
The magnitudes of the
the circuit will be deter-
and
frequency
of the impedance cancel each other.
If
In this
X^^.
plot the reactances versus frequency,
we
the result will be as shown
in
figure 23-2.
plot of the resistance and circuit impedance

also
= 27rfL
in series, a
performance under such conditions.
circuit
the
inductor are connected
shown.
From
this sketch
we
A
is
should take
note of the fact that since the circuit impe-
dance
is
given by
-vw
R
Z=R+j(X L -X c
),
VARIABLE
FREQUENCY
AC SOURCE
there
Fig.
23-1
'
Series
is
xL
RLC Circuit.
FREQUENCY
Fig.
23-2
a point (f 0 ) at
(Hz)
Impedance of Series
132
RLC Circuit
which
-x c
(23.1)
EXPERIMENT 23 SERIES RESONANCE
and therefore
The value of the voltage drop
across the rebe the product of the circuit current and the ohmic value of the resistor,
sistor will
Z= R
(23.2)
at this point.
Er = T R
l
But since
We
can determine the point at which

equals R by returning to equation 23.1,
XL
= ><C
= E-p/R, the
resistor voltage
becomes
ER = E
T
(23.5)
other words, the voltage across the resistor

equal to the applied voltage. Similarly, the
voltage across the inductance is
In
Therefore,
we may
write
27Tf rt L
is
=
2jrf
QC
EL =
Dividing each side by 2ttL renders
and since
E,
1_
4n 2
have
= E
T
(23.6)
The ratio of X to R at resonance is freL

quently called the quality factor (Q ) of the
Q
gives us
TX L
T = E T /R, we
%* 2 0 LC
and multiplying by f
Q
circuit.
That
is
LC
L
Q Q = -pat resonance
Finally, taking the square root of each side
(23.7)
provides
The equation
f =
which
is
the frequency at which
Z =
R.
This frequency
resonant frequency of the
we apply
(23.3)
27rynr
is
XL
Xc
EL =
Qo E T
(23.8)
and
called the series
In like
manner, the capacitive voltage
is
circuit.
AC voltage
to the circuit at the resonant frequency,
the
circuit current will be
If
for the inductive voltage may,
therefore, be rewritten as
a constant level
and since
Xq
c -'t x c =
=
XL
nr
at resonance,
we may
write
(23.4)
EC "
133
Qo E T
(23.9)

In a practical case, the value of
two to over
usually be from
the value of R.
therefore
XL
We may
will
hundred times
Typical values of
QQ
determine the
by observing that
at f
\j = 0.707 Ej/R.
2,
From Ohm's law we know
will
bandwidth
size of the
that
range from about two to over a
The voltage across the inductor or

capacitor may therefore be many times greater
hundred.
than the applied voltage.
This phenomena
referred to as the resonant rise in voltage and
Therefore, at
occurs only at or near the resonant frequency.

In general, the circuit
applied voltage
T=T
is
current for a fixed
ZT =
is
we
have
0707E T /R
414R=
Since the impedance magnitude
is
given by
other words, \j varies inversely as does
In
the circuit impedance.
|Z|=yR 2 + (X L -X c
Figure 23-3 shows a
2
)
sketch of circuit impedance and current versus frequency.
The change
in
we
frequency
the points where current

its
highest value
is
(f
is
down
called the
f<|)
see that at f
between
x/2R=yR 2 +
to 70.7% of
(X L
-X c
2
)
bandwidth (BW)
of the circuit:
Squaring both sides gives
BW
f
1
(23.10)
2R 2 = R 2 + (X L
-X C
2
)
IMPEDANCE
(OHMS)
1.41
CURRENT
(AMPS)
FREQUENCY
Fig.
23-3
(Hz)-
Impedance and Current Versus Frequency

134
Subtracting R 2 from each

side,
R 2 = (x
L
The righthand
1/Q
-x c
ratio
should be recognized as
0 therefore
;
BW =
or
"Q
X L -X C
R =
XL
Because
directly proportional to freis inversely

proportional, X
is
quency and X
c
L
and X
must
change by approximately the
c
same amount. That is, X must
increase by
L
about 1/2R while X
c decreases by about
1/2R. At f
2 then, the total inductive reac-
BW=-^
This relationship
is
(23.12)
very handy
in
many
prac-
tical cases.
tance
will
be
If
27rf
2L =
27rf
+ 1/2R
0L
the
placed by a
AC source in
DC source and
Solving for
DC
R_
~ +
2 = f
4ttL
being overloaded
'
Using the same reasoning for f

(X L decreases
1
by 1/2R while X
increases by the same
mount)
a-
gives us
from
is
closed.
close the switch, current
R and L, establishing a magaround the inductor. When
circuit has
been
opposite direction.
pletely collapsed,
BW =
2 -f 1
L until
+_R_
+
f
t
n
-5--f
o
47rL
it
is
divide both sides by
the field
all
dissipated
-wv
R
we wi have
T
27Tf
is
com-
partially charged with
(23.11)
BW
o
eventually
wv-
or finally,
2?rL
is
circuit resistance.
4j[
BW
When
reversed polarity, and the

process starts again
m the opposite direction. The energy
in the
circuit continues to
alternately charge C and
Therefore,
the switch
the
diminishes, the field around
L
starts to collapse,
tending to charge C in the
47rL
The bandwidth of the
we
when
When we
tential.
charge on
defined as
If
shown
Let us presume that the

switch is open
and the capacitor is charged
to the supply po-
netic field
re-
flows through
BW
is
figure 23-4, another

property of resonant
circuits may be observed.
The resistor (R ) is
included only to prevent the
supply
2 renders
f
figure 23-1
a switch, as
QL
Fig.
135
23-4
AnRLC Ringing Circuit
by the
If
we observe
oscilloscope,
an
figure
in
The
the capacitor voltage with

will
it
appear as shown
This resonant
23-5.
termed ringing
will
therefore
be the same as
when
Substantially
23-5
the
switch
the
is
the
be determined by
measuring the period as the circuit
the resonant frequency of the circuit.
Fig.
(and
may
phenomena is
The
the resonant circuit.
frequency of the ringing
frequency
ringing
resonant frequency)
in
rings.
same thing happens

opened charging the
circuit.
RLC
Ringing in an
Circuit
MATERIALS
1
Audio generator
Oscilloscope
SPST
Multimeter
100-ohm
Variable
1-H inductor
DC
1-juF
supply
capacitor
switch
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record the value of the
2.
Assemble the
3.
Connect the
4.
Set the generator for
circuit
VOM
shown
coil's
winding resistance (Rq).
in figure 23-6.
to measure the generator output.
maximum output
between 100 and 200 Hz.

output voltage. Make
at
100 Hz.
Slowly vary the generator frequency
Locate the frequency at which the generator has the least
mental note of the value of the output voltage at this point.
136
E LECTRON ICS/E LECTR ICITY
AAAr
AUDIO
GENERATOR
1/iF
INDUCTOR
AAAr
L_.
Fig.
rT ,Z
'
above'
en
23-6
The
V3,Ue
^rs ^
to
Initial
Experimental Circuit
f 9enerat r V ' tage that
50 Hz and connect the
is
less
vtvm
than the value noted
to
th e
'
0,t a 9
reSiSt r (E1> f r 9enerat0r
ûencies of: 50, 60, 70, 80
nR
i o
105, i110,
115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145 150
155 160 165 170 7*
180, 185, 190, 195, 200, 210, 220,
230, 240, 250, and 260 Hz.
9TToo
90, 100,
'
'
'
9
'
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
^ZZtê P 8
On
17.
'
both
T and Zj
Set the generator to the frequency at

which E,
Measure the voltage across the capacitor (E

c ).
Measure the voltage across the 100-ohm
is
resistor
Determine the
3
16.
C,rCUit
a single sheet of graph

paper, plot
15
*
mPUte
sistnceTE^
total circuit resistance,
Using the measured value of
imP6danCe Z
T<
'
versus frequency.
and compute the
*"
8Cro
maximum
" *e
Q (meas).
circuit cur-
t0tal circuit re "
Q compute the value of the inductive reactance (X ).

L
circuit,
Q
757
at each
'
the greatest. Record this as
Rj.
"

Using
18.
Q and
Ej, compute the value of E c
19.
Compute
and Ep.
the percent difference between E T
20.
Compute
values of E c
the percent difference between the two
21
Using the values of L and C, compute f Q
two values of f 0
22.
Compute
23.
From your
24.
Using data from steps
25.
Compute
26.
Assemble the
27.
Open the switch S and
28.
the capacitor.
Connect the oscilloscope for viewing the voltage across
29.
of the voltage across the capacitor.

Snap the switch closed and view the waveform
waveform.
sketch of the capacitor voltage
On
30.
curve, determine the circuit bandwidth

1 1
a sheet of
meas).
(BW comp).
and 17, compute the value of the bandwidth

circuit
(BW
shown
in
of
BW.
figure 23-7.
set the variable
graph paper
two values
DC
supply for
5 volts output.
make an accurate
-AA/Sr
100ft
1jnF
VARIABLE
D.C. SUPPLY
C
1
H INDUCTOR
4-vwW-f
i
L_"l
Fig.
practical
you should examine each of the numbered equato which your data confirmed them. What
the discussion and consider the extent
resonant circuits?
applications can you think of that would employ
ANALYSIS GUIDE
tions in
23-7
PROBLEMS
1.
What
is
the resonant frequency of the circuit shown
2.
What
is
the circuit
3.
Based on the equation given
Q0
in figure
in
What
is
23-9?
23-9?
of this
the discussion, what would be the bandwidth
circuit?
4.
in figure
the power factor of a circuit at resonance?
138
Qty
Value
(Hz)
E1
't
(Hz)
50
155
60
160
70
165
80
170
90
175
RT
100
180
105
185
XL
110
190
Qo
115
195
Eq comp.
120
200
125
210
130
220
135
230
140
240
145
250
150
260
ET
f
Q meas.
Eq
meas.
'o
Diff
E R'E
%
E
f
'T
Diff
Q comp.
%
f
E1
Diff
BW
meas.
BW comp.
% Diff
BW
1
Fig.
23-8
The Data Tables
AAAr
7100^
.01 mF
0.5H
Fig.
23-9
Circuit for Problems
139
1,
2,
and 3.
ZT
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
Parallel
PARALLEL RESONANCE
24
RLC
number of
circuits exhibit a
those of series resonant circuits. In this experiment
we
DISCUSSION.
From
Let us direct our attention to
the parallel circuit shown
in
which are
examine some of these
shall
this equation
current
pacitive
figure 24-1.
characteristics
characteristics.
we observe
that the cato
related
directly
is
similar to
the
frequency.
On
the other hand, the current
in
the
inductive branch will be
e(R -jX L
'2
R + jX L
Z2
eX,
eR
Fig.
If
24-
we apply
Parallel
a variable
RLC Circuit
frequency constant
The total circuit current

of these two branch currents
will
in
'1
the capacitive branch will be
A
= +j2?rfC(e)
+
2
H-x:
u
\
plot of the three current
appear as shown
-jx,
eX,
eR
'
-2'
in figure
(24.1)
1
Current versus Frequency
140
components would
24-2.
FREQUENCY
24-2
be the sum
volt-
age across the circuit terminals, the current
Fig.
It
apparent that there
is
e/X c
is
a point at
is
eX L /|2 2 2 and
equal to
the circuit current
EXPERIMENT 24 PARALLEL RESONANCE
at this point
is
R 2C
L
eR
2
4tt
(24.2)
"|Z/
circuit
Dividing both the numerator and

denominator
by L and regrouping gives us
is
This
which
the point at which the parallel

said to be at resonance. We can de-
LC
Taking the square root of each side provides
is
termine the frequency at which resonance occurs by equating the two reactive current
(24.4)
terms
From this equation we should notice

that the resonant frequency of the parallel
eX,
from that of a series circuit employing the same components by the factor
circuit differs
|Zo|-
or
R C
Xc
|Z
If
Xc
Substituting
we
return to equation 24.3
= 1/(2wf C), X
=
0
L
2
2
2
and |Z
= R + (27rf L) renders
2
0
2ttt
-k =R 2 + 42 2 L 2
fo
0 L,
and rewrite
2^JZ
Canceling
27rf
R2 +
4,r
47r
2 2
0 L we have
2L2
L
2 2 2
47r f
0 L
Solving this relationship for
L
2
2
Q
gives us
Xl
R C
and we recognize
R2
Dividing both sides by
=R 2 + 4,2 f<) 2 L 2
X L 2/R 2
as
+ Q
-V=1
R^C
renders
or
Z
2_ L - R C
2C
X L2 =
9_
R2 +
from which we have
using
27Tf n L
0 on each side gives
C=
it,
R 2C
~4A
141
Q2
therefore,
The equation
24.4)
may
for
resonant frequency
therefore be rewritten
in
(Eq.
the form
becomes
%/LC
when
we observe
frequency
which,
(1
we
if
2
)
common denominator
use the
under the
radical
is
In practice this
reso-
equation
is
about 10 or more. Returning
to the equation for circuit current (Eq. 24.1),
2tt
good approximation of the
nate frequency.
used
on the
that a plot of total current versus

will
be somewhat as shown
in fig-
ure 24-3.
right,
The total
Ohm's law as
becomes
circuit
impedance
is
given by
(24.5)
"T
From
this
equation
we
notice that
siderably greater than unity, then
andQ 2 /(1
Q 2 )
1.
if
Q is conQ2 ^ Q2
shown
in figure
24-3.
and
is
We
should observe that the resonant frequen-
also
Then
(24.6)
cy
(f
given
given by equation 24.5 and that
by equation 24.6
(f
')
are not exactly the
0.707 z
FREQUENCY
Fig.
24-3
Total Current
and Impedance Versus Frequency

142
The frequency
same.
cuit current
from
also different
tween
at its
is
Q and
at
which the
minimum
Q and
will
total cir-
value
(f
is
by
a three-branch circuit of the
type shown
in
figure 24-4.
always be be-
The derivation of the equabeyond

the scope of this dism
cussion but can be shown to be
f
tion for
'.
is
2*^
fm
(24.7)
4Q'
The important thing to notice in this equation

2 =
is that if Q = 1/2 (Q
1/4) then f
m becomes
imaginary.
This condition
When Q
damping.
circuit will not ring
sudden change
We
in
should
bandwidth of
is
when
termed
is
1/2 or
less,
Fig.
24-4
subjected to a
is
it
critical
the resonant
Equivalent Circuit of a Practical
LC Circuit
Parallel
input energy.
recall at this
a series
point that the
resonant circuit
The
of the original coil was defined as
is
(24.9)
(24.8)
If
In
the case of a parallel resonant circuit, this
relationship
is
only approximate but
ably accurate for circuits

large
compared to
normally used
in
unity.
cases
in
is
reason-
which the
is
is
circuit
use the quantities given in figure 24-4
XL
(in
terms of
(in
and Z
terms of R
X and Z 2 ),
p
and
2
p
the results are
is
Equation 24.8
where the
we
and solve for R
K r
X L =^2
and
=1^2'
about 10 or above.
Let us once again return to the equation
for total circuit current:
T=
^9 +j(>T-^)
c
Substituting these values into equation 24.9

renders
(24.1)
\Z*
_X L
IZ
/X
7R,
If
we
substitute
e/Zj for
eR
,.
iy,
we may
write
At the resonant frequency,

and therefore X = X must
c
eX,
We may
\Z<
p
therefore write
X
Q=Ji
=
Consideration of this equation suggests that

we can represent the original parallel circuit
143
must equal
L
c
also be satisfied.
#
^
X
X
R
(24.10)

Xn
Also, since at resonance,

circuit
impedance
= X, then
Therefore
total
be
will
'o
Z
Similarly,
we
JZ
2l
(24.11)
L=
= R +-
= X|_/R,
Z0
'c
Xc
oi
see that
Z o=and since
0-^--R--
R p"
However, since Rp/X

c
0 X,
is
equal to Q,
we have
(24.13)
we have
=R
Since the value of R
QX L
is
Similarly,
usually very smal
compared to QX|_, we may write
Z0
In
~QX L
And
(24.12)
since
is
also equal to
X L /R, we
see that
the equivalent circuit of figure 24-4,
the voltage across
Rp and X c must be
e
L-'o
equal:
must
also hold for a parallel resonant circuit.
MATERIALS
1
Audio generator
1-H inductor
Multimeter
1-/xF
Oscilloscope
Variable
DC
supply
capacitor
5k2 resistor
SPST
switch
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record the winding resistance of the
2.
Assemble the
3.
$et the audio generator for a frequency of 100 Hz.
circuit
shown
in
coil
figure 24-5.
144
(R c ).
mfd
AUDIO
GENERATOR
Fig.
4.
24-5
Connect the VOM across the

1000-ohm
you locate the frequency at which
unt,.
as f
aZ
VOM
the
reading's at a minimum
reading of 0.5V across theVfl
resistor
Record
the current through the 1kft
resistor and record it as
generator voltage for a
quency
and slowly vary the generator frequency
resistor
VOM
Compute
5
'
the
f re
6
m
re
reC rd the VO ta9e across the
ca P a ^tor E
c Connect the
osclloscope across the capacitor
and adjust it for monitoring E
In
theôllowmTsteD
c
P'
adjust the generator voltage as
necessary to hold E constant.
c
I!!*
'
6.
Connect the
VOM
across the 1kfi resistor
and record the voltage (E,) for

generator fre
70 80 90 10
' 105 110 115 120 125. 130, 35 lf
0 145 150
T
Z 165,
^'f^
155, 160,
170, 175, 180, 185, 190, 195, 200,
210,
'
'
'
Be very
7.
8.
sure to hold
'
'
E, constant throughout
'
'
220, 230, 240, 250 and 260 Hz'
this data run.
total circuit current
(l
Compute and record the impedance of

the
ZT " e
for th,s calculation.
for each frequency.
parallel
circuit for each
</'t
9.
10.
On
a single sheet of graph paper,

plot
both
T and Zj versus frequency

Using equation 24.4, compute
and record the resonant frequency
f
l
1
1

the value of
12.
From the curve
13.
14.
Using
15.
Compute the percent
16.
Using equation 24.5, compute the

value of
17.
frequency
H
Y
and
fQ/
plotted
in
Q and record
'
it.
step 9, determine the value

of the bandwidth
circuit Q.
compute the bandwidth (BW comp.).

f
two values of bandwidth.

again.

and record the value of
145
at resonance.
(BW
meas).
"
Use
use
SPST
5kn
SWITCH
RESISTANCE
DECADE
OSCILLOSCOPE
VARIABLE
DC
SUPPLY
juF
INDUCTOR
Fig.
18.
Compute X c
19.
Compute
20.
21
Compute
using
Ringing Circuit
X c =-^-^
resonance using
at
An RLC
24-6
=
c
Xc
in
two values of
figure 24-6.
With the SPST switch closed,
22.
set the variable DC supply for an output

of about 25 volts.
Set the resistance decade for a resistance of zero.
23.
Slip the switch several times
24.
Set the resistance decade to 200
25.
In similar
and observe the ringing waveform on the oscilloscope.

an accurate sketch of the waveform.
ohms and
Make
repeat step 23.
manner, repeat step 23 for decade settings of 400, 600

800 1000 1200 1400
1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2400, and 2600 ohms.
'
26.
From the data
in
step 25, determine the value of total circuit

resistance (R
just eliminates ringing in the circuit.
T meas) which
(Ignore the 5kf2 current limiting resistor
in this
determination.)
27.
Using the information given
in
the discussion, determine the value of total

circuit resistcritical damping. (Ignore the 5kf2
current limitinq
ance (Rj comp) necessary to achieve

resistor in this determination.)
28.
Compute
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
two
values of Rj.
considering the implications of these data, you should

consider the
general characteristics of parallel resonance as
demonstrated by your data. In particular, you
shou Id discuss the significance and extent of agreement
between your values for f
f
and f
In
'
17V
146
O'
'
EXPERIMENT 24 PARALLEL
RESONANCE
f
\2 iy
V,
Value
Hz
'T
R
"c
160
70
165
80
170
90
175
x.
155
60
tJ
50
100
180
D\A/
dvv meas
105
BW comp
%
185
110
190
115
Diff
195
120
BW
'
200
125
210
130
220
'c
135
230
Xc
140
240
'c
145
250
Diff
150
Rj
(meas)
Rj
(comp)
Fig.
260
24-7
The Data Tables
Diff
RT
PROBLEMS
1-
Make a sketch
of the total circuit
current
and impedance versus

frequency for the circuit
m
2.
shown
figure 24-8.
What
is
the circuit
in
figure
R = 7.07kft
L=
C=0.01mF
e= 100 SIN coT
0.5H
24-8?
Fig.
147
24-8
Circuit for Problems
and 2.
expert men
INTRODUCTION,
an
In
AC
IMPED AN CE MATCHING
25
circuit, as in a
when the
experiment we shall
DC
one,
be transferred from a
maximum power may
appropriately matched to the source impedance.
source to a load only
load impedance
In this
investigate the conditions necessary to effect
transfer to a
complex
DISCUSSION.
plest case of
the situation
Let
case
shown
us first
Therefore, the load power can be written as
review the sim-
impedance matching, that being

in which both the source and
Such
in figure
E/R
nL
s
(25.2)
25-1.
If
E s and R g are held constant and the value
of P|_
shown
We
plotted as a function of the ratio of
is
Rg, the result will be similar to that
R|_ to
figure 25-2.
in
observe from this plot that the load power
maximum
reaches a
25-1
Fig.
max
RL
delivered
to
the
load
value of
4R^
when
Impedance Matching
with Resistances
The power
maximum power
load.
load impedances are purely resistive.

is
is
be
will
or
2
P L =I L R L
where
is
the
RMS
(25.1)
R L - Rs
load current and
the average load power.
The
value of
This
Pl
1
1_
(R|_) according to
),
the
condition
point of
maximum power
and the load resistance
as
the
resistive source-load
condition,
we
Under
circumstance.
say that the load
is
this
matched
to the source.
Ohm's Law,
now
consider the case
the source impedance
R,+
cited
transfer for the
is
Let us
'l
usually
is
determined by the source voltage (E s ), the

source resistance (R
is
(25.3)
is
resistive
148
which
(R s and the
load is a complex impedance (Z|_).

of this type is shown in figure 25-3.
R,
in
)
circuit
In this case the load
power
EXPERIMENT 25 IMPEDANCE MA TCHING
is still
Therefore,
2
L =I L R L
p.
However, the load current
is
now
given
E/R,
(R S +
(25.4)
Z L) 2
by
Comparing
=
'l
Tr7Tz[)
power
149
in
we
this equation to equation 25.2,
see that, for a given value of
the complex case
will
R L the load
,
be
less
than
in
EXPERIMENT 25 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
the resistive case because R|_
is
always
less
But
now
the load current has
become
than Z,
we
If
the result
is
as
should observe that not only

load
but
is
power reduced from the

also
power versus IZJ/Rg,

shown in figure 25-4. We
plot load
that
the
maximum
the
R s + R L + XS +
'L
maximum
We may,
resistive case,
occurs
|ZJ = R S
load
when
therefore,
power
in
Let us
in
e s 2r l
(25.5)
now
+R L + X S + X L
2
)
as before.
AAAr
turn to a most general case
which both the source impedance and the
load
impedance are complex.
shows
We
when R L = R s
write the equation for
the form
(R S
rather than
XL
Figure 25-5
a circuit of this type.
should note at this point that the symbol
X|_ indicates the reactance of the load and
may be
either inductive or capacitive.
The value of the load power

given
*1
is
still
by
Pi
1.
'L
2t
nL
Fig.
150
25-5
A Complex
Source and Load
Inspection of this relationship reveals that
=-X c
X,
(25.6)
the reactive terms vanish and

original
resistive situation.
that
maximum power
load
when
The load power then becomes
if
It
we have
=R L
plot of this equation reveals that
XL
is
delivered
between
the
conjugate
is
match
maximum power
In
a
(25.7)
I2 L
(25.8)
conjugate match
load.
situation
cases
the same time
which
It
However, the value of the load power

maximum will be reduced from that of a con-
this
is
provides
complex
jugate match
load.
it
is
if
Z s and Z
L
are not
complex
we may wish
To
in
not possible to effect
in a practical situation.
complex loads
load current
conjugates.
some
load power.
and
delivered to a
conjugate match
several
termed
source
maximum
when
12,1
This condition
2R L
the
power
R s jX s
follows, then,
be delivered to the
will
this
to
know which
At
summary, we may say that maximum
power is delivered to a complex load
when the load impedance is the complex
In
of
possible
produce the most

end we may rewrite the
will
conjugate of the source impedance.
figure 25-5 as
If
a con-
match cannot be achieved, then an

absolute value match (lz
= IZJ) will pros
duce maximum power transfer but at a lower
jugate
zs + z
L
level
than a conjugate match.
MATERIALS
Oscilloscope
2 10-juF capacitors
Multimeter
100-ohm
Audio generator
1-H inductor
.3
resistor
sheets of linear graph paper
1-/zF capacitors
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
Measure and record the value of the

inductor's winding resistance (R
c ).
Assemble the circuit shown in figure 25-6.
Set the audio generator frequency to
65 Hz and its output voltage control for about half
maximum value (about 1 volt across the 100fi resistor with
output terminals shorted).
Adjust the oscilloscope for monitoring the
generator output. Hold the generator output
constant during the remainder of the
experiment. It may be necessary to readjust the
output control periodically to maintain constant
output.
the
151

1
INDUCTOR
AW
10012
AA/V
.J
LOAD
TERMINALS
4.
Connect the
The Experimental Source Circuit
25-6
Fig.
load consisting of the resistance decade only across the load terminals of
first
the experimental source.

5.
Be sure the generator voltage remains constant!

across the
Oohms
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
6.
100-ohm
(e)
50 ohms
1 00 ohms
150 ohms
Using the
(f)
(g)
(h)
VOM
load current
(I
resistor for
ohms
ohms
ohms
ohms
Compute and
9.
Using a 10 juF capacitor and two

capacitance.
Insert this
11.
In like
2.
(I)
(n)
600 ohms
650 ohms
compute and record the value
juF capacitors,
12 mfd assembly
construct a circuit having a total of
in
series
with the resistance decade.
8.
manner, repeat steps 5 through 8 with capacitances of 11 mF, 10 mF, 7
and 2
of the
record the value of the load impedance (Z L ) for each decade setting.
10.
iiF,
(k)
(m)
value of the load power (P L ) for each decade setting.
8.
(j)
ohms
ohms
ohms
ohms
400
450
500
550
for each decade setting.
juF
(i)
reading and the value of the resistor,
(E-j)
each of the following resistance decade values:
7.
12
200
250
300
350
Measure and record the voltage
/iF.
Compute and record the following values:

The total resistance included in the source impedance (R s
(a)
The inductive reactance of the source impedance (X s
(b)
The total source impedance (Z s
(c)
)
152
/xF,
6ixF,
E LECTRON ICS/E LECTRICITY
13.
On
a single sheet of linear graph paper, plot curves of

load
power (P.) versus the
ratio
R|_/R for each value of X(_.

s
14.
15.
On
On
second sheet of graph paper, plot P versus the ratio

L
a third sheet of graph paper, plot P
which R nears the value of

s
L versus the
E1
X./X,
50
rn
oU
100
Ei1
1,
nn
IUU
150
150
200
200
250
Z.yJ\J
300
300
350
350
400
400
450
450
500
500
550
550
600
600
650
650
(a)
(b)
Source Impedance Data
Rs
25-7
The Data Tables

153
XL
using only the values in
RL
Ohms
Fig.
Decade and 12 mfd cap
zL
L I/IZ S for each value of
R|_.
Resistance Decade Only
Ohms
ratio
IZ
r
P,
7,
_l
N
o.
-J
0-
CO
CD
u7
CD
CD
CO
8
cd
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LO
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CM
CN
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CD
s
t3
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Q.
CO
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CL
o
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CO
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IS
CD
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155

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
is
In
transferred
particular,
In the analysis of these data use
your values to verify that
maximum power
when an absolute value match is achieved between the source and load impedance.
show that a conjugate match results in a higher value of P L than does other
absolute value matches.
PROBLEMS
1.
certain generator produces a voltage of
ance of 600
-j
resistive load,
2.
If
500 ohms.
how
a generator has
should
If
a source has
resistive
load,
we
sin
be done?
1000
600
+j
+j
800-ohm
is
+j
0 ohms, how may maximum
load?
0 ohms of internal impedance and
maximum power
transfer will occur.
matching or simply absolute value matching?
answer
6280t and has an internal impedmaximum power to a 450-ohm
an internal impedance of 600
power be coupled to
3.
If
it
60
desire to transfer
correct.
156
Is
Explain
is
connected to
a 1kl2
this a case of conjugate
why you
believe your
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
26
Perhaps the most
electrical applications
is
commonly encountered impedance matching device

in
In this experiment we shall examine the
characteristics
the transformer.
of transformer coupling.
DISCUSSION. When
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
current
(I,)
passes
through the primary (lefthand) winding of a

transformer, such as the one shown in figure
26-1, a magnetic field is established around
That
is
=(E n2 )(N s
or
the winding.
The voltage
across each turn of the primary
winding
be
will
E
Since E
above,
(26.2)
n2-NT
n2 and E n1 are equal,
we may equate
as discussed
equations 26.1 and
26.2:
n
-j^-
volts per turn
(26.1)
Vh
la
where E is voltage across the entire primary
p
and N
is the total number of
turns in the
p
primary winding.
Now if every line of the magnetic field

which cuts the primary winding also cuts the
secondary (righthand) winding, then the voltage
induced
in
each
secondary turn must
equal the voltage across each primary

turn.
In other words, E
n2 must equal E n1 At the
same time, the total secondary voltage (E
s
must be equal to the secondary voltage per
Ns
which may be rewritten
in
the form
(26.3)
which tells us that the ratio of the primary to

secondary voltages must equal the ratio of the
primary to secondary turns.
This condition can be observed
turn (E
n2 times the
)
ary turns (N
total
number of second-
).
Fig.
26-
tical
case,
but
will
mate because
it
transformer
which every magnetic
in
is
Transformer-Coupled Circuit
157
in a
prac-
usually be only approxi-
very difficult to design a

line
cuts

EXPERIMENT 26 TRANSFORMER COUPLING
both the primary and secondary windings
an identical manner.
the total primary current but only that part
in
which flows
nevertheless, a very
It is,
sum
vector
the load attached to the secondary
If
winding
livered
is
The
the load.
useful approximation.
primary current
total
is
the
of the unloaded primary current
and the primary load current.
(l<|)
then the power de-
resistance,
as a direct result of connecting
Figure
26-2 shows the vector relationship between
from the secondary winding to the
two components
these
for a resistive load.
load will be
P|_= E s's
Before the load was connected, the primary
current
was only that amount necessary
(l-|)
to establish the magnetic field.
If
we
ignore
the resistance of the transformer windings and
any
within the transformer core, then the
loss
original
primary current
ductive and,
magnitude.
additional
in
most
When
amount
(1^)
was purely
in-
Fig.
cases, relatively small in
the load
is
It
')
(l
come from
all
the source.
of the load
power must
realized
The magnitude of this

must be such that
total
=E p'p'
should be noted that
pared to
additional primary current
Current in the Transformer Primary
connected, an
of primary current
must flow because
26-2
we assume
primary current
lp'
is
'
I
(l
large
may
Since this product and the previous one (E

s
still
be
).
we could have expressed
we
the
obrela-
tionship between the primary current (lp) and
we may
both equal to the load power,
com-
to be equal to the
Returning to the original circuit,

serve that
are
-|
if
if
reasonable accuracy
the secondary voltage
terms of the mutual
in
inductance (M) as
write
E
c
s's
= E
c
p'p
'
=coMl
or
where
s
And
since E n /E
is,
2irf
(26.4)
NP
is
we now connect
the load (Z|_) to the
secondary winding, the total secondary cur-
the ratio of the secondary current to
the primary load current
is
being the frequency of operation.
If
That
the angular velocity of the input
co
f,
'
is
That
we have
equal to N n /I\L,
is
oj
voltage.
rent will be
equal to the turns
ratio.
=
I
It
should be emphasized that
'
is
not
158
Zs + Z L
where Z
g
winding
is
EXPER,MENT26 TRANSFORMER COUPUNG
the impedance of the secondary
itself.
obtained for E
Substituting the value just

renders
If we recognize the ratio

of E /I
as being
p
the total input impedance (Zj) of the loaded
transformer,
we have
coMl
p
(26.5)
(26.6)
When
it
this
secondary circuit current flows,
induces a voltage E
'
the primary wind-
in
The term
ing such that
reflected
E p' =
z 2 + z is often referred
L
impedance of the load.
wM| s
When Z s + Z L
At the same time there

primary voltage
current
(l
is
component of the
caused by the primary

through the primary
(E-,)
flowing
(R
'),
E, =
"
1
is
predominantly
resistive
then the reflected impedance
resistive.
pedance
flected
winding impedance (Z
to as the
is
also
And, since the primary winding imis
almost purely inductive, the
impedance constitutes
re-
virtually
all of
the resistive portion of the input
impedance.
Under these conditions, we may write
'P^P
The net primary voltage (E

is, therefore, the
p
sum of the two components E and E
That
1
r =
MW'
'.
Since
may
we know
tion
+
1
Multiplying both sides by Rj/(wM) 2

gives
the values of E
1
write
And
= E
=l Z
p
+
p
and E
',
we
(coM) 2
w Ml s
Then
multiplying
nominator on the
we make the substitution from equa26.5 for

we have
s
both
left
if
R,
by
numerator and de2

we have
,
uoML
(uM) 2 L
Since coMl
is
Then dividing through by

becomes
=Z
to E
|
the equation
^L
159
and
then
we may
is
equal
the reactive portion of
(see figure 26-2),
+
^s +
when
equal to E
write
is
small

E /E s
p
have
Finally, since
turns ratio,
we
equal to
is
N /N s the
ZR
is
Equations 26.3, 26.4, 26.7, and 26.8
il-
c)
lustrate
(26.7)
former
equal to the square of the turns ratio
times the load resistance
impedances are
If
1.
to say, the input resistance of a transis
we
Z|_
is
capacitive, then
when the winding
2.
negligible.
ZR
use the symbol
3.
for the reflected
the four main transformer applica-
They
tions.
is
Zs +
inductive.
R,-
That
If
are:
To step alternating
down in magnitude.
To step
down in
To
or
currents up or
alternating
magnitude. (Eq. 26.4)
step load resistances
impedance
for
impedance, then we have
voltages up
(Eq. 26.3)
up or down
matching
purposes.
(Eq. 26.7)
4.
To
convert impedance characteristics
(26.8)
from inductive to capacitive or
visa
versa for matching or tuning purposes.
There are
secondary
is
Zp
approaches zero. Similarly:
a)
If
resistive,
is
if
the
There are also
Z|_ -+ )
open circuited (Z s +
Zs + Z L
(Eq. 26.8)
which are of
For example, we observe that
interest.
then
special cases
several
Zs + Z L
If
of other applica-
tions such as isolating one circuit from another
then Z R
and waveshaping which
is
not be dealt with
will
We
will,
how-
ever, experimentally verify the four
main
prin-
specifically in this experiment.
also resistive.
b)
a variety
inductive, then
is
ZR
is
ciples outlined above.
capacitive.
MATERIALS
1
Audio generator
10-/xF capacitor
Multimeter
1:1 transformer
1-juF
1-H inductor
Sheet of linear 9 ra P h P a P er
100-ohm resistor
AC ammeter
Oscilloscope
1
1
capacitor
PROCEDURE
1.
Measure and record the primary and secondary winding resistances, R
2.
Assemble the
3.
Using the
circuit
VOM
RMS. Record
shown
and R s
in figure 26-3.
set the variable
this value of E
in
1
transformer for a primary voltage, E

the Data Table.
160
<\
of about
30
volts
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Measure and record the values of E and

s
Compute
Compute
the primary winding impedance
Connect the 100-ohm

if
14.
and E
g
(ZJ
P
LP
'
Trt
Then
rent
(see figure 26-2).
Compute and
'
and resistance (RJ, compute the primary

y
p
(0
between the primary voltage and the
V8lUe
'
way
meaSUred
'
as to allow
Record the value of
'
l
in Ste P 4 at the 9'e imputed

you to determine the primary load cur-
thus determined.
record the value of the turns ratio

using
Compute the percent
and L.
1
secondary winding and recheck the primary

voltage
chosen in step 3. Readjust the variable transagain in the "100-ohm load" Data Table.
and E s
9raP h P Per P 0t
plot f ,n such a
p
?nJ
step
p
set at the value
using E
resistor to the
still
Using E and R
s
L compute and record
8.
necessary and record E
Sh
13.
is
Record the new values of
12
'
the Data Table.
in
Using R
and X p/ compute the phase angle
p
magnetizing current (
former
1 1
.,
Using the primary winding impedance (Z

winding reactance (X ).
p
to insure that E
10.
the transformer turns ratio using E
9.
EXPERIMENT 26 TRANSFORMER
161
and
'
I
two values of turns
ratio.
EXPERIMENT 26 TRANSFORMER COUPL ING
1:1
IjuF
TRANSFORMER
AUDI
GENEiRATOR
100n
AAAr
Fig.
26-4
15.
Compute
the input impedance (Zj) using E p and
16.
Compute
the value of the reflected load impedance using
17.
Compute
the percent difference between Rj and Z R
18.
Assemble the
circuit
shown
in
Z R = E /I
p p
'.
figure 26-4.
100-ohm Load
No Load
Qty
Value
Qty
Value
E
Rs
'p
El
f
s
"s
l
N /N s
Ns
Diff
N /N s
p
XP
Z
i
*P
ZR
Diff
Zj<
Fig.
Qty
26-5
ZR
The Data Tables
162
&C
Load
Value
19.
Compute but do not record

C and X from step 7.
of
the resonant frequency of the primary circuit using the values
maximum output
20.
Set the generator for
21.
Connect the oscilloscope to indicate the voltage (E

R across the 100-ohm
resistor.
22.
Adjust the frequency as necessary to get a
Record the
Connect
at
(f <|)
which E R
is
at
maximum
reading of E
ER
fre-
and readjust the generator frequency for

Record the new resonant frequency (f2>.
Replace the 10-/xF capacitor with a 1-H inductor and repeat step 23.
as f
maximum.
a 10-/*F capacitor across the secondary
maximum
24.
frequency computed above.
quency
23.
at the
Record the
result
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In analyzing these data you should be primarily

concerned with using your
data to verify the utility of a transformer in the four
main applications given in the
discussion.
In particular consider the effects of the

inductive and capacitive loads. What was the
nature (inductive or capacitive) of the reflected
impedance?
How does your data indicate
this?
Did the reflected impedance act effectively in series
or in parallel with the primary
winding impedance?
PROBLEMS
1.
What turns
2.
What
ratio
size fuse
dary load
is
is
necessary to step 117 volts,
should be used
3A
to be
the primary of a
at 6.3 volts?
3.
What turns ratio

to a 4-ohm load?
4.
What would be the open
is
in
60 Hz up to 700
(Assume
volts?
10-volt transformer
if
the secon-
a perfect transformer.)
required to match a source having an internal resistance of 10kfi
circuit source voltage in
volts?
163
problem 3
if
load voltage
is
3.2
experiment
INTRODUCTION. As
TRANSFORMER MATCHING
27
far as electronics
is
concerned, impedance matching consists of connecting

In this
an electronic source with a specified source impedance to a specified load.

shall consider only one matching device - the nonresonant transformer.
DISCUSSION.
If
to
practical
figure 21-1,
Moreover, the total secondary voltage (V L

will be equal to the secondary volts per turn
the voltage
times the number of secondary turns (N s ), or
we connect an
former, such as the one depicted
source,
voltage
ideal trans-
in
experiment we
across each primary turn of the transformer

will
be
VL
e
which may be rewritten as
(27.1)
p"N p
voltage across the entire

is the
p
is the number of
primary winding, and N
p
where
= e N
s
s
(27.3)
primary turns.
And
If
(every
line
by equation 27.2
has unity coupling
the transformer
magnetic
since
which cuts
primary
turn also cuts a secondary turn), then the

voltage per turn
the voltage per turn
we have
the secondary must equal
in
in
the primary.
That
is
(27.2)
Fig.
27- 1
Transformer-coupled Load and Source
164
N,
EXPERIMENT 27 TRANSFORMER MA TCHING
or
Substituting this relationship
into equation
27.5 renders
(27.4)
R
L"L
li
We may,
therefore, evaluate the turns ratio
of a transformer by measuring the primary
and secondary
If
ideal
voltages.
Then,
dividing
both
by
sides
gives
us
is
v
where P
= p *
8
and P are the primary and secondary

s
power respectively and t is time. Because
the
p
time factor affects both the primary

and
secondary equally, we may write
P
r
And
W*.
the transformer used approaches the
(has negligible losses), then the energy
applied to the primary winding must approach

the energy consumed in the secondary circuit.
That
or
At
the
this point,
input
recognize the ratio
impedance
former. Therefore,
we
(R
of
/I
as
the trans-
have
= r
P
s
since (in the ideal case) P = VI,
we
have
From equation
v p'p = v l'l
for the circuit
we
shown
in figure
27.6,
we may
see that
a
27-1.
We
can
rewrite this relationship as
which we can rewrite
ik.^p.
"
VL
>P
And
in
the form
(27.5)
=
P
\N
(27.7)
referring to equation 27.4,
Let us
Ik
'p
Ns
(27.6)
This equation is the whole basis for

using a transformer as an impedance matching
device
Notice that by choosing the proper value
now
focus our attention on the

load resistance, R|_. It should be
apparent that
VL
N /N s (that is, choosing the proper transp

former), we may match any load value to
for
any source provided that the load is resistive

and the transformer approaches the ideal.
LRL
165
AND
ITS
LOAD
the original circuit as shown
and
the
power
will
Equivalent for the Original Circuit
we can redraw
Based on equation 27.7,
The primary current
An
27 2
Fig.
in figure 27-2.
Since R
and R L are
p
equation 27.7,
related, as indicated
we may
rewrite the
as
delivered
to
will
be
may be
P"(R g+
Fig.
by dividing both
denominator by (N /N s 2
27-3
2
p
Load Power
simplified
versus
166
Load Resistance
somewhat
numerator and the
the
by
be
This relationship
power
P.
MATCHING
V^R,
At the point where the power

is
imum, the value of R equals that
of
(27.8)
at
of course, (by equation 27.7)
max,
an d
2
Returning to the original circuit
we observe that
'
PL =
VL
L and R L =
(fig.
(27.9)
27-1),
Under
V L /I L
source
which makes both P and R readily measL

L
we
plot
PL
VL
(or
versus
(or
V L /I L
will
be a curve similar to figure 27-3.
(R
is
load power),
matched
to the
L
by the transformer turns ratio
)
Notice that equation 27.9 clearly

indicates that any value of the load
resistance can
be matched to any source resistance
if the
appropriate transformer turns ratio
is used.
using equation 27.7, the result
(maximum
that the load <R
(N /N ).
s
p
urable at the load.
If
this condition
we say
MATERIALS
1
Audio generator
Multimeter
Audio transformer (Stancor type TA-28
or equivalent)
PROCEDURE
1
.
Assemble the
circuit
shown
2.
Set the audio generator for
3.
Measure and record:

a)
in figure
27-4.
maximum output
The primary voltage (V

p
The total secondary voltage (V
s1
The center tap secondary voltage (V
ct
at
Khz.
b)
c)
AUDIO
GENERATOR
N
N
s
1
CT
-# COM
AUDIO TRANSFORMER
Fig.
27-4
Determining the Turns Ratios
167
TRANSFORMER
ESISTANCE
DECADE
Fig.
Compute and
4.
record the four different values of turns ratio indicated
Using the largest
6.
in
in
the Data Table.
value of turns ratio between the source and load, connect the circuit
5.
shown
27-5
figure 27-5.
Data Table
RMS
load voltage for each value of load resistance
shown
in
the
(Fig. 27-6).
Rearrange the circuit so that the source and load are connected through the second
7.
largest turns ratio
and repeat step
6.
two remaining turns ratios.

For each measurement, compute the load power using V L and R|_. Record these values
-"
in the Data Table column headed " V |_l L
On a single sheet of linear graph paper plot the load power (V L L versus the load
Similarly, repeat step 6 for the
8.
9.
10.
resistance (V|_/l
for the four values of turns ratio.
Turns Ratio Data
V ct
VS1
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In
N 1 /(N 2 + N 3
N-|/N 2
N 3 /N.|
N 2 /N 3
analyzing the data from this experiment, you should consider the
following points:
Was maximum power transfer achieved in each of the four cases?

Was the value of the maximum power the same in each case?
Was the value of R |_ the same in each case when maximum power was reached?
a)
b)
c)
PROBLEMS
1.
An
electronic amplifier has an output impedance of 2k ohms.
turns ratio
2.
The
3.
Two
is
required to match this amplifier to an
amplifier
load current?
in
problem
What
is
What transformer
8-ohm load?
has a signal output voltage of 9 volts
RMS. What
is
the
the load power?
identical amplifier stages are
coupled together using
transformer.
Each stage
is known to have an output resistance of 5k ohms and an input resistance of 1k ohms.

What is the required turns ratio for maximum power transfer?
168
ELECTRON ICS/E LECTR ICITY
MATCHING
Load Power Data
Load
Resistance
Vi
/li
(ohms)
ur ns ratio
Vi
V
L
Turns
V L'L
\/.
VL
ratio
vL
=
i
Turns ratio =
VL
V,L 1,
L
Turns ratio =
Vi
v
L
L'L
50
1UU
150
2UU
300
400
ouu
ouu
/uu
ouu
yuu
1
I
inn
Ann
HUU
nnn
UUU
IbUO
loOO
2000
2800
3200
3600
4000
4500
5000
Fig.
27-6
The Data Table
169
DELMAR PUBLISHERS, MOUNTAINVIEW AVENUE, ALBANY, NEW YORK
12206
APPENDIX
A.
There are a number of different forms that

a technical laboratory report may
take Th P
forms proposed here are intended to meet
the needs of these experiments and
should not be
considered to be universally applicable.
THE INFORMAL REPORT. In reporting the results of these

experiments, it may be convenient to write an informal type of laboratory
report. Informal reports are normally
due at the
start of the laboratory period following
the period during which the experiment
was performed
A report outline which you may wish to follow is given below.
I.
A.
Cover Page. The cover page should include:

1.
Your name.
2.
3.
4.
Your
partner's name.
Date the experiment was performed.
Experiment title and number.
Data Section. The data section should include:

1
A neat drawing of the experiment setup.
B.
2.
list
of equipment used, including the manufacturer's

name, model
3.
number.
Measured and calculated data
4.
Curves.
number and
serial
C.
tabular form.
Analysis Section.
The analysis section should contain a satisfactory

technical discussion
should, in general, include brief discussions
of each of the points
mentioned in the "Analysis Guide" and the solutions
to any problems given at the end
of the experiment.
of the data.
II.
in
It
THE FORMAL REPORT. You may
report on
mitted
some of the experiments
be required to write and submit a formal laboratory

that you have performed. All formal reports
should be sub-
in a sat.sfactory
report folder, and are normally due about 1

week after the time that the
experiment was performed. The formal report should
include the following:
A.
Title Page.
1
2.
3.
B.
C.
The
title
page should contain the following:
Title of the experi ment.
Name of the person making the report.

Date the experiment was performed.
Introduction Section. The introduction should

consist of a paragraph which sets forth
the technical objective of the experiment.
Theory Section. The theory section should include

a
which
is
pertinent to the particular experiment.
173
brief discussion of the theory

D.
Method
of
Investigation
Section.
The
method
of
investigation
should
include
the following:
1
2.
3.
4.
A neat drawing of the experimental setup.

A brief outline of the experimental procedure.
A brief outline of the calculations to be made.
A brief discussion of how the calculations and
mmwrpri
measurements are to be compared.
.
every item of equipment used It

Equipment List. The equipment list should contain
number
the model number, and the serial
should show the manufacturer's name,
of every item.
F.
include
Data Section. The data section should
All
measured values
2.
All
computed values
3.
All curves.
1.
G.
in
in
smooth copy of the following:
tabular form.
tabular form.
should include
Sample Computations Section. This section
smooth sample of each
type of calculation made.

H.
Analysis Section.
The
analysis section should
include a discussion of each of the
following points:
1.
is
the data?
3.
What
What
are the probable sources of error?

different errors?
are the probable magnitudes of the
4.
How
could the errors be reduced?
2.
I.
How valid
Rough Data
where
in
Section. This section
the report.
It
is
provided to contain
should contain such items
2.
Notes taken from reference material.

The actual calculations performed.
3.
The
1.
all
work not presented
else-
as:
actual rough experimental data.
writing of a formal laboratory report is by no

As you have no doubt already concluded, the
that a technician is frequently judged on
means quick or easy. You should remember however
as possible.
Therefore, it is wise to make each report as good
the quality of his reports.
174
SAMPLE EXPERIMENT
B.
HALFWAVE RECTIFIERS
Experiments
INTRODUCTION. Because of its

common rectifier circuits.
simplicity and
most
In
economy, the halfwave rectifier is one of the

shall examine the distribution of
experiment we
this
voltage and current within such a rectifier circuit.
DISCUSSION. The halfwave

without
used
filter
experiment we
in this
rectifier
is
we
Figure 3-1
filter.
shall
consider
shows
it
without
present
back resistance
finite
we
sake of simplicity,
Also, the
final results.
which would affect the
cerned with the action or the rectifier only;

consequently,
may
diode
be primarily con-
shall
our
a small error into
rarely
However,
circuit.
final results.
shall
assume
For the
this effect
to be negligible.
simple halfwave
circuit.
If
a sinusoidal voltage
is
input, the circuit current will
shape similar to that shown

If
we
applied to the
have a wavefigure 3-2.
in
further specify that the input voltage
to be given
is
by the relationship,
=
ej
E|y|
Sin cot
then, considering the assumptions given above,
we can
Fig. 3-1
The
will,
forward
resistance
of
the
(tq).
is
assumed to have
Such an assumption
will
if
= 0
maximum
7r
the
< cot <
current:
tt
< cot < 2tt
circuit
reveals that the
this
fixed value
Im r
2tt
3-2
if
for
current will be
introduce only
Fig.
if
Examination of the
diode
However, the
analysis of the circuit will be simplified
equations
Sin cot
Simple Halfwave Rectifier Circuit
of course, be nonlinear.
quantity
write
3tt
The Circuit Current.

175
+R
(3.1)
SAMPLE EXPERIMENT
Consequently,
rn+ R
Taking the
we have
Sin cot
if
< cot <
integral renders
7r
and
and evaluating the equation at the indicated

i
= 0
if
limits
< COt < 27T
7T
we
have,
The DC current which
flow
will
in
the circuit
be the average of the current taken over
will
That
the two intervals.
'L"ir(rn+
(3.3)
R)
is,
Finally,
we know
that
E L =I L R
/27T
i
d cot
Consequently,
However, since
27T,
we
= 0
in
the interval
<
cot
<
have,
'L
EiL
2irJ
D +F
which
Sin cot d cot
is,
EM R
7r(r
(3.4)
D +R)
of course, the
DC
voltage across
the load.
(3.2)
MATERIALS.
1
Silicon diode
10-volt, 60-cycle source
Oscilloscope
Vacuum tube
5kn, 1W
voltmeter
load resistor
PROCEDURE.
1
in figure 3-1
2.
Measure and record the peak value of the input voltage (E m ).
3.
5k2
Measure and record the peak value of the voltage across the
4.
approximate value of
Using the data from steps 2 and 3, compute the
5.
DC
voltage across the 5kft load resistor.
176
resistors (E
r
pk ).
SAMPLE EXp^,^
6.
Using the data from step?

value of the
DC
2, 3, and 4 and equation 3.4 from the discussion,

voltage which should appear across the 5kto resistor.
7.
Compute the percent
8.
View and record as accurately as possible the waveshape

a) The input voltage
b) The voltage across the diode
c) The voltage across the 5kft resistor
9.
10.
Using the value measured
in
Using the data from steps

value of
1 1
step 5,
2, 3,
two
DC
values of
voltage
com Pu
te the
from steps 5 and
of:
compute the value of
lj_.
and 4 and equation 3.3 from the discussion, compute the
1 1
Compute the percent
Quantity
Em
E pk
two
values of
L arrived
El
at in steps
9 and
0.
Measured
Values
Computed
Values
Difference
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
you
The Data Table
In the analysis of these data,
you should discuss the reasons for the differvoltages and currents that were encountered in the
experiment. In
should discuss the factors to which these differences could
be attributed.
ences between the

particular,
3-3
values^
PROBLEMS.
1.
certain diode has a plate resistance (r
of the
DC
In the
problem above, what value of
of
500 ohms. What would be the
voltage and current supplied to a 30kft load

connected in series across a 1 17 VRMS, 60 Hz line?
2.
DC
177
voltage
if
values
the load and diode are
would appear across the diode?
C.
SAMPLE REPORT
ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY
Course No. E-1224
Experiment No. 3
HALFWAVE RECTIFIERS
Informal report
Reported by:
John Doe
Co-worker:
Alex Smith
Date:
179
SAMPLE INFORMAL REPORT
PROCEDURE
1 was constructed.
compared to calculated values.
were
waveforms
Various
The measurements were compared to calculated values.
The
1.
2.
3.
circuit in figure
Fig. 1
The Experimental
Circuit.
EQUIPMENT
1
Silicon diode, General Electric type
1N1692
No. 8305
Resistance decade, Industrial Instruments, Model DR-50,
No.
Vacuum Tube Voltmeter, Radio Corp. of America, Model WV-77E,
Oscilloscope, Tektronix
40378
Type 535, No. 9463
DATA
Quantity
E pk
Measured
170
169
Volts
Volts
Values
29.6
52.3
Ohms
Volts
54.1
Computed
Volts
Values
3.45%
Difference
Fig.
CURVES:
'L
Data Table
See attached graph sheet. (See page 181.)
180
10.45
mA
10.81
mA
3.44%
WA VESHAPES FROM THE CIRCUIT

181
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
predicted by the equaThe values measured in this experiment agreed very well with those
between the two being about 3.5%. The causes of
tions given in the discussion, the difference
arisen from any combination of several sources.
this difference are not obvious, but could have
the diode's forward resistance were
For example, the voltage measurements used to compute
A very small error in measuring
taken with the oscillosocpe and were within 1% of each other.
error into the value computed for r D Fortunately,
either of these voltages would introduce a large
between r D and the 5K load, even large
however, because of the great difference in the value
small errors in the values of E L and L The
errors in the value of r D would introduce only
been accurate to within about 5% of the
instruments used to make the measurements should have
and measured values were less than 5%,
indicated values. Since the differences between computed
to the
that the errors could be attributed almost entirely
it seems reasonable to conclude
.
instruments.
operating satisfactorily and

The waveshapes that were recorded indicate that the circuit was
as far as this experiment was concerned.
that the assumptions made in the discussion were valid
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
1.
Given:
Ej
117VRMS
D = 500 ohms
R = 30K ohms
= 60 Hz
Find:
EL
,I
Ej= 1.414 x 117 = 166
E M =\/2
EM
2.
7r(r
D +R)
166
166
..
, ^
4
10
x
9.15
+
30000)
3.14(500
3
R = 1.81 x 10" x
L= L
l
Since the
DC
volts
3x
value of the input
10 4
is
?=
1.81
mA
54.3 volts
zero, the voltage across the diode (E D ) plus the
voltage across the load (E L ) must also be zero.
ED + EL = 0
E D = -E L = -54.3 volts
182
D.
SAMPLE REPORT
ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY
Course No. E-1224
Experiment No. 3
HALFWAVE RECTIFIERS
Formal report
Reported by:
John Doe
Co-worker:
Alex Smith
Date:
183
SAMPLE FORMAL REPORT
INTRODUCTION.
In this
experiment the operation of
simple halfwave rectifier was examined.
performance could be predicted by a mathematical model was

techniques employed in this experiment would be valid for any simple halfwave
which
The extent to
The
also investigated.
its
which
compared to
rectifier in
was employed, provided that the forward resistance of the diode was
to the
the load resistance, and that the reverse resistance of the diode was large compared
diodes.
Normally, this would include most vacuum, gaseous, and solid-state
load resistance.
no
small
filter
METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
A.
Procedure
shown
was constructed.
1.
The
2.
Using an oscilloscope, the peak voltage at the input and across the 5kfi load
circuit
in figure
4.
was recorded.
Using circuit values and the voltages measured above, the value of the diode's
forward resistance (r D was approximated.
Using a VTVM, the DC voltage across the 5k2 load was recorded.
5.
The
resistor
3.
7.
was determined from the data taken above.

Waveshapes at various points in the circuit were viewed and sketched.
The values of DC load voltage and current were computed using a mathematical
8.
The measured and computed values of
6.
load current
model.
B.
Circuit
load voltage and current were compared.
Diagram
Fig.
The. Experimental Circuit
184
RESULTS
A.
Data
1-
Nameplate data of equipment

1
Silicon diode
General Electric
Type
1
Resistance decade
N 1 692
Industrial Instruments
Model DR-50 No. 8305

1
VTVM
Oscilloscope
Radio Corp. of America

Model WV-77E No. 40378
Tektronix
Type 535 No. 9463

2.
Observed and calculated data
Quantity
Em
Measured
Values
E pk
EL
'L
29.6
52.3
10.45
Ohms
Volts
mA
170
169
Volts
Volts
Computed
Values
54.1
10.81
Volts
mA
Difference
3.45%
Fig.
B.
Data Table
Sample Calculations
1.
Diode resistance
r
EM " E
pk
r
170- 169
R_
E pk
5,000
169
= 29.6 ohms (by

2.
DC voltage across the

(E
(r
D+
sliderule)
load
(R)
R)
185
3.44%
(170) 5000)
3.14(29.6 + 5000)
(
hl
E|_
3.
= 54.1 volts (by
Percent difference between two values of
o/
%
DC
DC
Diff
DC
voltage
(meas) x 100
E|_ (meas)
52
3x10
52.3
= 3.45 (by
sliderule)
current
'
5.
(comp) "
D jff _
%Diff=^
4.
sliderule)
4
= 52.3
5000
= 10.45
mA
(by sliderule)
current
(r
L"
3.14 (29.6 + 5000)
D +
R)
170
C.
1_
= 10.81
mA
(by sliderule)
Curves: See graph sheet attached.
(See page 187.)
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The waveform shown in (a)
The input waveform appeared to be
sinusoidal and had a peak value of about 170 volts. The period of the input waveform was
approximately 16.6 milliseconds. These values were obtained by viewing the waveform with an
The
circuit
shown
in figure
is
a simple halfwave rectifier.
of the graph was applied to the input terminals of the circuit.
186

(B)
VOL TAGE ACROSS THE DIODE
(O VOL TAGE ACROSS THE

5K RESISTOR
WA VESHAPES FROM THE CIRCUIT

187
Presuming that they are
oscillosocpe.
reliable,
they suggest that the frequency of the input was:
O0T66
= 60 Hz
Consequently, the angular velocity would be

co
As
a result,
if
27rf
= 6.28 x 60 = 377 rad/s
the waveshape were sinusoidal,
ej
where E M =
70
volts
The forward
analysis,
a small
it
and
co
= 377
in
enough portion of
linear.
could be represented by the equation,
= E
M Sin
cot
the experimental circuit.
resistance of the diode
was assumed to be
it
was almost surely nonlinear. However, to simplify the
This assumption
is
valid
only
total circuit resistance so that its effect
is
if
the forward resistance
also small.
To
is
insure that this
of the voltage across the load

condition did indeed exist in the experimental circuit, the waveshape
value of this voltage was
was also viewed. This waveform is shown in (c) of the graph. The peak
forward diode resistance (r D )
to be approximately 169 volts. The voltage drop across the
found
the peak load voltage

be the difference between the peak input voltage (170 volts) and
value of r D
approximate
(169 volts). In other words, the voltage across r was about 1 volt. The
will
would then be
^=50W or
This value was considered sufficiently small
assumption of
Diagram
D = 29.6 ohms.
when compared
to the load resistance to justify the
linearity.
(c)
of the graph also provides
some evidence
that the reverse resistance of the diode
interval
much larger than the load resistance. If this were not the case, the voltage in the
Consequently,
nearly zero.
between 8.3 ms and 16.6 ms in (c) of the graph would not have been so
is such as to require
polarity
input
the
when
circuit
flows in the
it shall be assumed that no current
is
very
reverse flow through the diode.
was also viewed and it indicated that the

shown in (b) of the graph. This waveform
results suggested above were valid. This waveform is
it is known from Kirchoff's law that the
also helps to establish the validity of the other two, since
The waveform of the
voltage across the diode
sum of the
the graphic sum of
input voltage must equal the
graph reveals that
waveform,
voltage drops within the circuit. Visual inspection of the

(b) and (c) will at least approximate the input voltage
(a).
188
ELECTR0NICS/ELECT
R|C|TY
Under the presumption that the input voltage may be

represented by
ej
it
becomes possible to represent the
= E Sin
M
circuit current
EM
r[)
+ r
cot,
by the equations
< cot <
Sin
wt
if 7T
< COt < 27T
if
it
and
This conclusion
is
=0
strengthened by the results presented
The DC current that

0 < cot < 2ir. Or,
will
flow through the load
in (c)
will
of the graph.
be the average current taken over the
interval
2lT
r 2lt
which reduces to
EM
i
L "(r + R)
D
This value which resulted from this equation differed from

the value measured in the experiment
by 3.44%. This difference could have arisen from any of several
sources, some of which will be
discussed later in this analysis.
Having the equation for the

the
DC
load voltage using
Ohm's
DC
current,
it is
possible to arrive at the following equation for
law:
E L -(.
,(R,-i!MH
(r
And,
again, this value agreed with the
D +R)
measured data to within 3.5%.
189
The causes underlying the

this
computed and measured quantities
differences between the
in
experiment could be divided into two categories:

1.
Inadequacies on the part of the analysis presented above.
2.
Difficulties rising
The
out of the choice and use of the instruments.
analysis presented
resistance
linearity
may
have been
in
error
in
that the input
waveform may not have
Also, the assumption of linearity on the part of the forward diode
been exactly sinusoidal.
almost certainly introduced a small amount of discrepancy.
would have been the
exactly sinusoidal even
Assuming the
the input voltage were.
if
waveshape so that
alteration of the current
some error. It is felt, however,

compared to errors of the second type.
effect of non-
would not have been
reverse current to be non-
that errors of this type were probably
existant also introduced
extremely small
The
it
in the experiment could have affected

was used to measure the peak voltages which were,
in turn, used to determine the value of r
D as well as in the equations for E|_ and l|_. The
was
probably
no greater than 5%. Also, since the value of r^
measurements
of
accuracy
these
There are several ways
the results.
To
in
which the instruments used
start with, the oscilloscope
depended upon the difference between two virtually equal quantities, a small error in one of
these measurements would have had a large effect on the value of r D For example, if the peak
voltage across the load had been 168 volts instead of 169 volts (a difference of only about 0.6%),
.
the resulting value of

previous value).
D would
As dramatic
been great, since even
if
have been 59.6
as this variation
rp were 59.6 ohms,
is,
it
ohms
its
(a
effect
difference of about
on the
final results
over the
would not have
1%
contributes only about
still
100%
of the total
circuit resistance.
Connecting either the oscilloscope or the

"loading" effect.
10 megohms
this effect
in
some
The
oscilloscope,
VTVM,
cases, the instrument errors
and
5%
were
additive.
error in the
could have been altered by a considerable amount.
resistor
some
on the order of
the experiment arose from the accuracy of the
in
resistance decade
would have been
and the resistance decade contributed
VTVM
across the load, of course, causes
could not have been great.
Perhaps the greatest source of error

instruments.
VTVM
However, since both of the instruments had input resistances
same
To
all
5%
of about
For example,
if
accuracy and,
both the
direction, the values of
illustrate this effect,
VTVM
E|_and
l|_
suppose that the
50 volts while the true value was 47.5 volts (meter reads 5% high), and the 5k2
was actually 5250 ohms (5% too large), then the current would seem to be
read
5000
while
it
= 10
mA
was actually
47.5
5250
190
= 9.05
mA
The
m%
J
total
error in this case would be

close to
the total error would be
correspondingly hi 9 h
if
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS.
1.
Given:
Ei
=117VRMS
= 60 Hz
D = 500 ohms
R = 30K ohms
Find:
EL'!.
I,
L =
2 Ej = 1.414x
(r
D +R>
J.
volts
166
14 (500 + 3000)
3
L R = 1.81 x 10- x
across the load (E
117= 166
3x
10 4 = 54.3 volts
L must also be zero.

)
D + EL = 0
= _E
= -54.3 volts
757
added 10
* "N.
iS
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
RL
El
'l
E 'l
E2
'2
E '2
Ohms
Volts
Ma.
Volts
Volts
Ma.
Volts
First voltage
measurement
circuit
Volts
'3
E3
R 'L
Ma.
Volts
Ohms
checked by
Instructor
First current
measurement
circuit
checked by
Instructor
Fig. 1-5
Data Table
EXPERIMENT
âte
|\|
ame
Class
"
Instructor
Wire
Area
Length
Dia.
Dia.
Ave.
Cir.
Sect,
(First)
(Second)
(Third)
Dia.
Mils
Meas.
Comp
Area
in.
No. 30
in.
No. 30
in.
No. 30
10
in.
No. 30
12
in.
IMO.
oU
in.
No. 26
in.
No. 28
in.
No. 32
Cross
Dia.
in.
No. 34
Fig.
2-4
The Data Table
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Oh m
150
Resistc>r
Glo-Bar Resistor
r
Fig.
3-4
R2
The Data Table
28V
r
Pilot
Lamp
R3
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Column
Column 2
E
1
R
p
Fig.
4-4
The Data Table
P
i
Circuit checked by
(Instructor)
Column 3
EXPERIMENT
Name
c,ass
Instructor
LINEAR CIRCUIT VALUES

Qty
c
E
Measured
Computed
NONLINEAR CIRCUIT VALUES

E1
E
P
,
Qty
Computed
't
I'
Pi
Measured
E '1
R1
R2
RT
E-l
PLOT DATA
E
Volts
12
15
18
Fig.
5-6
The Data Table
21
24
27
30
EXPERIMENT
Date:
Name
Class
Instructor
E s = Volts
RL
Rs
Ej_
p.
2kJ2
1.8kJ2
1.6kft
1.4kfi
1.2kfi
1.1kC2
LOkfi
900fi
800S2
700fi
600fi
500fi
400fi
300S2
200ft
100ft
50ft
F/flr.
5-2
77?e
0afa 7a6/e.
PT
1
% eff.
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Otv
vx l y
qopi mrl
IVIcaSUrcU
ft /I
Computed
Ri
ôu onms
Ro
n2
75 ohms
Rn
R-J2
Rt
Et
1
'23
t
1
Instructor
M
t
'2
T
Fig.
7-5
The Data Table
ou onms
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Qty.
Measured Values
Instructor
Com P4SlValuos_
R,
250 ohms
R2
100 ohms
150 ohms
R4
75 ohms
RT
E
30 volts
E1
E2
E
'1
'2
'3
1
'4
P
1
4
Fig.
8-5
The Data Table
Name
Class
Qty.
ivieasured Value
EB
R1
Instructor
Ow
VUI lb
24
vnltc
Computed Value
'
R2
75 ohms
i
I
'2
'
ho
z
"
Pi
.
P2
P
P
volts
250 ohms
RA
24
150 ohms
volts
100 ohms
R3
30
_.
A
B
PT
Fig.
9-4
The Data Table.
EXPERIMENT
10
Name
Date:
Class
Qty
Computed
R2
150
RL
75
Instructor
100
25V
EL
'L
15V
Measured
1rhevenized
Nortonized
Circuit
Qty
EL
Circuit
'L
Computed
Measured
Fig.
10-11
The Data Table
Superposition
'L
'LA
'lb
'l
EXPERIMENT
11
Name
Date:
Class
Fig.
11-6
The Data Table.
EXPERIMENT
12
Date:
Ammeter Data
Voltmeter Data
Ohmmeter Data
ET
't
(mA)
Rx
(ohms)
(volts)
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
rtAn
1U0S2
1
10kfi
20kfi
7.0
8.0
40kfi
8.0
9.0
40kfi
9.0
10.0
60k2
10.0
|
Rm
Rs
(Meas)
(Comp)
(Meas)
Fig.
6.0
7.0
Rs
Rv
Rv
(exp)
(exp)
(comp)
12-10
The Data Table
100kft
Eb
(Meas)
Eb
(Comp)
EXPERIMENT
13
Name
Date:
Class
Rv
Comp.
Ri
R2
'T
E1
E2
si
Meas
Meas
Comp
Comp
Comp
Comp
Meas
Instructor
Fig.
Mi
IVI U Itimotor
III it? Lei
i
1
I
&
Qty.
L/Onsi.
v meter
13-5a
Circuit Data
Multimeter
&
VOM V
'T
'_1
h'
El
E
l"
'2
E2
'2
E2
"
E2
Fig.
13-5b
Instrument Comparison Data.
0-1
mA
&
Multimeter
r
EXPERIMENT
14
Name
Date:
r
uass
.
Part
Instructor
Part 2
QT
E1
E2
Q2
Qt
Diff
CT
QT
Qt
Diff
CT
Part 3
QT
El
Q2
Qt
Diff
CT
QT
Part 4
Fig.
14-5
The Data Table
C'j
Diff
CT
EXPERIMENT
15
Name
Date:
Class
RC
E0
Instructor
'o
% Diff
E
12.0V
Part
T
/ft fl'
(Mm)
Ec
(VOM)
(Min)
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.5
4.5
5.0
5.0
5.5
5.5
6.0
6.0
6.5
6.5
7.0
7.0
7.5
7.5
8.0
8.0
8.5
8.5
9.0
9.0
9.5
9.5
10.0
10.0
Part
Part 2
Fig.
15-7
The Data Table
EXPERIMENT
Date:
16
Name
r
i QC
uiass
"
Instructor
Gen
Gen
Output
Freq.
Level
60 Hz
20%
100 Hz
30%
190 H-7
nz
4U%
M50 Hz
50%
200 Hz
60%
250 Hz
70%
400 Hz
80%
600 Hz
100%
P-P
(Scope)
Fig.
(Scope)
(Scope)
16-4
The Data
Table.
%
(VTVM)
Diff
p-p
/0 L/ITT
(f)
EXPERIMENT
^ ate
17
Name
Class
'
(VTVM)
Instructor
PP
(VTVM)
(scope)
(scope)
(meas)
(comp)
Diff
Em
(meas)
(comp)
36V
32V
28V
24V
20
(VTVM)
Diff
I
Diff
36V
32V
28V
24V
20V
Fig.
17-5
Data Table
m
(wattmeter)
(comp)
Diff
pm
EXPERIMENT
18
Name
Date:
Class
Part
'1
E
1
L1
'2
Instructor
(IMo
Coupling)
's
Ls
E 's
Part 2 (Coupled)
%
(Comp)
Diff
Diff
'-S' ^-s
(No Coupling)
us
(Comp)
F/flr.
Diff
-s
Part
18-7
Diff
L
P'
Part 3
(Comp)
Ls
Diff
(Comp)
4 (Coupled)
The Data Table
"S
EXPERIMENT
19
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
%
H,
6V
25
6V
50
6V
100
6V
200
6V
300
6V
400
6V
500
6V
600
6V
700
6V
800
6V
900
6V
1000
(meas)
(comp)
%
H,
6V
25
6V
50
6V
100
6V
200
6V
300
6V
400
6V
500
6V
600
6V
700
6V
800
6V
900
6V
1000
(meas)
Fig.
19-8
Diff
(comp)
The Data Table
Diff
Sin
EXPERIMENT
Name
20
Date:
Class
RL
f
Hz
Er =
Circuit Data
*c
XL
Meas
Meas
Comp
Comp
Comp
50
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
600
Fig.
20-12
The Data Tables
~1
Diff
Diff
e
RC
ER =
Circuit Data
Hz
ET
XC
Meas
Meas
Comp
Comp
Comp
Diff
Diff
a
u
50
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
600
RLC
f
Hz
ET
Rc =
ER =
Circuit Data
XL
xc
Meas
Meas
Comp
Comp
Comp
Comp
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
600
Fig.
20-12
Diff
Diff
0
EXPERIMENT
21
Name
Date:
Class
D>ata fron1 1nductor

f
Hz
tL
Circuit
Meas.
Meas.
Z
Comp.
10
20
i
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
F/flf.
21-4
The Data Table
%
Comp.
Diff
%
Diff
/O UN
|
Data from the
Hz
Circuit
Z
Comp.
Meas.
Meas.
RC
Diff
Comp.
Diff
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Data from the

f
Hz
Meas.
Meas.
Parallel
Combination
Z
Comp.
Comp.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
F/flf.
27-4
Tfte
Diff
Diff
0
EXPERIMENT 22
Name
C,ass
"
Quantity
E
Value
ER
EC
P
P
ave
app
pf
Ultt
/o
ave
l
Comp.
Diff
"T
r
P
app
Comp,
Diff
Fig.
app
22-8
The Data Table
Instructor
EXPERIMENT 23
Date:
Qty
Value
(Hz)
(Hz)
RC
50
155
ET
60
160
0 meas.
70
165
Eq meas.
80
170
90
175
100
180
'o
1
105
XL
110
Qo
115
Eq comp.
120
200
125
210
130
220
135
230
140
240
145
250
150
260
Diff
R' E T
Diff
0 comp.
Diff
BW
185
190
195
meas.
BW comp.
% Diff
BW
Fig.
23-8
The Data Tables
EXPERIMENT
Date:
24
Name
Class
Qty
Value
Hz
Rc
50
60
m'
'T
zT
lob
'o
70
80
170
90
175
165
100
BW
meas
180
105
110
1
190
BW comp
115
195
% Diff
BW
120
200
125
210
130
220
135
230
140
240
145
250
150
260
xc
'c
Diff
'c
R-p (meas)
Fig.
Rj (comp)
Diff
24-7
The Data Tables
EXPERIMENT 25
Name
Date:
Class
Resistance Decade Only
Ohms
El
Decade and 12 mfd cap
ZL
Instructor
RL
Ohms
50
50
100
100
150
150
200
200
250
250
300
300
350
350
400
400
450
450
500
500
550
550
600
600
650
650
(a)
El
(b)
Source Impedance Data
Fig.
25-7
The Data Tables
N
-J
Q_
_J
u7
O o o
O
o O
O
O
O o
LO
LO
LO
LO
O O
O
LO
8 CO
9 o
CN
CN
V)
O
o
O
LO
LO
O
CD
LO
CO
I
-1
a
8
E
_l
0-
"S
a
to
-1
xj
CO
llT
IS
a>
o
o
o
O O
o o
LO
LO
o
LO
LO
o o
CN
CN
8 CO
8
a>
0017
o o
O
o
LO
LO
LO
O
O
CO
O
8
-1
-1
Q-
_J
LU
o
o
o o o
O
O
O
O
o o
LO
3
LO
LO
O
LO
O
LO
10
8 o
CO
CO
LO
LO
CO
CO
5 3 o
CM
CN
1
IS
EXPERIMENT
Date:
Name
25
Class
Instructor
-1
-J
Q_
LU*
CO
03
-J
o o
o
o
O
o
o
o o
LO
8 o
LO
o CM
LO
O CO
LO
O 3
o
CM
CO
LO
,
o
LO
o
o
CO
LO
LO
CO
.
.
-J
-J
Q_
LU
CO
_i
^8
O o
O
LO
O
O
O O
O O
o o O
LO
O
LO
LO
o
O
CN
CN
8 CO
*t
LO
1
O
o
LO
1
o
LO
IS
CO
8I
if
-J
Q.
_J
LU
CO
_i
O o
O o
O
O
O
O
o
o
LO
O
LO
O
LO
O
LO
o o
CN
CM
CO
3 o
LO
j
O
o
LO
o
LO
CO
LO
CO
EXPERIMENT
Name
26
Date:
Class
No Load
Qty
100-ohm Load
Value
Qty
e
P
Es
'
:' P
N n /N eS
D
Diff
N /N s
p
"p
ZR
Diff
Z i' Z R
Fig.
26-5
f
f
'1
Qty
f
'
c
E
s
Value
The Data Tables
&C
Load
Value
EXPERIMENT
27
Name
Date:
Class
Turns Ratio Data
VS
V ct
Nj/N 2
N 1 /(N 2 + N
3
N 2 /N
Na/N,
Load Power Data

oad
Turns
ratio
Turns
ratio
Turns
ratio
Turns
ratio
esistance
l_/l|_
(ohms)
vL
vL
VL
50
100
150
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2400
2800
3200
3600
4000
4500
5000
Fig.
(OC 1261)
462
27-6
The Data Table.
vL
v l 'l

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technical personnel in today's industries.

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